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wharton school at the university of pennsylvania ranking | Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania - wikipedia
The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania (/ ˈhwɔːrtən / WHAWR - tən; also known as The Wharton School or Wharton) is the business school of the University of Pennsylvania, a private Ivy League university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Established in 1881 through a donation from Joseph Wharton, the Wharton School is the world 's oldest collegiate school of business. Wharton has an acceptance rate of less than 9 %, and it only accepts fewer than 5 transfer students annually, making it one of the most selective schools in the world.
The Wharton School awards Bachelor of Science in Economics degrees at the undergraduate level and Master of Business Administration degrees at the postgraduate level, both of which require the selection of a major. Wharton also offers a doctoral program and houses, or co-sponsors, several diploma programs either alone or in conjunction with the other schools at the university.
Wharton 's MBA program is ranked No. 1 in the United States according to Forbes and No. 3 in the United States according to the 2019 U.S. News & World Report ranking. Meanwhile, Wharton 's MBA for Executives and undergraduate programs are also ranked No. 2 in the United States by the same publication. According to Poets & Quants, MBA graduates of Wharton earn an average $209,501 first year compensation, the 4th highest. Following Stanford and Northwestern (Kellogg), Wharton 's MBA program has the 3rd highest average GMAT score of 730 (97th percentile) for its entering class. According to another publication, Wharton produces the 3rd most CEOs of the 100 top companies on the Fortune 500 list, behind Northwestern (Kellogg) and Harvard. In general, Wharton has over 95,000 alumni in 153 countries, with notable figures such as Donald Trump, Jeremy Rifkin, Elon Musk, Warren Buffett, Sundar Pichai, Aditya Mittal, Steven A. Cohen, Jeff Weiner, Anil Ambani, John Sculley, Walter Annenberg, Leonard Lauder, Laurence Tisch, Michael Moritz, Ruth Porat, Kunal Bahl, and William Wrigley Jr. II. Its alumni include the CEOs of Google, Apple, LinkedIn, CBS, General Electric, Boeing, Pfizer, Comcast, Oracle, DHL, UPS, Pepsi, Time, Inc, BlackRock, Johnson & Johnson, UBS AG, Wrigley Company, and Tesco.
The school belongs to the Magnificent Seven (M7) group of elite business schools which recognize each other as peers. Other members are Chicago (Booth), Columbia, Harvard, Northwestern (Kellogg), MIT (Sloan), and Stanford.
Joseph Wharton, a native Philadelphian, was a leader in industrial metallurgy who built his fortune through the American Nickel Company and Bethlehem Steel Corporation. As Wharton 's business grew, he recognized that business knowledge in the United States was only taught through an apprenticeship system, and such a system was not viable for creating a wider economy during the Second Industrial Revolution. After two years of planning, Wharton in 1881 founded the Wharton School of Finance and Economy through a $100,000 initial pledge, making it the first business school established in the United States. ESCP Europe, established in 1819, and a few other business schools were established in Europe prior to Wharton 's founding. The school was meant to train future leaders to conduct corporations and public organizations in a rapidly evolving industrial era. Wharton was quoted as saying that the school was meant to "instill a sense of the coming strife (in business life): of the immense swings upward or downward that await the competent or the incompetent soldier in this modern strife ''.
From the founding of the school, he defined that its goal was "to provide for young men special means of training and of correct instruction in the knowledge and in the arts of modern Finance and Economy, both public and private, in order that, being well informed and free from delusions upon these important subjects, they may either serve the community skillfully as well as faithfully in offices of trust, or, remaining in private life, may prudently manage their own affairs and aid in maintaining sound financial morality: in short, to establish means for imparting a liberal education in all matters concerning Finance and Economy ''. The school was renamed the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, in 1902, and formally changed its name to simply, Wharton School, in 1972.
Early on, the Wharton School faculty was tightly connected to an influential group of businessmen, bankers and lawyers that made up the larger Philadelphia School of Political Economy. The faculty incorporated social sciences into the Wharton curriculum, as the field of business was still under development. Albert S. Bolles, a lawyer, served as Wharton 's first professor, and the school 's Industrial Research Unit was established in 1921.
Wharton professor Simon Kuznets, who later won the Nobel Prize in Economics, created statistical data on national output, prices, investment, and capital stock, and also measured seasonability, cycles, and secular trends of these phenomena. His work laid out what became the standard procedure for measuring the gross national product and the gross domestic product, and he later led an international effort to establish the same statistical information for all national economies. Professor Lawrence Klein, who also won the Nobel Prize in Economics, developed the first econometric model of the U.S. economy, which combined economic theory with mathematics, providing another way to test theories and predict future economic trends.
Wharton professor George W. Taylor is credited with founding the academic field of study known as industrial relations. He served in several capacities in the federal government, most notably as a mediator and arbitrator. During his career, Taylor settled more than 2,000 strikes. In 1967, he helped draft the New York State civil service law which legalized collective bargaining in that state but which also banned strikes by public employees -- legislation widely known today as the Taylor Law.
Wharton professor Wroe Alderson (1898 -- 1965) is widely recognized as the most important marketing theorist of the twentieth century and the "father of modern marketing ''. Wharton professor Paul Green is considered to be the "father of conjoint analysis '' for his discovery of the statistical tool for quantification of market research.
Wharton professor Solomon S. Huebner is known widely as "the father of insurance education. '' He originated the concept of "human life value '', which became a standard method of calculating insurance value and need. He established the goal of professionalism in the field of insurance, developed the first collegiate level program in insurance and chaired the Department of Insurance at Wharton, and contributed greatly to the progress of adult education in this area. Wharton professor Daniel M. McGill was widely regarded as the "dean of the pension industry '', whose research contributed to shaping the modern retirement system both in the public and corporate sectors.
In 1946, after ENIAC was created at Penn, Wharton created the first multidisciplinary programs in technology management with the School of Engineering and Applied Science. Wharton faculty began to work closely with AT&T, Merrill Lynch, MasterCard, Prudential Insurance and the New York Stock Exchange in analyzing the strategic and commercial implications of information systems.
The Wharton School 's first business professor was an attorney, Albert Bolles. At the time, there were no other business schools and no business professors could be recruited elsewhere. Bolles, a lawyer by education and training, and business journalist by career, seemed to be the best option for Joseph Wharton. Bolles started his career as a lawyer in Connecticut in the second half of the 19th century. After resigning from his law firm, he started pursuing a new career in business journalism and was promoted to the editor role of Bankers Magazine, a trade publication, in 1880. Upon joining the Wharton School, he began teaching business with classes on the law of governing finance and on the processes of commercial banking. Bolles ' instruction in finance was influenced by his previous experience in Bankers Magazine: he stressed conservative business practices, drawing on business history as much as he could. In his classes, inflationist Congressmen were "self - interested debtors ''. Besides teaching, Bolles advocated for several national reforms, including the uniform banking law. Wharton historian Steven A. Sass wrote about him, "Bolles thus fulfilled Joseph Wharton 's pedagogic expectations and... got the new school off to a respectable start by the spring of 1883 ''. In 1884, the first five business students were awarded a Bachelor of Finance degree. One graduate, Shiro Shiba, returned to Japan where he would become a member of the Diet, the Japanese parliament, and another, Robert Adams, Jr., later was named U.S. Ambassador to Brazil.
Classes in business and finance abounded at the Wharton School, but it was lacking in any other areas of business interest. Edmund J. James, with a doctorate from the University of Halle in Germany, reinvigorated the school 's curriculum, starting classes on political finance and administration. Later in 1885, James argued for redesigning the course of study at Wharton with elements of German higher education. He wanted to include training in banking, railroading, merchandising, manufacturing and other similar branches, and expand the course 's length to four years from the initial three. Joseph Wharton in November 1893 pledged an additional $75,000 to the school in order to implement James ' ideas in the school 's curriculum. A more comprehensive study plan was then rolled out. Between 1895 and 1915, James started teaching at Wharton the new fields of finance and management as they were developing in the business world. The Wharton School improved its reputation from a bunch of academic "misfits '', and some of its alumni rose in the U.S. business world. During this period, the school continued to attract additional faculty members and expand its research programs.
Wharton began awarding MBA degrees in 1921. In 1942, during World War II, in the same fashion of other schools, Wharton 's full - time faculty dropped dramatically from 165 to 39 by 1944. According to school historians, members of the faculty were called upon for special posts. In 1959, Wharton adopted the curriculum which is now taught in most major business schools: the program was changed with liberal arts education doubling to almost half of the curriculum, and the social sciences department was moved to the University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences in 1975. Since then, Wharton faculty have focused exclusively on business education.
Official historical names of the institution include the Wharton School of Finance and Economy, from 1881 to 1901, and the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, from 1902 to 1971.
The Philadelphia campus of the Wharton School has four primary buildings, Jon M. Huntsman Hall, Steinberg Hall - Dietrich Hall, Vance Hall and Lauder - Fischer Hall. In addition, the Steinberg Conference Center houses the Aresty Institute of Executive Education.
Jon M. Huntsman Hall is the Wharton School 's main building. The building is a 324,000 square foot structure with 48 seminar and lecture halls, 57 group study rooms and several auditoriums and conference rooms. It was constructed through a donation from Wharton alumnus Jon M. Huntsman. It also has a 4,000 square foot forum, as well as a colloquium space on the top floor.
Steinberg Hall - Dietrich Hall is a joint 180,000 square foot structure comprising two adjacent halls. It was built in 1952 and expanded in 1983 through a donation from Wharton alumnus Saul Steinberg, and houses the offices of several academic departments at the Wharton School. It also contains lecture halls, conference rooms and common areas for faculty and students.
Vance Hall is a 107,000 square foot structure built in 1972 to house Wharton 's graduate programs, administrative offices, lecture halls and meeting areas.
Lauder - Fischer Hall houses the Joseph H. Lauder Institute for Management and International Studies, and focuses mainly on international business teaching and research initiatives. The Lauder Institute was founded in 1983 by Wharton alumni Leonard Lauder and Ronald Lauder.
In 2014, the Wharton School launched the Student Life Space in Philadelphia 's central business district. It is a 20,000 square foot space with conference rooms, meeting rooms and over 20 group study rooms. It also serves as an incubator space for startup companies.
In 2001, Wharton launched a new campus in San Francisco, California. The San Francisco campus serves as a hub on the west coast for its students and alumni. As of 2012, the campus is open to executive MBA students and to full - time MBA students, who can decide to spend the fall semester of second year of the MBA program in San Francisco in the Semester in San Francisco Program. For the full - time MBAs, the Semester in San Francisco Program focuses on entrepreneurship, technology, and venture capital.
Prospective Wharton candidates apply in their senior year of high school either through the early decision (ED) process or regular decision (RD) process. Unlike many other undergraduate business programs where students transfer in after their freshman or second year (University of Virginia 's McIntire, Emory 's Goizueta, UC Berkeley 's Haas), Wharton applicants apply specifically for Wharton during their senior year of high school. These candidates are then grouped with a pool of applicants separate from those applying to University of Pennsylvania 's College of Arts and Sciences (CAS), School of Engineering and Applied Science (SEAS), or School of Nursing. Each of the other three schools forms its own separate pools of applicants too.
The legacy status of applicants, defined as having a parent or another direct relative who attended the same academic institution, may be taken into consideration in the admissions process. This correlation has been observed in a number of empirical studies conducted on the nation 's most elite schools, with a particular focus on Ivy League universities. Leading universities in the United States cite stronger alumni connections and continued support as the primary reasons for this practice.
In the 2015 -- 16 school year, 334 employers participated in the on - campus recruiting process; each student received an average of 7.6 first - round interviews and 1.8 job offers. About 48 % of Wharton 's typical undergraduate class of 650 students go into financial services, with the top sectors being investment banking, investment management, and private equity. The next most common industry after finance is management consulting, which hires approximately 22 % of the students, while a significant number of students enter marketing, sales, and the technology industry, particularly in Silicon Valley.
For the Class of 2016, Wharton undergraduate students reported an average expected first - year compensation of $116,676, including an average starting base salary of $77,566, an average signing bonus of $10,493, and an average projected annual bonus of $28,617.
The school offers two paths, an MBA for full - time students and an MBA for executives. Students can elect to pursue double majors or individualized majors. During their first year, all students pursue a required core curriculum that covers traditional management disciplines -- finance, marketing, statistics, and strategy -- as well as the leadership, ethics, and communication skills needed at senior levels of management. Students pick electives in the second year.
Wharton MBA students may pursue a dual degree with the Lauder Institute, Johns Hopkins University 's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, or with one of the graduate schools at the University of Pennsylvania.
MBA students from the Class of 2016 earn an average first - year salary and guaranteed compensation of $145,400. The MBA program annually receives around 7000 applications for the 850 places in the class.
Wharton co-sponsored the Executive Master 's in Technology Management Program (EMTM) with the University of Pennsylvania School of Engineering and Applied Science. Graduates received a master of science in engineering (MSE) in the management of technology from the School of Engineering and Applied Science. The EMTM Program ended in August 2014.
Wharton is also part of the Wharton - INSEAD Alliance. MBA students from each program can spend one period of study at the partner school, allowing Wharton students access to the INSEAD campuses in both Fontainebleau and Singapore.
Wharton offers doctor of philosophy degrees in finance, applied economics, management and other business fields (as opposed to some schools, which grant DBAs). It takes approximately four to six years to complete the doctoral program.
The Wharton School also operates the Aresty Institute of Executive Education (commonly known as "Wharton Executive Education ''), a center for continuing business education for senior executives. The institute is named in honor of civic leader, business owner, philanthropist, and Wharton alumnus Julian Aresty and his brother Joseph Aresty, who together endowed the Aresty Institute for Executive Education in 1987.
Wharton Executive Education offers programs for executives in areas such as finance, marketing, strategy, and innovation. Each year, more than 10,000 professionals from around the world attend Wharton Executive Education programs in classes taught by full - time Wharton faculty.
Wharton offers more than 50 open - enrollment programs for individuals on campuses in Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Beijing, China. Wharton also overs three long duration open - enrollment programs that confer alumni status upon successful completion. These programs are the Advanced Finance Program, Advanced Management Program, and the General Management Program.
In addition to a large portfolio of open - enrollment programs for individuals, Wharton Executive Education also offers customized programs for organizations. Custom program topic areas include Finance & Value Creation, Leadership Development, Marketing & Sales, and Strategy & Innovation. Industry areas of expertise include Consumer Products, Retail, Energy, Transportation, Financial Services, Health Care, Pharmaceuticals, Manufacturing & Industrials, Professional Services, Technology & Communications.
Through its online division, Wharton offers massive open online courses on Coursera with specializations in business and financial modeling, business analytics, entrepreneurship, and business foundations. For executives who wish to focus their learning in key areas, Wharton Online offers the Leadership and Management Certificate and the Business Analytics Certificate.
On December 5, 2003, Wharton enacted a policy of declining to actively participate in the rankings of business school programs, citing student privacy concerns and the methodologies employed.
Wharton is widely regarded as one of the world 's top institutions for business education. In 2014 -- 2015, as well as 2017 -- 2018, U.S. News & World Report ranked Wharton 's undergraduate program first in the U.S., MBA program tied for first in the U.S., and executive MBA program also first,. The undergraduate program at the Wharton School has been ranked number one by U.S. News & World Report every single year since inception. The Financial Times has ranked the Wharton School first in the world in every single year between 2000 and 2009, and again in 2011, conferring Wharton with the best overall performance in the rankings. The Wharton School has also been ranked number one by Bloomberg Businessweek four times in a row.
Wharton is well known for its standing in finance education. The school has been listed first on the U.S. News & World Report 's "Best Finance Programs '' list each consecutive year from its commencement. Similarly, Wharton has maintained its top position in the finance specialization rankings of the QS Global 200 Business Schools Report 2013 / 14, prompting QS to declare that "Wharton reigns supreme in finance, topping the table again ''. The New York Times has deemed Wharton 's undergraduate population as "the closest thing that exists to a Wall Street farm team '', while Poets & Quants has described Wharton as offering the "single best degree '' for an education and career in finance, marked by an "intense, competitive culture '' within the student body.
Wharton also receives high reputation scores from academics and recruiters each year.
The Wharton School has been ranked first for its Executive MBA Program in 2011, 2012, and 2013 by Poets & Quants, in an integrated ranking system that takes into account data provided by U.S. News & World Report, Bloomberg BusinessWeek, the Wall Street Journal, and the Financial Times.
Based on publications in 24 of the world 's leading peer - reviewed journals, Wharton holds the top position in research productivity among business schools, and a report by Indiana University indicated that the Wharton School has held the top rank in research productivity each year since 1986, when compilation of this information first commenced.
The Wharton School adheres to grading curves and is known for its competitive culture, its students receiving the highest aggregate competitiveness index score in the Princeton Review 's study of 295 business schools. In order to promote a more collaborative atmosphere, the Wharton Graduate Association maintains and annually reaffirms a grade non-disclosure policy, consisting of two main principles. The first is to "refrain from disclosing GPAs, specific class grades, class ranking, or transcripts to potential employers until a full - time position has been offered ''. The second principle permits and encourages students to disclose general academic honors and distinctions. All employers adhere to this policy throughout the recruitment process at the Wharton School.
The Wharton School has over 100 active student clubs. Wharton students also organize 19 business conferences each year.
The Wharton alumni network currently has more than 92,000 members in 80 regional clubs worldwide. In addition to the annual Wharton reunion held on campus, Wharton partners with its alumni clubs to organize multiple Global Alumni Forums each year.
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when is the last time the mets won a world series | New York Mets - wikipedia
The New York Mets are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of Queens. The Mets compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) East division. The Mets are one of two Major League clubs based in New York City; the other is the New York Yankees of the American League.
One of baseball 's first expansion teams, the Mets were founded in 1962 to replace New York 's departed NL teams, the Brooklyn Dodgers and the New York Giants. The Mets ' colors are composed of the Dodgers ' blue and the Giants ' orange, which also form the outer two bands of the New York City flag. During the 1962 and 1963 seasons, the Mets played their home games at the Polo Grounds. From 1964 to 2008, the Mets ' home ballpark was Shea Stadium. In 2009, they moved into their current ballpark, Citi Field.
In their 1962 inaugural season, the Mets posted a record of 40 -- 120, the worst regular season record since MLB went to a 162 - game schedule (two games were canceled). The team never finished better than second to last until the 1969 "Miracle Mets '' beat the Baltimore Orioles in the 1969 World Series in what is considered one of the biggest upsets in World Series history. Since then, they have played in four additional World Series, including a dramatic run in 1973 that ended in a seven - game loss to the Oakland Athletics, a second championship in 1986 over the Boston Red Sox, a Subway Series loss against their cross-town rivals the New York Yankees in 2000, and a five - game loss to the Kansas City Royals in 2015.
The Mets qualified to play in the Major League Baseball postseason in 2006, when they came within one game of the World Series, losing to the eventual champion St. Louis Cardinals in the NLCS. The Mets missed the playoffs with losses on the last day of the regular season in 2007 and 2008. The Mets made the playoffs in 2015 for the first time in nine years, and won their first NL pennant in 15 years. The team again returned to the playoffs in 2016, this time with a wild card berth. This was the team 's second back - to - back playoff appearance, the first occurring during the 1999 and 2000 seasons.
For 1962 -- 2018 the Mets overall win - loss record is 4362 -- 4732 (0.480 win "percentage '').
After the 1957 season, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated from New York to California to become the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Francisco Giants, respectively, leaving the largest city in the United States with no National League franchise and only one major league team, the New York Yankees of the American League (AL). With the threat of a New York team joining a new third league, the National League expanded by adding the New York Mets following a proposal from William Shea. In a symbolic reference to New York 's earlier National League teams, the new team took as its primary colors the blue of the Dodgers and the orange of the Giants, colors also featured on the Flag of New York City. The nickname "Mets '' was adopted: it was a natural shorthand to the club 's corporate name, "The New York Metropolitan Baseball Club, Inc. '', hearkened back to the "Metropolitans '' (a former New York team in the American Association from 1880 to 1887), and its brevity was advantageous for newspaper headlines.
For the first two years of its existence, the team played its home games at the historic Polo Grounds in Upper Manhattan. In 1964, they moved into newly constructed Shea Stadium in Flushing, Queens, where the Mets played until the 2008 season. In 2009, the club moved into Citi Field, adjacent to the former Shea Stadium site.
During their history, the Mets have won two World Series titles (1969 and 1986), five National League pennants (1969, 1973, 1986, 2000, 2015) and six National League East titles (1969, 1973, 1986, 1988, 2006, 2015). The Mets also qualified for the postseason as the National League wild card team in 1999, 2000, and 2016. The Mets have appeared in five World Series, more than any other expansion team in MLB history. Their two championships are the most titles among expansion teams, equal to the tallies of the Toronto Blue Jays, Miami Marlins, and Kansas City Royals.
The Mets held the New York baseball single - season attendance record for 29 years. They broke the Yankees ' 1948 record by drawing nearly 2.7 million spectators in 1970. The Mets broke their own record five times before the record was regained by the Yankees in 1999.
The 1962 Mets posted a 40 -- 120 record, a record for the most losses in a season since 1899. In 1966, the Mets famously bypassed future Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson in the amateur draft, instead selecting Steve Chilcott, who never played in the majors. But the following year, they acquired future Hall of Famer Tom Seaver in a lottery. Seaver helped the 1969 "Miracle Mets '' win the new National League East division title, then defeat the Atlanta Braves to win the National League pennant and the heavily favored Baltimore Orioles to win the 1969 World Series.
In 1973, the Mets rallied from 5th place to win the division, despite a record of only 82 -- 79. They shocked the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds "Big Red Machine '' in the NLCS and pushed the defending World Series champion Oakland Athletics to a seventh game, but lost the series. Notably, 1973 was the only NL East title between 1970 and 1980 that was n't won by either the Philadelphia Phillies or the Pittsburgh Pirates.
Star pitcher Tom Seaver was traded in 1977, on a day remembered as "the Midnight Massacre '', and the Mets fell into last place for several years. The franchise turned around in the mid-1980s. During this time the Mets also drafted slugger Darryl Strawberry (# 1 in 1980) and 1985 Cy Young Award winner Dwight Gooden (# 5 in 1982). In addition, former National League MVP and perennial Gold Glove winner Keith Hernandez was obtained by the Mets in 1983.
In 1985, they acquired Hall of Fame catcher Gary Carter from the Montreal Expos and won 98 games, but narrowly missed the playoffs. In 1986, they easily won the division with a record of 108 -- 54, one of the best in National League history. They won a dramatic NLCS in six games over the Houston Astros. The sixth game of the series went sixteen innings, the longest playoff game in history until 2005. They came within one strike of losing the World Series against the Boston Red Sox before a series of hits and defensive miscues ultimately led to an error by Boston 's Bill Buckner which gave the Mets a game 6 victory. They then won Game 7 to win their second World Series title.
The Mets continued playing well after 1986 and won the division in 1988, but were eliminated from the playoffs that year and declined into the 1990s. They were out of contention until the 1997 season when they were in wild card contention until the final week of the season. In 1998, the Mets acquired catcher Mike Piazza in a blockbuster trade and missed the postseason by only one game. In 1999, they made the playoffs after a one - game playoff but lost the 1999 National League Championship Series to the Atlanta Braves. In 2000, they easily clinched a wild card spot in the playoffs, and earned a trip to the 2000 World Series against their crosstown rivals, the New York Yankees for a "Subway Series ''. The Mets were defeated by the Yankees in five games.
The Mets had a near playoff miss in 2001 and struggled from 2002 to 2004. In the aftermath of the 2004 season, the Mets hired a new general manager, Omar Minaya, who immediately turned the franchise around by signing pitcher Pedro Martínez and hiring a new manager, Willie Randolph. The Mets finished 2005 four games over. 500, and the franchise 's resurgence was complete by 2006 as they won 97 games and the NL East title behind new acquisitions Carlos Beltrán and Carlos Delgado, as well as young superstars José Reyes and David Wright. The Mets advanced to game seven of the 2006 NLCS but lost after Yadier Molina 's game - winning two - run home run in the top of the ninth inning. The Mets loaded the bases with two outs in the bottom of the inning, but Adam Wainwright struck out Beltran looking with a devastating curveball.
In 2007, the Mets entered the final 17 games in the season with a seven - game lead in the division. But the team went on an ill - timed losing streak, losing 11 of the next 15 games and needing to win their final two games to make the playoffs. The Mets won their penultimate game, but on the final day of the season, Tom Glavine gave up seven runs in the first inning en route to an 8 -- 1 loss that eliminated the team from contention. The Philadelphia Phillies won the division by one game after a win on the season 's last day.
The Mets held a more modest 3.5 - game lead after 145 games of the 2008 season, their final season at Shea Stadium. While their 7 -- 10 mark down the stretch was better than the previous season 's 5 -- 12, it still allowed the Phillies to pass them once again for the division crown, which they lost by three games. The Mets opened Citi Field in 2009, but were not a factor due to a rash of injuries to numerous key players including Reyes, Carlos Beltrán, Carlos Delgado, Óliver Pérez and Liván Hernández. The effect of the injuries plummeted the Mets to a 70 -- 92 record. The Mets improved to a 79 -- 83 in 2010, but still finished in fourth place, missing the playoffs for the fourth straight year.
After the 2010 season, the Mets fired Minaya and manager Jerry Manuel. Former Oakland Athletics G.M. and MLB executive Sandy Alderson was hired to run the team, who hired Terry Collins as manager.
In 2012, Mets owners Fred Wilpon and Saul Katz settled a lawsuit brought against them on behalf of the victims of Bernard Madoff 's Ponzi scheme for $162 million. As a result of this agreement the liquidator, Irving Picard, agreed to drop the charges that Wilpon and Katz blindly went along with the scheme for their personal benefit. Picard had originally sought to recover $1 billion from the Wilpon family and Katz, but settled for $162 million along with the admission that neither the Wilpons nor Katz had any knowledge of the Ponzi scheme. In 2011 -- 2012, Mets ownership sold twelve minority 4 % shares (48 %) of the franchise at $20 million apiece to provide a cash infusion of $240 million for the team.
Despite yet another losing season, the Mets made history in 2011 when closer Jason Isringhausen converted his 300th save with the team, the third player in franchise history to reach the milestone while with the organization (after John Franco and Billy Wagner). Also, Reyes became the first Met in franchise history to win a National League batting title, posting a. 337 batting average. In 2012, as the Mets tried to bounce back from three consecutive losing seasons, they lost star shortstop Reyes to free agency, when he signed with the Miami Marlins. The team started out strong, getting a career - year performance from the league 's only knuckleballer, R.A. Dickey, and strong production from Wright. But they faltered midseason and ended with a 74 -- 88 record, again finishing fourth in the division.
Prior to the 2012 season the Mets had yet to throw a no - hitter, and the franchise 's hurlers had gone 8,019 games without pitching one -- longer than any other major - league franchise. They were one of only two major - league teams to never have a pitcher throw a no - hitter (the other being the San Diego Padres). However, on June 1, 2012 Johan Santana pitched a no - hitter against the St. Louis Cardinals. Averting the spotlight from Carlos Beltrán 's return to Citi Field, Santana turned a routine game into a memorable moment in Mets history. Santana risked being removed from the game after he went over his limit of 110 pitches, placed by the team because of his shoulder surgery. Still Santana stayed in the game and threw 134 total pitches that evening in an 8 -- 0 Mets victory, helped by a few great defensive plays as well as a controversial foul - ball call (coincidentally on Beltran), to pull off the first no - hitter in Mets history. That was the high point of 2012 along with pitcher R.A. Dickey winning the National League Cy Young Award. This would be Dickey 's final season as a Mets though as he along with Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas were traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for prospects Travis d'Arnaud, Noah Syndergaard, Wuilmer Becerra, and veteran catcher John Buck. The 2013 season brought another 74 -- 88 finish but they were able to finish in 3rd place. The highlight of the season was sweeping the season series between their cross town rivals Yankees, a first since interleague play started in 1997.
Prior to the start of the 2014 season the Mets made a big splash in the free agent market by signing former New York Yankees outfielder Curtis Granderson to a 4 - year $60 million contract. They also signed former Oakland Athletics starting pitcher Bartolo Colón to a 2 - year deal to help offset losing ace pitcher Matt Harvey for the year after he required Tommy John surgery. They would improve to 79 -- 83 and finish the season tied for 2nd place with Atlanta but it was their 6th consecutive season where they finished under. 500. Pitcher Jacob deGrom would win the National League Rookie of the Year.
On April 23, 2015 the Mets tied a franchise season record of eleven straight wins. For the first time in its history the Mets won ten straight homestand games, becoming the 7th team since 1900 to win at least 10 straight homestand games. On September 26, 2015, the Mets clinched the NL East division title, and thus their first postseason berth since 2006, by defeating the Cincinnati Reds 10 -- 2. They defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLDS, three games to two, and swept the Chicago Cubs in the NLCS for their first pennant in 15 years. In the 2015 World Series, they were defeated by the Kansas City Royals in five games. After the season ended, pitcher Matt Harvey won the NL Comeback Player of the Year award. Outfielder Yoenis Céspedes won the NL Gold Glove award as a left fielder.
"Meet the Mets '' is the Mets ' signature song, written in 1961, one year before the first season, by Bill Katz and Ruth Roberts. It is played on the radio, during television broadcasts and at Mets ' home games.
Mr. Met is the official mascot of the New York Mets. He was introduced on the cover of game programs in 1963, when the Mets were still playing at the Polo Grounds in northern Manhattan. When the Mets moved to Shea Stadium in 1964, fans were introduced to a live costumed version. Mr. Met is believed to have been the first mascot in Major League Baseball to exist in human (as opposed to artistically rendered) form.
Mrs. Met (formerly Lady Met) is the female counterpart to Mr. Met, and the couple sometimes appears with 2 -- 3 smaller "children ''.
The Mets ' colors are blue and orange, originally chosen to honor the city 's history of National League baseball; blue for the Brooklyn Dodgers, and orange for the New York Giants. Blue and orange are also the colors of New York City, as seen on its flag.
In 1998, black was officially added to the color scheme, although beginning with 2012 the black elements in the uniform began to be phased out, and were eliminated in 2013.
The cap logo is identical to the logo used by the New York Giants in their final years, and is on a blue cap reminiscent of the caps worn by the Brooklyn Dodgers. In the primary logo, designed by sports cartoonist Ray Gatto, each part of the skyline has special meaning -- at the left is a church spire, symbolic of Brooklyn, the borough of churches; the second building from the left is the Williamsburgh Savings Bank, the tallest building in Brooklyn; next is the Woolworth Building; after a general skyline view of midtown comes the Empire State Building; at the far right is the United Nations Building. The bridge in the center symbolizes that the Mets, by bringing National League baseball back to New York, represent all five boroughs.
With the introduction of black as an official color, an alternate team logo was created in 1999. It is identical to the original logo, but the skyline is black instead of blue and the "Mets '' script is blue trimmed in orange and white instead of orange trimmed in white (the alternate black jerseys displayed the primary blue and orange logo on the left sleeves in 1998; in 1999 this was changed to the alternate black and blue logo). The logo fell into disuse after the Mets dropped the alternate black jerseys and caps in 2012.
Also in 1999, the logo received a slight alteration. The "NY '' to the left of the team script was removed. No other notable changes were made.
Currently, the Mets wear an assortment of uniforms.
The home uniforms are white with blue pinstripes, and feature the "Mets '' script and block lettering and numbers in blue with orange outline. The uniforms are paired with a standard blue cap featuring the "NY '' script in orange, plus blue undersleeves, belts and socks. The white pinstriped uniforms replaced both the cream pinstriped uniform and the alternate white uniform starting with the 2015 season.
The gray road jerseys feature a radially - arched "NEW YORK '' script in Tiffany style, player numerals and names in blue outlined in orange, and blue placket and sleeve piping. Like the home uniforms, the road grays are worn with blue caps, undersleeves, belts and socks.
On November 14, 2012, the Mets introduced two new blue alternate jerseys. The home alternate features the "Mets '' script, player numerals and names in orange outlined in white, while the road alternate feature the "NEW YORK '' script, player numerals and names in gray outlined in orange.
On December 10, 2012, the Mets unveiled an alternate blue fielding cap, featuring an orange brim and a white trim around the orange "NY '' insignia. Currently it is only worn in games featuring the home blue alternates. For 2015, another alternate blue cap, this time featuring the "NY '' in gray outlined in orange, was introduced, and is paired with the road blue alternates. In 2017, the alternate home blue cap was modified to feature a blue brim.
For the 2014 season, a Mr. Met sleeve patch was added to the blue alternate jerseys, a feature that was later removed in favor of the primary logo in 2017.
The Mets ' standard blue batting helmet with the "NY '' in orange is currently used regardless of the cap and jersey design they wear. This was in contrast to previous seasons where they play with alternate batting helmets to match their caps and jerseys.
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Bob Murphy
Lindsey Nelson
Major League Baseball retired Jackie Robinson 's number 42 on April 15, 1997, when the Mets played the Dodgers at Shea Stadium. Butch Huskey wore the number throughout the rest of his Mets career because of a grandfather clause placed on the retired number by MLB. Mo Vaughn also wore 42 during his stint with the Mets, because of the same clause.
On the final opening day at Shea Stadium, April 8, 2008, the Mets unveiled a sign bearing the name "Shea '' next to the team 's retired numbers honoring William Shea and his contributions to the franchise.
In 2014, a special memorial logo honoring broadcaster Ralph Kiner, depicting a microphone along with his name and the years 1922 -- 2014, was displayed at on the left field wall adjacent to, but not as a part of, the Mets ' retired numbers, from 2014 to 2016. In the 2016 Mets yearbook, a sidebar in an article on Mike Piazza 's upcoming number retirement implies that Kiner has been "retired '' a la William A. Shea. This was confirmed when the Mets ' retired numbers were moved to the roof facade during the 2016 season to accommodate Mike Piazza 's # 31; the Kiner logo was placed next to the Shea and Jackie Robinson numbers, no longer separated from the others.
The Mets -- New York Yankees rivalry is the latest incarnation of the Subway Series, the competition between New York City 's teams, the American League New York Yankees and the National League Mets. Until Interleague play started, the two teams had only met in exhibition games. Since the inception of interleague play the two teams have met every regular season since 1997, and since 1999 they have met six times each season, playing two three - game series, one in each team 's ballpark. From the 2013 season however the number of games was reduced to four, two at each ballpark with the Mets winning six of the last eight games in that span. They have made the postseason in the same year four times: 1999, 2000, 2006, and 2015, and faced off in the 2000 World Series.
The Braves -- Mets rivalry is a rivalry between two teams in the National League East, featuring the Atlanta Braves and the Mets.
Although their first major confrontation occurred when the Mets swept the Braves in the 1969 NLCS, en route to their first World Series championship, the first playoff series won by an expansion team (also the first playoff appearance by an expansion team), the rivalry did not become especially heated until the 1990s, when division realignment put the Mets and the Braves in the same division. The two teams faced each other again in the 1999 NLCS, and the Braves won the series four games to two. However, they would go on to lose to the Yankees in the 1999 World Series.
The rivalry between the Mets and the Philadelphia Phillies from 2006 to 2008 was said to be among the "hottest '' rivalries in the National League.
Aside from several brawls in the 1980s, the rivalry remained low - key before the 2006 season, as the teams had seldom been equally good at the same time. Since 2006, the teams have battled for playoff position. The Mets won the division in 2006 and contended in 2007 and 2008, while the Phillies won five consecutive division titles from 2007 to 2011. The Phillies ' 2007 Eastern Division Title was won on the last day of the season as the Mets lost a seven - game lead with 17 games remaining while losing 12 of 18 games that season to the Phillies, including being swept at home in the first 3 games of the remaining 17, dropping their lead from 7 games to 3.5.
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43 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated October 29, 2018 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
A registered 501 (c) (3) charity, the New York Mets Foundation is the philanthropic organization of the New York Mets. Founded in 1963, it funds and promotes charitable causes in the Mets community. One of these causes is Tuesday 's Children, is a non-profit family service organization that "has made a long term commitment to meet the needs of every family who lost a loved one in the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 ''. The Mets host the annual Welcome Home Dinner, which raised over $550,000 for the Mets Foundation in 2012. All proceeds were distributed to Katz Institute for Women 's Health and Katz Women 's Hospitals of North Shore - LIJ Health System and The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society.
Most Mets games are carried by SportsNet New York (SNY), a joint venture of the Mets and NBC Sports Regional Networks. The team 's terrestrial broadcast home is WPIX, where the team has broadcast games since 1999.
Longtime Mets radio announcer Gary Cohen does the play - by - play, having moved to television with the launch of SNY in 2006. Former Mets Keith Hernandez and Ron Darling are the color commentators.
In early January 2016, Keith Hernandez re-signed with SNY. Reports indicate that Hernandez received a raise and three - year contract.
As of 2014, the Mets ' radio flagship is WOR. The Mets were previously carried by WFAN, which inherited the team 's broadcast rights from WHN when it took over its frequency in 1987, and WFAN - FM, which simulcasts the AM signal. Spanish language broadcasts are carried by WEPN.
Since 2012, Howie Rose and Josh Lewin have been the radio broadcast team; they share play - by - play and analyst duties. Rose, who has spent much of his career covering the Mets, replaced Bob Murphy as Gary Cohen 's partner in 2004 following Murphy 's retirement. Lewin joined the broadcast after the team parted ways with Wayne Hagin following the 2011 season. Pregame and postgame shows are hosted by Wayne Randazzo.
Lewin is also the radio voice for UCLA Bruins football and basketball; Lewin 's duties preclude him from calling games on weekends during the last month of the season, during which Randazzo steps in.
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who was founded to advocate for every wage worker | American Federation of Labor - wikipedia
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers ' International Union was elected president at its founding convention and reelected every year, except one, until his death in 1924. The AFL was the largest union grouping in the United States for the first half of the 20th century, even after the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) by unions which were expelled by the AFL in 1935 over its opposition to industrial unionism. The Federation was founded and dominated by craft unions throughout its first fifty years, after which many craft union affiliates turned to organizing on an industrial union basis to meet the challenge from the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in the 1940s.
In 1955, the AFL merged with the CIO to create the AFL - CIO, which has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States to this day.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) organized as an association of trade unions in 1886. The organization emerged from a dispute with the Knights of Labor (K of L) organization, in which the leadership of that organization solicited locals of various craft unions to withdraw from their International organizations and to affiliate with the K of L directly, an action which would have taken funds from the various unions and enriched the K of L 's coffers. The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor.
One of the organizations embroiled in this controversy was the Cigar Makers ' International Union (CMIU), a group subject to competition from a dual union, a rival "Progressive Cigarmakers ' Union, '' organized by members suspended or expelled by the CMIU. The two cigar unions competed with one another in signing contracts with various cigar manufacturers, who were at this same time combining themselves into manufacturers ' associations of their own in New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee.
In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers ' Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers ' International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners. A strike lasting four weeks ensued. Just when it appeared that the strike might be won, the New York District Assembly of the Knights of Labor leaped into the breach, offering to settle with the 19 factories at a lower wage scale than that proposed by the CMIU, so long as only the Progressive Cigarmakers ' Union was employed.
The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the national officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, and the latter was exonerated. The American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions.
On April 25, 1886, a circular letter was issued by Strasser of the Cigar Makers and P.J. McGuire of the Carpenters, addressed to all national trade unions and calling for their attendance of a conference in Philadelphia on May 18. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing "malicious work '' and causing "incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms and dissensions in the labor movement. '' The call was signed by Strasser and McGuire, along with representatives of the Granite Cutters, the Iron Molders, and the secretary of the Federation of Trades of North America, a forerunner of the AFL founded in 1881.
Forty - three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates and letters of approval from 12 other unions. At this preliminary gathering, held in Donaldson Hall on the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets, the K of L was charged with conspiring with anti-union bosses to provide labor at below going union rates and with making use of individuals who had crossed picket lines or defaulted on payment of union dues. The body authored a "treaty '' to be presented to the forthcoming May 24, 1886, convention of the Knights of Labor, which demanded that the K of L cease attempting to organize members of International Unions into its own assemblies without permission of the unions involved and that K of L organizers violating this provision should suffer immediate suspension.
For its part, the Knights of Labor considered the demand for the parcelling of the labor movement into narrow craft - based fiefdoms to be anathema, a violation of the principle of solidarity of all workers across craft lines. Negotiations with the dissident craft unions were nipped in the bud by the governing General Assembly of the K of L, however, with the organization 's Grand Master Workman, Terence V. Powderly refusing to enter into serious discussions on the matter. The actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld.
Convinced that no accommodation with the leadership of the Knights of Labor was possible, the heads of the five labor organizations which issued the call for the April 1886 conference issued a new call for a convention to be held December 8, 1886 in Columbus, Ohio in order to construct "an American federation of alliance of all national and international trade unions. '' Forty - two delegates representing 13 national unions and various other local labor organizations responded to the call, agreeing to form themselves into an American Federation of Labor.
Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a "per - capita tax '' of its member organizations, set at the rate of one - half cent per member per month (i.e. six cents per year). Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. The founding convention voted to make the President of the new federation a full - time official at a salary of $1,000 per year, and Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers ' International Union was elected to the position. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year save one until his death nearly four decades later.
Although the founding convention of the AFL had authorized the establishment of a publication for the new organization, Gompers made use of the existing labor press to generate support for the position of the craft unions against the Knights of Labor. Powerful opinion - makers of the American labor movement such as the Philadelphia Tocsin, Haverhill Labor, the Brooklyn Labor Press, and the Denver Labor Enquirer granted Gompers space in their pages, in which he made the case for the unions against the attacks of employers, "all too often aided by the K of L. ''
Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies. Some assemblies of the K of L supported the Cigar Makers ' position and departed the organization: in Baltimore, 30 locals left the organization, while the membership of the Knights in Chicago fell from 25,000 in 1886 to just 3,500 in 1887. Factional warfare broke out in the K of L, with Terence Powderly blaming the organization 's travails on "radicals '' in its ranks, while those opposing Powderly called for an end to what they perceived as "autocratic leadership. ''
In the face of the steady disintegration of its rival, the fledgling American Federation of Labor struggled to maintain itself, with the group showing very slow and incremental growth in its first years, only cracking the 250,000 member mark in 1892. The group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFL 's founding convention declaring "higher wages and a shorter workday '' to be "preliminary steps toward great and accompanying improvements in the condition of the working people. '' Participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the group 's constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates.
This fundamentally conservative "pure and simple '' approach limited the AFL to matters pertaining to working conditions and rates of pay, relegating political goals to its allies in the political sphere. The Federation favored pursuit of workers ' immediate demands rather than challenging the property rights of owners, and took a pragmatic view of politics which favored tactical support for particular politicians over formation of a party devoted to workers ' interests. The AFL 's leadership believed the expansion of the capitalist system was seen as the path to betterment of labor, an orientation making it possible for the AFL to present itself as what one historian has called "the conservative alternative to working class radicalism. ''
The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive unions out of construction, mining, longshore and other industries. Membership in the AFL 's affiliated unions declined between 1904 and 1914 in the face of this concerted anti-union drive, which made effective use of legal injunctions against strikes, court rulings given force when backed with the armed might of the state. At its November 1907 Convention in Norfolk, Virginia the AFL founded the future North America 's Building Trades Unions (NABTU) as Department of Building Trades.
Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should "reward its friends and punish its enemies '' in both major parties. However, in the 1900s (decade), the two parties began to realign, with the main faction of the Republican Party coming to identify with the interests of banks and manufacturers, while a substantial portion of the rival Democratic Party took a more labor - friendly position. While not precluding its members from belonging to the Socialist Party or working with its members, the AFL traditionally refused to pursue the tactic of independent political action by the workers in the form of the existing Socialist Party or the establishment of a new labor party. After 1908, the organization 's tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong.
Some unions within the AFL helped form and participated in the National Civic Federation. The National Civic Federation was formed by several progressive employers who sought to avoid labor disputes by fostering collective bargaining and "responsible '' unionism. Labor 's participation in this federation, at first tentative, created internal division within the AFL. Socialists, who believed the only way to help workers was to remove large industry from private ownership, denounced labor 's efforts at cooperation with the capitalists in the National Civic Federation. The AFL nonetheless continued its association with the group, which declined in importance as the decade of the 1910s drew to a close.
By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of AFL affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian Trades and Labour Congress with money and organizers, and by 1902, the AFL came to dominate the Canadian union movement.
The AFL vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages. Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. Nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro - American members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924, and seeing that they were strictly enforced.
Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.
Towards the beginning of World War I, the AFL was against prohibition as it was viewed as cultural right of the working class to drink.
During World War I, the AFL -- motivated by fear of government repression, and hope of aid (often in the form of pro-AFL labor policies) -- had worked out an informal agreement with the United States government, in which the AFL would coordinate with the government both to support the war effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups '' such as the Industrial Workers of the World and Socialist Party of America.
In the pro-business environment of the 1920s, business launched a large - scale offensive on behalf of the so - called "open shop '', which meant that a person did not have to be a union member to be hired. AFL unions lost membership steadily until 1933. In 1924, following the death of Samuel Gompers, UMWA member and AFL vice president William Green became the president of the labor federation.
The organization endorsed pro-labor progressive Robert M. La Follette Sr. in the 1924 presidential election. He only carried his home state of Wisconsin. The campaign failed to establish a permanent independent party closely connected to the labor movement, however, and thereafter the Federation embraced ever more closely the Democratic Party, despite the fact that many union leaders remained Republicans. Herbert Hoover in 1928 won the votes of many Protestant AFL members.
The Great Depression were hard times for the unions, and membership fell sharply across the country. As the national economy began to recover in 1933, so did union membership. The New Deal of president Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, strongly favored labor unions. He made sure that relief operations like the Civilian Conservation Corps did not include a training component that would produce skilled workers who would compete with union members in a still glutted market. The major legislation was the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, called the Wagner Act. It greatly strengthened organized unions, especially by weakening the company unions that many workers belonged to. It was to the members advantage to transform a company union into a local of an AFL union, and thousands did so, dramatically boosting the membership. The Wagner Act also set up to the National Labor Relations Board, which used its powers to rule in favor of unions and against the companies. However, the NLRB was later taken over by leftist elements who favored the CIO over the AFL.
In the early 1930s AFL president William Green (president, 1924 -- 1952) experimented with an industrial approach to organizing in the automobile and steel industries. The AFL made forays into industrial unionism by chartering federal labor unions, which would organize across an industry and be chartered by the Federation, not through existing craft unions, guilds, or brotherhoods. As early as 1923, the AFL had chartered federal labor unions, including six news writer locals that had formerly been part of the International Typographical Union. However, in the 1930s the AFL began chartering these federal labor unions as an industrial organizing strategy. The dues in these federal labor unions (FLUs) were kept intentionally low to make them more accessible to low paid industrial workers; however, these low dues later allowed the Internationals in the Federation to deny members of FLUs voting membership at conventions. In 1933, Green sent William Collins to Detroit to organize automobile workers into a federal labor union. That same year workers at the Westinghouse plant in East Springfield MA, members of federal labor union 18476, struck for recognition. In 1933, the AFL received 1,205 applications for charters for federal labor unions, 1006 of which were granted. By 1934, the AFL had successfully organized 32,500 autoworkers using the federal labor union model. Most of the leadership of the craft union internationals that made up the federation, advocated for the FLU 's to be absorbed into existing craft union internationals and for these internationals to have supremacy of jurisdiction. At the 1933 AFL convention in Washington, DC John Frey of the Molders and Metal Trades pushed for craft union internationals to have jurisdictional supremacy over the FLU 's; the Carpenters headed by William Hutchenson and the IBEW also pushed for FLU 's to turn over their members to the authority of the craft internationals between 1933 and 1935. In 1934, one hundred FLUs met separately and demanded that the AFL continue to issue charters to unions organizing on an industrial basis independent of the existing craft union internationals. In 1935 the FLUs representing autoworkers and rubber workers both held conventions independent of the craft union internationals. By the 1935 AFL convention, Green and the advocates of traditional craft unionism faced increasing dissension led by John L. Lewis of the coal miners, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated, David Dubinsky of the Garment Workers, Charles Howard of the ITU, Thomas McMahon of the Textile Workers, and Max Zaritsky of the Hat, Cap, and Millinery Workers, in addition to the members of the FLU 's themselves. Lewis argued that the AFL was too heavily oriented toward traditional craftsmen, and was overlooking the opportunity to organize millions of semiskilled workers, especially those in industrial factories that made automobiles, rubber, glass and steel. In 1935 Lewis led the dissenting unions in forming a new Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the AFL. Both the new CIO industrial unions, and the older AFL crafts unions grew rapidly after 1935. In 1936 union members enthusiastically supported Roosevelt 's landslide reelection. Proposals for the creation of an independent labor party were rejected.
The AFL retained close ties to the Democratic machines in big cities through the 1940s. Its membership surged during the war and it held on to most of its new members after wartime legal support for labor was removed. Despite its close connections to many in Congress, the AFL was not able to block the Taft -- Hartley Act in 1947.
In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged to form the AFL -- CIO, headed by George Meany.
During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants joined in small numbers. But by the 1890s, the Federation had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft unions and became an organization of mostly white men. Although the Federation preached a policy of egalitarianism in regard to African American workers, it actively discriminated against black workers. The AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its affiliates -- particularly in the construction and railroad industries -- a practice which often excluded black workers altogether from union membership and thus from employment in organized industries.
In 1901, the AFL lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, and issued a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese exclusion. Which shall survive? '' The AFL also began one of the first organized labor boycotts when they began putting white stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars rolled by Chinese workers.
In most ways, the AFL 's treatment of women workers paralleled its policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of women 's unionism. But despite such rhetoric, the Federation only half - heartedly supported women 's attempts to organize and, more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the AFL at its founding openly included women, and others passed by - laws barring women 's membership entirely. The AFL hired its first female organizer, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, only in 1892, released her after five months, and it did not replace her or hire another woman national organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars when women might find it difficult to attend and where they might feel uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to speak at meetings.
Generally the AFL viewed women workers as competition, as strikebreakers, or as an unskilled labor reserve that kept wages low. As such, the Federation often opposed women 's employment entirely. When it did organize women workers, most often it did so to protect men 's jobs and earning power and not to improve the conditions, lives, or wages of women workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3 % of working women were organized into unions. In 1910, even as the AFL surged forward in membership, the number had dipped to 1.5 %. And while it improved to 6.6 % over the next decade, women remained mostly outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them into the mid-1920s.
Attitudes gradually changed within the AFL due to the pressure of organized female workers. Female - domination began to emerge in the first two decades of the 20th century, including particularly the International Ladies Garment Workers ' Union. Women organized independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers and activists, often of the Women 's Trade Union League, these unions joined the AFL.
From the beginning, unions affiliated with the AFL found themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over the same groups of workers: both the Brewers and Teamsters claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the Machinists and the International Typographical Union claimed to represent certain printroom employees, and the Machinists and a fledgling union known as the "Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union '' sought to organize the same employees -- even though neither union had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some cases the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or more influential union. The AFL often reversed its jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed. In other cases the AFL expelled the offending union, as it did in 1913 in the case of the Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union (which quickly disappeared).
These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building trades, where a number of different unions might claim the right to have work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this industry organized their own department within the AFL in 1908, despite the reservations of Gompers and other leaders about creation of a separate body within the AFL that might function as a federation within a federation. While those fears were partly borne out in practice, as the Building Trades Department did acquire a great deal of practical power gained through resolving jurisdictional disputes between affiliates, the danger that it might serve as the basis for schism never materialized.
Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments '' to help resolve these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers ' councils to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them. Even that sort of structure did not prevent AFL unions from finding themselves in conflict on political issues. For example, the International Seamen 's Union opposed passage of a law applying to workers engaged in interstate transport that railway unions supported. The AFL bridged these differences on an ad hoc basis.
The AFL made efforts in its early years to assist its affiliates in organizing: it advanced funds or provided organizers or, in some cases, such as the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Teamsters and the American Federation of Musicians, helped form the union. The AFL also used its influence (including refusal of charters or expulsion) to heal splits within affiliated unions, to force separate unions seeking to represent the same or closely related jurisdictions to merge, or to mediate disputes between rival factions where both sides claimed to represent the leadership of an affiliated union. The AFL also chartered "federal unions '' -- local unions not affiliated with any international union -- in those fields in which no affiliate claimed jurisdiction.
The AFL also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies (known as central labor councils) in major metropolitan areas in which all of the affiliates could participate. These local labor councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For example, the Chicago Federation of Labor spearheaded efforts to organize packinghouse and steel workers during and immediately after World War I. Local building trades councils also became powerful in some areas. In San Francisco, the local Building Trades Council, led by Carpenters official P.H. McCarthy, not only dominated the local labor council but helped elect McCarthy mayor of San Francisco in 1909. In a very few cases early in the AFL 's history, state and local bodies defied AFL policy or chose to disaffiliate over policy disputes.
Though Gompers had contact with socialists and such as AFL co-founder Peter J. McGuire, the AFL adopted a philosophy of "business unionism '' that emphasized unions ' contribution to businesses ' profits and national economic growth. The business unionist approach also focused on skilled workers ' immediate job - related interests, while refusing to "rush to the support of any one of the numerous society - saving or society destroying schemes '' involved in larger political issues. This approach was set by Gompers, who was influenced by a fellow cigar maker (and former socialist) Ferdinand Laurrel. Despite his socialist contacts, Gompers himself was not a socialist.
In some respects the AFL leadership took a pragmatic view toward politicians, following Gompers ' slogan to "reward your friends and punish your enemies '' without regard to party affiliation. Over time, after repeated disappointments with the failure of labor 's legislative efforts to protect workers ' rights, which the courts had struck down as unconstitutional, Gompers became almost anti-political, opposing some forms of protective legislation, such as limitations on working hours, because they would detract from the efforts of unions to obtain those same benefits through collective bargaining.
Employers discovered the efficacy of labor injunctions, first used with great effect by the Cleveland administration during the Pullman Strike in 1894. While the AFL sought to outlaw "yellow dog contracts, '' to limit the courts ' power to impose "government by injunction '' and to obtain exemption from the antitrust laws that were being used to criminalize labor organizing, the courts reversed what few legislative successes the labor movement won.
The AFL concentrated its political efforts during the last decades of the Gompers administration on securing freedom from state control of unions -- in particular an end to the court 's use of labor injunctions to block the right to organize or strike and the application of the anti-trust laws to criminalize labor 's use of pickets, boycotts and strikes. The AFL thought that it had achieved the latter with the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914 -- which Gompers referred to as "Labor 's Magna Carta ''. But in Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U.S. 443 (1921), the United States Supreme Court narrowly read the Act and codified the federal courts ' existing power to issue injunctions rather than limit it. The court read the phrase "between an employer and employees '' (contained in the first paragraph of the Act) to refer only to cases involving an employer and its own employees, leaving the courts free to punish unions for engaging in sympathy strikes or secondary boycotts.
The AFL 's pessimistic attitude towards politics did not, on the other hand, prevent affiliated unions from pursuing their own agendas. Construction unions supported legislation that governed entry of contractors into the industry and protected workers ' rights to pay, rail and mass production industries sought workplace safety legislation, and unions generally agitated for the passage of workers ' compensation statutes.
At the same time, the AFL took efforts on behalf of women in supporting protective legislation. It advocated fewer hours for women workers, and based its arguments on assumptions of female weakness. Like efforts to unionize, most support for protective legislation for women came out of a desire to protect men 's jobs. If women 's hours could be limited, reasoned AFL officials, they would infringe less on male employment and earning potential. But the AFL also took more selfless efforts. Even from the 1890s, the AFL declared itself vigorously in favor of women 's suffrage. It often printed pro-suffrage articles in its periodical, and in 1918, it supported the National Union of Women 's Suffrage.
The AFL relaxed its rigid stand against legislation after the death of Gompers. Even so, it remained cautious. Its proposals for unemployment benefits (made in the late 1920s) were too modest to have practical value, as the Great Depression soon showed. The impetus for the major federal labor laws of the 1930s came from the New Deal. The enormous growth in union membership came after Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 and National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The AFL refused to sanction or participate in the mass strikes led by John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and other left unions such as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. After the AFL expelled the CIO in 1936, the CIO undertook a major organizing effort. The AFL responded with its own massive organizing drive that kept its membership totals 50 percent higher than the CIO 's.
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india vs australia 1987 world cup semi final | 1987 Cricket World Cup knockout stage - wikipedia
In 1987 Cricket World Cup, the first Semi-Final was played between Pakistan and Australia at the Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore, on 4 November 1987, which Australia won by 18 runs. In the second Semi-Final England defeated India by 35 runs at the Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai, on 5 November 1987. Australia and England encountered in the Final on 8 November 1987. Australia defeated England at Eden Gardens, Kolkata, by 7 runs and won the 1987 Cricket World Cup.
Australia won the toss and chose to bat. The Australian batsmen got off to a very good start, and they scored fluently, with David Boon (65 from 91 balls, 4 fours) top scoring, and making an 82 run second - wicket partnership with DM Jones. Australia were looking to reach 300 with strong batting before Imran Khan took 3 wickets for 17 runs in 5 overs. Australia lost 4 / 31, but a high number of extras (34) from the Pakistani bowlers, as well as the solid batting from earlier on, brought Australia to 267 (8 wickets, 50 overs). Pakistan started badly, falling to 3 / 38. Imran Khan (58 from 84 balls, 4 fours) and Javed Miandad (70 from 103 balls, 4 fours) shared a partnership of 112 runs in 26 overs. However, with the required run rate at 7.87 runs when Miandad fell, there was just too much for the upcoming batsmen to do, and Pakistan lost 6 / 99 as they were bowled all out for 249 (all out, 49 overs).
India won the toss and chose to field. After reaching 2 / 79, Graham Gooch (115 from 136 balls, 11 fours) and captain Mike Gatting (56 from 62 balls, 5 fours) shared a partnership of 117 runs in 19 overs. After Gooch was finally stumped, 51 more runs were added, and England reached 254 (6 wickets, 50 overs). India made a bad start, falling to 3 / 73. The middle order scored fluently, with Mohammed Azharuddin, (64 from 74 balls, 7 fours) top scoring. Before Azharuddin was removed lbw by Eddie Hemmings, India were at 5 / 204, needing 5 runs an over from the last 10 overs, with 5 wickets in hand, and it looked like it would be a very close game. However, the middle and tailend order for India collapsed, as India lost 5 / 15. India were eventually bowled all out for 219 (all out, 45.3 overs), giving England both a berth in the final and a measure of revenge for the loss they suffered to India in the semifinal of the World Cup four years earlier in England.
Australia won the toss and chose to bat. David Boon (75 from 125 balls, 7 fours) top - scored for Australia, whose batsmen scored fluently. Australia posted 253 (5 wickets, 50 overs). Mike Veletta (45 from 31 balls, 6 fours) cut loose late in the innings, as Australia scored 65 runs from the last 6 overs of their innings. In the English reply, opener Tim Robinson was bowled for a first ball duck. Bill Athey (58 from 103 balls, 2 fours) top - scored, and England were almost on target, when captain Mike Gatting (41 from 45 balls, 3 fours, 1 six) handed back the initiative with the loss of his wicket, which ended a growing partnership of 69 runs in 13 overs between him and Athey. Allan Lamb (45 from 55 balls, 4 fours) also posted a great innings, but it was in vain as the required run - rate for England began to rise. When England failed to score the last 17 runs from the final over, the cup went to Australia.
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who narrates a song of ice and fire | Roy Dotrice - wikipedia
Roy Dotrice, OBE (born 26 May 1923) is a British actor known for his Tony Award - winning Broadway performance in the revival of A Moon for the Misbegotten. Film audiences know him best for his role as Leopold Mozart in the Oscar - winning film Amadeus. He is also known for narrating the audio book versions of the A Song of Ice and Fire series.
Dotrice was born in Guernsey to Neva (née Wilton) (1897 -- 1984) and Louis Dotrice (1896 -- 1991). He served in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, and was imprisoned in a German POW camp from 1942 to 1945.
Dotrice was the voice of "Permanent Under - Secretary Sir Gregory Pitkin '' in the early episodes of BBC Radio 's long - running comedy The Men from the Ministry. He was succeeded by Ronald Baddiley in the role.
He also played the caretaker Ramsay, alongside Patricia Hayes in the Radio 4 sitcom "Know Your Place ''.
Dotrice played the part of John Aubrey in the play devised and written by Patrick Garland of Brief Lives, a one - man show that saw Dotrice on stage for more than two - and - a-half hours (including the interval (intermission), during which he would feign sleep). Premiering in 1967 at the Hampstead Theatre in London, the play had two tours on Broadway. In 1968, it moved to the Criterion Theatre in the West End, where it would run for 400 performances before transferring to the Mayfair Theatre.
These runs, combined with extensive international touring, earned Dotrice a place in the Guinness World Records for the greatest number of solo performances (1,782). In 1984, he starred opposite Rosemary Harris in a production of Noël Coward 's Hay Fever. He appeared in the stage production of Irving Berlin 's White Christmas at the Lowry Theatre in Salford from November 2009 to January 2010.
In the 1970s, Dotrice played the title role in the television mini-series Dickens of London. He also appeared as Albert Haddock in the BBC TV adaptation of A.P. Herbert 's Misleading Cases in 1971. In 1972 he played the Curé Ponosse in the BBC2 TV adaptation of Clochemerle. He is known to North American audiences as Father in the 1980s American TV series Beauty and the Beast and as Catholic priest Father Gary Barrett in the 1990s series Picket Fences, although his acting career dates back to 1945 in a revue called Back Home, performed by ex-POWs in aid of the Red Cross.
Dotrice is known to Buffyverse fans as Roger Wyndam - Pryce, the overbearing father of the character Wesley Wyndam - Pryce. An earlier science - fiction role was Commissioner Simmonds in two episodes of the 1970s series Space: 1999. In 1998, Dotrice appeared in three episodes of the series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys as Zeus to Kevin Sorbo 's Hercules.
Dotrice was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1974 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at Pinewood Studios.
In June 2010, it was announced that Dotrice would be playing the role of Grand Maester Pycelle in the HBO TV series Game of Thrones, an adaptation of George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire books. Dotrice later withdrew from the part for medical reasons, after which Julian Glover was cast in his place. Shortly after filming for the second season commenced, it was confirmed that Dotrice would be returning to play Pyromancer Hallyne, who is featured in the instalments "The Ghost of Harrenhal '' and "Blackwater ''.
In 1982, BBC Radio 4 broadcast Dotrice 's reading of fellow Guernseyman G.B. Edwards ' classic novel The Book of Ebenezer Le Page in twenty - eight 15 - minute parts on its Woman 's Hour segment. The producer subsequently wrote that the serialisation was "without question the most popular serial I have ever done in the 500 or so I have produced in the last 21 years... ''.
He subsequently performed "The Islander '', a stage version of The Book of Ebenezer Le Page, to critical success at the Theatre Royal, Lincoln. In 2012, AudioGo produced a complete and unabridged recording of Ebenezer Le Page which is available on Audible
Dotrice has recorded audiobooks for each book in George R.R. Martin 's series A Song of Ice and Fire. He earned a place in the Guinness World Records in 2004 for the highest number of character voices by a single actor for the first book in the series, A Game of Thrones (in which he voices a total of 224 characters).
Dotrice also narrated many storybook adaptations for Disney Records including The Little Mermaid for which he was nominated for a Grammy award.
Dotrice was married to Katherine "Kay '' Newman, a television and stage actress, from 1947 until her death in 2007. They had three daughters -- Michele, Yvette and Karen -- all of whom acted at various points in their lives. He was the father - in - law of actor Edward Woodward, the deceased husband of Michele.
He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2008 New Year Honours.
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what is the tallest building in the northern hemisphere | List of tallest freestanding structures - wikipedia
This is a list of tallest freestanding structures in the world past and present. To be freestanding a structure must not be supported by guy wires, the sea or other types of support. It therefore does not include guyed masts, partially guyed towers and drilling platforms but does include towers, skyscrapers (pinnacle height) and chimneys.
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who is running for us senate in illinois | United States Senate elections, 2018 - wikipedia
Mitch McConnell Republican
Elections to the United States Senate will be held November 6, 2018, with 33 of the 100 seats in the Senate being contested in regular elections and two seats being contested in special elections. The winners will serve six - year terms from January 3, 2019, to January 3, 2025. Currently, Democrats have 26 seats up for election, including the seats of two independents who caucus with them. Republicans have nine seats up for election. The seats up for regular election in 2018 were last up for election in 2012; in addition, special elections will be scheduled if vacancies occur, as has already happened in Minnesota and Mississippi.
Other elections that will be held on this date include the elections to the U.S. House of Representatives, 39 Governorships as well as various other state and local elections.
Republicans can only afford to have a net loss of one Senate seat and still have a working majority of 50 Senators and Republican Vice President Mike Pence, who is able to cast a tie - breaking vote in accordance with Article One of the United States Constitution. Three of the Republican seats are open as a result of retirements in Tennessee, Utah, and Arizona. Democrats are defending ten seats in states won by Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, while Republicans are only defending one seat in a state won by Hillary Clinton in 2016. According to FiveThirtyEight, Democrats face the most unfavorable Senate map in 2018 that any party has ever faced in any election.
Democrats are expected to target the Republican - held Senate seats in Arizona (open seat) and Nevada. Democrats could also target seats in Texas, Mississippi (at least one of the two seats) and Tennessee 's open - seat. Republicans are expected to target Democratic - held seats in Indiana, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, and West Virginia, all of which voted for Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election and Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, as well as seats in Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Michigan, all of which voted for Donald Trump in the 2016 election. Other races may also become competitive closer to election day.
Among the 33 Class 1 Senate seats up for regular election in 2018 are 23 currently held by Democrats, two by independents who caucus with the Senate Democrats, and eight by Republicans. The Class 2 seats in Minnesota and Mississippi held by interim appointees are also up for election; both incumbent appointees are running in their elections to finish the unexpired terms.
(edit this section here) Most election predictors use:
For the regularly scheduled general elections. Shading added for future events.
In these special elections, the winners will be elected coincidingly with the other races of the 2018 Senate elections, but will be seated before January 3, 2019, when elected and qualified. Ordered by election date, then by state, then by class.
In these general elections, the winners will be elected for the term beginning January 3, 2019.
All of the elections involve the Class 1 seats; ordered by state.
Jeff Flake Republican
One - term Republican Jeff Flake was elected with 49 % of the vote in 2012. He has declared he will retire at the end of his term.
U.S. Representative Martha McSally won the Republican nomination in a three - way primary on August 28, 2018, against Joe Arpaio and Kelli Ward.
U.S. Representative Kyrsten Sinema easily secured the Democratic nomination.
Dianne Feinstein Democratic
Four - term Democrat Dianne Feinstein won a special election in 1992 and was elected to full terms in 1994, 2000, 2006, and 2012. She is running for re-election and will advance to the general election after securing the top spot in the June 5 jungle primary.
President pro tempore of the California State Senate Kevin de León will advance to the general election after securing the second spot in the June 5 primary. Other Democratic candidates included community advocate Adrienne Nicole Edwards, Eugene Patterson Harris, David Hildebrand, Douglas Howard Pierce, and Alison Hartson.
Republican candidates included Paul Allen Taylor.
Derrick Michael Reid ran with the Libertarian Party.
Independent candidates included biologist Tim Gildersleeve, Lee W. Olson, and evangelist Ling Ling Shi.
Chris Murphy Democratic
One - term Democrat Chris Murphy was elected with 55 % of the vote in 2012. He is running for re-election.
Businessmen Matthew Corey received the Republican nomination.
Tom Carper Democratic
Three - term Democrat Tom Carper won re-election with 66 % of the vote in 2012. He announced he was running for re-election during an interview on MSNBC on July 24, 2017. He defeated Dover community activist Kerri Evelyn Harris for the Democratic nomination. Sussex County Councilman Robert Arlett won the Republican nomination.
Bill Nelson Democratic
Three - term Democrat Bill Nelson was re-elected with 55 % of the vote in 2012. He is seeking re-election to a fourth term in office.
Florida Governor Rick Scott won the Republican nomination. First elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014, Scott 's term as Governor of Florida is set to end by January 2019, due to term limits.
Edward Janowski is running as an independent.
Mazie Hirono Democratic
One - term Democrat Mazie Hirono was elected with 63 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
Ron Curtis is the Republican nominee.
Joe Donnelly Democratic
One - term Democrat Joe Donnelly was elected with 50.04 % of the vote in 2012. He is running. He won the Democratic primary unopposed.
State Representative Mike Braun won the May 8 Republican primary. U.S. Representatives Luke Messer and Todd Rokita also ran for the Republican nomination.
James Johnson is running as an independent.
Angus King Independent
One - term Independent Senator Angus King was elected in a three - way race with 53 % of the vote in 2012. King has caucused with the Democratic Party since taking office in 2013, but he has left open the possibility of caucusing with the Republican Party in the future.
King is running.
State Senator Eric Brakey ran unopposed for the Republican nomination.
Public school teacher and founder of UClass Zak Ringelstein ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination.
The election will be conducted with ranked choice voting, as opposed to "First - past - the - post voting '', after Maine voters passed a citizen referendum approving the change in 2016 and a June 2018 referendum sustaining the change..
Ben Cardin Democratic
Two - term Democrat Ben Cardin was re-elected with 56 % of the vote in 2012. He won the Democratic primary.
Tony Campbell, Evan Cronhardt, Nnabu Eze, Gerald Smith, and Blaine Taylor were seeking the Republican nomination, With Campbell winning.
Arvin Vohra, vice chairman of the Libertarian National Committee, is seeking the Libertarian Party nomination.
Independents Neal Simon and Edward Shlikas are running.
Elizabeth Warren Democratic
One - term Democrat Elizabeth Warren was elected with 54 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
State Representative Geoff Diehl, attorney and founder of Better for America, John Kingston, former Romney aide Beth Lindstrom, are running for the Republican nomination.
Shiva Ayyadurai is running as an independent. Shiva started as in early 2017 as the first Republican in the race, but went independent in November 2017.
Debbie Stabenow Democratic
Three - term Democrat Debbie Stabenow was re-elected with 59 % of the vote in 2012. She was renominated without Democratic opposition. On the Republican side, businessman John James was nominated. Independent candidate Marcia Squier is also running. She ran as a Green Party candidate for Michigan 's 14th congressional district in 2016.
Amy Klobuchar Democratic
Two - term Democrat Amy Klobuchar was re-elected with 65 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
State Representative Jim Newberger is running for the Republican nomination.
Tina Smith Democratic
Two - term Democrat Al Franken announced that he would resign in December 2017, following allegations of sexual harassment. Mark Dayton, Governor of Minnesota, appointed Lt. Gov. Tina Smith on January 2, 2018, as an interim Senator until the November 2018 election. She defeated primary challenger Richard Painter in the Democratic primary held on August 14.
Incumbent Tina Smith is running against Republican Karin Housley in the general election for a full term ending January 3, 2021.
Roger Wicker Republican
One - term Republican Roger Wicker won re-election with 57 % of the vote in 2012. He was appointed in 2007 and won a special election in 2008 to serve the remainder of Trent Lott 's term. He is running.
David Baria won the Democratic nomination in a run - off on June 26.
Cindy Hyde - Smith Republican
Seven - term Republican Thad Cochran, who won re-election with 59.9 % of the vote in 2014, announced that he would resign April 1, 2018 due to health reasons. Phil Bryant, Governor of Mississippi, announced on March 21, 2018, that he would appoint Mississippi Agriculture Commissioner Cindy Hyde - Smith to fill the vacancy. She will be running in the special election.
On November 6, a nonpartisan jungle primary will take place on the same day as the regularly scheduled U.S. Senate election for the seat currently held by Roger Wicker. Party affiliations are not printed on the ballot. If no candidate gains 50 % of the votes, a runoff special election between the top two candidates will be held three weeks later on November 27, 2018.
Former United States Secretary of Agriculture and member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Mississippi 's 2nd congressional district Mike Espy and Tobey Bartee are running as Democratic candidates. Republican Chris McDaniel is also running.
Claire McCaskill Democratic
Two - term Democrat Claire McCaskill was re-elected with 55 % of the vote in 2012. She was renominated.
Attorney General Josh Hawley won the Republican nomination. Japheth Campbell has declared his candidacy for the Libertarian nomination.
Jon Tester Democratic
Two - term Democrat Jon Tester was re-elected with 49 % of the vote in 2012. He won the Democratic nomination in the June 5 primary with no opposition.
State Auditor Matthew Rosendale won the Republican nomination in the June 5 primary. State Senator Albert Olszewski, former judge Russell Fagg, and Troy Downing also ran for the Republican nomination.
Deb Fischer Republican
One - term Republican Deb Fischer was elected with 58 % of the vote in 2012. She ran for and won the Republican nomination in the May 15 primary. Other Republicans who ran include retired professor Jack Heidel, Todd Watson, and Dennis Frank Macek.
Lincoln Councilwoman Jane Raybould ran for and won the Democratic nomination in the May 15 primary. Other Democrats who ran include Frank Svoboda, Chris Janicek, and Larry Marvin, who was a candidate in 2008, 2012, and 2014.
Jim Schultz is running for the Libertarian nomination.
Dean Heller Republican
Incumbent Republican Dean Heller is the Republican nominee. He was appointed to the seat in 2011 and then elected with 46 % of the vote in 2012. Heller considered running for governor, but chose to seek re-election.
Nevada is the only state in the midterm elections that has an incumbent Republican Senator in a state that Hillary Clinton won in 2016.
Representative Jacky Rosen is the Democratic nominee.
Bob Menendez Democratic
Republican Bob Hugin was nominated to face two - term Democrat Bob Menendez, who was re-elected with 59 % of the vote in 2012. Menendez was originally appointed to the seat in January 2006. He is running.
Martin Heinrich Democratic
One - term Democrat Martin Heinrich was elected with 51 % of the vote in 2012. He is running. Mick Rich won the Republican nomination unopposed.
Aubrey Dunn Jr., New Mexico Commissioner of Public Lands and otherwise the first Libertarian to ever hold statewide elected office in history, announced his run for the seat, but stepped aside in August to allow former Governor of New Mexico, Gary Johnson 's candidacy.
Kirsten Gillibrand Democratic
One - term Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand was elected with 72 % of the vote in 2012. She had previously been appointed to the seat in 2009 and won a special election to remain in office in 2010. She is running.
Private equity executive Chele Chiavacci Farley has been nominated for U.S. Senate by the Republican and Conservative Parties.
Heidi Heitkamp Democratic
One - term Democrat Heidi Heitkamp was elected with 50 % of the vote in 2012. She won the Democratic nomination unopposed.
Representative Kevin Cramer won the Republican nomination in the June 12 primary. Former Niagara, North Dakota Mayor Thomas O'Neill also ran for the Republican nomination.
Sherrod Brown Democratic
Two - term Democrat Sherrod Brown was re-elected with 51 % of the vote in 2012. He is running and was unopposed in Democratic primary.
U.S. Representative Jim Renacci ran for and won the Republican nomination in the May 8 primary. Other Republicans who ran include investment banker Michael Gibbons, businesswoman Melissa Ackison, Dan Kiley, and Don Elijah Eckhart.
Bob Casey Jr. Democratic
Two - term Democrat Bob Casey Jr. was re-elected with 54 % of the vote in 2012. He is running and won the Democratic primary unopposed.
U.S. Representative Lou Barletta ran for and won the Republican nomination in the May 15 primary. Jim Christiana also ran for the Republican nomination.
Sheldon Whitehouse Democratic
Two - term Democrat Sheldon Whitehouse was re-elected with 64 % of the vote in 2012. He is running.
Former Rhode Island Supreme Court Associate Justice Robert Flanders is the Republican nominee.
Bob Corker Republican
Two - term Republican Bob Corker was re-elected with 65 % of the vote in 2012. Senator Corker filed his Statement of Candidacy with the Secretary of the U.S. Senate to run for re-election, but on September 26, 2017, Senator Corker announced his intent to retire.
Aaron Pettigrew and Republican U.S. Representative Marsha Blackburn ran for the Republican nomination. Marsha Blackburn is the Republican nominee.
Former Tennessee Governor Phil Bredesen is the Democratic nominee.
Ted Cruz Republican
One - term Republican Ted Cruz was elected with 57 % of the vote in 2012. He overwhelmingly won the Republican primary on March 6, 2018. Television producer Bruce Jacobson, Houston energy attorney Stefano de Stefano, former mayor of La Marque Geraldine Sam, Mary Miller, and Thomas Dillingham were Cruz 's opponents.
U.S. Representative Beto O'Rourke won the Democratic nomination on March 6, 2018. Other Democrats who ran include Irasema Ramirez Hernandez and Edward Kimbrough.
Nurse Carl Bible ran as an independent.
Bob McNeil ran with the American Citizen Party.
Orrin Hatch Republican
Seven - term Republican Orrin Hatch was re-elected with 65 % of the vote in 2012. Hatch is the President pro tempore of the United States Senate, as well as the second most - senior Senator. Before the 2012 election, Hatch said that he would retire at the end of his seventh term if he was re-elected. Hatch initially announced his re-election campaign on March 9, 2017, but later announced his plans to retire on January 2, 2018. Former 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney is running for the seat.
Professor James Singer was running for the Democratic nomination, but he dropped out and endorsed Salt Lake County Councilwoman Jenny Wilson, who made her Senate bid official on July 17, 2017. Danny Drew also was running, but dropped out and endorsed Jenny Wilson. Mitchell Kent Vice was defeated for the Democratic nomination by Wilson.
Bernie Sanders Independent
Two - term Independent Senator Bernie Sanders was re-elected with 71 % of the vote in 2012. Sanders, one of two independent members of Congress, has caucused with the Democratic Party since taking office in 2007. In November 2015, Sanders announced his plans to run as a Democrat, rather than an Independent, in all future elections. He won the nomination easily.
Tim Kaine Democratic
One - term Democrat Tim Kaine was elected with 53 % of the vote in 2012. He was re-nominated unopposed. Prince William County Supervisor Corey Stewart is the Republican nominee. Matt Waters is the Libertarian nominee.
Maria Cantwell Democratic
Three - term Democrat Maria Cantwell was re-elected with 61 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
Washington hold non-partisan blanket primaries, in which the top two finishers advance to the general election regardless of party. Cantwell and former state Republican Party chair Susan Hutchison are facing each other in November.
Joe Manchin Democratic
One - term Democrat Joe Manchin was elected with 61 % of the vote in 2012. He originally won the seat in a 2010 special election. Manchin is running for re-election and won the May 8 Democratic primary. Environmental activist Paula Jean Swearengin, also ran for the Democratic nomination.
West Virginia Attorney General Patrick Morrisey received the Republican nomination in the May 8 primary. Representative Evan Jenkins, coal miner Bo Copley, Jack Newbrough, Don Blankenship, and Tom Willis ran for the Republican nomination.
Tammy Baldwin Democratic
One - term Democrat Tammy Baldwin was elected with 51 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
State Senator Leah Vukmir and businessman and member of Wisconsin Board of Veterans Affairs Kevin Nicholson ran for the Republican nomination, with Vukmir proceeding.
John Barrasso Republican
One - term Republican John Barrasso was elected with 76 % of the vote in 2012. Barrasso was appointed to the seat in 2007 and won a special election in 2008. He is running.
59 year old Gary Trauner, a Jackson Hole businessman and U.S. House candidate in 2006 and 2008, is the Democratic nominee.
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where did the term viet cong come from | Việt Cộng - wikipedia
The Việt Cộng (Vietnamese: (vîət kə̂wŋmˀ) (listen)), also known as the National Liberation Front, was a communist political organization in South Vietnam with its own army -- the People 's Liberation Armed Forces of South Vietnam (PLAF) -- in South Vietnam and Cambodia that fought against the United States and South Vietnamese governments during the Vietnam War, eventually emerging on the winning side. It had both guerrilla and regular army units, as well as a network of cadres who organized peasants in the territory it controlled. Many soldiers were recruited in South Vietnam, but others were attached to the People 's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), the regular North Vietnamese army. During the war, communists and anti-war activists insisted the Việt Cộng was an insurgency indigenous to the South, while the U.S. and South Vietnamese governments portrayed the group as a tool of Hanoi. Although the terminology distinguishes northerners from the southerners, communist forces were under a single command structure set up in 1958.
North Vietnam established the National Liberation Front on December 20, 1960, to foment insurgency in the South. Many of the Việt Cộng 's core members were volunteer "regroupees '', southern Việt Minh who had resettled in the North after the Geneva Accord (1954). Hanoi gave the regroupees military training and sent them back to the South along the Ho Chi Minh trail in the early 1960s. The NLF called for southern Vietnamese to "overthrow the camouflaged colonial regime of the American imperialists '' and to make "efforts toward the peaceful unification ''. The PLAF 's best - known action was the Tet Offensive, a gigantic assault on more than 100 South Vietnamese urban centers in 1968, including an attack on the U.S. embassy in Saigon. The offensive riveted the attention of the world 's media for weeks, but also overextended the Việt Cộng. Later communist offensives were conducted predominantly by the North Vietnamese. The organization was dissolved in 1976 when North and South Vietnam were officially unified under a communist government.
The term Việt Cộng appeared in Saigon newspapers beginning in 1956. It is a contraction of Việt Nam Cộng - sản (Vietnamese communist), or alternatively Việt gian cộng sản ("Communist Traitor to Vietnam ''). The earliest citation for Việt Cộng in English is from 1957. American soldiers referred to the Việt Cộng as Victor Charlie or V-C. "Victor '' and "Charlie '' are both letters in the NATO phonetic alphabet. "Charlie '' referred to communist forces in general, both Việt Cộng and North Vietnamese.
The official Vietnamese history gives the group 's name as the Liberation Army of South Vietnam or the National Liberation Front for South Vietnam (NLFSV; Mặt trận Dân tộc Giải phóng miền Nam Việt Nam). Many writers shorten this to National Liberation Front (NLF). In 1969, the Việt Cộng created the "Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam '' (Chính Phủ Cách Mạng Lâm Thời Cộng Hòa Miền Nam Việt Nam), abbreviated PRG. Although the NLF was not officially abolished until 1977, the Việt Cộng no longer used the name after PRG was created. Members generally referred to the Việt Cộng as "the Front '' (Mặt trận). Today 's Vietnamese media most frequently refers to the group as the "People 's Liberation Armed Forces of South Vietnam (PLAF) '' (Quân Giải phóng Miền Nam Việt Nam).
By the terms of the Geneva Accord (1954), which ended the Indochina War, France and the Việt Minh agreed to a truce and to a separation of forces. The Việt Minh had become the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam since the Vietnamese 1946 general election, and military forces of the communists regrouped there. Military forces of the non-communists regrouped in South Vietnam, which became a separate state. Elections on reunification were scheduled for July 1956. A divided Vietnam angered Vietnamese nationalists, but it made the country less of a threat to China. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the past and Vietnam in the present did not and do not recognize the division of Vietnam into two countries. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai negotiated the terms of the ceasefire with France and then imposed them on the Việt Minh.
About 90,000 Việt Minh were evacuated to the North while 5,000 to 10,000 cadre remained in the South, most of them with orders to refocus on political activity and agitation. The Saigon - Cholon Peace Committee, the first Việt Cộng front, was founded in 1954 to provide leadership for this group. Other front names used by the Việt Cộng in the 1950s implied that members were fighting for religious causes, for example, "Executive Committee of the Fatherland Front '', which suggested affiliation with the Hòa Hảo sect, or "Vietnam - Cambodia Buddhist Association ''. Front groups were favored by the Việt Cộng to such an extent that its real leadership remained shadowy until long after the war was over, prompting the expression "the faceless Việt Cộng ''.
Led by Ngô Đình Diệm, South Vietnam refused to sign the Geneva Accord. Arguing that a free election was impossible under the conditions that existed in communist - held territory, Diệm announced in July 1955 that the scheduled election on reunification would not be held. After subduing the Bình Xuyên organized crime gang in the Battle for Saigon in 1955, and the Hòa Hảo and other militant religious sects in early 1956, Diệm turned his attention to the Việt Cộng. Within a few months, the Việt Cộng had been driven into remote swamps. The success of this campaign inspired U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower to dub Diệm the "miracle man '' when he visited the U.S. in May 1957. France withdrew its last soldiers from Vietnam in April 1956.
In March 1956, southern communist leader Lê Duẩn presented a plan to revive the insurgency entitled "The Road to the South '' to the other members of the Politburo in Hanoi. He argued adamantly that war with the United States was necessary to achieve unification. But as China and the Soviets both opposed confrontation at this time, Lê Duẩn 's plan was rejected and communists in the South were ordered to limit themselves to economic struggle. Leadership divided into a "North first '', or pro-Beijing, faction led by Trường Chinh, and a "South first '' faction led by Lê Duẩn.
As the Sino - Soviet split widened in the following months, Hanoi began to play the two communist giants off against each other. The North Vietnamese leadership approved tentative measures to revive the southern insurgency in December 1956. Lê Duẩn 's blueprint for revolution in the South was approved in principle, but implementation was conditional on winning international support and on modernizing the army, which was expected to take at least until 1959. President Hồ Chí Minh stressed that violence was still a last resort. Nguyễn Hữu Xuyên was assigned military command in the South, replacing Lê Duẩn, who was appointed North Vietnam 's acting party boss. This represented a loss of power for Hồ, who preferred the more moderate Võ Nguyên Giáp, who was defense minister.
An assassination campaign, referred to as "extermination of traitors '' or "armed propaganda '' in communist literature, began in April 1957. Tales of sensational murder and mayhem soon crowded the headlines. Seventeen civilians were killed by machine gun fire at a bar in Châu Đốc in July and in September a district chief was killed with his entire family on a main highway in broad daylight. In October 1957, a series of bombs exploded in Saigon and left 13 Americans wounded.
In a speech given on September 2, 1957, Hồ reiterated the "North first '' line of economic struggle. The launch of Sputnik in October boosted Soviet confidence and led to a reassessment of policy regarding Indochina, long treated as a Chinese sphere of influence. In November, Hồ traveled to Moscow with Lê Duẩn and gained approval for a more militant line. In early 1958, Lê Duẩn met with the leaders of "Inter-zone V '' (northern South Vietnam) and ordered the establishment of patrols and safe areas to provide logistical support for activity in the Mekong Delta and in urban areas. In June 1958, the Việt Cộng created a command structure for the eastern Mekong Delta. French scholar Bernard Fall published an influential article in July 1958 which analyzed the pattern of rising violence and concluded that a new war had begun.
The North Vietnamese Communist Party approved a "people 's war '' on the South at a session in January 1959 and this decision was confirmed by the Politburo in March. In May 1959, Group 559 was established to maintain and upgrade the Ho Chi Minh trail, at this time a six - month mountain trek through Laos. About 500 of the "regroupees '' of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. The first arms delivery via the trail, a few dozen rifles, was completed in August 1959.
Two regional command centers were merged to create the Central Office for South Vietnam (Trung ương Cục miền Nam), a unified communist party headquarters for the South. COSVN was initially located in Tây Ninh Province near the Cambodian border. On July 8, the Việt Cộng killed two U.S. military advisors at Biên Hòa, the first American dead of the Vietnam War. The "2d Liberation Battalion '' ambushed two companies of South Vietnamese soldiers in September 1959, the first large unit military action of the war. This was considered the beginning of the "armed struggle '' in communist accounts. A series of uprisings beginning in the Mekong Delta province of Bến Tre in January 1960 created "liberated zones '', models of Việt Cộng - style government. Propagandists celebrated their creation of battalions of "long - hair troops '' (women). The fiery declarations of 1959 were followed by a lull while Hanoi focused on events in Laos (1960 -- 61). Moscow favored reducing international tensions in 1960, as it was election year for the U.S. presidency. Despite this, 1960 was a year of unrest in South Vietnam, with pro-democracy demonstrations inspired by the South Korean student uprising that year and a failed military coup in November.
To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the Việt Cộng was stressed in communist propaganda. The Việt Cộng created the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam in December 1960 at Tân Lập village in Tây Ninh as a "united front '', or political branch intended to encourage the participation of non-communists. The group 's formation was announced by Radio Hanoi and its ten - point manifesto called for, "overthrow the disguised colonial regime of the imperialists and the dictatorial administration, and to form a national and democratic coalition administration. '' Thọ, a lawyer and the NLF 's "neutralist '' chairman, was an isolated figure among cadres and soldiers. South Vietnam 's Law 10 / 59, approved in May 1959, authorized the death penalty for crimes "against the security of the state '' and featured prominently in Việt Cộng propaganda. Violence between the Việt Cộng and government forces soon increased drastically from 180 clashes in January 1960 to 545 clashes in September.
By 1960, the Sino - Soviet split was a public rivalry, making China more supportive of Hanoi 's war effort. For Chinese leader Mao Zedong, aid to North Vietnam was a way to enhance his "anti-imperialist '' credentials for both domestic and international audiences. About 40,000 communist soldiers infiltrated the South in 1961 -- 63. The Việt Cộng grew rapidly; an estimated 300,000 members were enrolled in "liberation associations '' (affiliated groups) by early 1962. The ratio of Việt Cộng to government soldiers jumped from 1: 10 in 1961 to 1: 5 a year later.
The level of violence in the South jumped dramatically in the fall of 1961, from 50 guerrilla attacks in September to 150 in October. U.S President John F. Kennedy decided in November 1961 to substantially increase American military aid to South Vietnam. The USS Core arrived in Saigon with 35 helicopters in December 1961. By mid-1962, there were 12,000 U.S. military advisors in Vietnam. The "special war '' and "strategic hamlets '' policies allowed Saigon to push back in 1962, but in 1963 the Việt Cộng regained the military initiative. The Việt Cộng won its first military victory against South Vietnamese forces at Ấp Bắc in January 1963.
A landmark party meeting was held in December 1963, shortly after a military coup in Saigon in which Diệm was assassinated. North Vietnamese leaders debated the issue of "quick victory '' vs "protracted war '' (guerrilla warfare). After this meeting, the communist side geared up for a maximum military effort and PAVN troop strength increased from 174,000 at the end of 1963 to 300,000 in 1964. The Soviets cut aid in 1964 as an expression of annoyance with Hanoi 's ties to China. Even as Hanoi embraced China 's international line, it continued to follow the Soviet model of reliance on technical specialists and bureaucratic management, as opposed to mass mobilization. The winter of 1964 -- 1965 was a high - water mark for the Việt Cộng, with the Saigon government on the verge of collapse. Soviet aid soared following a visit to Hanoi by Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in February 1965. Hanoi was soon receiving up - to - date surface - to - air missiles. The U.S. would have 200,000 soldiers in South Vietnam by the end of the year.
In January 1966, Australian troops uncovered a tunnel complex which had been used by COSVN. Six thousand documents were captured, revealing the inner workings of the Việt Cộng. COSVN retreated to Mimot in Cambodia. As a result of an agreement with the Cambodian government made in 1966, weapons for the Việt Cộng were shipped to the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville and then trucked to Việt Cộng bases near the border along the "Sihanouk Trail '', which replaced the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
Many People 's Liberation Armed Forces of South Vietnam (PLAF) units operated at night, and employed terror as a standard tactic. Rice procured at gunpoint sustained the Việt Cộng. Squads were assigned monthly assassination quotas. Government employees, especially village and district heads, were the most common targets. But there were a wide variety of targets, including clinics and medical personnel. Notable Việt Cộng atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế, 48 killed in the bombing of My Canh floating restaurant in Saigon in June 1965 and a massacre of 252 Montagnards in the village of Đắk Sơn in December 1967 using flamethrowers. Việt Cộng death squads assassinated at least 37,000 civilians in South Vietnam; the real figure was far higher since the data mostly cover 1967 - 72. They also waged a mass murder campaign against civilian hamlets and refugee camps; in the peak war years, nearly a third of all civilian deaths were the result of Việt Cộng atrocities. Ami Pedahzur has written that "the overall volume and lethality of Vietcong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century ''.
Major reversals in 1966 and 1967, as well as the growing American presence in Vietnam, inspired Hanoi to consult its allies and reassess strategy in April 1967. While Beijing urged a fight to the finish, Moscow suggested a negotiated settlement. Convinced that 1968 could be the last chance for decisive victory, General Nguyễn Chí Thanh, suggested an all - out offensive against urban centers. He submitted a plan to Hanoi in May 1967. After Thanh 's death in July, Giáp was assigned to implement this plan, now known as the Tet Offensive. The Parrot 's Beak, an area in Cambodia only 30 miles from Saigon, was prepared as a base of operations. Funeral processions were used to smuggle weapons into Saigon. Việt Cộng entered the cities concealed among civilians returning home for Tết. The U.S. and South Vietnamese expected that an announced seven - day truce would be observed during Vietnam 's main holiday.
At this point, there were about 500,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam, as well as 900,000 allied forces. General William Westmoreland, the U.S. commander, received reports of heavy troop movements and understood that an offensive was being planned, but his attention was focused on Khe Sanh, a remote U.S. base near the DMZ. In January and February 1968, some 80,000 Việt Cộng struck more than 100 towns with orders to "crack the sky '' and "shake the Earth. '' The offensive included a commando raid on the U.S. Embassy in Saigon and a massacre at Huế of about 3,500 residents. House - to - house fighting between Việt Cộng and South Vietnamese Rangers left much of Cholon, a section of Saigon, in ruins. The Việt Cộng used any available tactic to demoralize and intimidate the population, including the assassination of South Vietnamese commanders. A photo by Eddie Adams showing the summary execution of a Việt Cộng in Saigon on February 1 became a symbol of the brutality of the war. In an influential broadcast on February 27, newsman Walter Cronkite stated that the war was a "stalemate '' and could be ended only by negotiation.
The offensive was undertaken in the hope of triggering a general uprising, but urban Vietnamese did not respond as the Việt Cộng anticipated. About 75,000 communist soldiers were killed or wounded, according to Trần Văn Trà, commander of the "B - 2 '' district, which consisted of southern South Vietnam. "We did not base ourselves on scientific calculation or a careful weighing of all factors, but... on an illusion based on our subjective desires '', Trà concluded. Earle G. Wheeler, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Tet resulted in 40,000 communist dead (compared to about 10,600 U.S. and South Vietnamese dead). "It is a major irony of the Vietnam War that our propaganda transformed this debacle into a brilliant victory. The truth was that Tet cost us half our forces. Our losses were so immense that we were unable to replace them with new recruits '', said PRG Justice Minister Trương Như Tảng. Tet had a profound psychological impact because South Vietnamese cities were otherwise safe areas during the war. U.S. President Lyndon Johnson and Westmoreland argued that panicky news coverage gave the public the unfair perception that America had been defeated.
Aside from some districts in the Mekong Delta, the Việt Cộng failed to create a governing apparatus in South Vietnam following Tet, according to an assessment of captured documents by the U.S. CIA. The breakup of larger Việt Cộng units increased the effectiveness of the CIA 's Phoenix Program (1967 -- 72), which targeted individual leaders, as well as the Chiêu Hồi Program, which encouraged defections. By the end of 1969, there was little communist - held territory, or "liberated zones '', in South Vietnam, according to the official communist military history. There were no predominantly southern units left and 70 percent of communist troops in the South were northerners.
The Việt Cộng created an urban front in 1968 called the Alliance of National, Democratic, and Peace Forces. The group 's manifesto called for an independent, non-aligned South Vietnam and stated that "national reunification can not be achieved overnight. '' In June 1969, the alliance merged with the NLF to form a "Provisional Revolutionary Government. '' (PRG)
The Tet Offensive increased public discontent with American participation in the Vietnam War and led the U.S. to gradually withdraw combat forces and to shift responsibility to the South Vietnamese, a process called Vietnamization. Pushed into Cambodia, the Việt Cộng could no longer draw South Vietnamese recruits. In May 1968, Trường Chinh urged "protracted war '' in a speech that was published prominently in the official media, so the fortunes of his "North first '' fraction may have revived at this time. COSVN rejected this view as "lacking resolution and absolute determination. '' The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 led to intense Sino - Soviet tension and to the withdrawal of Chinese forces from North Vietnam. Beginning in February 1970, Lê Duẩn 's prominence in the official media increased, suggesting that he was again top leader and had regained the upper hand in his longstanding rivalry with Trường Chinh. After the overthrow of Prince Sihanouk in March 1970, the Việt Cộng faced a hostile Cambodian government which authorized a U.S. offensive against its bases in April. However, the capture of the Plain of Jars and other territory in Laos, as well as five provinces in northeastern Cambodia, allowed the North Vietnamese to reopen the Ho Chi Minh trail. Although 1970 was a much better year for the Việt Cộng than 1969, it would never again be more than an adjunct to the PAVN. The 1972 Easter Offensive was a direct North Vietnamese attack across the DMZ between North and South. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, signed by all parties in January 1973, fighting continued. In March, Trà was recalled to Hanoi for a series of meetings to hammer out a plan for an enormous offense against Saigon.
In response to the anti-war movement, the U.S. Congress passed the Case -- Church Amendment to prohibit further U.S. military intervention in Vietnam in June 1973 and reduced aid to South Vietnam in August 1974. With U.S. bombing ended, communist logistical preparations could be accelerated. An oil pipeline was built from North Vietnam to Việt Cộng headquarters in Lộc Ninh, about 75 miles northwest of Saigon. (COSVN was moved back to South Vietnam following the Easter Offensive.) The Ho Chi Minh Trail, beginning as a series of treacherous mountain tracks at the start of the war, was upgraded throughout the war, first into a road network driveable by trucks in the dry season, and finally, into paved, all - weather roads that could be used year - round, even during the monsoon. Between the beginning of 1974 and April 1975, with now - excellent roads and no fear of air interdiction, the communists delivered nearly 365,000 tons of war matériel to battlefields, 2.6 times the total for the previous 13 years.
The success of the 1973 -- 74 dry season offensive convinced Hanoi to accelerate its timetable. When there was no U.S. response to a successful communist attack on Phước Bình in January 1975, South Vietnamese morale collapsed. The next major battle, at Buôn Ma Thuột in March, was a communist walkover. After the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, the PRG moved into government offices there. At the victory parade, Tạng noticed that the units formerly dominated by southerners were missing, replaced by northerners years earlier. The bureaucracy of the Republic of Vietnam was uprooted and authority over the South was assigned to the PAVN. People considered tainted by association with the former South Vietnamese government were sent to reeducation camps, despite the protests of the non-communist PRG members including Tạng. Without consulting the PRG, North Vietnamese leaders decided to rapidly dissolve the PRG at a party meeting in August 1975. North and South were merged as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in July 1976 and the PRG was dissolved. The NLF was merged with the Vietnamese Fatherland Front in February 1977.
Activists opposing American involvement in Vietnam said that the Việt Cộng was a nationalist insurgency indigenous to the South. They claimed that the Việt Cộng was composed of several parties -- the People 's Revolutionary Party, the Democratic Party and the Radical Socialist Party -- and that NLF Chairman Nguyễn Hữu Thọ was not a communist.
Anti-communists countered that the Việt Cộng was merely a front for Hanoi. They said some statements issued by communist leaders in the 1980s and 1990s suggested that southern communist forces were influenced by Hanoi. According to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà, the Việt Cộng 's top commander and PRG defense minister, he followed orders issued by the "Military Commission of the Party Central Committee '' in Hanoi, which in turn implemented resolutions of the Politburo. Trà himself was deputy chief of staff for the PAVN before being assigned to the South. The official Vietnamese history of the war states that "The Liberation Army of South Vietnam (Việt Cộng) is a part of the People 's Army of Vietnam ''.
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who initiated and founded plasma science society of india | Plasma Science society of India - Wikipedia
Plasma Science Society of India was founded in 1979 at Institute for Plasma Research, Ahmedabad in India for the benefit of the fusion community working on plasma. This carves the thrive for knowledge towards the fusion research in the field of theoretical and experimental research. The devices are SST - 1, SINP - Tokamak, Aditya Tokamak. There are over 950 life - member of this society along with number of annual members.
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where is the tropical wet and dry climate found | Tropical savanna climate - wikipedia
Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a type of climate that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories "Aw '' and "As ''. Tropical savanna climates have monthly mean temperatures above 18 ° C (64 ° F) in every month of the year and typically a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having less than 60 mm (2.36 inches) of precipitation. This latter fact is in direct contrast to a tropical monsoon climate, whose driest month sees less than 60 mm of precipitation but has more than 100 -- (total annual precipitation (mm) / 25) of precipitation. In essence, a tropical savanna climate tends to either see less rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry season (s).
There are generally four types of tropical savanna climates:
Tropical savanna climates are most commonly found in Africa, Asia and northern South America. The climate is also prevalent in sections of Central America, northern Australia, the Pacific Islands and southern North America, specifically in sections of Mexico and the state of Florida in the United States, and some islands in the Caribbean. Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone, but occasionally an inner - tropical location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia, Colombia) also qualifies. Similarly, the Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urabá on the Colombia -- Panamá border to the Orinoco river delta, on the Atlantic Ocean (ca. 4,000 km), have long dry periods (the extreme is the BSh climate (see below), characterised by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the Guajira, and Coro, western Venezuela, the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive < 300 mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months). This condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the Circumcaribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminishes inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon river -- which flows eastward, just south of the equatorial line -- the climate is Af. East from the Andes, between the arid Caribbean and the ever - wet Amazon are the Orinoco river llanos or savannas, from where this climate takes its name.
Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days often due to a rain shadow effect that cuts off summer precipitation in a tropical area. This is the case in parts of Hawaii, East Africa (Mombasa, Kenya, Somalia), Sri Lanka (Trincomalee) and coastal regions of Northeastern Brazil (from Fortaleza through Natal to Maceió), for instance. The difference between ' summer ' and ' winter ' in such locations is usually so slight that a distinction between an As and Aw climate is a quibble. In most places that have tropical wet and dry climates, however, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days because of reduction of or lack of convection, which in turn is due to the meridional shifts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone during the course of the year.
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everyone has the right to a speedy trial | Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Sixth Amendment (Amendment VI) to the United States Constitution is the part of the United States Bill of Rights that sets forth rights related to criminal prosecutions. The Supreme Court has applied the protections of this amendment to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows:
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
Criminal defendants have the right to a speedy trial. In Barker v. Wingo, 407 U.S. 514 (1972), the Supreme Court laid down a four - part case - by - case balancing test for determining whether the defendant 's speedy trial right has been violated. The four factors are:
In Strunk v. United States, 412 U.S. 434 (1973), the Supreme Court ruled that if the reviewing court finds that a defendant 's right to a speedy trial was violated, then the indictment must be dismissed and / or the conviction overturned. The Court held that, since the delayed trial is the state action which violates the defendant 's rights, no other remedy would be appropriate. Thus, a reversal or dismissal of a criminal case on speedy trial grounds means that no further prosecution for the alleged offense can take place.
In Sheppard v. Maxwell, 384 U.S. 333 (1966), the Supreme Court ruled that the right to a public trial is not absolute. In cases where excess publicity would serve to undermine the defendant 's right to due process, limitations can be put on public access to the proceedings. According to Press - Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court, 478 U.S. 1 (1986), trials can be closed at the behest of the government if there is "an overriding interest based on findings that closure is essential to preserve higher values and is narrowly tailored to serve that interest. '' The accused may also request a closure of the trial; though, it must be demonstrated that "first, there is a substantial probability that the defendant 's right to a fair trial will be prejudiced by publicity that closure would prevent, and second, reasonable alternatives to closure can not adequately protect the defendant 's right to a fair trial. ''
The right to a jury has always depended on the nature of the offense with which the defendant is charged. Petty offenses -- those punishable by imprisonment for no more than six months -- are not covered by the jury requirement. Even where multiple petty offenses are concerned, the total time of imprisonment possibly exceeding six months, the right to a jury trial does not exist. Also, in the United States, except for serious offenses (such as murder), minors are usually tried in a juvenile court, which lessens the sentence allowed, but forfeits the right to a jury.
Originally, the Supreme Court held that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial indicated a right to "a trial by jury as understood and applied at common law, and includes all the essential elements as they were recognized in this country and England when the Constitution was adopted. '' Therefore, it was held that juries had to be composed of twelve persons and that verdicts had to be unanimous, as was customary in England.
When, under the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court extended the right to a trial by jury to defendants in state courts, it re-examined some of the standards. It has been held that twelve came to be the number of jurors by "historical accident, '' and that a jury of six would be sufficient, but anything less would deprive the defendant of a right to trial by jury. The Sixth Amendment mandates unanimity in a federal jury trial. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, while requiring states to provide jury trials for serious crimes, does not incorporate all the elements of a jury trial within the meaning of the Sixth Amendment. Thus, states are not mandated to require jury unanimity, unless the jury has only six members.
The Sixth Amendment requires juries to be impartial. Impartiality has been interpreted as requiring individual jurors to be unbiased. At voir dire, each side may question potential jurors to determine any bias, and challenge them if the same is found; the court determines the validity of these challenges for cause. Defendants may not challenge a conviction because a challenge for cause was denied incorrectly if they had the opportunity to use peremptory challenges.
In Peña - Rodriguez v. Colorado (2017), the Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment requires a court in a criminal trial to investigate whether a jury 's guilty verdict was based on racial bias. For a guilty verdict to be set - aside based on the racial bias of a juror, the defendant must prove that the racial bias "was a significant motivating factor in the juror 's vote to convict. ''
Another factor in determining the impartiality of the jury is the nature of the panel, or venire, from which the jurors are selected. Venires must represent a fair cross-section of the community; the defendant might establish that the requirement was violated by showing that the allegedly excluded group is a "distinctive '' one in the community, that the representation of such a group in venires is unreasonable and unfair in regard to the number of persons belonging to such a group, and that the under - representation is caused by a systematic exclusion in the selection process. Thus, in Taylor v. Louisiana, 419 U.S. 522 (1975), the Supreme Court invalidated a state law that exempted women who had not made a declaration of willingness to serve from jury service, while not doing the same for men.
In Apprendi v. New Jersey, 530 U.S. 466 (2000), and Blakely v. Washington, 542 U.S. 296 (2004), the Supreme Court ruled that a criminal defendant has a right to a jury trial not only on the question of guilt or innocence, but also regarding any fact used to increase the defendant 's sentence beyond the maximum otherwise allowed by statutes or sentencing guidelines. In Alleyne v. United States, 11 - 9335 (2013), the Court expanded on Apprendi and Blakely by ruling that a defendant 's right to a jury applies to any fact that would increase a defendant 's sentence beyond the minimum otherwise required by statute.
Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution requires defendants be tried by juries and in the state in which the crime was committed. The Sixth Amendment requires the jury to be selected from judicial districts ascertained by statute. In Beavers v. Henkel, 194 U.S. 73 (1904), the Supreme Court ruled that the place where the offense is charged to have occurred determines a trial 's location. Where multiple districts are alleged to have been locations of the crime, any of them may be chosen for the trial. In cases of offenses not committed in any state (for example, offenses committed at sea), the place of trial may be determined by the Congress.
A criminal defendant has the right to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him. Therefore, an indictment must allege all the ingredients of the crime to such a degree of precision that it would allow the accused to assert double jeopardy if the same charges are brought up in subsequent prosecution. The Supreme Court held in United States v. Carll, 105 U.S. 611 (1881) that "in an indictment... it is not sufficient to set forth the offense in the words of the statute, unless those words of themselves fully, directly, and expressly, without any uncertainty or ambiguity, set forth all the elements necessary to constitute the offense intended to be punished. '' Vague wording, even if taken directly from a statute, does not suffice. However, the government is not required to hand over written copies of the indictment free of charge.
The Confrontation Clause relates to the common law rule preventing the admission of hearsay, that is to say, testimony by one witness as to the statements and observations of another person to prove that the statement or observation was accurate. The rationale was that the defendant had no opportunity to challenge the credibility of and cross-examine the person making the statements. Certain exceptions to the hearsay rule have been permitted; for instance, admissions by the defendant are admissible, as are dying declarations. Nevertheless, in California v. Green, 399 U.S. 149 (1970), the Supreme Court has held that the hearsay rule is not the same as the Confrontation Clause. Hearsay is admissible under certain circumstances. For example, in Bruton v. United States, 391 U.S. 123 (1968), the Supreme Court ruled that while a defendant 's out of court statements were admissible in proving the defendant 's guilt, they were inadmissible hearsay against another defendant. Hearsay may, in some circumstances, be admitted though it is not covered by one of the long - recognized exceptions. For example, prior testimony may sometimes be admitted if the witness is unavailable. However, in Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36 (2004), the Supreme Court increased the scope of the Confrontation Clause by ruling that "testimonial '' out - of - court statements are inadmissible if the accused did not have the opportunity to cross-examine that accuser and that accuser is unavailable at trial. In Davis v. Washington 547 U.S. 813 (2006), the Court ruled that "testimonial '' refers to any statement that an objectively reasonable person in the declarant 's situation would believe likely to be used in court. In Melendez - Diaz v. Massachusetts, 557 U.S. ___ (2009), and Bullcoming v. New Mexico, 564 U.S. ___ (2011), the Court ruled that admitting a lab chemist 's analysis into evidence, without having him testify, violated the Confrontation Clause. In Michigan v. Bryant, 562 U.S. ___ (2011), the Court ruled that the "primary purpose '' of a shooting victim 's statement as to who shot him, and the police 's reason for questioning him, each had to be objectively determined. If the "primary purpose '' was for dealing with an "ongoing emergency '', then any such statement was not testimonial and so the Confrontation Clause would not require the person making that statement to testify in order for that statement to be admitted into evidence.
The right to confront and cross-examine witnesses also applies to physical evidence; the prosecution must present physical evidence to the jury, providing the defense ample opportunity to cross-examine its validity and meaning. Prosecution generally may not refer to evidence without first presenting it.
In the late 20th and early 21st century this clause became an issue in the use of the silent witness rule.
The Compulsory Process Clause gives any criminal defendant the right to call witnesses in his favor. If any such witness refuses to testify, that witness may be compelled to do so by the court at the request of the defendant. However, in some cases the court may refuse to permit a defense witness to testify. For example, if a defense lawyer fails to notify the prosecution of the identity of a witness to gain a tactical advantage, that witness may be precluded from testifying.
A criminal defendant has the right to be represented by counsel.
In Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45 (1932), the Supreme Court ruled that "in a capital case, where the defendant is unable to employ counsel, and is incapable adequately of making his own defense because of ignorance, feeble mindedness, illiteracy, or the like, it is the duty of the court, whether requested or not, to assign counsel for him. '' In Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458 (1938), the Supreme Court ruled that in all federal cases, counsel would have to be appointed for defendants who were too poor to hire their own.
In 1961, the Court extended the rule that applied in federal courts to state courts. It held in Hamilton v. Alabama, 368 U.S. 52 (1961), that counsel had to be provided at no expense to defendants in capital cases when they so requested, even if there was no "ignorance, feeble mindedness, illiteracy, or the like. '' Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963), ruled that counsel must be provided to indigent defendants in all felony cases, overruling Betts v. Brady, 316 U.S. 455 (1942), in which the Court ruled that state courts had to appoint counsel only when the defendant demonstrated "special circumstances '' requiring the assistance of counsel. Under Argersinger v. Hamlin, 407 U.S. 25 (1972), counsel must be appointed in any case resulting in a sentence of actual imprisonment. Regarding sentences not immediately leading to imprisonment, the Court in Scott v. Illinois, 440 U.S. 367 (1979), ruled that counsel did not need to be appointed, but in Alabama v. Shelton, 535 U.S. 654 (2002), the Court held that a suspended sentence that may result in incarceration can not be imposed if the defendant did not have counsel at trial.
As stated in Brewer v. Williams, 430 U.S. 387 (1977), the right to counsel "(means) at least that a person is entitled to the help of a lawyer at or after the time that judicial proceedings have been initiated against him, whether by formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information, or arraignment. '' Brewer goes on to conclude that once adversary proceeding have begun against a defendant, he has a right to legal representation when the government interrogates him and that when a defendant is arrested, "arraigned on (an arrest) warrant before a judge '', and "committed by the court to confinement '', "(t) here can be no doubt that judicial proceedings ha (ve) been initiated. ''
A criminal defendant may represent himself, unless a court deems the defendant to be incompetent to waive the right to counsel.
In Faretta v. California, 422 U.S. 806 (1975), the Supreme Court recognized a defendant 's right to pro se representation. However, under Godinez v. Moran, 509 U.S. 389 (1993), a court that believes the defendant is less than fully competent to represent himself can require that defendant to be represented by counsel. In Martinez v. Court of Appeal of California, 528 U.S. 152 (2000), the Supreme Court ruled the right to pro se representation did not apply to appellate courts. In Indiana v. Edwards, 554 U.S. 164 (2008), the Court ruled that a criminal defendant could be simultaneously competent to stand trial, but not competent to represent himself.
In Bounds v. Smith, 430 U.S. 817 (1977), the Supreme Court held that the constitutional right of "meaningful access to the courts '' can be satisfied by counsel or access to legal materials. Bounds has been interpreted by several United States courts of appeals to mean a pro se defendant does not have a constitutional right to access a prison law library to research his defense when access to the courts has been provided through appointed counsel.
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what was the chief weakness of the austro-hungarian empire | Austro - Hungarian army - wikipedia
The Austro - Hungarian Army (German: Landstreitkräfte Österreich - Ungarns; Hungarian: Császári és Királyi Hadsereg) was the ground force of the Austro - Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts: the joint army (Gemeinsame Armee, "Common Army '', recruited from all parts of the country), the Imperial Austrian Landwehr (recruited from Cisleithania), and the Royal Hungarian Honvéd (recruited from Transleithania).
In the wake of fighting between the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom and the two decades of uneasy co-existence following, Hungarian soldiers served either in mixed units or were stationed away from Hungarian areas. With the Austro - Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the new tripartite army was brought into being. It existed until the disestablishment of the Austro - Hungarian Empire following World War I in 1918.
The joint "Imperial and Royal Army '' (kaiserlich und königliche Armee or k.u.k.) units were generally poorly trained and had very limited access to new equipment because the governments of the Austrian and Hungarian parts of the empire often preferred to generously fund their own units instead of outfitting all three army branches equally. All of the Honvédség and the Landwehr regiments were composed of three battalions, while the joint army k.u.k. regiments had four.
The long - standing white infantry uniforms were replaced in the later half of the 19th century with dark blue tunics, which in turn were replaced by a pike grey uniform used in the initial stages of World War I. In September 1915, field gray was adopted as the new official uniform colour.
The last known surviving member of the Austro - Hungarian Army was World War I veteran Franz Künstler, who died in May 2008 at the age of 107.
Austria - Hungary avoided major wars in the era between 1867 and 1914 but engaged in a number of minor military actions. Nevertheless, the general staff maintained plans for major wars against neighboring powers, especially Italy, Serbia and Russia.
In the late 19th century the army was used to suppress unrest in urban areas of the empire: in 1882 and 1887 in Vienna and notably against German nationalists at Graz and Czech nationalists in Prague in November 1897. Soldiers under the command of Conrad von Hotzendorf were also used against Italian rioters in Trieste in 1902.
The most significant action by soldiers of the Dual Monarchy in this period was the Austro - Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the summer of 1878. When troops under the command of Josip Filipović and Stjepan Jovanović entered the provinces expecting little or no resistance, they were met with ferocious opposition from elements of both Muslim and Orthodox populations there. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October. Austro - Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders.
In 1868, the number of active - duty troops in the army was 355,000, and the total could be expanded to 800,000 upon mobilization. However, this was significantly less than the European powers of France, the North German Confederation and Russia, each of which could field more than one million men. Though the population of the empire had risen to nearly 50 million by 1900, the size of the army was tied to ceilings established in 1889. Thus, at the start of the 20th century, Austria - Hungary conscripted only 0.29 % of its population, compared to 0.47 % in Germany, 0.35 % in Russia and 0.75 % in France. The 1889 army law was not revised until 1912, which allowed for an increase in annual conscriptions.
The ethnic make - up of the enlisted ranks reflected the diversity of the empire the army served; in 1906, out of every 1000 enlisted men, there were 267 Germans, 223 Hungarians, 135 Czechs, 85 Poles, 81 Ukrainians, 67 Croats and Serbs, 64 Romanians, 38 Slovaks, 26 Slovenes, and 14 Italians.
From a religious standpoint, the Austro - Hungarian army officer corps was dominated by Roman Catholics. In 1896, out of 1000 officers, 791 were Roman Catholics, 86 Protestants, 84 Jews, 39 Greek - Orthodox, and one Uniate. Of the pre -- World War military forces of the major European powers, the Austro - Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command. While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5 %, Jews made up nearly 18 % of the reserve officer corps. There were no official barriers to military service for Jews, but in later years this tolerance eroded to some extent, as important figures such as Conrad von Hötzendorf and Archduke Franz Ferdinand sometimes expressed anti-Jewish sentiments. Franz Ferdinand was also accused (by Conrad) of discriminating against Protestant officers.
Following the 1867 constitutional arrangements, the Reichsrat was dominated by German Liberals, who generally regarded the army as a relic of feudalism. In Budapest, legislators were reluctant to authorize funds for the joint army but were generous with the Hungarian branch of the army, the Honvédség. In 1867 the military budget accounted for about 25 % of all government spending, but the economic crash of 1873 hit Austria - Hungary hard and foreign observers questioned whether the Dual Monarchy could manage a major war without subsidies. Despite increases throughout the 1850s and 1860s, in the latter half of the century Austria - Hungary was still spending less on its army than were other major European powers. While the budget continued to rise -- from 262 million crowns in 1895 to 306 million in 1906 -- this was still far less per capita than for other major European states, including Italy, and about on par with Russia, which had a much larger population. Further contributing to the monarchy 's military weakness was the low rate of conscription: Austria - Hungary conscripted only 0.29 % of its population annually, compared to 0.47 % in Germany and 0.75 % in France. Attempts to increase the yearly intake of recruits were proposed but repeatedly blocked by officials in Budapest until an agreement was reached in 1912.
In the emerging field of military aviation, Austria - Hungary lagged behind other European states. While balloon detachments had been established in 1893, they were mostly assigned to the fortress artillery, except for a brief period from 1909 to 1911 when they were under command of the multifaceted Verkehrs Brigade. Realization that heavier - than - air machines were necessary or useful came late, and Austria - Hungary acquired only five airplanes by 1911. In 1914 the budget for military aviation was approximately ⁄ th the amount spent by France. Austria - Hungary entered the war with only 48 first - line aircraft.
Austria - Hungary had a complex military structure. The country had three main distinct ground forces. As a union the Monarchy had a common government of three ministers (Minister of the Imperial Household and Foreign Affairs; Minister of War and Minister of Finance). The Imperial Minister of War had authority over the Common Army, the Navy and (shortly before and during WWI the newly established independent) the Air Troops.
The Common Army was the premier land force. It was the best equiped and had the main role to secure the borders of the Monarchy. In case of war it was to absorb the Austrian Landwehr and the Hungarian Honvéd within its command structure. For that reason the Common Army was organised in army corpses even in peacetime, while the Landwehr and Honvéd were organised in territorial districts. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were governed as a condominium between the Austrian and the Hungarian parts of the dual monarchy. As such the local troops of Bosnian Riflemen were subordinated through the Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Imperial Minister of War. The general peacetime order of battle of the Common Army included:
The Austrian part of the monarchy (officially called Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, unofficially and for short Cisleithania) had its own government. It included the Imperial and Royal Ministry of National Defence (completely independent from the Imperial War Ministry). In peacetime it had complete authority and responsibility for the Imperial - Royal Landwehr and its:
The Hungarian part of the monarchy (officially called Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, unofficially and for short Transleithania) also had its own government. One of its ministries was the Royal Hungarian Honvéd Ministry (also completely independent from the Imperial War Ministry). In peacetime it had complete authority and responsibility for the:
Official designations were as follows:
After war was declared, 3.35 million men (including the first call - up of the reserves and the 1914 recruits) gathered for action.
The Austro - Hungarian Imperial Army was officially under the control of the Commander - in - Chief, Emperor Franz Josef. By 1914, however, Franz Josef was 84 years old and the chief of staff, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, effectively had more power over the armed forces. Conrad favored an aggressive foreign policy and advocated the use of military action to solve Austria - Hungary 's territorial disputes with Italy and Serbia.
Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen was appointed Supreme Commander of the Austro - Hungarian army by Franz Joseph on July 11, 1914. It was thought he would not interfere with the operational and tactical plans of Conrad von Hötzendorf. Friedrich remained Supreme Commander until February 1917, when Emperor Charles I decided to assume the office himself.
The Common Army (k.u.k. -- kaiserlich und königlich) consisted of:
The Imperial - Royal Landwehr (k.k. or kaiserlich österreichisch / königlich böhmisch) was the standing army of Austria responsible for the defence of Austria itself.
The mountain infantry had the following units:
The Royal Hungarian Landwehr (königlich ungarische Landwehr) or Royal Hungarian Honvéd (k.u. Honvéd) was the standing army of Hungary. A part of the Honvéd was the Royal Croatian Landwehr (Kraljevsko hrvatsko domobranstvo), which consisted of 1 infantry division (out of 7 in Honvéd) and 1 cavalry regiment (out of 10 in the Honvéd).
The infantry regiments of the k.u.k. army had four battalions each; the infantry regiments of the k.k. and k.u. Landwehr had three battalions each, except the 3rd Regiment of the "Tiroler Landesschützen '' (Tyrolian fusiliers), that had also four battalions.
In 1915 units that had nicknames or names of honour lost them by order of the War Ministry. Thereafter units were designated only by number. For instance, the k.u.k. Infanterie - Regiment (Hoch und Deutschmeister) Nr. 4 became Infanterie - Regiment No. 4 (4th Infantry Regiment).
The Landsturm consisted of men aged 34 to 55 who belonged to the Austria k.k. Landsturm and the Hungarian k.u. Landsturm. The Landsturm formed 40 regiments totaling 136 battalions in Austria and 32 regiments totaling 97 battalions in Hungary. The Landsturm was a reserve force intended to provide replacements for the first line units. However, the Landsturm provided 20 brigades who took to the field with the rest of the army.
The Standschützen (singular: Standesschütze) were originally rifle guilds and rifle companies that had been formed in the 15th and 16th centuries, and were involved time and again in military operations within the borders of the Austrian County of Tyrol. A Standschütze was a member of a Schützenstand ("shooting club ''), into which he was enrolled, which automatically committed him to the voluntary, military protection of the state of Tyrol (and Vorarlberg). In effect they were a type of Tyrolean local militia or home guard.
The following were the medals awarded to a Zugsführer (Staff - Sergeant) of the 2nd Regiment of the Tyrolian Imperial Rifles (later transferred to the 30th High Mountain Company), who saw action at:
He received the following decorations:
The different colors of the rank patches and buttons on the tunic are the marks for identifying the infantry regiments (except Generals)
Vojín (Czech)
Soldat (Romanian) Vojnik (Croatian) (Private / Trooper / Gunner / Rifleman)
Dělostřelec (Czech)
Myslivec (Czech)
Svobodník (Czech)
Nápředník (Czech) Főtűzér (Hungarian)
Závodčí / Stráževod (Czech) Járőrvezető (Hungarian)
Desátník (Czech) Caporal (Romanian) Desetnik (Croatian) (Corporal)
Desátník (Czech) Tizedes
Dělostřelecký Nápředník (Czech)
Podmyslivec (Czech)
Četař (Czech) Szakaszvezető
Četař (Czech) Szakaszvezető (Hungarian)
Četař (Czech) Szakaszvezető (Hungarian)
Strážmistr (Czech) Őrmester
Střelmistr (Czech)
Nadmyslivec (Czech) Fővadász (Hungarian)
Kadet - Strážmistr (Czech)
Kadet - Střelmistr (Czech)
Kadet - Nadmyslivec (Czech)
Štábní - Strážmistr (Czech)
Štábní - Střelmistr (Czech)
Štábní - Nadmyslivec (Czech)
Štábní - Strážmistr (Czech)
Štábní - Střelmistr (Czech)
Štábní - Nadmyslivec (Czech)
Důstojnický zástupce (Czech)
Důstojnický zástupce (Czech)
Důstojnický zástupce (Czech)
Kadet - Důstojnický zástupce (Czech)
Kadet - Důstojnický zástupce (Czech)
Kadet - Důstojnický zástupce (Czech)
Praporčík (Czech) Zastavnik (Croatian)
Chorąży (Polish) (Ensign or Officer Cadet) (from 1908 - replaced the CWO / WO I)
Praporčík (Czech)
Praporčík (Czech)
Praporčík (Czech)
Poručík (Czech) Podporucznik (Polish) Locotenent (Romanian) Poručnik (Croatian) Tenente (Italian) (Lieutenant / 2nd Lieutenant)
Poručík (Czech)
Poručík (Czech)
Poručík (Czech)
Nadporučík (Czech)
Nadporučík (Czech)
Nadporučík (Czech)
Rytmistr (Czech)
Kapitán (Czech)
Kapitán (Czech)
Major (Czech)
Major (Czech)
Major (Czech)
Podplukovník (Czech)
Podplukovník (Czech)
Podplukovník (Czech)
Plukovník (Czech)
Plukovník (Czech)
Plukovník (Czech)
Please note, that the first name is always in German.
(en: Colonel general
The ranks displayed after the "/ '' are the Hungarian and Croatian equivalents of the Austrian ranks, since they were used in this format in the Magyar Királyi Honvédség / königlich ungarische Landwehr (Royal Hungarian Home Defence Forces) as well as in the Kraljevsko Hrvatsko Domobranstvo / königlich kroatische Landwehr (Royal Croatian Home Guard).
The English equivalents are from the Austrian Bundesheer 's homepage.
Bosnian - Herzegovinian Infantry
Infantry officer, service dress
Mountain Rifles, battle dress
Hussar of the Honvéd
Captain of the Life Guard Infantry
Master - Sergeant of the Medical Corps
Rifles parade dress
Adjutant of his Majesty the Emperor
Battledress Engineers
Officer of the Field - Artillery
Captain of the Military - Police - Corps
Dragoons (battledress and paradedress for enlisted men)
Officer of the k.u.k. Dragoons
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what was the population of the tang dynasty in 1200 ce | Tang dynasty - wikipedia
The Tang dynasty or the Tang Empire (/ tɑːŋ /; Chinese: 唐 朝) was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization, and a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. Its territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, rivaled that of the Han dynasty, and the Tang capital at Chang'an (present - day Xi'an) was the most populous city in the world.
The dynasty was founded by the Lǐ family (李), who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was briefly interrupted when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, proclaiming the Second Zhou dynasty (690 -- 705) and becoming the only Chinese empress regnant. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people. Yet, even when the central government was breaking down and unable to compile an accurate census of the population in the 9th century, it is estimated that the population had grown by then to about 80 million people. With its large population base, the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring East Asian states such as those in Japan and Korea as well as Vietnam.
The Tang dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability in the first half of the dynasty 's rule, until the An Lushan Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the later half of the dynasty. Like the previous Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty maintained a civil service system by recruiting scholar - officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of China 's most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, and Zhou Fang. There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works. The adoption of the title Tängri Qaghan by the Tang Emperor Taizong in addition to his title as emperor was eastern Asia 's first "simultaneous kingship ''.
There were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing. Buddhism became a major influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state, subsequently declining in influence. Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish. The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy, though the country 's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless, at least until agrarian rebellions in the latter half of the 9th century brought the dynasty to its knees, resulting in damaging atrocities such as the Guangzhou Massacre.
The Li family belonged to the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the Sui dynasty and claimed to be paternally descended from the Daoist founder, Laozi (whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er), the Han dynasty General Li Guang, and Western Liang ruler Li Gao. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西 李 氏), which includes the Tang poet Li Bai. The Tang Emperors also had Xianbei maternal ancestry, from Emperor Gaozu of Tang 's Xianbei mother, Duchess Dugu.
Li Yuan was Duke of Tang and governor of Taiyuan during the Sui dynasty 's collapse, which was caused in part by the Sui failure to conquer the northern part of the Korean peninsula during the Goguryeo -- Sui War. He had prestige and military experience, and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui (their mothers were sisters). Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617, along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang (d. 623), who raised and commanded her own troops. In winter 617, Li Yuan occupied Chang'an, relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor, and acted as regent to the puppet child - emperor, Yang You. On the news of Emperor Yang 's murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18, 618, Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, the Tang.
Li Yuan, known as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, ruled until 626, when he was forcefully deposed by his son Li Shimin, the Prince of Qin. Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of 18, had prowess with bow and arrow, sword and lance and was known for his effective cavalry charges. Fighting a numerically superior army, he defeated Dou Jiande (573 -- 621) at Luoyang in the Battle of Hulao on May 28, 621. In a violent elimination of royal family due to fear of assassination, Li Shimin ambushed and killed two of his brothers, Li Yuanji (b. 603) and Crown prince Li Jiancheng (b. 589), in the Xuanwu Gate Incident on July 2, 626. Shortly thereafter, his father abdicated in his favor and Li Shimin ascended the throne. He is conventionally known by his temple name Taizong.
Although killing two brothers and deposing his father contradicted the Confucian value of filial piety, Taizong showed himself to be a capable leader who listened to the advice of the wisest members of his council. In 628, Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war, and in 629 he had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight. This was during the Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks, a Turkic Khaganate that was destroyed after the capture of its ruler, Illig Qaghan, by the famed Tang military officer Li Jing (571 -- 649), who later became a Chancellor of the Tang dynasty. With this victory, the Turks accepted Taizong as their khagan, a title rendered as Tian Kehan in addition to his rule as emperor of China under the traditional title "Son of Heaven ''.
Although she entered Emperor Gaozong 's court as the lowly consort Wu Zhao, Wu Zetian rose to the highest seat of power in 690, establishing the short - lived Wu Zhou. Empress Wu 's rise to power was achieved through cruel and calculating tactics: a popular conspiracy theory stated that she killed her own baby girl and blamed it on Gaozong 's empress so that the empress would be demoted. Emperor Gaozong suffered a stroke in 655, and Wu began to make many of his court decisions for him, discussing affairs of state with his councilors, who took orders from her while she sat behind a screen. When Empress Wu 's eldest son, the crown prince, began to assert his authority and advocate policies opposed by Empress Wu, he suddenly died in 675. Many suspected he was poisoned by Empress Wu. Although the next heir apparent kept a lower profile, in 680 he was accused by Wu of plotting a rebellion and was banished. (He was later obliged to commit suicide.)
In 683, Emperor Gaozong died. He was succeeded by Emperor Zhongzong, his eldest surviving son by Wu. Zhongzong tried to appoint his wife 's father as chancellor: after only six weeks on the throne, he was deposed by Empress Wu in favor of his younger brother, 12 - year - old Emperor Ruizong. This provoked a group of Tang princes to rebel in 684; Wu 's armies suppressed them within two months. She proclaimed the Tianshou era of Wu Zhou on October 16, 690, and three days later demoted Emperor Ruizong to crown prince. He was also forced to give up his father 's surname Li in favor of the empress 's Wu. She then ruled as China 's only empress. A palace coup on February 20, 705, forced her to yield her position on February 22. The next day, her son Zhongzong was restored to power; the Tang was formally restored on March 3. She died soon after. To legitimize her rule, she circulated a document known as the Great Cloud Sutra, which predicted that a reincarnation of the Maitreya Buddha would be a female monarch who would dispel illness, worry, and disaster from the world. She even introduced numerous revised written characters to the written language, which reverted to the originals after her death. Arguably the most important part of her legacy was diminishing the power of the northwest aristocracy, allowing people from other clans and regions of China to become more represented in Chinese politics and government.
There were many prominent women at court during and after Wu 's reign, including Shangguan Wan'er (664 -- 710), a poet, writer, and trusted official in charge of Wu 's private office. In 706 the wife of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, Empress Wei (d. 710), persuaded her husband to staff government offices with his sister and her daughters, and in 709 requested that he grant women the right to bequeath hereditary privileges to their sons (which before was a male right only). Empress Wei eventually poisoned Zhongzong, whereupon she placed his fifteen - year - old son upon the throne in 710. Two weeks later, Li Longji (the later Emperor Xuanzong) entered the palace with a few followers and slew Empress Wei and her faction. He then installed his father Emperor Ruizong (r. 710 -- 712) on the throne. Just as Emperor Zhongzong was dominated by Empress Wei, so too was Ruizong dominated by Princess Taiping. This was finally ended when Princess Taiping 's coup failed in 712 (she later hanged herself in 713) and Emperor Ruizong abdicated to Emperor Xuanzong.
During the 44 - year reign of Emperor Xuanzong, the Tang dynasty reached its height, a golden age with low economic inflation and a toned down lifestyle for the imperial court. Seen as a progressive and benevolent ruler, Xuanzong even abolished the death penalty in the year 747; all executions had to be approved beforehand by the emperor himself (these were relatively few, considering that there were only 24 executions in the year 730). Xuanzong bowed to the consensus of his ministers on policy decisions and made efforts to staff government ministries fairly with different political factions. His staunch Confucian chancellor Zhang Jiuling (673 -- 740) worked to reduce deflation and increase the money supply by upholding the use of private coinage, while his aristocratic and technocratic successor Li Linfu (d. 753) favored government monopoly over the issuance of coinage. After 737 most of Xuanzong 's confidence rested in his long - standing chancellor Li Linfu, who championed a more aggressive foreign policy employing non-Chinese generals. This policy ultimately created the conditions for a massive rebellion against Xuanzong.
The Tang Empire was at its height of power up until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Lushan Rebellion (December 16, 755 -- February 17, 763) destroyed the prosperity of the empire. An Lushan was a half - Sogdian, half - Turk Tang commander since 744, had experience fighting the Khitans of Manchuria with a victory in 744, yet most of his campaigns against the Khitans were unsuccessful. He was given great responsibility in Hebei, which allowed him to rebel with an army of more than one hundred thousand troops. After capturing Luoyang, he named himself emperor of a new, but short - lived, Yan state. Despite early victories scored by Tang General Guo Ziyi (697 -- 781), the newly recruited troops of the army at the capital were no match for An Lushan 's die - hard frontier veterans, so the court fled Chang'an. While the heir apparent raised troops in Shanxi and Xuanzong fled to Sichuan province, they called upon the help of the Uyghur Khaganate in 756. The Uyghur khan Moyanchur was greatly excited at this prospect, and married his own daughter to the Chinese diplomatic envoy once he arrived, receiving in turn a Chinese princess as his bride. The Uyghurs helped recapture the Tang capital from the rebels, but they refused to leave until the Tang paid them an enormous sum of tribute in silk. Even Abbasid Arabs assisted the Tang in putting down An Lushan 's rebellion. The Tibetans took hold of the opportunity and raided many areas under Chinese control, and even after the Tibetan Empire had fallen apart in 842 (and the Uyghurs soon after) the Tang were in no position to reconquer Central Asia after 763. So significant was this loss that half a century later jinshi examination candidates were required to write an essay on the causes of the Tang 's decline. Although An Lushan was killed by one of his eunuchs in 757, this time of troubles and widespread insurrection continued until rebel Shi Siming was killed by his own son in 763.
One of the legacies that the Tang government left since 710 was the gradual rise of regional military governors, the jiedushi, who slowly came to challenge the power of the central government. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the autonomous power and authority accumulated by the jiedushi in Hebei went beyond the central government 's control. After a series of rebellions between 781 and 784 in today 's Hebei, Shandong, Hubei and Henan provinces, the government had to officially acknowledge the jiedushi 's hereditary ruling without accreditation. The Tang government relied on these governors and their armies for protection and to suppress locals that would take up arms against the government. In return, the central government would acknowledge the rights of these governors to maintain their army, collect taxes and even to pass on their title to heirs. As time passed, these military governors slowly phased out the prominence of civil officials drafted by exams, and became more autonomous from central authority. The rule of these powerful military governors lasted until 960, when a new civil order under the Song dynasty was established. Also, the abandonment of the equal - field system meant that people could buy and sell land freely. Many poor fell into debt because of this, forced to sell their land to the wealthy, which led to the exponential growth of large estates. With the breakdown of the land allocation system after 755, the central Chinese state barely interfered in agricultural management and acted merely as tax collector for roughly a millennium, save a few instances such as the Song 's failed land nationalization during the 13th - century war with the Mongols.
With the central government collapsing in authority over the various regions of the empire, it was recorded in 845 that bandits and river pirates in parties of 100 or more began plundering settlements along the Yangtze River with little resistance. In 858, enormous floods along the Grand Canal inundated vast tracts of land and terrain of the North China Plain, which drowned tens of thousands of people in the process. The Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven granted to the ailing Tang was also challenged when natural calamities occurred, forcing many to believe the Heavens were displeased and that the Tang had lost their right to rule. Then in 873 a disastrous harvest shook the foundations of the empire; in some areas only half of all agricultural produce was gathered, and tens of thousands faced famine and starvation. In the earlier period of the Tang, the central government was able to meet crises in the harvest, as it was recorded from 714 -- 719 that the Tang government responded effectively to natural disasters by extending the price - regulation granary system throughout the country. The central government was able then to build a large surplus stock of foods to ward off the rising danger of famine and increased agricultural productivity through land reclamation. In the 9th century, however, the Tang government was nearly helpless in dealing with any calamity.
Although these natural calamities and rebellions stained the reputation and hampered the effectiveness of the central government, the early 9th century is nonetheless viewed as a period of recovery for the Tang dynasty. The government 's withdrawal from its role in managing the economy had the unintended effect of stimulating trade, as more markets with less bureaucratic restrictions were opened up. By 780, the old grain tax and labor service of the 7th century was replaced by a semiannual tax paid in cash, signifying the shift to a money economy boosted by the merchant class. Cities in the Jiangnan region to the south, such as Yangzhou, Suzhou, and Hangzhou prospered the most economically during the late Tang period. The government monopoly on the production of salt, weakened after the An Shi Rebellion, was placed under the Salt Commission, which became one of the most powerful state agencies, run by capable ministers chosen as specialists. The commission began the practice of selling merchants the rights to buy monopoly salt, which they would then transport and sell in local markets. In 799 salt accounted for over half of the government 's revenues. S.A.M. Adshead writes that this salt tax represents "the first time that an indirect tax, rather than tribute, levies on land or people, or profit from state enterprises such as mines, had been the primary resource of a major state. '' Even after the power of the central government was in decline after the mid 8th century, it was still able to function and give out imperial orders on a massive scale. The Tangshu (Old Book of Tang) compiled in the year 945 recorded that in 828 the Tang government issued a decree that standardized irrigational square - pallet chain pumps in the country:
In the second year of the Taihe reign period (828), in the second month... a standard model of the chain pump was issued from the palace, and the people of Jingzhao Fu (d footnote: the capital) were ordered by the emperor to make a considerable number of machines, for distribution to the people along the Zheng Bai Canal, for irrigation purposes.
The last great ambitious ruler of the Tang dynasty was Emperor Xianzong (r. 805 -- 820), whose reign was aided by the fiscal reforms of the 780s, including a government monopoly on the salt industry. He also had an effective well trained imperial army stationed at the capital led by his court eunuchs; this was the Army of Divine Strategy, numbering 240,000 in strength as recorded in 798. Between the years 806 and 819, Emperor Xianzong conducted seven major military campaigns to quell the rebellious provinces that had claimed autonomy from central authority, managing to subdue all but two of them. Under his reign there was a brief end to the hereditary jiedushi, as Xianzong appointed his own military officers and staffed the regional bureaucracies once again with civil officials. However, Xianzong 's successors proved less capable and more interested in the leisure of hunting, feasting, and playing outdoor sports, allowing eunuchs to amass more power as drafted scholar - officials caused strife in the bureaucracy with factional parties. The eunuchs ' power became unchallenged after Emperor Wenzong 's (r. 826 -- 840) failed plot to have them overthrown; instead the allies of Emperor Wenzong were publicly executed in the West Market of Chang'an, by the eunuchs ' command.
However, the Tang did manage to restore at least indirect control over former Tang territories as far west as the Hexi Corridor and Dunhuang in Gansu. In 848 the ethnic Han Chinese general Zhang Yichao (799 -- 872) managed to wrestle control of the region from the Tibetan Empire during its civil war. Shortly afterwards Emperor Xuānzong of Tang (r. 846 -- 859) acknowledged Zhang as the protector (防禦 使, Fangyushi) of Sha Prefecture and jiedushi military governor of the new Guiyi Circuit.
In addition to natural calamities and jiedushi amassing autonomous control, the Huang Chao Rebellion (874 -- 884) resulted in the sacking of both Chang'an and Luoyang, and took an entire decade to suppress. Although the rebellion was defeated by the Tang, it never recovered from that crucial blow, weakening it for the future military powers to take over. There were also large groups of bandits, in the size of small armies, that ravaged the countryside in the last years of the Tang, who smuggled illicit salt, ambushed merchants and convoys, and even besieged several walled cities.
Zhu Wen, originally a salt smuggler who had served under the rebel Huang, surrendered to Tang forces. By helping to defeat Huang, he was granted a series of rapid military promotions. In 907 the Tang dynasty was ended when Zhu Wen, now a military governor, deposed the last emperor of Tang, Emperor Ai of Tang, and took the throne for himself (known posthumously as Emperor Taizu of Later Liang). He established the Later Liang, which inaugurated the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. A year later Zhu Wen had the deposed Emperor Ai poisoned to death.
Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties. Building upon the Sui legal code, he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon, as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. The earliest law code to survive was the one established in the year 653, which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick, one hundred blows with a heavy rod, exile, penal servitude, or execution.
The legal code distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime. For example, the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew.
The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644) code of 1397, yet there were several revisions in later times, such as improved property rights for women during the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279).
The Tang had three departments (Chinese: 省; pinyin: shěng), which were obliged to draft, review, and implement policies respectively. There were also six ministries (Chinese: 部; pinyin: bù) under the administrations that implemented policy, each of which was assigned different tasks. These Three Departments and Six Ministries included the personnel administration, finance, rites, military, justice, and public works -- an administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1912).
Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han dynasty (3rd century BC -- 3rd century AD), the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Northern and Southern dynasties. The Northern Zhou (6th century) fubing system of divisional militia was continued by the Tang, along with farmer - soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland. The equal - field system of the Northern Wei (4th -- 6th centuries) was also kept, although there were a few modifications.
Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes, it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts. These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court (if necessary) that their claim to property was legitimate. The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han dynasty, while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties.
The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang'an (modern Xi'an), where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters and entertained political emissaries with music, sports, acrobatic stunts, poetry, paintings, and dramatic theater performances. The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare. When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts, Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in and were renting rooms with merchants. Therefore, Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital.
Students of Confucian studies were potential candidates for the imperial examinations, the graduates of which could be appointed as state bureaucrats in the local, provincial, and central government. There were two types of exams that were given, mingjing (明 經; "illuminating the classics '') and jinshi (進士; "presented scholar ''). The mingjing was based upon the Confucian classics and tested the student 's knowledge of a broad variety of texts. The jinshi tested a student 's literary abilities in writing essay - style responses to questions on matters of governance and politics, as well as their skills in composing poetry. Candidates were also judged on their skills of deportment, appearance, speech, and level of skill in calligraphy, all of which were subjective criteria that allowed the already wealthy members of society to be chosen over ones of more modest means who were unable to be educated in rhetoric or fanciful writing skills. There was a disproportionate number of civil officials coming from aristocratic as opposed to non-aristocratic families. The exams were open to all male subjects whose fathers were not of the artisan or merchant classes, although having wealth or noble status was not a prerequisite in receiving a recommendation. In order to promote widespread Confucian education, the Tang government established state - run schools and issued standard versions of the Five Classics with selected commentaries.
This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talent into government. But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers, aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences, was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base. The Tang law code ensured equal division of inherited property amongst legitimate heirs, allowing a bit of social mobility and preventing the families of powerful court officials from becoming landed nobility through primogeniture. As it turned out, these scholar - officials acquired status in their local communities and in family ties, while they also shared values that connected them to the imperial court. From Tang times until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912, scholar - officials functioned often as intermediaries between the grassroots level and the government. Yet the potential of a widespread examination system was not fully realized until the Song dynasty, when the merit - driven scholar official largely shed his aristocratic habits and defined his social status through the examination system. As historian Patricia Ebrey states of the Song period scholar - officials:
The examination system, used only on a small scale in Sui and Tang times, played a central role in the fashioning of this new elite. The early Song emperors, concerned above all to avoid domination of the government by military men, greatly expanded the civil service examination system and the government school system.
From the outset, religion played a role in Tang politics. In his bid for power, Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Daoist sage Laozi (fl. 6th century BC). People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was selected. Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted side by side, and Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712 -- 56) invited monks and clerics of both religions to his court. At the same time Xuanzong exalted the ancient Laozi by granting him grand titles, wrote commentary on the Daoist Laozi, set up a school to prepare candidates for examinations on Daoist scriptures, and called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi (671 -- 741) to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought in the year 726. In 742 Emperor Xuanzong personally held the incense burner during a ceremony led by Amoghavajra (705 -- 74, patriarch of the Shingon school) reciting "mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces. ''
While religion played a role in politics, politics also played a role in religion. In the year 714, Emperor Xuanzong forbade shops and vendors in the city of Chang'an to sell copied Buddhist sutras, instead giving the Buddhist clergy of the monasteries the sole right to distribute sutras to the laity. In the previous year of 713, Emperor Xuanzong had liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury, which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang'an. This monastery collected vast amounts of money, silk, and treasures through multitudes of anonymous people 's repentances, leaving the donations on the monastery 's premise. Although the monastery was generous in donations, Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent, collected their riches, and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries and Daoist abbeys, and to repair statues, halls, and bridges in the city.
The Tang dynasty government attempted to create an accurate census of the size of their empire 's population, mostly for effective taxation and matters of military conscription for each region. The early Tang government established both the grain tax and cloth tax at a relatively low rate for each household under the empire. This was meant to encourage households to enroll for taxation and not avoid the authorities, thus providing the government with the most accurate estimate possible. In the census of 609, the population was tallied by efforts of the government at a size of 9 million households, or about 50 million people. The Tang census of 742 again approximated the size of China 's population at about 50 million people. Patricia Ebrey writes that even if a rather significant number of people had avoided the registration process of the tax census, the population size during the Tang had not grown significantly since the earlier Han dynasty (the census of the year 2 recording a population of roughly 58 million people in China). S.A.M. Adshead disagrees, estimating that there were about 75 million people by 750.
In the Tang census of the year 754, there were 1,859 cities, 321 prefectures, and 1,538 counties throughout the empire. Although there were many large and prominent cities during the Tang, the rural and agrarian areas comprised the majority of China 's population at some 80 to 90 %. There was also a dramatic migratory shift of the population from northern to southern China, as the North held 75 % of the overall population at the dynasty 's inception, but by its end was reduced to 50 %.
Chinese population size would not dramatically increase until the Song dynasty period, when the population doubled to 100 million people because of extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China, coupled with rural farmers holding more abundant yields of food that they could easily provide to the growing market.
The 7th and first half of the 8th century are generally considered to be the era in which the Tang reached the zenith of its power. In this period, Tang control extended further west than any previous dynasty, stretching from north Vietnam in the south, to a point north of Kashmir bordering Persia in the west, to northern Korea in the north - east.
Some of the kingdoms paying tribute to the Tang dynasty included Kashmir, Nepal, Khotan, Kucha, Kashgar, Korea, Champa, and kingdoms located in Amu Darya and Syr Darya valley. Turkic nomads addressed the Emperor of Tang China as Tian Kehan. After the widespread Göktürk revolt of Shabolüe Khan (d. 658) was put down at Issyk Kul in 657 by Su Dingfang (591 -- 667), Emperor Gaozong established several protectorates governed by a Protectorate General or Grand Protectorate General, which extended the Chinese sphere of influence as far as Herat in Western Afghanistan. Protectorate Generals were given a great deal of autonomy to handle local crises without waiting for central admission. After Xuanzong 's reign, military governors (jiedushi) were given enormous power, including the ability to maintain their own armies, collect taxes, and pass their titles on hereditarily. This is commonly recognized as the beginning of the fall of Tang 's central government.
By the year 737, Emperor Xuanzong discarded the policy of conscripting soldiers that were replaced every three years, replacing them with long - service soldiers who were more battle - hardened and efficient. It was more economically feasible as well, since training new recruits and sending them out to the frontier every three years drained the treasury. By the late 7th century, the fubing troops began abandoning military service and the homes provided to them in the equal - field system. The supposed standard of 100 mu of land allotted to each family was in fact decreasing in size in places where population expanded and the wealthy bought up most of the land. Hard - pressed peasants and vagrants were then induced into military service with benefits of exemption from both taxation and corvée labor service, as well as provisions for farmland and dwellings for dependents who accompanied soldiers on the frontier. By the year 742 the total number of enlisted troops in the Tang armies had risen to about 500,000 men.
The Sui and Tang carried out very successful military campaigns against the steppe nomads. Chinese foreign policy to the north and west now had to deal with Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks, the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions. They sent four royal princesses to form marriage alliances with Turkic clan leaders, in 597, 599, 614, and 617. The Sui stirred trouble and conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks. As early as the Sui dynasty, the Turks had become a major militarized force employed by the Chinese. When the Khitans began raiding northeast China in 605, a Chinese general led 20,000 Turks against them, distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward. On two occasions between 635 and 636, Tang royal princesses were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service. Throughout the Tang dynasty until the end of 755, there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang. While most of the Tang army was made of fubing Chinese conscripts, the majority of the troops led by Turkic generals were of non-Chinese origin, campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of fubing troops was low. Some "Turkic '' troops were nomadisized Han Chinese, a desinicized people.
Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626, along with the defeat in 628 of the Ordos Chinese warlord Liang Shidu; after these internal conflicts, the Tang began an offensive against the Turks. In the year 630, Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert, modern - day Inner Mongolia province, and southern Mongolia from the Turks. After this military victory, Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire (with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang'an). On June 11, 631, Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the Xueyantuo bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the transition from Sui to Tang from the northern frontier; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80,000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China.
While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. Like the earlier Han dynasty, the Tang dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s. During Emperor Taizong 's reign alone, large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks, but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun, the oasis city - states, and the Xueyantuo. Under Emperor Gaozong, a campaign led by the general Su Dingfang was launched against the Western Turks ruled by Ashina Helu.
The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia, which was at times settled with marriage alliances such as the marrying of Princess Wencheng (d. 680) to Songtsän Gampo (d. 649). A Tibetan tradition mentions that Chinese troops captured Lhasa after Songtsän Gampo 's death, but no such invasion is mentioned in either Chinese annals or the Tibetan manuscripts of Dunhuang.
There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670 -- 692, and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China, Chang'an, for fifteen days during the An Shi Rebellion. In fact, it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai, which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of what is now Xinjiang. Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including the fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.
During the Islamic conquest of Persia (633 -- 656), the son of the last ruler of the Sassanid Empire, Prince Pirooz, fled to Tang China. According to the Old Book of Tang, Pirooz was made the head of a Governorate of Persia in what is now Zaranj, Afghanistan. During this conquest of Persia, the Rashidun Islamic Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (r. 644 -- 656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an. By the 740s, the Arabs of Khurasan had established a presence in the Ferghana basin and in Sogdiana. At the Battle of Talas in 751, Qarluq mercenaries under the Chinese defected, helping the Arab armies of the Islamic Caliphate to defeat the Tang force under commander Gao Xianzhi. Although the battle itself was not of the greatest significance militarily, this was a pivotal moment in history; it marks the spread of Chinese papermaking into regions west of China as captured Chinese soldiers revealed secrets of Chinese papermaking to the Arabs. These techniques ultimately reached Europe by the 12th century through Arab - controlled Spain. Although they had fought at Talas, on June 11, 758, an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghur Turks bearing gifts for the Tang Emperor. In 788 -- 9 the Chinese concluded a military alliance with the Uighur Turks who twice defeated the Tibetans, in 789 near the town of Gaochang in Dzungaria, and in 791 near Ningxia on the Yellow River.
Henry Yule and other early sinologists identified Fu lin (拂 菻) in the Old and New Book of Tang as the Byzantine Empire, which those histories directly associated with Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire). Friedrich Hirth instead asserted that Boduoli (波多 力), the "king of Fu - lin '' who sent a tributary embassy to the court of Emperor Taizong in 643, was not a Byzantine Emperor. Joseph Needham agrees with Hirth that the embassy was likely sent by the Patriarch of Antioch or the nominally subordinate Patriarch of the Church of the East, and further embassies were recorded as being sent into the 8th century. Furthermore, the Old and New Book of Tang also provide a description of the Byzantine capital Constantinople and how it was besieged by the Da shi (大 食, i.e. Umayyad Caliphate) forces of Muawiyah I, who forced them to pay tribute to the Arabs. The 7th - century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote about the reunification of northern and southern China by the Sui dynasty (dating this to the time of Emperor Maurice); the capital city Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an); the basic geography of China including its previous political division around the Yangzi River; the name of China 's ruler Taisson meaning "Son of God '', but possibly derived from the name of the contemporaneous ruler Emperor Taizong.
In East Asia, Tang Chinese military campaigns were less successful elsewhere than in previous imperial Chinese dynasties. Like the emperors of the Sui dynasty before him, Taizong established a military campaign in 644 against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo in the Goguryeo -- Tang War; however, this led to its withdrawal in the first campaign because they failed to overcome the successful defense led by General Yeon Gaesomun. Allying with the Korean Silla Kingdom, the Chinese fought against Baekje and their Yamato Japanese allies in the Battle of Baekgang in August 663, a decisive Tang -- Silla victory. The Tang dynasty navy had several different ship types at its disposal to engage in naval warfare, these ships described by Li Quan in his Taipai Yinjing (Canon of the White and Gloomy Planet of War) of 759. The Battle of Baekgang was actually a restoration movement by remnant forces of Baekje, since their kingdom was toppled in 660 by a joint Tang -- Silla invasion, led by Chinese general Su Dingfang and Korean general Kim Yushin (595 -- 673). In another joint invasion with Silla, the Tang army severely weakened the Goguryeo Kingdom in the north by taking out its outer forts in the year 645. With joint attacks by Silla and Tang armies under commander Li Shiji (594 -- 669), the Kingdom of Goguryeo was destroyed by 668.
Although they were formerly enemies, the Tang accepted officials and generals of Goguryeo into their administration and military, such as the brothers Yeon Namsaeng (634 -- 679) and Yeon Namsan (639 -- 701). From 668 to 676, the Tang Empire would control northern Korea. However, in 671 Silla began fighting the Tang forces there. At the same time the Tang faced threats on its western border when a large Chinese army was defeated by the Tibetans on the Dafei River in 670. By 676, the Tang army was driven out of Korea by Unified Silla. Following a revolt of the Eastern Turks in 679, the Tang abandoned its Korean campaigns.
Although the Tang had fought the Japanese, they still held cordial relations with Japan. There were numerous Imperial embassies to China from Japan, diplomatic missions that were not halted until 894 by Emperor Uda (r. 887 -- 897), upon persuasion by Sugawara no Michizane (845 -- 903). The Japanese Emperor Tenmu (r. 672 -- 686) even established his conscripted army on that of the Chinese model, his state ceremonies on the Chinese model, and constructed his palace at Fujiwara on the Chinese model of architecture.
Many Chinese Buddhist monks came to Japan to help further the spread of Buddhism as well. Two 7th - century monks in particular, Zhi Yu and Zhi You, visited the court of Emperor Tenji (r. 661 -- 672), whereupon they presented a gift of a south - pointing chariot that they had crafted. This 3rd century mechanically driven directional - compass vehicle (employing a differential gear) was again reproduced in several models for Tenji in 666, as recorded in the Nihon Shoki of 720. Japanese monks also visited China; such was the case with Ennin (794 -- 864), who wrote of his travel experiences including travels along China 's Grand Canal. The Japanese monk Enchin (814 -- 891) stayed in China from 839 to 847 and again from 853 to 858, landing near Fuzhou, Fujian and setting sail for Japan from Taizhou, Zhejiang during his second trip to China.
Through use of the land trade along the Silk Road and maritime trade by sail at sea, the Tang were able to acquire and gain many new technologies, cultural practices, rare luxury, and contemporary items. From Europe, the Middle East, Central and South Asia, the Tang dynasty were able to acquire new ideas in fashion, new types of ceramics, and improved silver - smithing techniques. The Tang Chinese also gradually adopted the foreign concept of stools and chairs as seating, whereas the Chinese beforehand always sat on mats placed on the floor. In the Middle East, the Islamic world coveted and purchased in bulk Chinese goods such as silks, lacquerwares, and porcelain wares. Songs, dances, and musical instruments from foreign regions became popular in China during the Tang dynasty. These musical instruments included oboes, flutes, and small lacquered drums from Kucha in the Tarim Basin, and percussion instruments from India such as cymbals. At the court there were nine musical ensembles (expanded from seven in the Sui dynasty) representing music from throughout Asia.
There was great contact and interest in India as a hub for Buddhist knowledge, with famous travelers such as Xuanzang (d. 664) visiting the South Asian state. After a 17 - year - long trip, Xuanzang managed to bring back valuable Sanskrit texts to be translated into Chinese. There was also a Turkic -- Chinese dictionary available for serious scholars and students, while Turkic folksongs gave inspiration to some Chinese poetry. In the interior of China, trade was facilitated by the Grand Canal and the Tang government 's rationalization of the greater canal system that reduced costs of transporting grain and other commodities. The state also managed roughly 32,100 km (19,900 mi) of postal service routes by horse or boat.
Although the Silk Road from China to Europe and the Western World was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu (141 -- 87 BC) during the Han, it was reopened by the Tang in 639 when Hou Junji (d. 643) conquered the West, and remained open for almost four decades. It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu 's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640, once again connecting China directly to the West for land - based trade.
The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo - Korean General Gao Xianzhi. When the An Lushan Rebellion ended in 763, the Tang Empire had once again lost control over its western lands, as the Tibetan Empire largely cut off China 's direct access to the Silk Road. An internal rebellion in 848 ousted the Tibetan rulers, and Tang China regained its northwestern prefectures from Tibet in 851. These lands contained crucial grazing areas and pastures for raising horses that the Tang dynasty desperately needed.
Despite the many expatriate European travelers coming into China to live and trade, many travelers, mainly religious monks and missionaries, recorded the strict border laws that the Chinese enforced. As the monk Xuanzang and many other monk travelers attested to, there were many Chinese government checkpoints along the Silk Road that examined travel permits into the Tang Empire. Furthermore, banditry was a problem along the checkpoints and oasis towns, as Xuanzang also recorded that his group of travelers were assaulted by bandits on multiple occasions.
The Silk Road also affected Tang dynasty art. Horses became a significant symbol of prosperity and power as well as an instrument of military and diplomatic policy. Horses were also revered as a relative of the dragon.
Chinese envoys have been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BC, yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up the Euphrates River in modern - day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt in the Middle East and Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.
During the Tang dynasty, thousands of foreign expatriate merchants came and lived in numerous Chinese cities to do business with China, including Persians, Arabs, Hindu Indians, Malays, Bengalis, Sinhalese, Khmers, Chams, Jews and Nestorian Christians of the Near East, among many others. In 748, the Buddhist monk Jian Zhen described Guangzhou as a bustling mercantile business center where many large and impressive foreign ships came to dock. He wrote that "many big ships came from Borneo, Persia, Qunglun (Indonesia / Java)... with... spices, pearls, and jade piled up mountain high '', as written in the Yue Jue Shu (Lost Records of the State of Yue). During the An Lushan Rebellion Arab and Persian pirates burned and looted Guangzhou in 758, and foreigners were massacred at Yangzhou in 760. The Tang government reacted by shutting the port of Canton down for roughly five decades, and foreign vessels docked at Hanoi instead. However, when the port reopened it continued to thrive. In 851 the Arab merchant Sulaiman al - Tajir observed the manufacturing of Chinese porcelain in Guangzhou and admired its transparent quality. He also provided a description of Guangzhou 's mosque, its granaries, its local government administration, some of its written records, the treatment of travelers, along with the use of ceramics, rice - wine, and tea. However, in another bloody episode at Guangzhou in 879, the Chinese rebel Huang Chao sacked the city, and purportedly slaughtered thousands of native Han Chinese, along with foreign Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Muslims in the process. Huang 's rebellion was eventually suppressed in 884.
Vessels from neighboring East Asian states such as Silla and Balhae of Korea and the Hizen Province of Japan were all involved in the Yellow Sea trade, which Silla dominated. After Silla and Japan reopened renewed hostilities in the late 7th century, most Japanese maritime merchants chose to set sail from Nagasaki towards the mouth of the Huai River, the Yangzi River, and even as far south as the Hangzhou Bay in order to avoid Korean ships in the Yellow Sea. In order to sail back to Japan in 838, the Japanese embassy to China procured nine ships and sixty Korean sailors from the Korean wards of Chuzhou and Lianshui cities along the Huai River. It is also known that Chinese trade ships traveling to Japan set sail from the various ports along the coasts of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces.
The Chinese engaged in large - scale production for overseas export by at least the time of the Tang. This was proven by the discovery of the Belitung shipwreck, a silt - preserved shipwrecked Arabian dhow in the Gaspar Strait near Belitung, which had 63,000 pieces of Tang ceramics, silver, and gold (including a Changsha bowl inscribed with a date: "16th day of the seventh month of the second year of the Baoli reign '', or 826, roughly confirmed by radiocarbon dating of star anise at the wreck). Beginning in 785, the Chinese began to call regularly at Sufala on the East African coast in order to cut out Arab middlemen, with various contemporary Chinese sources giving detailed descriptions of trade in Africa. The official and geographer Jia Dan (730 -- 805) wrote of two common sea trade routes in his day: one from the coast of the Bohai Sea towards Korea and another from Guangzhou through Malacca towards the Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and India, the eastern and northern shores of the Arabian Sea to the Euphrates River. In 863 the Chinese author Duan Chengshi (d. 863) provided a detailed description of the slave trade, ivory trade, and ambergris trade in a country called Bobali, which historians suggest was Berbera in Somalia. In Fustat (old Cairo), Egypt, the fame of Chinese ceramics there led to an enormous demand for Chinese goods; hence Chinese often traveled there (this continued into later periods such as Fatimid Egypt). From this time period, the Arab merchant Shulama once wrote of his admiration for Chinese seafaring junks, but noted that their draft was too deep for them to enter the Euphrates River, which forced them to ferry passengers and cargo in small boats. Shulama also noted that Chinese ships were often very large, with capacities up to 600 -- 700 passengers.
Both the Sui and Tang Dynasties had turned away from the more feudal culture of the preceding Northern Dynasties, in favor of staunch civil Confucianism. The governmental system was supported by a large class of Confucian intellectuals selected through either civil service examinations or recommendations. In the Tang period, Daoism and Buddhism reigned as core ideologies as well, and played a large role in people 's daily lives. The Tang Chinese enjoyed feasting, drinking, holidays, sports, and all sorts of entertainment, while Chinese literature blossomed and was more widely accessible with new printing methods.
Much more than earlier periods, the Tang era was renowned for the time reserved for leisure activity, especially for those in the upper classes. Many outdoor sports and activities were enjoyed during the Tang, including archery, hunting, horse polo, cuju football, cockfighting, and even tug of war. Government officials were granted vacations during their tenure in office. Officials were granted 30 days off every three years to visit their parents if they lived 1,000 mi (1,600 km) away, or 15 days off if the parents lived more than 167 mi (269 km) away (travel time not included). Officials were granted nine days of vacation time for weddings of a son or daughter, and either five, three, or one days / day off for the nuptials of close relatives (travel time not included). Officials also received a total of three days off for their son 's capping initiation rite into manhood, and one day off for the ceremony of initiation rite of a close relative 's son.
Traditional Chinese holidays such as Chinese New Year, Lantern Festival, Cold Food Festival, and others were universal holidays. In the capital city of Chang'an there was always lively celebration, especially for the Lantern Festival since the city 's nighttime curfew was lifted by the government for three days straight. Between the years 628 and 758, the imperial throne bestowed a total of sixty - nine grand carnivals nationwide, granted by the emperor in the case of special circumstances such as important military victories, abundant harvests after a long drought or famine, the granting of amnesties, the installment of a new crown prince, etc. For special celebration in the Tang era, lavish and gargantuan - sized feasts were sometimes prepared, as the imperial court had staffed agencies to prepare the meals. This included a prepared feast for 1,100 elders of Chang'an in 664, a feast for 3,500 officers of the Divine Strategy Army in 768, and a feast for 1,200 women of the palace and members of the imperial family in the year 826. Drinking wine and alcoholic beverages was heavily ingrained into Chinese culture, as people drank for nearly every social event. A court official in the 8th century allegedly had a serpentine - shaped structure called the ' Ale Grotto ' built with 50,000 bricks on the groundfloor that each featured a bowl from which his friends could drink.
Although Chang'an was the capital of the earlier Han and Jin dynasties, after subsequent destruction in warfare, it was the Sui dynasty model that comprised the Tang era capital. The roughly square dimensions of the city had six miles (10 km) of outer walls running east to west, and more than five miles (8 km) of outer walls running north to south. The royal palace, the Taiji Palace, stood north of the city 's central axis. From the large Mingde Gates located mid-center of the main southern wall, a wide city avenue stretched from there all the way north to the central administrative city, behind which was the Chentian Gate of the royal palace, or Imperial City. Intersecting this were fourteen main streets running east to west, while eleven main streets ran north to south. These main intersecting roads formed 108 rectangular wards with walls and four gates each, and each ward filled with multiple city blocks. The city was made famous for this checkerboard pattern of main roads with walled and gated districts, its layout even mentioned in one of Du Fu 's poems. During the Heian period, the city of Heian kyō (present - day Kyoto) of Japan like many cities was arranged in the checkerboard street grid pattern of the Tang capital and in accordance with traditional geomancy following the model of Chang'an. Of these 108 wards in Chang'an, two of them (each the size of two regular city wards) were designated as government - supervised markets, and other space reserved for temples, gardens, ponds, etc. Throughout the entire city, there were 111 Buddhist monasteries, 41 Daoist abbeys, 38 family shrines, 2 official temples, 7 churches of foreign religions, 10 city wards with provincial transmission offices, 12 major inns, and 6 graveyards. Some city wards were literally filled with open public playing fields or the backyards of lavish mansions for playing horse polo and cuju football. In 662, Emperor Gaozong moved the imperial court to the Daming Palace, which became the political center of the empire and served as the royal residence of the Tang emperors for more than 220 years.
The Tang capital was the largest city in the world at its time, the population of the city wards and its suburban countryside reaching 2 million inhabitants. The Tang capital was very cosmopolitan, with ethnicities of Persia, Central Asia, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, India, and many other places living within. Naturally, with this plethora of different ethnicities living in Chang'an, there were also many different practiced religions, such as Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Islam being practiced within. With widely open access to China that the Silk Road to the west facilitated, many foreign settlers were able to move east to China, while the city of Chang'an itself had about 25,000 foreigners living within. Exotic green - eyed, blonde - haired Tocharian ladies serving wine in agate and amber cups, singing, and dancing at taverns attracted customers. If a foreigner in China pursued a Chinese woman for marriage, he was required to stay in China and was unable to take his bride back to his homeland, as stated in a law passed in 628 to protect women from temporary marriages with foreign envoys. Several laws enforcing segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed during the Tang dynasty. In 779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs in the capital, Chang'an, to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from passing off as Chinese.
Chang'an was the center of the central government, the home of the imperial family, and was filled with splendor and wealth. However, incidentally it was not the economic hub during the Tang dynasty. The city of Yangzhou along the Grand Canal and close to the Yangtze River was the greatest economic center during the Tang era.
Yangzhou was the headquarters for the Tang 's government monopoly on salt, and the greatest industrial center of China; it acted as a midpoint in shipping of foreign goods that would be organized and distributed to the major cities of the north. Much like the seaport of Guangzhou in the south, Yangzhou boasted thousands of foreign traders from all across Asia.
There was also the secondary capital city of Luoyang, which was the favored capital of the two by Empress Wu. In the year 691 she had more than 100,000 families (more than 500,000 people) from around the region of Chang'an move to populate Luoyang instead. With a population of about a million, Luoyang became the second largest city in the empire, and with its close proximity to the Luo River it benefited from southern agricultural fertility and trade traffic of the Grand Canal. However, the Tang court eventually demoted its capital status and did not visit Luoyang after the year 743, when Chang'an's problem of acquiring adequate supplies and stores for the year was solved. As early as 736, granaries were built at critical points along the route from Yangzhou to Chang'an, which eliminated shipment delays, spoilage, and pilfering. An artificial lake used as a transshipment pool was dredged east of Chang'an in 743, where curious northerners could finally see the array of boats found in southern China, delivering tax and tribute items to the imperial court.
The Tang period was a golden age of Chinese literature and art. There are over 48,900 poems penned by some 2,200 Tang authors that have survived until modern times. Skill in the composition of poetry became a required study for those wishing to pass imperial examinations, while poetry was also heavily competitive; poetry contests amongst guests at banquets and courtiers were common. Poetry styles that were popular in the Tang included gushi and jintishi, with the renowned poet Li Bai (701 -- 762) famous for the former style, and poets like Wang Wei (701 -- 761) and Cui Hao (704 -- 754) famous for their use of the latter. Jintishi poetry, or regulated verse, is in the form of eight - line stanzas or seven characters per line with a fixed pattern of tones that required the second and third couplets to be antithetical (although the antithesis is often lost in translation to other languages). Tang poems remained popular and great emulation of Tang era poetry began in the Song dynasty; in that period, Yan Yu (嚴 羽; active 1194 -- 1245) was the first to confer the poetry of the High Tang (c. 713 -- 766) era with "canonical status within the classical poetic tradition. '' Yan Yu reserved the position of highest esteem among all Tang poets for Du Fu (712 -- 770), who was not viewed as such in his own era, and was branded by his peers as an anti-traditional rebel.
The Classical Prose Movement was spurred in large part by the writings of Tang authors Liu Zongyuan (773 -- 819) and Han Yu (768 -- 824). This new prose style broke away from the poetry tradition of the piantiwen (騙 體 文, "parallel prose '') style begun in the Han dynasty. Although writers of the Classical Prose Movement imitated piantiwen, they criticized it for its often vague content and lack of colloquial language, focusing more on clarity and precision to make their writing more direct. This guwen (archaic prose) style can be traced back to Han Yu, and would become largely associated with orthodox Neo-Confucianism.
Short story fiction and tales were also popular during the Tang, one of the more famous ones being Yingying 's Biography by Yuan Zhen (779 -- 831), which was widely circulated in his own time and by the Yuan dynasty (1279 -- 1368) became the basis for plays in Chinese opera. Timothy C. Wong places this story within the wider context of Tang love tales, which often share the plot designs of quick passion, inescapable societal pressure leading to the abandonment of romance, followed by a period of melancholy. Wong states that this scheme lacks the undying vows and total self - commitment to love found in Western romances such as Romeo and Juliet, but that underlying traditional Chinese values of inseparableness of self from one 's environment (including human society) served to create the necessary fictional device of romantic tension.
There were large encyclopedias published in the Tang. The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia was compiled in 624 by the chief editor Ouyang Xun (557 -- 641) as well as Linghu Defen (582 -- 666) and Chen Shuda (d. 635). The encyclopedia Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era was fully compiled in 729 by Gautama Siddha (fl. 8th century), an ethnic Indian astronomer, astrologer, and scholar born in the capital Chang'an.
Chinese geographers such as Jia Dan wrote accurate descriptions of places far abroad. In his work written between 785 and 805, he described the sea route going into the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and that the medieval Iranians (whom he called the people of Luo - He - Yi) had erected ' ornamental pillars ' in the sea that acted as lighthouse beacons for ships that might go astray. Confirming Jia 's reports about lighthouses in the Persian Gulf, Arabic writers a century after Jia wrote of the same structures, writers such as al - Mas'udi and al - Muqaddasi. The Tang dynasty Chinese diplomat Wang Xuance traveled to Magadha (modern northeastern India) during the 7th century. Afterwards he wrote the book Zhang Tianzhu Guotu (Illustrated Accounts of Central India), which included a wealth of geographical information.
Many histories of previous dynasties were compiled between 636 and 659 by court officials during and shortly after the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang. These included the Book of Liang, Book of Chen, Book of Northern Qi, Book of Zhou, Book of Sui, Book of Jin, History of Northern Dynasties and the History of Southern Dynasties. Although not included in the official Twenty - Four Histories, the Tongdian and Tang Huiyao were nonetheless valuable written historical works of the Tang period. The Shitong written by Liu Zhiji in 710 was a meta - history, as it covered the history of Chinese historiography in past centuries until his time. The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, compiled by Bianji, recounted the journey of Xuanzang, the Tang era 's most renowned Buddhist monk.
Other important literary offerings included Duan Chengshi 's (d. 863) Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, an entertaining collection of foreign legends and hearsay, reports on natural phenomena, short anecdotes, mythical and mundane tales, as well as notes on various subjects. The exact literary category or classification that Duan 's large informal narrative would fit into is still debated amongst scholars and historians.
Since ancient times, the Chinese believed in a folk religion and Daoism that incorporated many deities. The Chinese believed Tao and the afterlife was a reality parallel to the living world, complete with its own bureaucracy and afterlife currency needed by dead ancestors. Funerary practices included providing the deceased with everything they might need in the afterlife, including animals, servants, entertainers, hunters, homes, and officials. This ideal is reflected in Tang dynasty art. This is also reflected in many short stories written in the Tang about people accidentally winding up in the realm of the dead, only to come back and report their experiences.
Buddhism, originating in India around the time of Confucius, continued its influence during the Tang period and was accepted by some members of imperial family, becoming thoroughly sinicized and a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture. In an age before Neo-Confucianism and figures such as Zhu Xi (1130 -- 1200), Buddhism had begun to flourish in China during the Northern and Southern dynasties, and became the dominant ideology during the prosperous Tang. Buddhist monasteries played an integral role in Chinese society, offering lodging for travelers in remote areas, schools for children throughout the country, and a place for urban literati to stage social events and gatherings such as going - away parties. Buddhist monasteries were also engaged in the economy, since their land property and serfs gave them enough revenues to set up mills, oil presses, and other enterprises. Although the monasteries retained ' serfs ', these monastery dependents could actually own property and employ others to help them in their work, including their own slaves.
The prominent status of Buddhism in Chinese culture began to decline as the dynasty and central government declined as well during the late 8th century to 9th century. Buddhist convents and temples that were exempt from state taxes beforehand were targeted by the state for taxation. In 845 Emperor Wuzong of Tang finally shut down 4,600 Buddhist monasteries along with 40,000 temples and shrines, forcing 260,000 Buddhist monks and nuns to return to secular life; this episode would later be dubbed one of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China. Although the ban would be lifted just a few years after, Buddhism never regained its once dominant status in Chinese culture. This situation also came about through new revival of interest in native Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism. Han Yu (786 -- 824) -- who Arthur F. Wright stated was a "brilliant polemicist and ardent xenophobe '' -- was one of the first men of the Tang to denounce Buddhism. Although his contemporaries found him crude and obnoxious, he would foreshadow the later persecution of Buddhism in the Tang, as well as the revival of Confucian theory with the rise of Neo-Confucianism of the Song dynasty. Nonetheless, Chán Buddhism gained popularity amongst the educated elite. There were also many famous Chan monks from the Tang era, such as Mazu Daoyi, Baizhang, and Huangbo Xiyun. The sect of Pure Land Buddhism initiated by the Chinese monk Huiyuan (334 -- 416) was also just as popular as Chan Buddhism during the Tang.
Rivaling Buddhism was Daoism, a native Chinese philosophical and religious belief system that found its roots in the book of the Daodejing (attributed to a 6th - century BC figure named Laozi) and the Zhuangzi. The ruling Li family of the Tang dynasty actually claimed descent from the ancient Laozi. On numerous occasions where Tang princes would become crown prince or Tang princesses taking vows as Daoist priestesses, their lavish former mansions would be converted into Daoist abbeys and places of worship. Many Daoists were associated with alchemy in their pursuits to find an elixir of immortality and a means to create gold from concocted mixtures of many other elements. Although they never achieved their goals in either of these futile pursuits, they did contribute to the discovery of new metal alloys, porcelain products, and new dyes. The historian Joseph Needham labeled the work of the Daoist alchemists as "proto - science rather than pseudo-science. '' However, the close connection between Daoism and alchemy, which some sinologists have asserted, is refuted by Nathan Sivin, who states that alchemy was just as prominent (if not more so) in the secular sphere and practiced more often by laymen.
The Tang dynasty also officially recognized various foreign religions. The Assyrian Church of the East, otherwise known as the Nestorian Christian Church, was given recognition by the Tang court. In 781, the Nestorian Stele was created in order to honor the achievements of their community in China. A Christian monastery was established in Shaanxi province where the Daqin Pagoda still stands, and inside the pagoda there is Christian - themed artwork. Although the religion largely died out after the Tang, it was revived in China following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century.
Although the Sogdians had been responsible for transmitting Buddhism to China from India during the 2nd to 4th centuries, soon afterwards they largely converted to Zoroastrianism due to their links to Sassanid Persia. Sogdian merchants and their families living in cities such as Chang'an, Luoyang, and Xiangyang usually built a Zoroastrian temple once their local communities grew larger than 100 households. Sogdians were also responsible for spreading Manichaeism in Tang China and the Uyghur Khaganate. The Uyghurs built the first Manichaean monastery in China in 768, yet in 843 the Tang government ordered that the property of all Manichaean monasteries be confiscated in response to the outbreak of war with the Uyghurs. With the blanket ban on foreign religions two years later, Manichaeism was driven underground and never flourished in China again.
Concepts of women 's social rights and social status during the Tang era were notably liberal - minded for the period. However, this was largely reserved for urban women of elite status, as men and women in the rural countryside labored hard in their different set of tasks; with wives and daughters responsible for more domestic tasks of weaving textiles and rearing of silk worms, while men tended to farming in the fields. There were many women in the Tang era who gained access to religious authority by taking vows as Daoist priestesses. The head mistresses of the bordellos in the North Hamlet of the capital Chang'an acquired large amounts of wealth and power. Their high - class courtesans, who likely influenced the Japanese geishas, were well respected. These courtesans were known as great singers and poets, supervised banquets and feasts, knew the rules to all the drinking games, and were trained to have the utmost respectable table manners.
Although they were renowned for their polite behavior, the courtesans were known to dominate the conversation amongst elite men, and were not afraid to openly castigate or criticize prominent male guests who talked too much or too loudly, boasted too much of their accomplishments, or had in some way ruined dinner for everyone by rude behavior (on one occasion a courtesan even beat up a drunken man who had insulted her). When singing to entertain guests, courtesans not only composed the lyrics to their own songs, but they popularized a new form of lyrical verse by singing lines written by various renowned and famous men in Chinese history.
It was fashionable for women to be full - figured (or plump). Men enjoyed the presence of assertive, active women. The foreign horse - riding sport of polo from Persia became a wildly popular trend amongst the Chinese elite, and women often played the sport (as glazed earthenware figurines from the time period portray). The preferred hairstyle for women was to bunch their hair up like "an elaborate edifice above the forehead '', while affluent ladies wore extravagant head ornaments, combs, pearl necklaces, face powders, and perfumes. A law was passed in 671 which attempted to force women to wear hats with veils again in order to promote decency, but these laws were ignored as some women started wearing caps and even no hats at all, as well as men 's riding clothes and boots, and tight - sleeved bodices.
There were some prominent court women after the era of Empress Wu, such as Yang Guifei (719 -- 756), who had Emperor Xuanzong appoint many of her relatives and cronies to important ministerial and martial positions.
During the earlier Northern and Southern dynasties (420 -- 589), and perhaps even earlier, the drinking of tea (Camellia sinensis) became popular in southern China. Tea was viewed then as a beverage of tasteful pleasure and with pharmacological purpose as well. During the Tang dynasty, tea became synonymous with everything sophisticated in society. The poet Lu Tong (790 -- 835) devoted most of his poetry to his love of tea. The 8th - century author Lu Yu (known as the Sage of Tea) even wrote a treatise on the art of drinking tea, called The Classic of Tea. Although wrapping paper had been used in China since the 2nd century BC, during the Tang dynasty the Chinese were using wrapping paper as folded and sewn square bags to hold and preserve the flavor of tea leaves. Indeed, paper found many other uses besides writing and wrapping during the Tang era.
Earlier, the first recorded use of toilet paper was made in 589 by the scholar - official Yan Zhitui (531 -- 591), and in 851 an Arab Muslim traveler commented on how he believed the Tang era Chinese were not careful about cleanliness because they did not wash with water (as was his people 's habit) when going to the bathroom; instead, he said, the Chinese simply used paper to wipe themselves.
In ancient times, the Chinese had outlined the five most basic foodstuffs known as the five grains: sesamum, legumes, wheat, panicled millet, and glutinous millet. The Ming dynasty encyclopedist Song Yingxing (1587 -- 1666) noted that rice was not counted amongst the five grains from the time of the legendary and deified Chinese sage Shennong (the existence of whom Yingxing wrote was "an uncertain matter '') into the 2nd millenniums BC, because the properly wet and humid climate in southern China for growing rice was not yet fully settled or cultivated by the Chinese. But Song Yingxing also noted that in Ming Dynasty, seven tenths of civilian 's food was rice. In fact, in Tang Dynasty rice was not only the most important staple in southern China, but had also became popular in the north, which was for a long time the center of China.
In Tang dynasty, wheat replaced the position of millet and became the main staple crop. As a consequence, wheat cake shared a considerable amount in the staple of Tang. There were four main kinds of cake: steamed cake, boiled cake, pancake, and Hu cake.
Steamed cake was consumed commonly by both civilians and aristocrats. Like the Rougamo in modern Chinese cuisine, steamed cake was usually stuffed by meat and vegetable. There were plenty of shops and packmen selling steamed cake in Chang'an, and its price was also far from expensive. Taiping Guangji recorded a civilian in Chang'an named Zou Luotuo, who was poor and "often push his cart out selling steamed cake. ''.
Boiled cake was the staple of the Northern Dynasty, and it kept its popularity in Tang. The definition here was very broad, including current day wonton, noodles, and many other kinds of food that soak wheat in water. Consuming boiled cake was treated as an effective and popular way of diet therapy. While aristocrats favored wonton, civilians usually consumed noodles and noodle slice soup, because the process to make wonton was heavy and complicated.
Pancake was hard to find in China before Tang. But in Tang dynasty pancake started becoming popular. There were also many shops in Tang cities selling pancakes. A story in Taiping Guangji recorded that a merchant in early Tang bought a large vacant lot in Chang'an to set up several shops selling pancake and dumplings.
Hu cake, which means foreign cake, was extremely popular in Tang. Hu cake was toasted in oven and covered by sesame. Restaurants in Tang usually treated Hu cake as an indispensable food in their menu. A Japanese Buddhist monk Ennin recorded in The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law that at that time Hu cake was popular among all civilians.
During the Tang, the many common foodstuffs and cooking ingredients in addition to those already listed were barley, garlic, salt, turnips, soybeans, pears, apricots, peaches, apples, pomegranates, jujubes, rhubarb, hazelnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, yams, taro, etc. The various meats that were consumed included pork, chicken, lamb (especially preferred in the north), sea otter, bear (which was hard to catch, but there were recipes for steamed, boiled, and marinated bear), and even Bactrian camels. In the south along the coast meat from seafood was by default the most common, as the Chinese enjoyed eating cooked jellyfish with cinnamon, Sichuan pepper, cardamom, and ginger, as well as oysters with wine, fried squid with ginger and vinegar, horseshoe crabs and red swimming crabs, shrimp and pufferfish, which the Chinese called "river piglet ''.
Some foods were also off - limits, as the Tang court encouraged people not to eat beef (since the bull was a valuable working animal), and from 831 to 833 Emperor Wenzong of Tang even banned the slaughter of cattle on the grounds of his religious convictions to Buddhism.
From the trade overseas and over land, the Chinese acquired peaches from Samarkand, date palms, pistachios, and figs from Greater Iran, pine nuts and ginseng roots from Korea and mangoes from Southeast Asia. In China, there was a great demand for sugar; during the reign of Harsha over North India (r. 606 -- 647), Indian envoys to the Tang brought two makers of sugar who successfully taught the Chinese how to cultivate sugarcane. Cotton also came from India as a finished product from Bengal, although it was during the Tang that the Chinese began to grow and process cotton, and by the Yuan dynasty it became the prime textile fabric in China.
Methods of food preservation were important, and practiced throughout China. The common people used simple methods of preservation, such as digging deep ditches and trenches, brining, and salting their foods. The emperor had large ice pits located in the parks in and around Chang'an for preserving food, while the wealthy and elite had their own smaller ice pits. Each year the emperor had laborers carve 1000 blocks of ice from frozen creeks in mountain valleys, each block with the dimension of 3 ft (0.91 m) by 3 ft by 3.5 ft (1.1 m). Frozen delicacies such as chilled melon were enjoyed during the summer.
Technology during the Tang period was built also upon the precedents of the past. Advancements in clockworks and timekeeping included the mechanical gear systems of Zhang Heng (78 -- 139) and Ma Jun (fl. 3rd century) gave the Tang engineer, astronomer, and monk Yi Xing (683 -- 727) inspiration when he invented the world 's first clockwork escapement mechanism in 725. This was used alongside a clepsydra clock and waterwheel to power a rotating armillary sphere in representation of astronomical observation. Yi Xing 's device also had a mechanically timed bell that was struck automatically every hour, and a drum that was struck automatically every quarter - hour; essentially, a striking clock. Yi Xing 's astronomical clock and water - powered armillary sphere became well known throughout the country, since students attempting to pass the imperial examinations by 730 had to write an essay on the device as an exam requirement. However, the most common type of public and palace timekeeping device was the inflow clepsydra. Its design was improved c. 610 by the Sui - dynasty engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai. They provided a steelyard balance that allowed seasonal adjustment in the pressure head of the compensating tank and could then control the rate of flow for different lengths of day and night.
There were many other mechanical inventions during the Tang era. This included a 3 ft (0.91 m) tall mechanical wine server of the early 8th century that was in the shape of an artificial mountain, carved out of iron and rested on a lacquered - wooden tortoise frame. This intricate device used a hydraulic pump that siphoned wine out of metal dragon - headed faucets, as well as tilting bowls that were timed to dip wine down, by force of gravity when filled, into an artificial lake that had intricate iron leaves popping up as trays for placing party treats. Furthermore, as the historian Charles Benn describes it:
Midway up the southern side of the mountain was a dragon... the beast opened its mouth and spit brew into a goblet seated on a large (iron) lotus leaf beneath. When the cup was 80 % full, the dragon ceased spewing ale, and a guest immediately seized the goblet. If he was slow in draining the cup and returning it to the leaf, the door of a pavilion at the top of the mountain opened and a mechanical wine server, dressed in a cap and gown, emerged with a wooden bat in his hand. As soon as the guest returned the goblet, the dragon refilled it, the wine server withdrew, and the doors of the pavilion closed... A pump siphoned the ale that flowed into the ale pool through a hidden hole and returned the brew to the reservoir (holding more than 16 quarts / 15 liters of wine) inside the mountain.
Yet the use of a teasing mechanical puppet in this wine - serving device was n't exactly a novel invention of the Tang, since the use of mechanical puppets in China date back to the Qin dynasty (221 -- 207 BC). In the 3rd century Ma Jun had an entire mechanical puppet theater operated by the rotation of a waterwheel. There was also an automatic wine - server known in the ancient Greco - Roman world, a design of the Greek inventor Heron of Alexandria that employed an urn with an inner valve and a lever device similar to the one described above. There are many stories of automatons used in the Tang, including general Yang Wulian 's wooden statue of a monk who stretched his hands out to collect contributions; when the amount of coins reached a certain weight, the mechanical figure moved his arms to deposit them in a satchel. This weight - and - lever mechanism was exactly like Heron 's penny slot machine. Other devices included one by Wang Ju, whose "wooden otter '' could allegedly catch fish; Needham suspects a spring trap of some kind was employed here.
In the realm of structural engineering and technical Chinese architecture, there were also government standard building codes, outlined in the early Tang book of the Yingshan Ling (National Building Law). Fragments of this book have survived in the Tang Lü (The Tang Code), while the Song dynasty architectural manual of the Yingzao Fashi (State Building Standards) by Li Jie (1065 -- 1101) in 1103 is the oldest existing technical treatise on Chinese architecture that has survived in full. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (712 -- 756) there were 34,850 registered craftsmen serving the state, managed by the Agency of Palace Buildings (Jingzuo Jian).
Woodblock printing made the written word available to vastly greater audiences. One of the world 's oldest surviving printed documents is a miniature Buddhist dharani sutra unearthed at Xi'an in 1974 and dated roughly from 650 to 670. The Diamond Sutra is the first full - length book printed at regular size, complete with illustrations embedded with the text and dated precisely to 868. Among the earliest documents to be printed were Buddhist texts as well as calendars, the latter essential for calculating and marking which days were auspicious and which days were not. With so many books coming into circulation for the general public, literacy rates could improve, along with the lower classes being able to obtain cheaper sources of study. Therefore, there were more lower - class people seen entering the Imperial Examinations and passing them by the later Song dynasty. Although the later Bi Sheng 's movable type printing in the 11th century was innovative for his period, woodblock printing that became widespread in the Tang would remain the dominant printing type in China until the more advanced printing press from Europe became widely accepted and used in East Asia. The first use of the playing card during the Tang dynasty was an auxiliary invention of the new age of printing.
The Chinese of the Tang era were also very interested in the benefits of officially classifying all of the medicines used in pharmacology. In 657, Emperor Gaozong of Tang (r. 649 -- 683) commissioned the literary project of publishing an official materia medica, complete with text and illustrated drawings for 833 different medicinal substances taken from different stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. In addition to compiling pharmacopeias, the Tang fostered learning in medicine by upholding imperial medical colleges, state examinations for doctors, and publishing forensic manuals for physicians. Authors of medicine in the Tang include Zhen Chuan (d. 643) and Sun Simiao (581 -- 682), the former who first identified in writing that patients with diabetes had an excess of sugar in their urine, and the latter who was the first to recognize that diabetic patients should avoid consuming alcohol and starchy foods. As written by Zhen Chuan and others in the Tang, the thyroid glands of sheep and pigs were successfully used to treat goiters; thyroid extracts were not used to treat patients with goiter in the West until 1890. The use of the dental amalgam, manufactured from tin and silver, was first introduced in the medical text Xinxiu Bencao written by Su Gong in 659.
In the realm of cartography, there were further advances beyond the map - makers of the Han dynasty. When the Tang chancellor Pei Ju (547 -- 627) was working for the Sui dynasty as a Commercial Commissioner in 605, he created a well - known gridded map with a graduated scale in the tradition of Pei Xiu (224 -- 271). The Tang chancellor Xu Jingzong (592 -- 672) was also known for his map of China drawn in the year 658. In the year 785 the Emperor Dezong had the geographer and cartographer Jia Dan (730 -- 805) complete a map of China and her former colonies in Central Asia. Upon its completion in 801, the map was 9.1 m (30 ft) in length and 10 m (33 ft) in height, mapped out on a grid scale of one inch equaling one hundred li (Chinese unit of measuring distance). A Chinese map of 1137 is similar in complexity to the one made by Jia Dan, carved on a stone stele with a grid scale of 100 li. However, the only type of map that has survived from the Tang period are star charts. Despite this, the earliest extant terrain maps of China come from the ancient State of Qin; maps from the 4th century BC that were excavated in 1986.
Chinese scientists of the Tang period employed complex chemical formulas for an array of different purposes, often found through experiments of alchemy. These included a waterproof and dust - repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, fireproof cement for glass and porcelain wares, a waterproof cream applied to silk clothes of underwater divers, a cream designated for polishing bronze mirrors, and many other useful formulas. The vitrified, translucent ceramic known as porcelain was invented in China during the Tang, although many types of glazed ceramics preceded it.
Ever since the Han dynasty (202 BC -- 220 AD), the Chinese had drilled deep boreholes to transport natural gas from bamboo pipelines to stoves where cast iron evaporation pans boiled brine to extract salt. During the Tang dynasty, a gazetteer of Sichuan province stated that at one of these 182 m (600 ft) ' fire wells ', men collected natural gas into portable bamboo tubes which could be carried around for dozens of km (mi) and still produce a flame. These were essentially the first gas cylinders; Robert Temple assumes some sort of tap was used for this device.
The inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180 AD) of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong had a "Cool Hall '' built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin (唐語林) describes as having water - powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.
The first classic work about the Tang is the Old Book of Tang by Liu Xu (887 -- 946) et al. of the Later Jin, who redacted it during the last years of his life. This was edited into another history (labelled the New Book of Tang) in order to distinguish it, which was a work by the Song historians Ouyang Xiu (1007 -- 1072), Song Qi (998 -- 1061), et al. of the Song dynasty (between the years 1044 and 1060). Both of them were based upon earlier annals, yet those are now lost. Both of them also rank among the Twenty - Four Histories of China. One of the surviving sources of the Old Book of Tang, primarily covering up to 756, is the Tongdian, which Du You presented to the emperor in 801. The Tang period was again placed into the enormous universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian, edited, compiled, and completed in 1084 by a team of scholars under the Song dynasty Chancellor Sima Guang (1019 -- 1086). This historical text, written with 3 million Chinese characters in 294 volumes, covered the history of China from the beginning of the Warring States (403 BC) until the beginning of the Song dynasty (960).
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sum of geometric progression when r is less than 1 | Geometric progression - wikipedia
In mathematics, a geometric progression, also known as a geometric sequence, is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the common ratio. For example, the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54,... is a geometric progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25,... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 1 / 2.
Examples of a geometric sequence are powers r of a fixed number r, such as 2 and 3. The general form of a geometric sequence is
where r ≠ 0 is the common ratio and a is a scale factor, equal to the sequence 's start value.
The n - th term of a geometric sequence with initial value a and common ratio r is given by
Such a geometric sequence also follows the recursive relation
Generally, to check whether a given sequence is geometric, one simply checks whether successive entries in the sequence all have the same ratio.
The common ratio of a geometric sequence may be negative, resulting in an alternating sequence, with numbers switching from positive to negative and back. For instance
is a geometric sequence with common ratio − 3.
The behaviour of a geometric sequence depends on the value of the common ratio. If the common ratio is:
Geometric sequences (with common ratio not equal to − 1, 1 or 0) show exponential growth or exponential decay, as opposed to the linear growth (or decline) of an arithmetic progression such as 4, 15, 26, 37, 48,... (with common difference 11). This result was taken by T.R. Malthus as the mathematical foundation of his Principle of Population. Note that the two kinds of progression are related: exponentiating each term of an arithmetic progression yields a geometric progression, while taking the logarithm of each term in a geometric progression with a positive common ratio yields an arithmetic progression.
An interesting result of the definition of a geometric progression is that for any value of the common ratio, any three consecutive terms a, b and c will satisfy the following equation:
where b is considered to be the geometric mean between a and c.
Computation of the sum 2 + 10 + 50 + 250. The sequence is multiplied term by term by 5, and then subtracted from the original sequence. Two terms remain: the first term, a, and the term one beyond the last, or ar. The desired result, 312, is found by subtracting these two terms and dividing by 1 − 5.
A geometric series is the sum of the numbers in a geometric progression. For example:
Letting a be the first term (here 2), n be the number of terms (here 4), and r be the constant that each term is multiplied by to get the next term (here 5), the sum is given by:
In the example above, this gives:
The formula works for any real numbers a and r (except r = 1, which results in a division by zero). For example:
Since the derivation (below) does not depend on a and r being real, it holds for complex numbers as well.
To derive this formula, first write a general geometric series as:
We can find a simpler formula for this sum by multiplying both sides of the above equation by 1 − r, and we 'll see that
since all the other terms cancel. If r ≠ 1, we can rearrange the above to get the convenient formula for a geometric series that computes the sum of n terms:
If one were to begin the sum not from k = 1, but from a different value, say m, then
provided r ≠ 1 (\ displaystyle r \ neq 1) and a (n − m + 1) (\ displaystyle a (n - m + 1)) when r = 1 (\ displaystyle r = 1).
Differentiating this formula with respect to r allows us to arrive at formulae for sums of the form
For example:
For a geometric series containing only even powers of r multiply by 1 − r:
Then
Equivalently, take r as the common ratio and use the standard formulation.
For a series with only odd powers of r
and
An exact formula for the generalized sum G s (n, r) (\ displaystyle G_ (s) (n, r)) when s ∈ N (\ displaystyle s \ in \ mathbb (N)) is expanded by the Stirling numbers of the second kind as
An infinite geometric series is an infinite series whose successive terms have a common ratio. Such a series converges if and only if the absolute value of the common ratio is less than one (r < 1). Its value can then be computed from the finite sum formula
Since:
Then:
For a series containing only even powers of r (\ displaystyle r),
and for odd powers only,
In cases where the sum does not start at k = 0,
The formulae given above are valid only for r < 1. The latter formula is valid in every Banach algebra, as long as the norm of r is less than one, and also in the field of p - adic numbers if r < 1. As in the case for a finite sum, we can differentiate to calculate formulae for related sums. For example,
This formula only works for r < 1 as well. From this, it follows that, for r < 1,
Also, the infinite series 1 / 2 + 1 / 4 + 1 / 8 + 1 / 16 + ⋯ is an elementary example of a series that converges absolutely.
It is a geometric series whose first term is 1 / 2 and whose common ratio is 1 / 2, so its sum is
The inverse of the above series is 1 / 2 − 1 / 4 + 1 / 8 − 1 / 16 + ⋯ is a simple example of an alternating series that converges absolutely.
It is a geometric series whose first term is 1 / 2 and whose common ratio is − 1 / 2, so its sum is
The summation formula for geometric series remains valid even when the common ratio is a complex number. In this case the condition that the absolute value of r be less than 1 becomes that the modulus of r be less than 1. It is possible to calculate the sums of some non-obvious geometric series. For example, consider the proposition
The proof of this comes from the fact that
which is a consequence of Euler 's formula. Substituting this into the original series gives
This is the difference of two geometric series, and so it is a straightforward application of the formula for infinite geometric series that completes the proof.
The product of a geometric progression is the product of all terms. If all terms are positive, then it can be quickly computed by taking the geometric mean of the progression 's first and last term, and raising that mean to the power given by the number of terms. (This is very similar to the formula for the sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence: take the arithmetic mean of the first and last term and multiply with the number of terms.)
Proof:
Let the product be represented by P:
Now, carrying out the multiplications, we conclude that
Applying the sum of arithmetic series, the expression will yield
We raise both sides to the second power:
Consequently,
which concludes the proof.
Books VIII and IX of Euclid 's Elements analyzes geometric progressions (such as the powers of two, see the article for details) and give several of their properties.
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most points by a player in nba season | List of National Basketball Association annual scoring Leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are accumulated through free throws or field goals. The National Basketball Association 's (NBA) scoring title is awarded to the player with the highest points per game average in a given season. The scoring title was originally determined by total points scored through the 1968 -- 69 season, after which points per game was used to determine the leader instead. Players who earned scoring titles before the 1979 -- 80 season did not record any two point field goals because the three - point line was first implemented in the NBA during that season. To qualify for the scoring title, the player must appear in at least 70 games (out of 82) or have at least 1,400 points. These have been the entry criteria since the 1974 -- 75 season.
Wilt Chamberlain holds the all - time records for total points scored (4,029) and points per game (50.4) in a season; both records were achieved in the 1961 -- 62 season. He also holds the rookie records for points per game when he averaged 37.6 points in the 1959 -- 60 season. Among active players, Kevin Durant has the highest point total (2,593) and the highest scoring average (32.0) in a season; both were achieved in the 2013 -- 14 season.
Michael Jordan has won the most scoring titles, with ten. Jordan and Chamberlain are the only players to have won seven consecutive scoring titles (this was also Chamberlain 's career total). George Gervin, Allen Iverson and Durant have won four scoring titles in their career, and George Mikan, Neil Johnston and Bob McAdoo have achieved it three times. Paul Arizin, Bob Pettit, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal, Tracy McGrady, Kobe Bryant, and Russell Westbrook have each won the scoring title twice. Since the 1946 -- 47 season, five players have won both the scoring title and the NBA championship in the same season: Fulks in 1947 with the Philadelphia Warriors, Mikan from 1949 to 1950 with the Minneapolis Lakers, Abdul - Jabbar (then Alcindor) in 1971 with the Milwaukee Bucks, Jordan from 1991 to 1993 and from 1996 to 1998 with the Chicago Bulls, and O'Neal in 2000 with the Los Angeles Lakers. Since the introduction of the three - point field goal, O'Neal is the only scoring leader to have made no three - point field goals in his winning season.
At 21 years and 197 days, Durant is the youngest scoring leader in NBA history, averaging 30.1 points in the 2009 -- 10 season. The most recent champion is Russell Westbrook, who averaged a career - high 31.6 points in the 2016 -- 17 season. Westbrook also averaged a triple double in the same season, one of only two players in NBA history to do so.
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when did the cavaliers win the nba championship | 2016 NBA Finals - wikipedia
The 2016 NBA Finals was the championship series of the National Basketball Association (NBA) 2015 -- 16 season and conclusion of the 2016 playoffs. The Eastern Conference champion Cleveland Cavaliers defeated the defending NBA champion and Western Conference champion Golden State Warriors 4 -- 3 in a rematch of the 2015 NBA Finals. It was the 14th rematch of the previous NBA Finals in history, and the first Finals since 2008 in which the number one seed in each conference met. It was the second straight rematch in back - to - back years, as the Miami Heat and San Antonio Spurs played each other in 2013 and 2014.
Golden State, which earned home - court advantage with setting the NBA regular season wins record (73 -- 9), jumped to a 2 -- 0 lead in the series while recording the largest combined margin of victory (48) through two games in NBA Finals history. Cleveland returned home and responded with a 120 -- 90 win in Game 3, but the Warriors won Game 4 to take a 3 -- 1 series lead. The Cavaliers won the next three games to become the first team in Finals history to successfully overcome a 3 -- 1 deficit. It also marked the first time since 1978 that Game 7 was won by the road team.
For the first time since 2004, a new scheduling format was instituted for the Finals. In previous years, the Finals were played in a Thursday -- Sunday -- Tuesday scheme. However, the league changed its scheduling to ensure an extra day off for both teams, which have to travel from one city to another during the series. This, along with the designated travel day, took place after Games 2, 4, 5, and 6.
The win by the Cavaliers was the first major professional sports championship won by a team based in Cleveland since 1964, and the first - ever championship won by the Cavaliers franchise. NBA Finals MVP winner LeBron James propelled the Cavaliers to the historic comeback. James had a historically great Finals performance, becoming the first player in NBA history to lead all players in a playoff series in points, rebounds, assists, steals and blocks. James ' heroics coupled with the suspense of Cleveland 's comeback have led many sports critics to deem the 2016 NBA Finals as one of the most exciting in recent history.
This was Cleveland 's second consecutive trip to the NBA Finals, and third overall, seeking to win their first ever NBA championship. This would also be the sixth consecutive NBA Finals appearance for LeBron James, the most for any player not part of the 1960s Boston Celtics, and the fifth for James Jones (who technically qualified for the 2011 NBA Finals along with James, but did not play).
Despite holding the best record in the Eastern Conference at 30 -- 11 midway through the season on January 22, 2016, the Cavaliers fired head coach David Blatt. Associate head coach Tyronn Lue was then promoted to replace Blatt. General Manager David Griffin cited "a lack of fit with our personnel and our vision '' as the reason for Blatt 's firing.
Cleveland finished the regular season with a 57 -- 25 record, capturing the Central Division title and the top playoff seed in the Eastern Conference. They then advanced to the Finals after sweeping both the Detroit Pistons in the first round and the Atlanta Hawks in the second round, and defeating the Toronto Raptors in the Eastern Conference Finals in six games. The Cavaliers were the first team in history to go to two consecutive NBA Finals with rookie head coaches.
This was the defending NBA Champions Golden State Warriors ' second consecutive trip to the NBA Finals and eighth overall. The Warriors broke the record set by the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls by finishing the regular season with a 73 -- 9 record. In addition, the Warriors broke numerous other NBA records, including most road wins (34), best start to a season (24 -- 0) and longest regular - season home win streak (54 dating back to the 2014 -- 15 season). They also became the first team to make over 1,000 three - pointers in the regular - season with 1,077, eclipsing the previous record of 933 set by the 2014 -- 15 Houston Rockets.
The Warriors were led by Stephen Curry, who was named the NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) for the second straight season. The Splash Brothers twosome of Curry and Klay Thompson were the highest scoring duo in the league, combining to average 52.2 points per game. Head coach Steve Kerr missed the first 43 regular season games because of a back injury. Assistant coach Luke Walton served as interim head coach during Kerr 's absence and he led the Warriors to a 39 -- 4 start.
In the playoffs, the Warriors defeated the Houston Rockets in the first round and the Portland Trail Blazers in the conference semifinals in five games each. In Game 7 of the Western Conference Finals, the Warriors defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder, 96 -- 88, becoming only the 10th team in NBA history to overcome a 3 -- 1 series deficit, and advancing to a second straight NBA Finals for the first time since 1947 and 1948.
The Warriors won the regular season series 2 -- 0.
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 104 -- 89 in Game 1 to take a 1 -- 0 series lead. The Cavaliers led 68 -- 67 before the Warriors broke the game open with a 29 -- 9 run spanning the third and fourth quarters to take a 96 -- 76 lead. Cleveland got the deficit within eleven points at 98 -- 87 after an 11 -- 2 run, but Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson nailed back - to - back three - pointers to essentially seal the victory for Golden State. While Curry and Thompson had a rough night combining for 20 points, the Warriors got a lift from its bench, outscoring the Cavaliers ' bench 45 -- 10. Shaun Livingston scored his playoff - career high 20 points to lead Golden State, while Kyrie Irving led all scorers with 26 points. LeBron James fell one assist shy of a triple - double (23 points, 12 rebounds, 9 assists).
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 110 -- 77 in Game 2 to take a 2 -- 0 series lead. Cleveland took a 28 -- 22 lead about two minutes into the second quarter, but Golden State answered with a 20 -- 2 run while outscoring the Cavs 30 -- 16 the rest of the period. During the run, the Cavaliers ' Kevin Love suffered a head injury while attempting to grab a defensive rebound. Love stayed throughout the remainder of the period but did not play the second half. The Warriors continued to dominate Cleveland from there, outscoring the Cavaliers 58 -- 33 in the final two quarters. Draymond Green led all scorers with 28 points, including 5 of 8 from three - point range. Curry and Klay Thompson added 18 and 17 points, respectively, while drilling four threes each.
With their victory, the Warriors posted the highest winning margin in the first two Finals games with a 48 - point differential. James led the Cavs with 19 points, 8 rebounds, and 9 assists, but he committed 7 turnovers. James added 4 steals while surpassing John Stockton for fourth on the all - time playoff steals list.
The Cavaliers avenged their lopsided defeat to Golden State by routing the Warriors 120 -- 90 in Game 3 to trail the series 2 -- 1. The Cavaliers scored the game 's first nine points en route to outscoring the Warriors 33 -- 16 after one quarter. Golden State rallied to trim Cleveland 's lead as low as seven points on a couple of occasions before the Cavs settled for a 51 -- 43 halftime lead. In the second half, Cleveland continued to extend their lead and outscored Golden State 69 -- 47. Love did not play due to a concussion. James led all scorers with 32 points. Irving added 30 points for the Cavs. Curry led the Warriors with 19 points, while drilling four threes. Harrison Barnes also contributed 18 points in 33 minutes of play.
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 108 -- 97 in Game 4 to take a 3 -- 1 series lead. After averaging just 16 points in the first three games of the series, Curry scored 38 and was 7 of 13 on three - pointers. The Warriors made 17 three - pointers, then an NBA record for a single Finals game. They made only 16 two - point field goals, the first time in Finals history a team made more shots from three - point range. Klay Thompson added 25 points and four three - pointers for Golden State. It was the Warriors ' 88th win of the season, which broke the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls record of 87 for most wins in an NBA season (regular - season and postseason combined).
Green and James had to be separated in the closing minutes of the game, when Green fell to the ground and James stepped over him. Feeling disrespected, Green swung his arm and appeared to make contact with James ' groin.
The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 112 -- 97 in Game 5 to trail the series 3 -- 2. James and Irving each scored 41 points to become the first teammates in Finals history to score 40 or more in the same game. James also added 16 rebounds. After Game 4, Green was assessed a Flagrant Foul 1 for his contact with James that was ruled "unnecessary '' and "retaliatory '', and James was given a technical foul for taunting. Having accumulated his fourth flagrant foul point in the playoffs, Green was suspended for Game 5, becoming the first player to be suspended from playing in a Finals game since Jerry Stackhouse in 2006. Green watched the game from a luxury box in the nearby Oakland Alameda Coliseum, where the Oakland Athletics were also playing a game at the same time, hosting the Texas Rangers.
Warriors center Andrew Bogut suffered a season - ending injury to his left knee in the second half when he jumped to block a layup attempt by Cavs guard J.R. Smith and came down awkwardly on Smith.
The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 115 -- 101 in Game 6 to even the series 3 -- 3. The Cavaliers scored the game 's first eight points en route to outscoring the Warriors 31 -- 11 after one quarter. Golden State rallied to trim Cleveland 's lead as low as eight points on a couple of occasions before the Cavs settled for a 59 -- 43 halftime lead. In the second half, Cleveland continued to extend their lead and tied the series. LeBron James led all scorers with 41 points with 11 assists. Kyrie Irving added 23 points for the Cavs, while Tristan Thompson had 16 rebounds for the Cavaliers. Stephen Curry led the Warriors with 30 points, while drilling six threes. Klay Thompson added 25 points for the Warriors. Back from suspension, Green was held to eight points on 3 -- 7 shooting.
James scored 18 straight points for Cleveland from the end of the third quarter to the 7: 00 mark of the fourth. Late in the game with the Cavaliers up by 13, he blocked a Curry shot from behind, and afterward had some words for him. With 4: 22 left, Curry received his sixth foul and fouled out of the game. He then threw his mouthpiece into the stands in frustration, resulting in a technical foul and his ejection from the game. Curry was the first MVP to foul out of an NBA Finals game since Shaquille O'Neal in 2000. The Cavaliers became the third team to fall behind 3 -- 1 and force Game 7 (and the first in 50 years). James was the first player to have consecutive 40 - point games in the finals since, coincidentally, Shaquille O'Neal in the 2000 Finals. Following the game, Curry and Warriors head coach Steve Kerr were fined $25,000 each for their actions and public officiating criticism.
This season 's Finals marked the first time in NBA history in which both teams entered Game 7 with the same total points scored through six games (610 points each). The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 93 -- 89 in Game 7 to win the series 4 -- 3. Game 7 was close, with 20 lead changes and 11 ties. This was the only game in the series to have a final margin of fewer than 10 points. At halftime, the Warriors were ahead 49 -- 42. In the second half, the Cavaliers outscored the Warriors 51 -- 40 as the Warriors failed to score a basket during the last 4: 39 of the game. In the closing minutes of the 4th quarter, LeBron James delivered what became known as "The Block '' on a layup attempt by Andre Iguodala with the score tied at 89 and 1: 50 remaining in the game. Kyrie Irving made a go - ahead 3 - point field goal over Stephen Curry to give Cleveland a 92 -- 89 lead with 0: 53 remaining in the game. Before Kyrie Irving 's 3 - point field goal, both teams were tied at 699 points scored apiece in this series. Immediately after Irving 's 3 - pointer, Golden State brought the ball up - court, opting not to call a timeout, and although Golden State got a preferred switch and matchup of Curry on Kevin Love, Love made arguably "the biggest defensive stop of the entire NBA season '', and forced Curry into a contested 3 - pointer, which he missed. After LeBron James hurt his right wrist on a dunk attempt in which he was fouled, he nearly clinched the title for the Cavaliers by making one of two free throws with 10.6 seconds left in the game. The Cavaliers fouled Draymond Green with 6.5 seconds remaining. Stephen Curry received the ensuing inbounds pass, pump faked and shot a three pointer over Cavaliers guard Iman Shumpert. The attempt missed, and was rebounded by Marreese Speights of the Warriors who attempted a three pointer as time expired and missed. Love immediately hugged the Finals MVP LeBron James. Draymond Green led all scorers with 32 points, including 6 of 8 from three - point range to go along with 15 rebounds and 9 assists. Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson added 17 and 14 points, respectively. LeBron James led all Cavaliers with 27 points and became only the 3rd player ever in NBA history to record a triple double in an NBA Finals Game 7 by adding 11 assists and 11 rebounds. Kyrie Irving added 26 points for Cleveland.
The Cavaliers became the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3 -- 1 series deficit to win the NBA Finals. They became the first NBA Champion to clinch all their playoff series on the road since the 1999 San Antonio Spurs, as well as the first road team to win a Finals Game 7 since the 1978 Washington Bullets. The Cavaliers won their first championship in franchise history, ending a nearly 52 - year pro sports championship drought for the city of Cleveland. LeBron James was named the unanimous Finals MVP, becoming only the fifth player in NBA history to earn the award three times or more. He also was the overall leader in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks during the series, a feat that had never been accomplished in an NBA playoff series. Tyronn Lue became the 14th coach to win an NBA championship as a head coach and player. After 13 years, James had finally brought a championship to the city of Cleveland.
This loss led the Warriors to pursue Kevin Durant when he became a free agent that summer signing him on July 4, 2016. On July 13, Game 7 of the 2016 NBA Finals received the 2016 ESPY award for Best Game.
Roster Last transaction: 2016 -- 04 -- 13
Roster Last transaction: 2016 -- 06 -- 14
In the United States, the NBA Finals aired on ABC with Mike Breen as play - by - play commentator, and Mark Jackson and Jeff Van Gundy serving as color commentators. ESPN Radio aired it as well and had Kevin Calabro and Hubie Brown as commentators. ESPN Deportes provided exclusive Spanish - language coverage of The Finals, with a commentary team of Álvaro Martín and Carlos Morales.
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what happened to rachel from the x factor | Rachel Crow - wikipedia
Rachel Kelly Crow (born January 23, 1998) is an American singer, comedian, and actress. Born in Mead, Colorado, she participated in the first season of the American version of The X Factor in 2011, where she finished in fifth place. Following her elimination, she contacted Walt Disney for possible roles in future Disney productions. This resulted in her starring in multiple television shows and movies, including BrainSurge, Inside Edition, Big Time Rush, Figure It Out, The Wendy Williams Show and Fred: The Show. Crow released her first and eponymous extended play (EP) in June 2012.
Crow auditioned for the first first season of the US version of The X Factor in 2011 with the song "Mercy '' (2008) by Duffy. She reached the live shows and finished in fifth place overall.
In February 2012, it was announced that Crow signed a music deal with Columbia Records and a television deal with Nickelodeon for her own show. She was also featured on Big Time Rush 's Summer Tour 2012 along with Cody Simpson, and starred on a two - part episode of Fred: The Show.
In June, 2012, Crow announced via Twitter that she would be releasing a five - song EP, featuring one song co-written by Crow herself. She later announced via her website that it would be released on June 26, 2012 and would be self - titled. The lead single is "Mean Girls, '' which Crow co-wrote with Toby Gad. Gad also produced the song. The four other songs are "Rock With You '' featuring rapper Mann, "Lemonade, '' "My Kind of Wonderful '' and "What A Song Can Do. '' She has also worked with producer Jonas Jeberg, who has worked with singers such as The Wanted.
In his review of ' Mean Girls ', The Re-View complimented Crow 's "intelligence and aspirations '' and finished his article saying of the singer: "I do n't doubt that her vocal ability to out - diva some of the best singers will lead to even greater things in the future. ''
In September 2017, she was picked as Elvis Duran 's Artist of the Month and was featured on NBC 's Today show and broadcast nationally where she performed live her single "Dime ''.
Rachel Crow appeared on a few Nickelodeon shows such as Fred: The Show, Figure It Out, and Big Time Rush, she even signed a deal with Nickelodeon for her own Musical - Comedy. "We are in the early stages now, '' Crow told The New York Post. "I want it to be definitely very ' Rachel. ' Something that shows who I am and who I want to be. '' she continued, in the aforementioned interview. Crow said that, if she could have any guest star on her show, it would be Eminem; she also said she has also always wanted to duet with him.
Crow had a recurring role as Starr on the Nickelodeon series Fred: The Show. Crow voiced Carla in the film Rio 2, which was released in 2014. Crow also provides the voice of Gratuity "Tip '' Tucci on the Netflix cartoon, Home: Adventures of Tip and Oh.
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how did finance contribute to the calling of the estates general | Assembly of notables - wikipedia
An Assembly of Notables (French: Assemblée des notables) was a group of high - ranking nobles, ecclesiastics, and state functionaries convened by the King of France on extraordinary occasions to consult on matters of state.
Assemblies of Notables had met in 1583, 1596 -- 97, 1617, 1626, 1787, and 1788. Like the Estates - General, they served a consultative purpose only. But unlike the Estates - General, whose members were elected by the subjects of the realm, the assemblymen were selected by the king for their "zeal '', "devotion '', and their "trustworthiness '' toward the sovereign. Assemblymen were prominent men, usually of the aristocracy, and included royal princes, peers, archbishops, high - ranking judges, and, in some cases, major town officials. The king would issue one or more reforming edicts after hearing their advice.
In addition, assembly of notables can refer to an expanded version of the King 's Council (Curia regis). Several times a year, whenever the king needed to cast a wider net to gather information for making important decisions or preparing edicts and ordinances, he would enlarge his Council with prominent men chosen for their social and professional standing or their skills to give counsel on the matters at hand. The role of the assembly was to advise the king on how to remedy governance issues brought up by the Estates - General.
In November 1583, Henry III convened an assembly of notables at Saint Germain - en - Laye to address religious demonstrations that threatened to collapse the State. In the assembly, Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon called for a religious monopoly in France; he said that if this was offered, the clergy would sell their shirts to support the king. Henry, however, angrily interrupted him, knowing the origin of that hostile demand; any attempt to impose one religion was unthinkable while Anjou remained attached to the Netherlands. Henry replied that he had already risked his life and estate to establish a single religion, but since he had been forced to sue for peace, he would not breach it.
Following the assassination of Henry III, his successor was Henry IV who learned from the experience of Henry III. He himself had called on the assembly 's assistance in 1596 -- 97 at Rouen. The assemblymen were summoned to assist in developing and authorizing new taxation plans for the country to tackle the debt. There were 95 notables present, and they recommended that the king levy a special sales tax of 5 % on all sales -- with the exception of wheat, to avoid bread riots. It was estimated that this pancarte would raise 5 million French pounds (livres), but in its best year it raised only 1.56 million pounds. Although the tax raised less than predicted, it did restore the royal budget to solvency. King Henry and the Duke of Sully had come up with many other possible ways to raise money, but the key to rescuing the monarchy from bankruptcy was simply to ensure that the system of taxation worked efficiently.
In 1626 Louis XIII called together an assembly consisting of the government 's ruling elite -- 13 grandees, 13 bishops, and 29 judges. Many historians have regarded this assembly, and its predecessors, as unsuccessful because they failed to enact specific reforms, but this view fails to consider the assemblies ' role. The assemblies had no legislative or administrative powers; instead, they served to provide considered advice on government reform proposals and to make appropriate counter-proposals. In the case of every successful assembly, the king himself would issue a major ordinance or enact significant reforms, most notably the Edict of Blois 1579, in response to the Estates - General of 1576, and the great Code Michau 1629, in response to the Assembly of Notables of 1626 -- 27.
The king and the notables agreed on four basic changes in French government. First, they agreed that Protestant power had to be broken. There was no specific discussion of a march on La Rochelle, but the notables firmly supported the king 's desire to destroy the network of independent Huguenot fortresses. Second, the notables, like those of 1596 and 1617, strongly criticized the grandees, particularly provincial governors. In 1626 -- 27, the notables insisted in particular that the king should regain full control of the military. Third, everyone agreed that the basic administration of the kingdom lay in disarray, so that a strong statement from the central government was needed to reestablish order. In most cases, this reaffirmation of government control required only the restatement of pre-existing ordinances. Fourth, everyone agreed that the fiscal situation was catastrophic. The overwhelming majority of the assembly 's deliberations focused on this last issue.
The final appearance of the Assembly of Notables began in February 1787 during Louis XVI 's reign, during which France 's finances were in a desperate situation and the finance ministers of the day (Turgot, Necker, Calonne) all believed that tax reform was necessary if France was going to pay off its debt and bring government expenditure back into line with government income. However, before any new tax laws could be passed, they first had to be registered with the French parlements (which were high courts, not legislatures, but that possessed a limited veto power on new laws).
Repeated attempts to implement tax reform failed due to lack of parlement support, as parlement judges felt that any increase in tax would have a direct negative effect on their own income. In response to this opposition, the finance minister at the time, Calonne, suggested that Louis XVI call an Assembly of Notables. While the Assembly of Notables had no legislative power in its own right, Calonne hoped that if the Assembly of Notables could be made to support the proposed reforms then this would apply pressure on parlement to register them.
Calonne proposed four major reforms:
In the traditional view, the plan failed because the 144 assemblymen, who included princes of the blood, archbishops, noblemen and other people from the traditional elite, did not wish to bear the burden of increased taxation.
However, Simon Schama has argued that the notables in fact were quite open to radical political changes; for example, some proposed the elimination of all the tax exemptions conferred by noble status; others proposed lowering the income qualifications for voting for members of the proposed provincial assemblies. Schama wrote:
Yet what was truly astonishing about the debates of the Assembly is that they were marked by a conspicuous acceptance of principles like fiscal equality that even a few years before would have been unthinkable... Where disagreement occurred, it was not because Calonne had shocked the Notables with his announcement of a new fiscal and political world; it was either because he had not gone far enough or because they disliked the operational methods built into the program.
In addition, the Assembly insisted that the proposed reforms should actually be presented to a representative body such as the Estates - General.
Opposition in the Assembly combined with intrigues from rival ministers led to Calonne 's disgrace and he was subsequently dismissed by Louis XVI on 8 April 1787. In addition to tax reform, the Assembly also discussed other issues. The result was that the Assembly assisted the Parliament in creating provincial assemblies, reestablished free trade in grain, converted the corvée (a feudal duty in the form of forced labour) into a cash payment, and generated short - term loans.
Calonne 's successor, Loménie de Brienne, dissolved the body on 25 May.
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who plays harry from harry and the hendersons | Kevin Peter Hall - wikipedia
Kevin Peter Hall (May 9, 1955 -- April 10, 1991) was an American actor best known for his roles as the title character in the first two films in the Predator franchise and the title character of Harry in the film and television series, Harry and the Hendersons. He also appeared in the television series Misfits of Science and 227 along with the film, Without Warning.
Hall was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. His parents were of above - average stature; his father, Charles Hall, was 6 ft 6 in, and his mother, Sylvia Hall, was 6 ft 2 in. At 7 ft 2 in (218 cm) tall, he was the tallest of seven brothers, all over 6 ft 5 in. During his high school years at Penn Hills High School, he excelled at basketball and earned a scholarship to George Washington University in Washington, D.C. In college, Hall continued to play basketball and majored in Theatrical Arts. After graduation, Hall moved to Venezuela to play basketball. His nephew, Jamie Hall, is a stunt performer, best known as the polar bear performer in the 2015 horror / thriller film Unnatural.
Hall made his acting debut in the 1979 horror film Prophecy. Due to his height, he was often cast in monster roles. He appeared as the alien in the 1980 horror film Without Warning and as Gorvil in the 1982 television movie Mazes and Monsters. In 1985, he co-starred in the short - lived series Misfits of Science. He guest - starred on the sitcom Night Court as a huge but gentle mental patient who humorously towered over bailiff Bull Shannon, played by Richard Moll, who is 6 ft 8 in (203 cm), and a fellow mental patient, played by James Cromwell, who is 6 ft 7 in (201 cm). The next year, Hall portrayed yet another monster in the horror film Monster in the Closet, followed by the role of Harry in Harry and the Hendersons.
In 1986, Hall was cast as the main antagonist in Predator, starring Arnold Schwarzenegger. During its developmental stages, the Predator was going to be played by Jean - Claude Van Damme, who played the Predator for the first few scenes, but was not billed in the end credits. The producers decided to recast the role with Hall so that the Predator could more convincingly dominate the film 's human characters with its greater size. Hall would go on to reprise the role in the 1990 sequel.
Following his role in Predator, Hall appeared in the film Big Top Pee - wee (1988) and had a guest spot on Star Trek: The Next Generation; Hall had been one of the actors considered for the role of Geordi La Forge on the latter, before the role went to LeVar Burton. From 1989 to 1990, he had a recurring role on the NBC sitcom 227. In 1990, Hall reprised his role as Harry in the television series Harry and the Hendersons, based on the 1987 film of the same name. He died during the series ' first season.
Hall met actress Alaina Reed while taping a guest role on the television show 227. The couple would marry both on the show and in real life.
While working on the TV series Harry and the Hendersons, Hall announced that he had contracted HIV from a blood transfusion. He died from AIDS - related pneumonia on April 10, 1991, a month short of his 36th birthday.
Hall was posthumously inducted into the Penn Hills Hall of Fame as part of the inaugural class on May 8, 2009.
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when did us open switch to hard court | US Open (Tennis) - wikipedia
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ 59.26 '' N 73 ° 50 ′ 45.91 '' W / 40.7497944 ° N 73.8460861 ° W / 40.7497944; - 73.8460861
The United States Open Tennis Championships is a hard court tennis tournament. The tournament is the modern version of one of the oldest tennis championships in the world, the U.S. National Championship, for which men 's singles was first contested in 1881. Since 1987, the US Open has been chronologically the fourth and final tennis major comprising the Grand Slam each year; the other three, in chronological order, are the Australian Open, the French Open and Wimbledon.
The US Open is held annually, starting on the last Monday in August, and lasting for two weeks into September, with the middle weekend coinciding with the Labor Day holiday. The main tournament consists of five event championships: men 's and women 's singles, men 's and women 's doubles, and mixed doubles, with additional tournaments for senior, junior, and wheelchair players. Since 1978, the tournament has been played on acrylic hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park, Queens, New York City. The US Open is owned and organized by the United States Tennis Association (USTA), a not - for - profit organization. Net proceeds from ticket sales, sponsorships, and television deals are used to promote the development of tennis in the United States.
The US Open is the only Grand Slam that employs tiebreakers in every set of a match. For the other three Grand Slam events, if a match goes to the last possible set (the third for women, fifth for men) and there is a 6 -- 6 tie, the match continues until one player wins by two games, but the sets played before the last set always employ tiebreakers should a set reach 6 -- 6.
The tournament was first held in August 1881 on the grass courts at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island and in that first year only clubs that were members of the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) were permitted to enter. The first edition was won by Richard Sears, who went on to win seven consecutive singles titles. From 1884 through 1911, the tournament used a challenge system whereby the defending champion automatically qualified for the next year 's final in which he would play the winner of the all - comers tournament. In 1915 the national championship was relocated from Newport, Rhode Island to the West Side Tennis Club at Forest Hills, New York; as early as 1911 an effort was made by a group of tennis players, headed by New Yorker Karl Behr, to relocate the tournament to New York City.
In the first years of the U.S. National Championship only men competed and the tournament was known as the US National Singles Championships for Men. Six years after the men 's nationals were first held, the first U.S. Women 's National Singles Championship was held at the Philadelphia Cricket Club in 1887, won by 17 - year - old Philadelphian Ellen Hansell. This was followed by the introduction of the U.S. Women 's National Doubles Championship in 1899 and the U.S. Mixed Doubles Championship in 1892. The women 's tournament used a challenge system from 1888 through 1918, except in 1917. Between 1890 and 1906 sectional tournaments were held in the east and the west of the country to determine the best two doubles teams, which competed in a play - off for the right to compete against the defending champions in the challenge round.
In early 1915 the issue resurfaced when a group of about 100 tennis players signed a petition in favor of the move, arguing that most tennis clubs, players and fans were located in the New York City area and that it would therefore be beneficial for the development of the sport to host the national championship there. This view was opposed by another group of players which included eight former national singles champions. The contentious issue was brought to a vote at the annual USNLTA meeting on February 5, 1915 and with 128 votes in favor and 119 against it was decided to relocate.
From 1921 through 1923, the tournament was played at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia. It returned to Forest Hills in 1924 following the completion of the newly constructed 14,000 seat concrete Forest Hills Stadium. Though regarded unofficially by many as a major championship beforehand, the tournament was officially designated as one of the major tournaments by the ILTF commencing in 1924.
At the 1922 U.S. National Championships the draw for the first time included seeded players in order to avoid leading players drawing against each other in the early rounds.
The open era began in 1968 when all five events were merged into the US Open, held at the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills. The 1968 combined tournament was open to professionals for the first time. That year, 96 men and 63 women entered the event, and prize money totaled $100,000. In 1970, the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to use a tiebreak to decide a set that reached a 6 -- 6 score in games and is the only major to use a tiebreak in the deciding set; the other three grand slams play out the deciding set until a two - game margin is achieved. From 1970 to 1974 the US Open used a best - of - nine point, sudden death tiebreaker before moving to the ITF best - of - twelve point system. In 1973 the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to men and women with that year 's singles champions John Newcombe and Margaret Court both receiving $25,000. Another US Open innovation came in 1975 when floodlights enabled night play for the first time.
In 1978 the tournament moved from the West Side Tennis Club, Forest Hills, Queens to the larger USTA National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows, Queens, three miles to the north. In the process, the tournament switched the court surface from clay, used in the last three years at Forest Hills, to hard courts. Jimmy Connors is the only individual to have won US Open singles titles on all three surfaces (grass, clay, hardcourt), while Chris Evert is the only woman to win on two surfaces (clay, hardcourt). The US Open is the only Grand Slam tournament that has been played every year since its inception. During the 2006 US Open, the complex was renamed the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in honor of four - time tournament champion and women 's tennis pioneer Billie Jean King.
From 1984 through 2015, the U.S. Open deviated from traditional scheduling practices for tennis tournaments with a concept that came to be known as "Super Saturday '': the men 's and women 's finals were played on the final Saturday and Sunday of the tournament respectively, and their respective semi-finals were held one day prior. The Women 's final was originally held in between the two men 's semi-final matches; in 2001, the Women 's final was moved to the evening so it could be played on primetime television, citing a major growth in popularity for women 's tennis among viewers. This scheduling pattern helped to encourage television viewership, but proved divisive among players because it only gave them less than a day 's rest between their semi-finals and championship match.
For five consecutive tournaments between 2007 through 2012, the Men 's final was postponed to Monday due to weather. In 2013 and 2014, the USTA intentionally scheduled the Men 's final on a Monday -- a move praised for allowing the Men 's players an extra day 's rest following the semis, but drew the ire of the ATP for further deviating from the structure of the other Grand Slams. In 2015, the Super Saturday concept was dropped, and the US Open returned to a format similar to the other majors, with Men 's and Women 's finals on Saturday and Sunday. However, weather delays forced both sets of semifinals to be held on Friday that year.
The grounds of the US Open hold a total of 22 courts consisting of four "show courts '' (Arthur Ashe, Louis Armstrong, Grandstand and Court 17), 13 field courts and five practice courts.
The main court is the 22,547 - seat Arthur Ashe Stadium which opened in 1997. It is named after Arthur Ashe, the African - American tennis player who won the men 's final of the inaugural US Open in 1968. The next largest court is the Louis Armstrong Stadium, opened in 1978, extensively renovated from the Singer Bowl, which was built for the 1964 New York World 's Fair. It was the main stadium from 1978 to 1996. Its peak capacity neared 18,000 seats, but was reduced to 10,200 by the removal of the upper tiers of seating after the opening of Arthur Ashe Stadium. The third largest court is the 6,000 - seat Grandstand, created when the rectangular Singer Bowl was transformed into the square Armstrong Stadium, leaving about a third of the Bowl available to become another venue.
In 2011, Court 17 was opened as a fourth show court, with large television screens and electronic line calling which allows player challenges. Sunken into the ground, it has been nicknamed "The Pit ''. It holds 3,000 fans since its full completion in 2012. It is located in the southeast corner of the grounds. Sidecourts 4, 7, and 11 each have a seating capacity of over 1,000.
All the courts used by the US Open are illuminated, allowing television coverage of the tournament to extend into primetime. In 2001, the Women 's final was moved to primetime; CBS Sports president Sean McManus cited significant interest credited to star players Serena Williams and Venus Williams, and the ratings performance of the 1999 Women 's final, which was pushed into primetime due to a rain delay.
Since 1978 the US Open has been played on a hard court surface called Pro DecoTurf. It is a multi-layer cushioned surface and classified by the ITF as medium - fast (category 4), having slightly less friction and producing a lower bounce compared to other hard courts. Each year, before the start of the tournament, the courts are resurfaced.
In 2005, all US Open and US Open Series tennis courts were given blue courts inside the lines to make it easier to see the ball on television (as well as for fans in the stands). The outer portion remains green.
In 2006, the US Open introduced instant replay reviews of calls, using the Hawk - Eye computer system, the first grand - slam event to use the system. According to many experts, the system was implemented due to a controversial quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open between Serena Williams and Jennifer Capriati, where important line calls went against Williams. Instant replay was initially available only on the stadium courts (Ashe and Armstrong), until 2009 when it became available on the Grandstand as well. In 2007, JP Morgan Chase renewed its sponsorship of the US Open and as part of the arrangement, the replay system was renamed to "Chase Review '' on in - stadium video and television.
Sources: US Open, City University of New York (CUNY)
The total prize money for the 2017 US Open championships is US $ 50,400,000, divided as follows:
In addition $600,000 will contribute Champions Invitational events prize money, while $1,478,000 is estimated as players ' per diem. A total of men 's and women 's singles prize money ($36,324,000) will account for more than 78 % of total player compensation, while doubles ($5,463,000) and mixed doubles ($500,000) -- for 12 % and 1 %, respectively.
The US Open has made a five - year agreement to increase the total prize money to $50,400,000 by 2017. As a result, the total base prize money for the 2013 tournament was increased to $33.6 million, a record $8.1 million increase from 2012. The champions of the 2013 US Open Series will also have the opportunity to add $2.6 million in bonus prize money, potentially bringing the total 2013 US Open purse to more than $36 million. In 2014 the total base prize money was $38.3 million. In 2015 the prize money was raised to $42.3 million.
The growth in prize money awarded to the participants has far outpaced inflation over the past forty years. For example, the singles champions in 1973 earned $25,000, which, in 2015 dollars, would equal approximately $133,000. However, in 2015, the singles champions each earned $3.3 million. In other words, in real dollars, today 's champions are paid approximately twenty - five times more than champions were in 1973.
Ranking points for the men (ATP) and women (WTA) have varied at the US Open through the years but presently singles players receive the following points:
Rafael Nadal was the winner of the Men 's Singles in 2017. It was his sixteenth Major Singles title and his third title at the US Open.
Sloane Stephens was the winner of the Women 's Singles in 2017. It was her first Major title.
Jean - Julien Rojer was part of the winning Men 's Doubles team in 2017. It was his second Major Men 's Doubles title and his first title at the US Open.
Horia Tecău was part of the winning Men 's Doubles team in 2017. It was his second Major Men 's Doubles title and his first title at the US Open.
Chan Yung - jan was part of the winning Women 's Doubles team in 2017. It was her first Major title having previously reached the final in 2007 with Chuang Chia - jung.
Martina Hingis was part of the winning Women 's Doubles team and Mixed Doubles team in 2017. It was her fifth and sixth titles at the US Open, earned a total of twenty - five overall Slam titles.
Jamie Murray was part of the winning Mixed Doubles team in 2017. It was his third Major Mixed Doubles title and his second title at the US Open.
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how close are the hawaiian islands to the equator | Hawaiian Islands - wikipedia
The Hawaiian Islands (Hawaiian: Mokupuni o Hawai'i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, numerous smaller islets, and seamounts in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) from the island of Hawai ʻi in the south to northernmost Kure Atoll. Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the "Sandwich Islands '', a name chosen by James Cook in honor of the then First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The contemporary name is derived from the name of the largest island, Hawaii Island.
The Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown by wealthy U.S. and European settlers in 1893. The usurpers then established a republic, and despite opposition from the majority of the Hawaiian people, successfully negotiated with the United States for annexation in 1898. The U.S. state of Hawaii now occupies the archipelago almost in its entirety (including the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands), with the sole exception of Midway Island, which instead separately belongs to the United States as one of its unincorporated territories within the United States Minor Outlying Islands.
The Hawaiian Islands are the exposed peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain, formed by volcanic activity over a hotspot in the Earth 's mantle. The islands are about 1,860 miles (3,000 km) from the nearest continent.
Captain James Cook visited the islands on January 18, 1778 and named them the "Sandwich Islands '' in honor of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, who was one of his sponsors as the First Lord of the Admiralty. This name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name "Hawaii '' gradually began to take precedence.
The Hawaiian Islands have a total land area of 6,423.4 square miles (16,636.5 km). Except for Midway, which is an unincorporated territory of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as Hawaii -- the 50th state of the United States.
The eight main islands of Hawaii (also called the Hawaiian Windward Islands) are listed here. All except Kahoolawe are inhabited.
Smaller islands, atolls, and reefs (all west of Ni ʻihau are uninhabited) form the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, or Hawaiian Leeward Islands:
The state of Hawaii counts 137 "islands '' in the Hawaiian chain. This number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small islands, offshore of the main islands (listed above) and individual islets in each atoll. These are just a few:
This chain of islands, or archipelago, developed as the Pacific Plate moved slowly northwestward over a hotspot in the Earth 's mantle at a rate of approximately 32 miles (51 km) per million years. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, due to longer exposure to erosion. The age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium - argon dating methods. From this study and others, it is estimated that the northwesternmost island, Kure Atoll, is the oldest at approximately 28 million years (Ma); while the southeasternmost island, Hawai ʻi, is approximately 0.4 Ma (400,000 years). The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the southeastern island, Hawai ʻi, and on the submerged but growing volcano to the extreme southeast, Lo ʻihi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images and interpretations of the volcanism. Kīlauea has been erupting nearly continuously since 1983.
Almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser - grained gabbro and diabase. Nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. The majority of eruptions in Hawai ʻi are Hawaiian - type eruptions because basaltic magma is relatively fluid compared with magmas typically involved in more explosive eruptions, such as the andesitic magmas that produce some of the spectacular and dangerous eruptions around the margins of the Pacific basin.
Hawai ʻi island (the Big Island) is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, built from five volcanoes. Mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles (4 km), from sea level to sea floor about 3.1 miles (5 km).
The Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the early earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman and her family. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year.
Hawaii accounted for 7.3 % of the United States ' reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this time period, after Alaska and California.
On October 15, 2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, near the Kona area of the big island. The initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor - to - moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island. Several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles (240 km) from the epicenter. Power outages lasted for several hours to days. Several water mains ruptured. No deaths or life - threatening injuries were reported.
On May 4, 2018 there was a 6.9 earthquake in the zone of volcanic activity from Kīlauea.
Earthquakes are monitored by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory run by the USGS.
The Hawaiian Islands are subject to tsunamis, great waves that strike the shore. Tsunamis are most often caused by earthquakes somewhere in the Pacific. The waves produced by the earthquakes travel at speeds of 400 -- 500 miles per hour (600 -- 800 km / h) and can affect coastal regions thousands of miles (kilometers) away.
Tsunamis may also originate from the Hawaiian Islands. Explosive volcanic activity can cause tsunamis. The island of Moloka ʻi had a catastrophic collapse or debris avalanche over a million years ago; this underwater landslide likely caused tsunamis. The Hilina Slump on the island of Hawai ʻi is another potential place for a large landslide and resulting tsunami.
The city of Hilo on the Big Island has been most affected by tsunamis, where the in - rushing water is accentuated by the shape of Hilo Bay. Coastal cities have tsunami warning sirens.
A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Chile hit the islands on February 27, 2010. It was relatively minor, but local emergency management officials utilized the latest technology and ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The Governor declared it a "good drill '' for the next major event.
A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Japan hit the islands on March 11, 2011. It was relatively minor, but local officials ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The tsunami caused about $30.1 million in damages.
The islands are home to many endemic species. Since human settlement, first by Polynesians, non native trees, plants, and animals were introduced. These included species such as rats and pigs, that have preyed on native birds and invertebrates that initially evolved in the absence of such predators. The growing population of humans has also led to deforestation, forest degradation, treeless grasslands, and environmental degradation. As a result, many species which depended on forest habitats and food became extinct -- with many current species facing extinction. As humans cleared land for farming, monocultural crop production replaced multi-species systems.
The arrival of the Europeans had a more significant impact, with the promotion of large - scale single - species export agriculture and livestock grazing. This led to increased clearing of forests, and the development of towns, adding many more species to the list of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands. As of 2009, many of the remaining endemic species are considered endangered.
On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush issued a public proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The Monument encompasses the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and surrounding waters, forming the largest marine wildlife reserve in the world. In August 2010, UNESCO 's World Heritage Committee added Papahānaumokuākea to its list of World Heritage Site s. On August 26, 2016, President Barack Obama greatly expanded Papahānaumokuākea, quadrupling it from its original size.
The climate of the Hawaiian Islands is tropical but it experiences many different climates, depending on altitude and weather. The islands receive most rainfall from the trade winds on their north and east flanks (the windward side) as a result of orographic precipitation. Coastal areas in general and especially the south and west flanks or leeward sides, tend to be drier.
In general, the lowlands of Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September. The tropical storms, and occasional hurricanes, tend to occur from July through November.
Coordinates: 21 ° N 157 ° W / 21 ° N 157 ° W / 21; - 157
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how does one earn the nobel prize for literature | Nobel Prize in Literature - wikipedia
The Nobel Prize in Literature (Swedish: Nobelpriset i litteratur) is a Swedish literature prize that is awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction '' (original Swedish: "den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning ''). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, the award is based on an author 's body of work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize. The academy announces the name of the laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895. It will not be awarded in 2018, but two names will be awarded in 2019.
Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the world 's most prestigious literature prize, the Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism for its handling of the award. Many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has "become widely seen as a political one -- a peace prize in literary disguise '', whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for "Swedish professors... (to) compar (e) a poet from Indonesia, perhaps translated into English with a novelist from Cameroon, perhaps available only in French, and another who writes in Afrikaans but is published in German and Dutch... ''. As of 2016, 16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, and in particular Swedish, authors. Some, such as Indian academic Sabaree Mitra, have noted that, though the Nobel Prize in Literature is significant and tends to overshadow other awards, it is "not the only benchmark of literary excellence. ''
Nobel 's "vague '' wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk translates as "ideal ''. The Nobel Committee 's interpretation has varied over the years. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale.
Alfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind '' in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish - Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94 % of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor (US $198 million, € 176 million in 2016), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel 's fortune and organize the prizes.
The members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize - awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation 's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. According to Nobel 's will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature.
Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers ' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself.
Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 about 220 proposals are returned. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are then spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature. No one can get the prize without being on the list at least twice, thus many of the same authors reappear and are reviewed repeatedly over the years. The academy is master of thirteen languages, but when a candidate is shortlisted from an unknown language, they call on translators and oath - sworn experts to provide samples of that writer. Other elements of the process are similar to that of other Nobel Prizes. The judges are composed of an 18 member committee who are elected for life and up until 2018, not technically permitted to leave. On 2 May 2018, the Swedish King amended the rules of the academy and made it possible for members to resign. The new rules also state that a member who has been inactive in the work of the academy for more than two years can be asked to resign.
The award is usually announced in October. Sometimes, however, the award has been announced the year after the nominal year, the latest being the 2018 award. In the midst of controversy surrounding claims of sexual assault, conflict of interest, and resignations by officials, on 4 May 2018, the Swedish Academy announced that the 2018 laureate would be announced in 2019 along with the 2019 laureate.
A Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters. If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them.
The prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but as of 2012 it stood at kr 8,000,000 (about US $ 1,100,000), previously it was kr 10,000,000. This was not the first time the prize - amount was decreased -- beginning with a nominal value of kr 150,782 in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as kr 121,333 (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945 -- but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK - 2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001.
The laureate is also invited to give a lecture during "Nobel Week '' in Stockholm; the highlight is the prize - giving ceremony and banquet on 10 December. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin.
The Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833 -- 1896). Nobel 's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share the same design. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Literature was designed by Erik Lindberg.
Nobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize - awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. The Diploma contains a picture and text that states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize.
Potential recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are difficult to predict as nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Currently, only nominations submitted between 1901 and 1965 are available for public viewing. This secrecy has led to speculation about the next Nobel laureate.
What about the rumours circling around the world about certain people being nominated for the Nobel Prize this year? - Well, either it 's just a rumour, or someone among the invited nominators has leaked information. Since the nominations are kept secret for 50 years, you 'll have to wait until then to find out.
According to Göran Malmqvist of the Swedish Academy, Chinese writer Shen Congwen was to have been awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, had he not suddenly died that year.
From 1901 to 1912, the committee, headed by the conservative Carl David af Wirsén, weighed the literary quality of a work against its contribution towards humanity 's struggle ' toward the ideal '. Tolstoy, Ibsen, Zola, and Mark Twain were rejected in favor of authors little read today. During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. August Strindberg was repeatedly bypassed by the committee, but holds the singular distinction of being awarded an Anti-Nobel Prize, conferred by popular acclaim and national subscription and presented to him in 1912 by future prime minister Hjalmar Branting. James Joyce wrote the books that rank 1st and 3rd on the Modern Library 100 Best Novels -- Ulysses and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man -- but Joyce never won; as biographer Gordon Bowker wrote, "That prize was just out of Joyce 's reach. ''
The academy considered Czech writer Karel Čapek 's War with the Newts too offensive to the German government. He also declined to suggest some noncontroversial publication that could be cited as an example of his work, stating "Thank you for the good will, but I have already written my doctoral dissertation ''. He was thus denied the prize.
Spanish playwright Àngel Guimerà, who wrote in the Catalan language was nominated twenty - three times for the Nobel Prize, though he never won, due to controversy about the political significance of the gesture. He was a candidate for the Nobel Prize in 1904, to be shared with the Provençal writer Frédéric Mistral, in recognition of their contributions to literature in non-official languages. Political pressure from Spain 's central government having made this prize impossible, it was eventually awarded to Mistral and to the Spanish language playwright José Echegaray.
The choice of Selma Lagerlöf (Sweden 1858 -- 1940) as Nobel Laureate in 1909 (for the ' lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterizes her writings ') followed fierce debate because of her writing style and subject matter, which broke literary decorums of the time.
According to Swedish Academy archives studied by the newspaper Le Monde on their opening in 2008, French novelist and intellectual André Malraux was seriously considered for the prize in the 1950s. Malraux was competing with Albert Camus but was rejected several times, especially in 1954 and 1955, "so long as he does not come back to novel ''. Thus, Camus was awarded the prize in 1957.
Some attribute W.H. Auden 's not being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature to errors in his translation of 1961 Peace Prize laureate Dag Hammarskjöld 's Vägmärken (Markings) and to statements that Auden made during a Scandinavian lecture tour suggesting that Hammarskjöld was, like Auden, homosexual.
In 1962, John Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The selection was heavily criticized, and described as "one of the Academy 's biggest mistakes '' in one Swedish newspaper. The New York Times asked why the Nobel committee gave the award to an author whose "limited talent is, in his best books, watered down by tenth - rate philosophising '', adding, "we think it interesting that the laurel was not awarded to a writer... whose significance, influence and sheer body of work had already made a more profound impression on the literature of our age ''. Steinbeck himself, when asked if he deserved the Nobel on the day of the announcement, replied: "Frankly, no. '' In 2012 (50 years later), the Nobel Prize opened its archives and it was revealed that Steinbeck was a "compromise choice '' among a shortlist consisting of Steinbeck, British authors Robert Graves and Lawrence Durrell, French dramatist Jean Anouilh and Danish author Karen Blixen. The declassified documents showed that he was chosen as the best of a bad lot: "There are n't any obvious candidates for the Nobel prize and the prize committee is in an unenviable situation, '' wrote committee member Henry Olsson.
In 1964, Jean - Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he wrote declining it, stating that "It is not the same thing if I sign Jean - Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean - Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize laureate. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form. '' Nevertheless he was awarded the prize.
Soviet dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, the 1970 prize laureate, did not attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm for fear that the USSR would prevent his return afterwards (his works there were circulated in samizdat -- clandestine form). After the Swedish government refused to honor Solzhenitsyn with a public award ceremony and lecture at its Moscow embassy, Solzhenitsyn refused the award altogether, commenting that the conditions set by the Swedes (who preferred a private ceremony) were "an insult to the Nobel Prize itself. '' Solzhenitsyn did not accept the award and prize money until 10 December 1974, after he was deported from the Soviet Union.
In 1974, Graham Greene, Vladimir Nabokov, and Saul Bellow were considered but rejected in favor of a joint award for Swedish authors Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson, both members of the Swedish Academy at the time, and unknown outside their home country. Bellow received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976; neither Greene nor Nabokov was awarded it.
Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was nominated for the Prize several times but, as Edwin Williamson, Borges 's biographer, states, the Academy did not award it to him, most likely because of his support of certain Argentine and Chilean right - wing military dictators, including Augusto Pinochet, which, according to Tóibín 's review of Williamson 's Borges: A Life, had complex social and personal contexts. Borges ' failure to receive the Nobel Prize for his support of these right - wing dictators contrasts with the Committee honoring writers who openly supported controversial left - wing dictatorships, including Joseph Stalin, in the cases of Sartre and Pablo Neruda. Also, controversially, Gabriel García Márquez supported the Cuban Revolutionary and President Fidel Castro. In 1986, the Nigerian writer Wole Soyinka received the prize, regardless of the fact that he had held a radio station up at gunpoint in his native country in 1965.
The award to Italian performance artist Dario Fo in 1997 was initially considered "rather lightweight '' by some critics, as he was seen primarily as a performer, and Catholic organizations saw the award to Fo as controversial as he had previously been censured by the Roman Catholic Church. The Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano expressed surprise at Fo 's selection for the prize commenting that "Giving the prize to someone who is also the author of questionable works is beyond all imagination. '' Salman Rushdie and Arthur Miller had been strongly favoured to receive the Prize, but the Nobel organisers were later quoted as saying that they would have been "too predictable, too popular. ''
Camilo José Cela willingly offered his services as an informer for Franco 's regime and had moved voluntarily from Madrid to Galicia during the Spanish Civil War in order to join the rebel forces there; an article by Miguel Angel Villena, Between Fear and Impunity which compiled commentaries by Spanish novelists on the noteworthy silence of the older generation of Spanish novelists on the Francoist pasts of public intellectuals, appeared below a photograph of Cela during the Nobel ceremony in Stockholm in 1989.
The choice of the 2004 laureate, Elfriede Jelinek, was protested by a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund, who had not played an active role in the Academy since 1996; Ahnlund resigned, alleging that selecting Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage '' to the reputation of the award.
The selection of Harold Pinter for the Prize in 2005 was delayed for a couple of days, apparently due to Ahnlund 's resignation, and led to renewed speculations about there being a "political element '' in the Swedish Academy 's awarding of the Prize. Although Pinter was unable to give his controversial Nobel Lecture in person because of ill health, he delivered it from a television studio on video projected on screens to an audience at the Swedish Academy, in Stockholm. His comments have been the source of much commentary and debate. The issue of their "political stance '' was also raised in response to the awards of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Orhan Pamuk and Doris Lessing in 2006 and 2007, respectively.
The 2016 choice of Bob Dylan was the first time a musician and song - writer won the Nobel for Literature. The award caused some controversy, particularly among writers arguing that the literary merits of Dylan 's work are not equal to those of some of his peers. Lebanese novelist Rabih Alameddine tweeted that "Bob Dylan winning a Nobel in Literature is like Mrs Fields being awarded 3 Michelin stars. '' The French Moroccan writer Pierre Assouline described the decision as "contemptuous of writers ''. In a live webchat hosted by The Guardian, Norwegian writer Karl Ove Knausgård said that "I 'm very divided. I love that the novel committee opens up for other kinds of literature -- lyrics and so on. I think that 's brilliant. But knowing that Dylan is the same generation as Thomas Pynchon, Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, makes it very difficult for me to accept it. '' Scottish novelist Irvine Welsh said "I 'm a Dylan fan, but this is an ill conceived nostalgia award wrenched from the rancid prostates of senile, gibbering hippies. '' Dylan 's songwriting peer and friend Leonard Cohen said that no prizes were necessary to recognize the greatness of the man who transformed pop music with records like Highway 61 Revisited. "To me, '' Cohen said, "(the Nobel) is like pinning a medal on Mount Everest for being the highest mountain. '' Writer and commentator Will Self wrote that the award "cheapened '' Dylan whilst hoping the laureate would "follow Sartre in rejecting the award ''.
The prize 's focus on European men, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes (8) than all of Asia (7, if Turkish Orhan Pamuk is included), as well as all of Latin America (7, if Saint Lucian Derek Walcott is included). In 2009, Horace Engdahl, then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that "Europe still is the centre of the literary world '' and that "the US is too isolated, too insular. They do n't translate enough and do n't really participate in the big dialogue of literature. ''
In 2009, Engdahl 's replacement, Peter Englund, rejected this sentiment ("In most language areas... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well '') and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, "I think that is a problem. We tend to relate more easily to literature written in Europe and in the European tradition. '' American critics are known to object that those from their own country, like Philip Roth, Thomas Pynchon, and Cormac McCarthy, have been overlooked, as have Latin Americans such as Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cortázar, and Carlos Fuentes, while in their place Europeans lesser - known to that continent have triumphed. The 2009 award to Herta Müller, previously little - known outside Germany but many times named favorite for the Nobel Prize, re-ignited the viewpoint that the Swedish Academy was biased and Eurocentric.
The 2010 prize was awarded to Mario Vargas Llosa, a native of Peru in South America, a generally well - regarded decision. When the 2011 prize was awarded to the Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer, permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said the prize was not decided based on politics, describing such a notion as "literature for dummies ''. The Swedish Academy awarded the next two prizes to non-Europeans, Chinese author Mo Yan and Canadian short story writer Alice Munro. French writer Patrick Modiano 's win in 2014 renewed questions of Eurocentrism; when asked by The Wall Street Journal "So no American this year, yet again. Why is that? '', Englund reminded Americans of the Canadian origins of the previous year 's recipient, the Academy 's desire for literary quality and the impossibility of rewarding everyone who deserves the prize.
In the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that "as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme, Eucken, and Heyse ''. There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust, Italo Calvino, and Roberto Bolaño. According to Kjell Espmark "the main works of Kafka, Cavafy, and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions of Mandelstam 's poetry were revealed above all in the unpublished poems that his wife saved from extinction and gave to the world long after he had perished in his Siberian exile ''. British novelist Tim Parks ascribed the never - ending controversy surrounding the decisions of the Nobel Committee to the "essential silliness of the prize and our own foolishness at taking it seriously '' and noted that "eighteen (or sixteen) Swedish nationals will have a certain credibility when weighing up works of Swedish literature, but what group could ever really get its mind round the infinitely varied work of scores of different traditions. And why should we ask them to do that? ''
Membership in the 18 - member committee, who select the recipients, is technically for life. Members are not allowed to leave, although they might refuse to participate. For members who do not participate their board seat is left vacant until they die. Twelve active / participating members are required for a quorum.
In 1989, three members resigned in protest after the academy refused to denounce Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini for calling for the death of Salman Rushdie, author of The Satanic Verses.
In April 2018, three members of the academy board resigned in response to a sexual - misconduct investigation involving author Jean - Claude Arnault who is married to board member Katarina Frostenson. Arnault was accused by at least 18 women of sexual assault and harassment. He and his wife were also accused of leaking the names of prize recipients on at least seven occasions so friends could profit from bets. He denied all accusations, although he would be later convicted of rape and sentenced to two years in prison. The three members resigned in protest over the decision by Sara Danius, the board secretary, not to take what they felt was appropriate legal action against Arnault. Two former permanent secretaries, Sture Allén and Horace Engdahl, called Danius a weak leader.
On 10 April, Danius was asked to resign from her position by the Academy, bringing the number of empty seats to four. Frostenson voluntarily agreed to withdraw from participating in the academy, bringing the total of withdrawals to five. Because two other seats were still vacant from the Rushdie affair, this left only 11 active members, one short of the quorum needed to vote in replacements. On 4 May 2018, the Swedish Academy announced that the selection will be postponed until 2019, when two laureates will be chosen. It was still technically possible to choose a 2018 laureate, as only eight active members are required to choose a recipient. However, there were concerns that the academy was not in any condition to credibly present the award. The New Academy Prize in Literature was created as an alternative award for the 2018 only.
The scandal was widely seen as damaging to the credibility of the prize and its authority. "With this scandal you can not possibly say that this group of people has any kind of solid judgment, '' noted Swedish journalist Björn Wiman. As noted by Andrew Brown in The Guardian in a lengthy deconstruction of the scandal:
"The scandal has elements of a tragedy, in which people who set out to serve literature and culture discovered they were only pandering to writers and the people who hang around with them. The pursuit of excellence in art was entangled with the pursuit of social prestige. The academy behaved as if the meals in its clubhouse were as much an accomplishment as the work that got people elected there. ''
The Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Franz Kafka Prize, the Man Booker International Prize, and in the 1960s the Formentor Prix International. In contrast to the other prizes mentioned, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the Man Booker International Prize "is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel ''. The Man Booker International Prize "highlights one writer 's overall contribution to fiction on the world stage '' and "has literary excellence as its sole focus ''. Established in 2005, it is not yet possible to analyze its importance on potential future Nobel Prize in Literature laureates. Only Alice Munro (2009) has been awarded with both. The Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel or the Man Booker International Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Another award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela, Günter Grass, Doris Lessing, and Mario Vargas Llosa.
The America Award in Literature, which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature.
There are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date.
The Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as "the Little Nobel. '' The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works (children 's literature).
After Nobel 's death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to carry out the provisions of his will and to administer his funds. In his will, he had stipulated that four different institutions -- three Swedish and one Norwegian -- should award the prizes. From Stockholm, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences confers the prizes for physics, chemistry, and economics, the Karolinska Institute confers the prize for physiology or medicine, and the Swedish Academy confers the prize for literature. The Norwegian Nobel Committee based in Oslo confers the prize for peace. The Nobel Foundation is the legal owner and functional administrator of the funds and serves as the joint administrative body of the prize - awarding institutions, but it is not concerned with the prize deliberations or decisions, which rest exclusively with the four institutions.
Each Nobel Prize consists of a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money, the amount of which depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation. (A sum of $1,300,000 accompanied each prize in 2005.) A Nobel Prize is either given entirely to one person, divided equally between two persons, or shared by three persons. In the latter case, each of the three persons can receive a one - third share of the prize or two together can receive a one - half share.
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what was the result of the hungarian revolution | Hungarian Revolution of 1956 - Wikipedia
Soviet Union
Hungarian People 's Republic
People 's Socialist Republic of Albania (to 1961)
World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, or Hungarian Uprising of 1956 (Hungarian: 1956 - os forradalom or 1956 - os felkelés), was a nationwide revolt against the Marxist - Leninist government of the Hungarian People 's Republic and its Soviet - imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Though leaderless when it first began, it was the first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR 's forces drove Nazi Germany from its territory at the end of World War II.
The revolt began as a student protest, which attracted thousands as they marched through central Budapest to the Parliament building, calling out on the streets using a van with loudspeakers. A student delegation, entering the radio building to try to broadcast the students ' demands, was detained. When the delegation 's release was demanded by the protesters outside, they were fired upon from within the building by the State Security Police, known as ÁVH (acronym for Állam Védelmi Hatóság, literally "State Protection Authority ''). One student died and was wrapped in a flag and held above the crowd. This was the start of the revolution. As the news spread, disorder and violence erupted throughout the capital.
The revolt spread quickly across Hungary, and the government collapsed. Thousands organised into militias, battling the ÁVH and Soviet troops. Pro-Soviet communists and ÁVH members were often executed or imprisoned, and former political prisoners were released and armed. Radical impromptu workers ' councils wrested municipal control from the ruling Hungarian Working People 's Party and demanded political changes. A new government formally disbanded the ÁVH, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. By the end of October, fighting had almost stopped, and a sense of normality began to return.
After announcing a willingness to negotiate a withdrawal of Soviet forces, the Politburo changed its mind and moved to crush the revolution. On 4 November, a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country. The Hungarian resistance continued until 10 November. Over 2,500 Hungarians and 700 Soviet troops were killed in the conflict, and 200,000 Hungarians fled as refugees. Mass arrests and denunciations continued for months thereafter. By January 1957, the new Soviet - installed government had suppressed all public opposition. These Soviet actions, while strengthening control over the Eastern Bloc, alienated many Western Marxists, leading to splits and / or considerable losses of membership for communist parties in capitalist states.
Public discussion about the revolution was suppressed in Hungary for more than 30 years. Since the thaw of the 1980s, it has been a subject of intense study and debate. At the inauguration of the Third Hungarian Republic in 1989, 23 October was declared a national holiday.
During World War II Hungary was a member of the Axis powers, allied with the forces of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Romania, and Bulgaria. In 1941, the Hungarian military participated in the occupation of Yugoslavia and the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Red Army was able to force back the Hungarian and other Axis invaders, and by 1944 was advancing towards Hungary.
Fearing invasion, the Hungarian government began armistice negotiations with the Allies. These ended when Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the country and set up the pro-Axis Government of National Unity.
Both Hungarian and German forces stationed in Hungary were subsequently defeated when the Soviet Union invaded the country in late 1944.
Towards the end of World War II, the Soviet Army occupied Hungary, with the country coming under the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence. Immediately after World War II, Hungary was a multiparty democracy, and elections in 1945 produced a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. However, the Hungarian Communist Party, a Marxist -- Leninist group who shared the Soviet government 's ideological beliefs, constantly wrested small concessions in a process named salami tactics, which sliced away the elected government 's influence, despite the fact that it had received only 17 % of the vote.
After the elections of 1945, the portfolio of the Interior Ministry, which oversaw the Hungarian State Security Police (Államvédelmi Hatóság, later known as the ÁVH), was transferred from the Independent Smallholders Party to a nominee of the Communist Party. The ÁVH employed methods of intimidation, falsified accusations, imprisonment, and torture to suppress political opposition. The brief period of multi-party democracy came to an end when the Communist Party merged with the Social Democratic Party to become the Hungarian Working People 's Party, which stood its candidate list unopposed in 1949. The People 's Republic of Hungary was then declared.
The Hungarian Working People 's Party set about to modify the economy into socialism by undertaking radical nationalization based on the Soviet model. Writers and journalists were the first to voice open criticism of the government and its policies, publishing critical articles in 1955. By 22 October 1956, Technical University students had resurrected the banned MEFESZ student union, and staged a demonstration on 23 October that set off a chain of events leading directly to the revolution.
Hungary became a communist state under the authoritarian leadership of Mátyás Rákosi. Under Rákosi 's reign, the Security Police (ÁVH) began a series of purges, first within the Communist Party to end opposition to Rákosi 's reign. The victims were labeled as "Titoists, '' "western agents, '' or "Trotskyists '' for as insignificant a crime as spending time in the West to participate in the Spanish Civil War. In total, about half of all the middle and lower level party officials -- at least 7,000 people -- were purged.
From 1950 to 1952, the Security Police forcibly relocated thousands of people to obtain property and housing for the Working People 's Party members, and to remove the threat of the intellectual and ' bourgeois ' class. Thousands were arrested, tortured, tried, and imprisoned in concentration camps, deported to the east, or were executed, including ÁVH founder László Rajk. In a single year, more than 26,000 people were forcibly relocated from Budapest. As a consequence, jobs and housing were very difficult to obtain. The deportees generally experienced terrible living conditions and were interned as slave labor on collective farms. Many died as a result of poor living conditions and malnutrition.
The Rákosi government thoroughly politicised Hungary 's educational system to supplant the educated classes with a "toiling intelligentsia ''. Russian language study and Communist political instruction were made mandatory in schools and universities nationwide. Religious schools were nationalized and church leaders were replaced by those loyal to the government. In 1949 the leader of the Hungarian Catholic Church, Cardinal József Mindszenty, was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment for treason. Under Rákosi, Hungary 's government was among the most repressive in Europe.
The post-war Hungarian economy suffered from multiple challenges. Hungary agreed to pay war reparations approximating US $300 million to the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia and to support Soviet garrisons. The Hungarian National Bank in 1946 estimated the cost of reparations as "between 19 and 22 per cent of the annual national income. '' In 1946, the Hungarian currency experienced marked depreciation, resulting in the highest historic rates of hyperinflation known. Hungary 's participation in the Soviet - sponsored COMECON (Council Of Mutual Economic Assistance) prevented it from trading with the West or receiving Marshall Plan aid.
In addition, Rákosi began his first Five - Year Plan in 1950 - based on Joseph Stalin 's industrial program of the same name that sought to raise industrial output by 380 percent. Like its Soviet counterpart, the Five - Year Plan never achieved these outlandish goals due in part to the crippling effect of the exportation of most of Hungary 's raw resources and technology to the Soviet Union as well as Rákosi 's purges of much of the former professional class. In fact, the Five - Year Plan weakened Hungary 's existing industrial structure and caused real industrial wages to fall by 18 percent between 1949 and 1952.
Although national income per capita rose in the first third of the 1950s, the standard of living fell. Huge income deductions to finance industrial investment reduced disposable personal income; mismanagement created chronic shortages in basic foodstuffs resulting in rationing of bread, sugar, flour, and meat. Compulsory subscriptions to state bonds further reduced personal income. The net result was that disposable real income of workers and employees in 1952 was only two - thirds of what it had been in 1938, whereas in 1949, the proportion had been 90 %. These policies had a cumulative negative effect and fueled discontent as foreign debt grew and the population experienced shortages of goods.
On 5 March 1953, Joseph Stalin died, ushering in a period of moderate liberalization, when most European communist parties developed a reform wing. In Hungary, the reformist Imre Nagy replaced Rákosi, "Stalin 's Best Hungarian Disciple '', as Prime Minister. However, Rákosi remained General Secretary of the Party, and was able to undermine most of Nagy 's reforms. By April 1955, he had Nagy discredited and removed from office. After Khrushchev 's "secret speech '' of February 1956, which denounced Stalin and his protégés, Rákosi was deposed as General Secretary of the Party and replaced by Ernő Gerő on 18 July 1956. Radio Free Europe broadcast the "secret speech '' to Eastern Europe on the advice of Ray S. Cline, who saw it as a way to "as I think I told (Allen Dulles) to say, ' indict the whole Soviet system '. ''
On 14 May 1955, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact, binding Hungary to the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe. Among the principles of this alliance were "respect for the independence and sovereignty of states '' and "non-interference in their internal affairs ''.
In 1955, the Austrian State Treaty and ensuing declaration of neutrality established Austria as a demilitarised and neutral country. This raised Hungarian hopes of also becoming neutral and in 1955 Nagy had considered "... the possibility of Hungary adopting a neutral status on the Austrian pattern ''.
In June 1956, a violent uprising by Polish workers in Poznań was put down by the government, with scores of protesters killed and wounded. Responding to popular demand, in October 1956, the government appointed the recently rehabilitated reformist communist Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary of the Polish United Workers ' Party, with a mandate to negotiate trade concessions and troop reductions with the Soviet government. After a few tense days of negotiations, on 19 October the Soviets finally gave in to Gomułka 's reformist demands. News of the concessions won by the Poles, known as Polish October, emboldened many Hungarians to hope for similar concessions for Hungary and these sentiments contributed significantly to the highly charged political climate that prevailed in Hungary in the second half of October 1956.
Within the Cold War context of the time, by 1956, a fundamental tension had appeared in US policy towards Hungary and the Eastern Bloc generally. The United States hoped to encourage European countries to break away from the bloc through their own efforts but wanted to avoid a US - Soviet military confrontation, as escalation might lead to nuclear war. For these reasons, US policy makers had to consider other means of diminishing Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, short of a rollback policy. This led to the development of containment policies such as economic and psychological warfare, covert operations, and, later, negotiation with the Soviet Union regarding the status of the Eastern states. Vice President Richard Nixon had also argued to the National Security Council that it would serve US interests if the Soviet Union would turn on another uprising as they had in Poland, providing a source of anti-Communist propaganda. However, while CIA director Allen Dulles had claimed he was creating an extensive network in Hungary, at the time the agency had no Hungarian station, almost no agents who spoke the language, and unreliable, corrupt local assets. The agency 's own secret history admitted "at no time did we have anything that could or should have been mistaken for an intelligence operation ''.
In the summer of 1956, relations between Hungary and the US began to improve. At that time, the US responded very favourably to Hungary 's overtures about a possible expansion of bilateral trade relations. Hungary 's desire for better relations was partly attributable to the country 's catastrophic economic situation. Before any results could be achieved, however, the pace of negotiations was slowed by the Hungarian Ministry of Internal Affairs, which feared that better relations with the West might weaken Communist rule in Hungary.
Rákosi 's resignation in July 1956 emboldened students, writers, and journalists to be more active and critical in politics. Students and journalists started a series of intellectual forums examining the problems facing Hungary. These forums, called Petőfi circles, became very popular and attracted thousands of participants. On 6 October 1956, László Rajk, who had been executed by the Rákosi government, was reburied in a moving ceremony that strengthened the party opposition.
On 16 October 1956, university students in Szeged snubbed the official communist student union, the DISZ, by re-establishing the MEFESZ (Union of Hungarian University and Academy Students), a democratic student organization, previously banned under the Rákosi dictatorship. Within days, the student bodies of Pécs, Miskolc, and Sopron followed suit. On 22 October, students of the Technical University compiled a list of sixteen points containing several national policy demands. After the students heard that the Hungarian Writers ' Union planned on the following day to express solidarity with pro-reform movements in Poland by laying a wreath at the statue of Polish - born General Bem, a hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 (1848 -- 49), the students decided to organize a parallel demonstration of sympathy.
On the afternoon of 23 October 1956, approximately 20,400 protesters convened next to the statue of József Bem -- a national hero of Poland and Hungary. Péter Veres, President of the Writers ' Union, read a manifesto to the crowd, which included: The desire for Hungary to be independent from all foreign powers; a political system based on democratic socialism (land reform and public ownership of businesses); Hungary joining the United Nations; and citizens of Hungary should have all the rights of free men. After the students read their proclamation, the crowd chanted a censored patriotic poem the "National Song '', with the refrain: "This we swear, this we swear, that we will no longer be slaves. '' Someone in the crowd cut out the Communist coat of arms from the Hungarian flag, leaving a distinctive hole, and others quickly followed suit. Afterwards, most of the crowd crossed the River Danube to join demonstrators outside the Parliament Building. By 18: 00, the multitude had swollen to more than 200,000 people; the demonstration was spirited, but peaceful.
At 20: 00, First Secretary Ernő Gerő broadcast a speech condemning the writers ' and students ' demands. Angered by Gerő 's hard - line rejection, some demonstrators decided to carry out one of their demands, the removal of Stalin 's 30 - foot - high (9.1 m) bronze statue that was erected in 1951 on the site of a church, which was demolished to make room for the monument. By 21: 30, the statue was toppled and crowds celebrated by placing Hungarian flags in Stalin 's boots, which was all that was left of the statue.
At about the same time, a large crowd gathered at the Radio Budapest building, which was heavily guarded by the ÁVH. The flash point was reached as a delegation attempting to broadcast their demands was detained and the crowd grew increasingly unruly as rumours spread that the protesters had been shot. Tear gas was thrown from the upper windows and the ÁVH opened fire on the crowd, killing many. The ÁVH tried to re-supply itself by hiding arms inside an ambulance, but the crowd detected the ruse and intercepted it. Hungarian soldiers sent to relieve the ÁVH hesitated and then, tearing the red stars from their caps, sided with the crowd. Provoked by the ÁVH attack, protesters reacted violently. Police cars were set ablaze, guns were seized from military depots and distributed to the masses and symbols of the Communist regime were vandalised.
During the night of 23 October, Hungarian Working People 's Party Secretary Ernő Gerő requested Soviet military intervention "to suppress a demonstration that was reaching an ever greater and unprecedented scale. '' The Soviet leadership had formulated contingency plans for intervention in Hungary several months before. By 02: 00 on 24 October, acting in accordance with orders of Georgy Zhukov, the Soviet defence minister, Soviet tanks entered Budapest.
By noon, on 24 October, Soviet tanks were stationed outside the Parliament, and Soviet soldiers guarded key bridges and crossroads. Armed revolutionaries quickly set up barricades to defend Budapest, and were reported to have already captured some Soviet tanks by mid-morning. That day, Imre Nagy replaced András Hegedüs as Prime Minister. On the radio, Nagy called for an end to violence and promised to initiate political reforms that had been shelved three years earlier. The population continued to arm itself as sporadic violence erupted.
Armed protesters seized the radio building. At the offices of the Communist newspaper Szabad Nép unarmed demonstrators were fired upon by ÁVH guards who were then driven out as armed demonstrators arrived. At this point, the revolutionaries ' wrath focused on the ÁVH; Soviet military units were not yet fully engaged, and there were reports of some Soviet troops showing open sympathy for the demonstrators.
On 25 October, a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building. ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighbouring buildings. Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting. Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who joined the uprising, some in the crowd started shooting back.
During this time, the Hungarian Army was divided as the central command structure disintegrated with the rising pressures from the protests on the government. The majority of Hungarian military units in Budapest and the countryside remained uninvolved, as the local commanders generally avoided using force against the protesters and revolutionaries. From 24 to 29 October, however, there were 71 cases of armed clashes between the army and the populace in fifty communities, ranging from the defence of attacks on civilian and military objectives to fighting with insurgents depending on the commanding officer.
One example is in the town of Kecskemét on 26 October, where demonstrations in front of the office of State Security and the local jail led to military action by the Third Corps under the orders of Major General Lajos Gyurkó, in which seven protesters were shot and several of the organizers were arrested. In another case, a fighter jet strafed a protest in the town of Tiszakécske, killing 17 people and wounding 117.
The attacks at the Parliament forced the collapse of the government. Communist First Secretary Ernő Gerő and former Prime Minister András Hegedüs fled to the Soviet Union; Imre Nagy became Prime Minister and János Kádár First Secretary of the Communist Party. Revolutionaries began an aggressive offensive against Soviet troops and the remnants of the ÁVH.
Units led by Béla Király, after attacking the building of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, executed dozens of suspected communists, state security members, and military personnel. Photographs showed victims with signs of torture. On 30 October, Király 's forces attacked the Central Committee of the Communist Party building. Hungarian Communist politician János Berecz, in his government - sponsored "white book '' about the Revolution, referred to how rebels detained thousands of people, and that thousands more had their names on death lists. In the city of Kaposvár, 64 persons including 13 army officers were detained on 31 October.
In Budapest and other areas, the Hungarian Communist committees organised defence. At the Csepel neighbourhood of Budapest, some 250 Communists defended the Csepel Iron and Steel Works. On 27 October, army units were brought in to secure Csepel and restore order. They later withdrew on 29 October, after which the rebels seized control of the area. Communists of Budapest neighbourhood Angyalföld led more than 350 armed workers and 380 servicemen from the Láng Factory. Anti-fascist resistance veterans from World War II participated in the offensive by which the Szabad Nép newspaper 's building was recaptured. In the countryside, defence measures were taken by pro-Communist forces. In Békés County, in and around the town of Szarvas, the armed guards of the Communist Party were in control throughout.
As the Hungarian resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails in the narrow streets of Budapest, revolutionary councils arose nationwide, assumed local governmental authority, and called for general strikes. Public Communist symbols such as red stars and Soviet war memorials were removed, and Communist books were burned. Spontaneous revolutionary militias arose, such as the 400 - man group loosely led by József Dudás, which attacked or murdered Soviet sympathisers and ÁVH members. Soviet units fought primarily in Budapest; elsewhere the countryside was largely quiet. One armoured division stationed in Budapest, commanded by Pál Maléter, instead opted to join the insurgents. Soviet commanders often negotiated local cease - fires with the revolutionaries.
In some regions, Soviet forces managed to quell revolutionary activity. In Budapest, the Soviets were eventually fought to a stand - still and hostilities began to wane. Hungarian general Béla Király, freed from a life sentence for political offences and acting with the support of the Nagy government, sought to restore order by unifying elements of the police, army and insurgent groups into a National Guard. A ceasefire was arranged on 28 October, and by 30 October most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrisons in the Hungarian countryside.
Fighting ceased between 28 October and 4 November, as many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were withdrawing from Hungary. There were approximately 213 Hungarian Working People 's Party members lynched or executed during this period.
The rapid spread of the uprising in the streets of Budapest and the abrupt fall of the Gerő - Hegedüs government left the new national leadership surprised, and at first disorganised. Nagy, a loyal party reformer described as possessing "only modest political skills '', initially appealed to the public for calm and a return to the old order. Yet Nagy, the only remaining Hungarian leader with credibility in both the eyes of the public and the Soviets, "at long last concluded that a popular uprising rather than a counter-revolution was taking place ''. At 13: 20 on 28 October, Nagy announced an immediate and general cease - fire over the radio and, on behalf of the new national government, declared the following:
On 1 November, in a radio address to the Hungarian people, Nagy formally declared Hungary 's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as well as Hungary 's stance of neutrality. Because it held office only ten days, the National Government had little chance to clarify its policies in detail. However, newspaper editorials at the time stressed that Hungary should be a neutral, multi-party social democracy. Many political prisoners were released, most notably Cardinal József Mindszenty. Political parties that were previously banned, such as the Independent Smallholders and the National Peasant Party (under the name "Petőfi Party ''), reappeared to join the coalition.
During this time, in 1,170 communities across Hungary there were 348 cases in which revolutionary councils and protesters dismissed employees of the local administrative councils, 312 cases in which they sacked the persons in charge, and 215 cases in which they burned the local administrative files and records. In addition, in 681 communities demonstrators damaged symbols of Soviet authority such as red stars, Stalin or Lenin statues; 393 in which they damaged Soviet war memorials, and 122 communities in which book burnings took place.
Local revolutionary councils formed throughout Hungary, generally without involvement from the preoccupied National Government in Budapest, and assumed various responsibilities of local government from the defunct Communist party. By 30 October, these councils had been officially sanctioned by the Hungarian Working People 's Party, and the Nagy government asked for their support as "autonomous, democratic local organs formed during the Revolution ''. Likewise, workers ' councils were established at industrial plants and mines, and many unpopular regulations such as production norms were eliminated. The workers ' councils strove to manage the enterprise while protecting workers ' interests, thus establishing a socialist economy free of rigid party control. Local control by the councils was not always bloodless; in Debrecen, Győr, Sopron, Mosonmagyaróvár and other cities, crowds of demonstrators were fired upon by the ÁVH, with many lives lost. The ÁVH were disarmed, often by force, in many cases assisted by the local police.
In total there were approximately 2,100 local revolutionary and workers councils with over 28,000 members. These councils held a combined conference in Budapest, deciding to end the nationwide labour strikes and resume work on 5 November, with the more important councils sending delegates to the Parliament to assure the Nagy government of their support.
On 24 October, the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (the Politburo) discussed the political upheavals in Poland and Hungary. A hard - line faction led by Molotov was pushing for intervention, but Khrushchev and Marshal Zhukov were initially opposed. A delegation in Budapest reported that the situation was not as dire as had been portrayed. Khrushchev stated that he believed that Party Secretary Ernő Gerő 's request for intervention on 23 October indicated that the Hungarian Party still held the confidence of the Hungarian public. In addition, he saw the protests not as an ideological struggle, but as popular discontent over unresolved basic economic and social issues. The concurrent Suez Crisis was another reason to not intervene; as Khrushchev said on 28 October, it would be a mistake to imitate the "real mess '' of the French and British.
After some debate, the Presidium on 30 October decided not to remove the new Hungarian government. Even Marshal Georgy Zhukov said: "We should withdraw troops from Budapest, and if necessary withdraw from Hungary as a whole. This is a lesson for us in the military - political sphere. '' They adopted a Declaration of the Government of the USSR on the Principles of Development and Further Strengthening of Friendship and Cooperation between the Soviet Union and other Socialist States, which was issued the next day. This document proclaimed: "The Soviet Government is prepared to enter into the appropriate negotiations with the government of the Hungarian People 's Republic and other members of the Warsaw Treaty on the question of the presence of Soviet troops on the territory of Hungary. '' Thus for a brief moment it looked like there could be a peaceful solution.
On 30 October, armed protesters attacked the ÁVH detachment guarding the Budapest Hungarian Working People 's Party headquarters on Köztársaság tér (Republic Square), incited by rumours of prisoners held there and the earlier shootings of demonstrators by the ÁVH in the city of Mosonmagyaróvár. Over 20 ÁVH officers were killed, some of them lynched by the mob. Hungarian army tanks sent to rescue the party headquarters mistakenly bombarded the building. The head of the Budapest party committee, Imre Mező, was wounded and later died. Scenes from Republic Square were shown on Soviet newsreels a few hours later. Revolutionary leaders in Hungary condemned the incident and appealed for calm, and the mob violence soon died down, but images of the victims were nevertheless used as propaganda by various Communist organs.
On 31 October the Soviet leaders decided to reverse their decision from the previous day. There is disagreement among historians whether Hungary 's declaration to exit the Warsaw Pact caused the second Soviet intervention. Minutes of 31 October meeting of the Presidium record that the decision to intervene militarily was taken one day before Hungary declared its neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Historians who deny that Hungarian neutrality -- or other factors such as Western inaction in Hungary or perceived Western weakness due to the Suez crisis -- caused the intervention state that the Soviet decision was based solely on the rapid loss of Communist control in Hungary. However, some Russian historians who are not advocates of the Communist era maintain that the Hungarian declaration of neutrality caused the Kremlin to intervene a second time.
Two days earlier, on 30 October, when Soviet Politburo representatives Anastas Mikoyan and Mikhail Suslov were in Budapest, Nagy had hinted that neutrality was a long - term objective for Hungary, and that he was hoping to discuss this matter with the leaders in the Kremlin. This information was passed on to Moscow by Mikoyan and Suslov. At that time, Khrushchev was in Stalin 's dacha, considering his options regarding Hungary. One of his speech writers later said that the declaration of neutrality was an important factor in his subsequent decision to support intervention. In addition, some Hungarian leaders of the revolution as well as students had called for their country 's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact much earlier, and this may have influenced Soviet decision making.
Several other key events alarmed the Presidium and cemented the interventionists ' position:
In the light of what was taking place in China and the news from Budapest, these militants arrived at the conclusion that "the Party is the incarnation of bureaucratic despotism '' and that "socialism can develop only on the foundations of direct democracy ''. For them the struggle of the Hungarian workers was a struggle "for the principle of direct democracy '' and "all power should be transferred to the Workers Committees of Hungary ''. The Presidium decided to break the de facto ceasefire and crush the Hungarian revolution. The plan was to declare a "Provisional Revolutionary Government '' under János Kádár, who would appeal for Soviet assistance to restore order. According to witnesses, Kádár was in Moscow in early November, and he was in contact with the Soviet embassy while still a member of the Nagy government. Delegations were sent to other Communist governments in Eastern Europe and China, seeking to avoid a regional conflict, and propaganda messages prepared for broadcast when the second Soviet intervention had begun. To disguise these intentions, Soviet diplomats were to engage the Nagy government in talks discussing the withdrawal of Soviet forces.
According to some sources, the Chinese leader Mao Zedong played an important role in Khrushchev 's decision to suppress the Hungarian uprising. Chinese Communist Party Deputy Chairman Liu Shaoqi pressured Khrushchev to send in troops to put down the revolt by force. Although the relations between China and the Soviet Union had deteriorated during the recent years, Mao 's words still carried great weight in the Kremlin, and they were frequently in contact during the crisis. Initially, Mao opposed a second intervention, and this information was passed on to Khrushchev on 30 October, before the Presidium met and decided against intervention. Mao then changed his mind in favour of intervention but, according to William Taubman, it remains unclear when and how Khrushchev learned of this and thus if it influenced his decision on 31 October.
From 1 to 3 November, Khrushchev left Moscow to meet with his European allies and inform them of the decision to intervene. At the first such meeting, he met with Władysław Gomułka in Brest. Then, he had talks with the Romanian, Czechoslovak, and Bulgarian leaders in Bucharest. Finally Khrushchev flew with Malenkov to Yugoslavia, where they met with Josip Broz Tito, who was on holiday on his island Brioni in the Adriatic. The Yugoslavs also persuaded Khrushchev to choose János Kádár instead of Ferenc Münnich as the new leader of Hungary. Two months after the Soviet crackdown, Tito confided in Nikolai Firiubin, the Soviet ambassador to Yugoslavia, that "the reaction raised its head, especially in Croatia, where the reactionary elements openly incited the employees of the Yugoslav security organs to violence. ''
Although John Foster Dulles, the United States Secretary of State recommended on 24 October for the United Nations Security Council to convene to discuss the situation in Hungary, little immediate action was taken to introduce a resolution, in part because other world events unfolded the day after the peaceful interlude started, when allied collusion started the Suez Crisis. The problem was not that Suez distracted US attention from Hungary but that it made the condemnation of Soviet actions very difficult. As Vice President Richard Nixon later explained, "We could n't on one hand, complain about the Soviets intervening in Hungary and, on the other hand, approve of the British and the French picking that particular time to intervene against (Gamel Abdel) Nasser ''.
The US response was reliant on the CIA to covertly effect change, with both covert agents and Radio Free Europe. However, their Hungarian operations collapsed rapidly and they could not locate any of the weapon caches hidden across Europe, nor be sure to whom they 'd send arms. The agency 's main source of information were the newspapers and a State Department employee in Budapest called Geza Katona. By 28 October, on the same night that the new Nagy government came to power, RFE was ramping up its broadcasts -- encouraging armed struggle, advising on how to combat tanks and signing off with "Freedom or Death! '' -- on the orders of Frank Wisner. When Nagy did come to power, CIA director Allen Dulles advised the White House that Cardinal Mindszenty would be a better leader (due to Nagy 's communist past); he had CIA radio broadcasts run propaganda against Nagy, calling him a traitor who 'd invited Soviet troops in. Broadcasts continued to broadcast armed response while the CIA mistakenly believed that the Hungarian army was switching sides and the rebels were gaining arms. (Wisner was recorded as having a "nervous breakdown '' by William Colby as the uprising was crushed)
Responding to the plea by Nagy at the time of the second massive Soviet intervention on 4 November, the Security Council resolution critical of Soviet actions was vetoed by the Soviet Union; instead resolution 120 was adopted to pass the matter onto the General Assembly. The General Assembly, by a vote of 50 in favour, 8 against and 15 abstentions, called on the Soviet Union to end its Hungarian intervention, but the newly constituted Kádár government rejected UN observers.
US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was aware of a detailed study of Hungarian resistance that recommended against US military intervention, and of earlier policy discussions within the National Security Council that focused upon encouraging discontent in Soviet satellite nations only by economic policies and political rhetoric. In a 1998 interview, Hungarian Ambassador Géza Jeszenszky was critical of Western inaction in 1956, citing the influence of the United Nations at that time and giving the example of UN intervention in Korea from 1950 to 1953.
However, a Department of Defense study recently declassified by the National Security Archive suggests that one of the main reasons the United States did not intervene was the risk of inadvertently starting a nuclear war with the Soviet Union. These concerns made the Eisenhower Administration take a more cautious approach to the situation.
During the uprising, the Radio Free Europe (RFE) Hungarian - language programs broadcast news of the political and military situation, as well as appealing to Hungarians to fight the Soviet forces, including tactical advice on resistance methods. After the Soviet suppression of the revolution, RFE was criticised for having misled the Hungarian people that NATO or United Nations would intervene if citizens continued to resist. Allen Dulles lied to Eisenhower that RFE had not promised US aid; Eisenhower believed him, as the transcripts of the broadcasts were kept secret.
On 1 November, Imre Nagy received reports that Soviet forces had entered Hungary from the east and were moving towards Budapest. Nagy sought and received assurances (which proved false) from Soviet ambassador Yuri Andropov that the Soviet Union would not invade. The Cabinet, with János Kádár in agreement, declared Hungary 's neutrality, withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, and requested assistance from the diplomatic corps in Budapest and the UN Secretary - General to defend Hungary 's neutrality. Ambassador Andropov was asked to inform his government that Hungary would begin negotiations on the removal of Soviet forces immediately.
On 3 November, a Hungarian delegation led by the Minister of Defense Pál Maléter were invited to attend negotiations on Soviet withdrawal at the Soviet Military Command at Tököl, near Budapest. At around midnight that evening, General Ivan Serov, Chief of the Soviet Security Police (KGB) ordered the arrest of the Hungarian delegation, and the next day, the Soviet army again attacked Budapest.
During the early morning hours of 4 November, Ferenc Münnich announced on Radio Szolnok the establishment of the "Revolutionary Workers ' - Peasants ' Government of Hungary ''.
The second Soviet intervention, codenamed "Operation Whirlwind '', was launched by Marshal Ivan Konev. The five Soviet divisions stationed in Hungary before 23 October were augmented to a total strength of 17 divisions. The 8th Mechanized Army under command of Lieutenant General Hamazasp Babadzhanian and the 38th Army under Lieutenant General Hadzhi - Umar Mamsurovs from the nearby Carpathian Military District were deployed to Hungary for the operation. Some rank - and - file Soviet soldiers reportedly believed they were being sent to Berlin to fight German fascists. By 21: 30 on 3 November, the Soviet Army had completely encircled Budapest.
At 03: 00 on 4 November, Soviet tanks penetrated Budapest along the Pest side of the Danube in two thrusts: one up the Soroksári road from the south and the other down the Váci road from the north. Thus before a single shot was fired, the Soviets had effectively split the city in half, controlled all bridgeheads, and were shielded to the rear by the wide Danube river. Armoured units crossed into Buda and at 04: 25 fired the first shots at the army barracks on Budaörsi Road. Soon after, Soviet artillery and tank fire was heard in all districts of Budapest. Operation Whirlwind combined air strikes, artillery, and the co-ordinated tank - infantry action of 17 divisions.
Between 4 and 9 November, the Hungarian Army put up sporadic and disorganised resistance, with Marshal Zhukov reporting the disarming of twelve divisions, two armoured regiments, and the entire Hungarian Air Force. The Hungarian Army continued its most formidable resistance in various districts of Budapest and in and around the city of Pécs in the Mecsek Mountains, and in the industrial centre of Dunaújváros (then called Stalintown). Fighting in Budapest consisted of between ten and fifteen thousand resistance fighters, with the heaviest fighting occurring in the working - class stronghold of Csepel on the Danube River. Although some very senior officers were openly pro-Soviet, the rank and file soldiers were overwhelmingly loyal to the revolution and either fought against the invasion or deserted. The United Nations reported that there were no recorded incidents of Hungarian Army units fighting on the side of the Soviets.
At 05: 20 on 4 November, Imre Nagy broadcast his final plea to the nation and the world, announcing that Soviet Forces were attacking Budapest and that the Government remained at its post. The radio station, Free Kossuth Rádió, stopped broadcasting at 08: 07. An emergency Cabinet meeting was held in the Parliament but was attended by only three ministers. As Soviet troops arrived to occupy the building, a negotiated evacuation ensued, leaving Minister of State István Bibó as the last representative of the National Government remaining at his post. He wrote For Freedom and Truth, a stirring proclamation to the nation and the world.
At 06: 00, on 4 November, in the town of Szolnok, János Kádár proclaimed the "Hungarian Revolutionary Worker - Peasant Government ''. His statement declared "We must put an end to the excesses of the counter-revolutionary elements. The hour for action has sounded. We are going to defend the interest of the workers and peasants and the achievements of the people 's democracy. '' Later that evening, Kádár called upon "the faithful fighters of the true cause of socialism '' to come out of hiding and take up arms. However, Hungarian support did not materialise; the fighting did not take on the character of an internally divisive civil war, but rather, in the words of a United Nations report, that of "a well - equipped foreign army crushing by overwhelming force a national movement and eliminating the Government. ''
By 08: 00 organised defence of the city evaporated after the radio station was seized, and many defenders fell back to fortified positions. During the same hour, the parliamentary guard laid down their arms, and forces under Major General K. Grebennik captured Parliament and liberated captured ministers of the Rákosi - Hegedüs government. Among the liberated were István Dobi and Sándor Rónai, both of whom became members of the re-established socialist Hungarian government. As they came under attack even in civilian quarters, Soviet troops were unable to differentiate military from civilian targets. For this reason, Soviet tanks often crept along main roads firing indiscriminately into buildings. Hungarian resistance was strongest in the industrial areas of Budapest, with Csepel heavily targeted by Soviet artillery and air strikes.
The longest holdouts against the Soviet assault occurred in Csepel and in Dunaújváros, where fighting lasted until 11 November before the insurgents finally succumbed to the Soviets. At the end of the fighting, Hungarian casualties totalled around 2,500 dead with an additional 20,000 wounded. Budapest bore the brunt of the bloodshed, with 1,569 civilians killed. Approximately 53 percent of the dead were workers, and about half of all the casualties were people younger than thirty. On the Soviet side, 699 men were killed, 1,450 men were wounded, and 51 men were missing in action. Estimates place around 80 percent of all casualties occurring in fighting with the insurgents in the eighth and ninth districts of Budapest.
Soviet reports of the events surrounding, during, and after the disturbance were remarkably consistent in their accounts, more so after the Second Soviet intervention cemented support for the Soviet position among international Communist Parties. Pravda published an account 36 hours after the outbreak of violence, which set the tone for all further reports and subsequent Soviet historiography:
The first Soviet report came out 24 hours after the first Western report. Nagy 's appeal to the United Nations was not reported. After Nagy was arrested outside the Yugoslav embassy, his arrest was not reported. Nor did accounts explain how Nagy went from patriot to traitor. The Soviet press reported calm in Budapest while the Western press reported a revolutionary crisis was breaking out. According to the Soviet account, Hungarians never wanted a revolution at all.
In January 1957, representatives of the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania met in Budapest to review internal developments in Hungary since the establishment of the Soviet - imposed government. A communiqué on the meeting "unanimously concluded '' that Hungarian workers, with the leadership of the Kádár government and support of the Soviet army, defeated attempts "to eliminate the socialist achievements of the Hungarian people ''.
Soviet, Chinese, and other Warsaw Pact governments urged Kádár to proceed with interrogation and trial of former Nagy government ministers, and asked for punitive measures against the "counter-revolutionists ''. In addition the Kádár government published an extensive series of "white books '' (The Counter-Revolutionary Forces in the October Events in Hungary) documenting real incidents of violence against Communist Party and ÁVH members, and the confessions of Nagy supporters. These white books were widely distributed in several languages in most of the socialist countries and, while based in fact, present factual evidence with a colouring and narrative not generally supported by non-Soviet aligned historians.
In the immediate aftermath, many thousands of Hungarians were arrested. Eventually, 26,000 of these were brought before the Hungarian courts, 22,000 were sentenced and imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 229 executed. Approximately 200,000 fled Hungary as refugees. Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed. Sporadic resistance and strikes by workers ' councils continued until mid-1957, causing economic disruption. By 1963, most political prisoners from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released.
With most of Budapest under Soviet control by 8 November, Kádár became Prime Minister of the "Revolutionary Worker - Peasant Government '' and General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party. Few Hungarians rejoined the reorganised Party, its leadership having been purged under the supervision of the Soviet Praesidium, led by Georgy Malenkov and Mikhail Suslov. Although Party membership declined from 800,000 before the uprising to 100,000 by December 1956, Kádár steadily increased his control over Hungary and neutralised dissenters. The new government attempted to enlist support by espousing popular principles of Hungarian self - determination voiced during the uprising, but Soviet troops remained. After 1956 the Soviet Union severely purged the Hungarian Army and reinstituted political indoctrination in the units that remained. In May 1957, the Soviet Union increased its troop levels in Hungary and by treaty Hungary accepted the Soviet presence on a permanent basis.
The Red Cross and the Austrian Army established refugee camps in Traiskirchen and Graz. Imre Nagy along with Georg Lukács, Géza Losonczy, and László Rajk 's widow, Júlia, took refuge in the Embassy of Yugoslavia as Soviet forces overran Budapest. Despite assurances of safe passage out of Hungary by the Soviets and the Kádár government, Nagy and his group were arrested when attempting to leave the embassy on 22 November and taken to Romania. Losonczy died while on a hunger strike in prison awaiting trial when his jailers "carelessly pushed a feeding tube down his windpipe. ''
The remainder of the group was returned to Budapest in 1958. Nagy was executed, along with Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes, after secret trials in June 1958. Their bodies were placed in unmarked graves in the Municipal Cemetery outside Budapest.
During the November 1956 Soviet assault on Budapest, Cardinal Mindszenty was granted political asylum at the United States embassy, where he lived for the next 15 years, refusing to leave Hungary unless the government reversed his 1949 conviction for treason. Because of poor health and a request from the Vatican, he finally left the embassy for Austria in September 1971.
Despite Cold War rhetoric by western countries espousing a roll - back of the domination of Europe by the USSR and Soviet promises of the imminent triumph of socialism, national leaders of this period as well as later historians saw the failure of the uprising in Hungary as evidence that the Cold War in Europe had become a stalemate.
The Foreign Minister of West Germany recommended that the people of Eastern Europe be discouraged from "taking dramatic action which might have disastrous consequences for themselves. '' The Secretary - General of NATO called the Hungarian revolt "the collective suicide of a whole people ''. In a newspaper interview in 1957, Khrushchev commented "support by United States... is rather in the nature of the support that the rope gives to a hanged man. ''
In January 1957, United Nations Secretary - General Dag Hammarskjöld, acting in response to UN General Assembly resolutions requesting investigation and observation of the events in Soviet - occupied Hungary, established the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary. The Committee, with representatives from Australia, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Denmark, Tunisia, and Uruguay, conducted hearings in New York, Geneva, Rome, Vienna, and London. Over five months, 111 refugees were interviewed including ministers, military commanders and other officials of the Nagy government, workers, revolutionary council members, factory managers and technicians, Communists and non-Communists, students, writers, teachers, medical personnel, and Hungarian soldiers. Documents, newspapers, radio transcripts, photos, film footage, and other records from Hungary were also reviewed, as well as written testimony of 200 other Hungarians.
The governments of Hungary and Romania refused the UN officials of the Committee entry, and the government of the Soviet Union did not respond to requests for information. The 268 - page Committee Report was presented to the General Assembly in June 1957, documenting the course of the uprising and Soviet intervention, and concluding that "the Kádár government and Soviet occupation were in violation of the human rights of the Hungarian people. '' A General Assembly resolution was approved, deploring "the repression of the Hungarian people and the Soviet occupation '' but no other action was taken. The chairman of the Committee was Alsing Andersen, a Danish politician and leading figure of Denmark 's Social Democratic Party. He served in the Buhl government in 1942 during the Nazi German occupation of Denmark. He defended collaboration with the occupation forces and denounced the Resistance. He was appointed Interior Minister in 1947, but resigned because of scrutiny of his role in 1940 as Defence Minister. He then entered Denmark 's UN delegation in 1948.
The Committee Report and the motives of its authors were criticised by delegations to the United Nations. The Hungarian representative disagreed with the report 's conclusions, accusing it of falsifying the events, and argued that the establishment of the Committee was illegal. The Committee was accused of being hostile to Hungary and its social system. An article in the Russian journal "International Affairs '', published by the Foreign Affairs Ministry, carried an article in 1957 in which it denounced the report as a "collection of falsehoods and distortions ''.
Time magazine named the Hungarian Freedom Fighter its Man of the Year for 1956. The accompanying Time article comments that this choice could not have been anticipated until the explosive events of the revolution, almost at the end of 1956. The magazine cover and accompanying text displayed an artist 's depiction of a Hungarian freedom fighter, and used pseudonyms for the three participants whose stories are the subject of the article.
In 2006, Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány referred to this famous Time Man of the Year cover as "the faces of free Hungary '' in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1956 uprising. Prime Minister Gyurcsány, in a joint appearance with British Prime Minister Tony Blair, commented specifically on the Time cover itself, that "It is an idealised image but the faces of the figures are really the face of the revolutionaries ''
At the Melbourne Olympics in 1956, the Soviet handling of the Hungarian uprising led to a boycott by Spain, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. At the Olympic Village, the Hungarian delegation tore down the Communist Hungarian flag and raised the flag of Free Hungary in its place. A confrontation between Soviet and Hungarian teams occurred in the semi-final match of the water polo tournament on 6 December. The match was extremely violent, and was halted in the final minute to quell fighting among spectators. This match, now known as the "blood in the water match '', became the subject of several films. The Hungarian team won the game 4 -- 0 and later was awarded the Olympic gold medal. Norway declined an invitation to the inaugural Bandy World Championship in 1957, citing the presence of a team from the Soviet Union as the reason.
On Sunday, 28 October 1956, as some 55 million Americans watched Ed Sullivan 's popular television variety show, with the then 21 - year - old Elvis Presley headlining for the second time, Sullivan asked viewers to send aid to Hungarian refugees fleeing from the effects of the Soviet invasion. Presley himself made another request for donations during his third and last appearance on Sullivan 's show on 6 January 1957. Presley then dedicated a song for the finale, which he thought fit the mood of the time, namely the gospel song "Peace in the Valley ''. By the end of 1957, these contributions, distributed by the Geneva - based International Red Cross as food rations, clothing, and other essentials, had amounted to some SFR 26 million (US $6 million in 1957 dollars), the equivalent of $52,300,000 in today 's dollars. On 1 March 2011, István Tarlós, the Mayor of Budapest, made Presley an honorary citizen, posthumously, and a plaza located at the intersection of two of the city 's most important avenues was named after Presley, as a gesture of gratitude.
Meanwhile, as the 1950s drew to a close the events in Hungary produced fractures within the Communist political parties of Western European countries. The Italian Communist Party (PCI) suffered a split. According to the official newspaper of the PCI, l'Unità, most ordinary members and the Party leadership, including Palmiro Togliatti and Giorgio Napolitano, supported the actions of the Soviet Union in suppressing the uprising. However Giuseppe Di Vittorio, chief of the Communist trade union CGIL, spoke out against the leadership 's position, as did prominent party members Antonio Giolitti, Loris Fortuna, and many others influential in the Communist party. Pietro Nenni of the Italian Socialist Party, a close ally of the PCI, opposed the Soviet intervention as well. Napolitano, elected in 2006 as President of the Italian Republic, wrote in his 2005 political autobiography that he regretted his justification of Soviet action in Hungary, stating at the time he believed Party unity and the leadership of Soviet communism was more important.
The Communist Party of Great Britain, (CPGB), suffered the loss of thousands of party members following the events in Hungary. Though Peter Fryer, correspondent for the CPGB newspaper The Daily Worker, reported on the violent suppression of the uprising, his dispatches were heavily censored by the party leadership. Upon his return from Hungary Fryer resigned from the paper. He was later expelled by the Communist Party.
In France, moderate Communists, such as historian Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, resigned, questioning the French Communist Party 's policy of supporting Soviet actions. The French philosopher and writer Albert Camus wrote an open letter, The Blood of the Hungarians, criticising the West 's lack of action. Even Jean - Paul Sartre, still a determined Communist, criticised the Soviets in his article Le Fantôme de Staline, in Situations VII. Left Communists were particularly supportive of the revolution.
In December 1991, the preamble of the treaties with the dismembered Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev, and Russia, represented by Boris Yeltsin, apologised officially for the 1956 Soviet actions in Hungary. This apology was repeated by Yeltsin in 1992 during a speech to the Hungarian parliament.
On 13 February 2006, the US State Department commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice commented on the contributions made by 1956 Hungarian refugees to the United States and other host countries, as well as the role of Hungary in providing refuge to East Germans during the 1989 protests against Communist rule. US President George W. Bush also visited Hungary on 22 June 2006, to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary.
On 16 June 1989, the 31st anniversary of his execution, Imre Nagy 's body was reburied with full honours. The Republic of Hungary was declared in 1989 on the 33rd anniversary of the Revolution, and 23 October is now a Hungarian national holiday.
In the north - west corner of MacArthur Park in Los Angeles, California, the Hungarian - American community built a commemorative statue to honour the Hungarian freedom fighters. Built in the late 1960s, the obelisk statue stands with an American eagle watching over the city of Los Angeles.
There are several monuments dedicated to the Commemoration of the Hungarian Revolution throughout the United States. One such monument may be found here in Cleveland, Ohio at the Cardinal Mindszenty Plaza
There is also a monument of A Boy From Pest in the town of Szczecin, Poland.
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death is nothing at all. it does not count. i have only slipped away into the next room | Henry Scott Holland - wikipedia
Henry Scott Holland (27 January 1847 -- 17 March 1918) was Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford. He was also a canon of Christ Church, Oxford. The Scott Holland Memorial Lectures are held in his memory.
He was born at Ledbury, Herefordshire, the son of George Henry Holland (1818 -- 1891) of Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, and of the Hon. Charlotte Dorothy Gifford, the daughter of Lord Gifford. He was educated at Eton where he was a pupil of the influential Master William Johnson Cory, and at the Balliol College of the University of Oxford where he took a first class degree in Greats. During his Oxford time he was greatly influenced by T.H. Green. He had the Oxford degrees of DD, MA, and Honorary DLitt.
After graduation, he was elected as a Student (fellow) of Christ Church, Oxford. In 1884, he left Oxford for St Paul 's Cathedral where he was appointed canon.
He was keenly interested in social justice and formed PESEK (Politics, Economics, Socialism, Ethics and Christianity) which blamed capitalist exploitation for contemporary urban poverty. In 1889, he formed the Christian Social Union.
In 1910, he was appointed Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford University, a post he held until his death in 1918. He is buried in the churchyard of All Saints church, Cuddesdon near Oxford. Because of his surname, Mary Gladstone referred to him affectionately as "Flying Dutchman '' and Fliegende Hollander.
While at St Paul 's Cathedral Holland delivered a sermon in May 1910 following the death of King Edward VII, titled Death the King of Terrors, in which he explores the natural but seemingly contradictory responses to death: the fear of the unexplained and the belief in continuity. It is from his discussion of the latter that perhaps his best - known writing, Death is nothing at all, is drawn:
Death is nothing at all. It does not count. I have only slipped away into the next room. Nothing has happened. Everything remains exactly as it was. I am I, and you are you, and the old life that we lived so fondly together is untouched, unchanged. Whatever we were to each other, that we are still. Call me by the old familiar name. Speak of me in the easy way which you always used. Put no difference into your tone. Wear no forced air of solemnity or sorrow. Laugh as we always laughed at the little jokes that we enjoyed together. Play, smile, think of me, pray for me. Let my name be ever the household word that it always was. Let it be spoken without an effort, without the ghost of a shadow upon it. Life means all that it ever meant. It is the same as it ever was. There is absolute and unbroken continuity. What is this death but a negligible accident? Why should I be out of mind because I am out of sight? I am but waiting for you, for an interval, somewhere very near, just round the corner. All is well. Nothing is hurt; nothing is lost. One brief moment and all will be as it was before. How we shall laugh at the trouble of parting when we meet again!
The frequent use of this passage has provoked some criticism that it fails to accurately reflect either Holland 's theology as a whole, or the focus of the sermon in particular. What has not provoked as much criticism is the affinity of Holland 's passage to St. Augustine 's thoughts in his 4th Century letter 263 to Sapida, in which he writes that Sapida 's brother and their love, although he has died, still are there, like gold that still is yours even if you save it in some locker.
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how far is henry county ga from atlanta | Henry County, Georgia - wikipedia
Henry County is a county located in the north central portion of the U.S. state of Georgia. Per the 2010 census, the population of Henry County is 203,922. The county seat is McDonough. The county was named for Patrick Henry.
Henry County is part of the Atlanta - Sandy Springs - Roswell, GA metropolitan statistical area. It is home to the Atlanta Motor Speedway in Hampton. The Henry County Courthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1995, Henry County was the sixth - fastest - growing county in the United States.
Henry County, Georgia was created by the Georgia State Legislature in 1821 from land acquired from the Creek Indian Nation by the First Treaty of Indian Springs. Henry 's original land area was much larger than it is today, stretching from near Indian Springs (present - day Indian Springs State Park) in the south to the Chattahoochee River near Sandy Springs in the north; encompassing most of present - day Metropolitan Atlanta. Before one year passed the size of the County was diminished through the separation of land areas which, in whole or in part, became present day DeKalb, Fulton, Fayette and Newton Counties. Later divisions resulted in Clayton, Spalding, Rockdale and Butts counties.
In the beginning Henry County was a virgin wilderness, having just been ceded from the Creek Nation. Prior to 1821, the Creeks and a few trappers and traders were the only residents of this area. The Creek Indians left their mark through place names, a few small Indian Mounds scattered around the County and through the arrowheads and broken pottery which can be found throughout Henry County.
Jesse Johnson, son of John Johnson and great - grandfather of U.S. President Lyndon Baines Johnson, was a "first settler '' of Henry County. He was a prosperous farmer, the second sheriff (1822 -- 1835), and judge, before he moved to Texas.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 327 square miles (850 km), of which 322 square miles (830 km) is land and 4.4 square miles (11 km) (1.4 %) is water.
The vast majority of Henry County is located in the Upper Ocmulgee River sub-basin of the Altamaha River basin, with just a very small western corner, west of Hampton, located in the Upper Flint River sub-basin of the ACF River Basin (Apalachicola - Chattahoochee - Flint River Basin).
The Henry County Board of Commissioners is responsible for administering county government to residents. Four commissioners are elected by voters in individual districts, while the commission chairman is elected countywide and serves as the county 's chief executive. June Wood, the current commission chair, is the first African - American to serve in the position since being elected in a December 2016 run - off election. As of January 2017, the following individuals serve the county on the Board of Commissioners:
As of the census of 2000, there were 119,341 people, 41,373 households, and 33,305 families residing in the county. The population density was 370 people per square mile (143 / km). There were 43,166 housing units at an average density of 134 per square mile (52 / km). The racial makeup of the county was 81.38 % White, 14.68 % Black or African American, 0.23 % Native American, 1.76 % Asian, 0.04 % Pacific Islander, 0.79 % from other races, and 1.13 % from two or more races. 2.26 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Census Estimates from the 2008 American Community Survey indicate that the African - American population is 32.6 %.
There were 41,373 households out of which 42.90 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.40 % were married couples living together, 10.30 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.50 % were non-families. 15.40 % of all households were made up of individuals and 4.00 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.19.
In the county, the population was spread out with 29.20 % under the age of 18, 7.40 % from 18 to 24, 34.90 % from 25 to 44, 21.00 % from 45 to 64, and 7.40 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.80 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $57,309, and the median income for a family was $61,607. Males had a median income of $41,449 versus $29,211 for females. The per capita income for the county was $22,945. About 3.70 % of families and 4.90 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.50 % of those under age 18 and 7.80 % of those age 65 or over.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 203,922 people, 70,255 households, and 54,445 families residing in the county. The population density was 633.0 inhabitants per square mile (244.4 / km). There were 76,533 housing units at an average density of 237.6 per square mile (91.7 / km). The racial makeup of the county was 55.0 % white, 36.9 % black or African American, 2.9 % Asian, 0.3 % American Indian, 0.1 % Pacific islander, 2.4 % from other races, and 2.4 % from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 5.8 % of the population. In terms of ancestry, 10.7 % were American, 9.3 % were Irish, 9.2 % were German, and 8.2 % were English.
Of the 70,255 households, 45.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.9 % were married couples living together, 16.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, 22.5 % were non-families, and 18.5 % of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.29. The median age was 35.3 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $63,923 and the median income for a family was $70,972. Males had a median income of $50,198 versus $39,785 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,773. About 6.3 % of families and 8.3 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.7 % of those under age 18 and 5.8 % of those age 65 or over.
Goya Foods has its Atlanta offices in an unincorporated area near McDonough.
WKKP is the local radio media outlet. It broadcasts 24 hours a day on 100.9 FM and 1410 AM, and has a classic country format.
The Henry Herald and the Henry County Times are the local county news print media.
The semi-professional soccer team Georgia Revolution FC plays in the National Premier Soccer League at the Warhawk Stadium.
Local public schools are operated by the Henry County Schools.
Mercer University has a Regional Academic Center in McDonough. The center, opened in 2003, offers programs through the university 's College of Continuing and Professional Studies and Mercer 's Tift College of Education. Clayton State University and Gordon College also offer a range of college courses at the Academy for Advanced Studies in McDonough.
Southern Crescent Technical College 's Henry County Center (in McDonough) offers programs in Allied Health, Business Technology, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Computer Information Systems, Personal Services, Public Safety, and Drafting Technology.
Coordinates: 33 ° 28 ′ N 84 ° 10 ′ W / 33.46 ° N 84.16 ° W / 33.46; - 84.16
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who dies in season 3 agents of shield | Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., which is based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, who assemble a team of Inhumans to deal with new threats to the world. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise, and is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions. Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serve as showrunners.
This season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was ordered in May 2015, and filmed from that July to the following April. Alongside Clark Gregg, who reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, principal cast members Ming - Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, Nick Blood, Adrianne Palicki, Henry Simmons, and Luke Mitchell return from previous seasons, the latter two promoted from their status as recurring characters in season two. The season takes inspiration from the Secret Warriors comic, combining it with the series ' Inhuman and Hydra storylines, while paralleling the film Captain America: Civil War; connections to other MCU television series are also included in the season, as are characters from previous MCU media. Glenn Hetrick created prosthetics for the less - human looking Inhumans, Legacy Effects provided additional practical effects, and FuseFX returned to create the visual effects.
The first episode of the season premiered in Los Angeles on September 23, 2015, with the season, consisting of 22 episodes, airing on ABC beginning on September 29, 2015 until May 17, 2016. The premiere was watched by 4.90 million viewers, higher than any episode of the entire second half of season two. Overall, the season had generally consistent ratings, and received positive reviews; critics felt the series had ' hit its stride ' with the season, and particularly praised the risky bottle episode "4,722 Hours '', though the pacing of the season received criticism for trying to do too much at times. The series was renewed for a fourth season on March 3, 2016.
In March 2014, executive producer Jeffrey Bell stated at the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. PaleyFest panel that the producers and the writers are able to read the screenplays for upcoming Marvel Cinematic Universe films to know where the universe is heading, which allowed them to form a general plan for the show through the end of a third season. The series was renewed for that third season on May 7, 2015. By April 2015, Marvel had been developing a spinoff series to accompany the season, starring Adrianne Palicki and Nick Blood, but ABC opted not to go ahead with it, with entertainment president Paul Lee saying, "We thought the right thing now is to leave (Palicki and Blood) on S.H.I.E.L.D., because S.H.I.E.L.D. is so strong on (sic) the moment ''.
However, a pilot for the spinoff was ordered in August 2015, with the series titled Marvel 's Most Wanted. Bell and fellow Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. executive producer Paul Zbyszewski developed the series, while working on Hunter and Morse 's storyline for season three, preparing them to move over to the spin - off. Bell explained that it would set up Most Wanted by defining exactly who the characters are, such as Hunter and his lack of loyalty to S.H.I.E.L.D. and to ideologies -- "nothing specific about the show, it 's just who Hunter is '' -- and that while the characters are "on S.H.I.E.L.D., we want to take advantage of who they are, and give the audience as much of their relationship with one another, and with other people, as possible. We are aware that there is a potential imminent end, and so they wo n't be neglected. ''
Hunter and Morse are written off the series in the episode "Parting Shot '', both leaving S.H.I.E.L.D., as Palicki and Blood "physically had to go leave to shoot the pilot... they had to stop being on S.H.I.E.L.D. and get ready for the pilot and then shoot the pilot and all of that, so it did n't make sense for us to have all these episodes with them and then not have them in two or three episodes, and then go, "Oh, we were just over here, '' and then come back and go away again. '' On whether they could return to the series at some point, Bell said, "I ca n't answer that, but I can say it would be kind of cheating to make Mack cry like that only to buy it back -- not that we have n't brought characters back from the dead. We want to earn stuff. ''
-- Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb on the real life parallels to the Inhumans that the season explores.
Writing for the third season began in early June 2015, with the story set six months after the events that concluded the second season. Bell stated that S.H.I.E.L.D. would be depicted as it was in the second season, underground with small "pockets '' of S.H.I.E.L.D. around the world, as following the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier "we found we like our team... as underdogs, as opposed to a giant, powerful, NSA organization that can do pretty much anything. ''
Regarding the characters that could appear in the season, Bell said in May 2015 that "The idea of some familiar faces with some new faces is something to look forward to. I also think finding some new Marvel characters to pull into the universe would be cool. Fans seem to respond when there are characters from the Marvel comics and Marvel Cinematic Universe. '' He later explained that the series has the opportunity to explore the Inhumans outside of the Royal Family (who are the major focus of the comics, television series and previously planned film). The season mentions the character Eden Fesi as an Inhuman, who is a mutant in the comics. The change was due to 20th Century Fox controlling the film and television rights to the majority of Marvel 's X-Men and mutant characters.
When asked about possible hints made in the season two finale towards an adaptation of Secret Warriors, Bell noted that the series does share the character Daisy Johnson with that comic, and "the idea of a team of powered people is something we 've seen in the show... I think there 's a world down the road where we do our version. '' Elaborating on this and the series dealing with the many powered people introduced in season two, Bell said, "People seem to respond to powered people on the show and while it 's not going to take over and become what the show 's about, as a texture and flavor of the stories, we really enjoy that. The fact that Inhumans are now out there is something I think we need to investigate ''. He later clarified that characters would not have to be Inhuman to join the Secret Warriors, just powered, and that not just any powered character would be allowed to join, given that Johnson had to go through years of training on top of getting powers to join the team, and so similar rules would apply to other potential members. Executive producers Maurissa Tancharoen and Jed Whedon also discussed the Secret Warriors, the former cautioning "a very slow build '' to the team, and the latter explaining, "We feel a duty to the Cinematic Universe to not hyper - accelerate how many people have powers... We do n't want it to be there 's a thousand people with powers with a show that at its heart is about what it 's like to not have powers in a world with powers. ''
In September 2015, Tancharoen stated the overall theme for the season explored with each character was them "trying to get back in touch with their humanity in a world where Inhumans are popping up, '' with Whedon adding that the nature of couples -- some having broken up in previous episodes, some getting back together, and potential for new ones -- would be explored. Later that month, Bell talked about some of the new character pairings in the season, saying "Putting Mack and Daisy together; putting Hunter and May together; putting Bobbi and Fitz together -- suddenly you have all these different dynamics, all these different stories that you did n't have before. '' Tancharoen later highlighted the number of characters in the season compared to previous, stating that "There 's more scale and scope, but at the same time, I think we 're diving into each character 's internal struggle a little bit more. ''
-- Jed Whedon on the introduction of a possible "cure '' for Inhumanity.
The second part of the season, which begins with episode 11, takes place three months after the events of episode 10. On the structure of the season and shifting the focus between the two parts, Bell stated it was the intent to follow the format from season two, by tying "a whole bunch of (interesting threads) but not all of them off by the midseason. And then we launch something exciting for the back half... the promise of more to come. '' Whedon added that "though we do break the season up, we feel that the season as a whole is one arc '' and so the series would explore the same themes in the second half, "themes of what it means to be human and Inhuman. What does it mean to all these people when they have to live with their actions? Are they capable of the things their enemies are capable of?... What is the true nature of a person? Is everybody capable of everything if put in a terrible position? Or is there true good and a true evil? '' The second half of the season sees the introduction of the comics ' right - wing hate group the Watchdogs, depicted as radicals wishing to "eliminate the Inhumans '', as well as a "cure '' that can prevent terrigenisis in yet - to - transition Inhumans.
"Bouncing Back '' opens with "a mysterious flash - forward to three months in the future, showing an unidentified S.H.I.E.L.D. agent seemingly dead in space. '' Tancharoen called it "the promise of something fairly ominous to come '', and stated, "We will be uncovering things from the midseason opener all the way to the finale. We will slowly be discovering what that image is. '' She added that any "clues '' would likely play out during present day sequences rather than further flash - forwards, such as when Johnson receives a vision of the flash - forward in "Spacetime '', an episode where she learns that "she can not change the outcome of these visions and the future is the future. '' Whedon discussed this idea, and that of the "theory behind the Inhumans that each one of them serves a purpose '', saying, Inhumans "are made, they 're not random. There 's a lack of something that needs filling and an Inhuman will be created that fills that niche. It 's an interesting concept we like playing with, and that plays into the idea of fate, which with our future visions, we 're hitting pretty hard. '' On choosing Lincoln to be the one to die, which the executive producers knew going into the season when forming the arcs for Lincoln, Daisy, and Ward, Bell said he "earned it '' adding that Lincoln comes to a point where he realizes what his purpose is, with Whedon noting that he understands that Daisy has a different purpose. Whedon continued that the decision was based on the fact that the series did not "want to be a body count show, but it is a real world with real stakes. What we had not done is the heroic death and the full - sacrifice death. This was a conscious decision. We also think that there 's a poetry in the fact that the person doing it does n't consider himself a hero. That 's the beauty of the moment -- it 's not just for (Daisy), but it is, and it 's not just for him, but it is. ''
Discussing the season finale, Tancharoen stated, "This season, we 've explored a lot of different themes: There 's the notion of purpose. We also introduced an Inhuman who has a strong sense of faith. We talk a lot about destiny and all these things intertwine. '' Bennet likened the end of the season to "the end of the first book of S.H.I.E.L.D. This finale feels like the end of something bigger and the beginning of a whole new tone for the show. '' Whedon added, "We wanted to put a close to (Hive 's) story. We knew going into this season what our plan was for both Ward and Hive. Our goal was to make it not just feel like victory -- we like to get a victory and also a loss at the same time. '' On whether the Inhumans storyline would also be ending with the season, Whedon said, "We think of it as never closed. We like that we were able to open up that world and make Inhumans a permanent part of the universe. Now, we have a quick - fire way of introducing people with powers. It gives us a lot of leeway in our world, and it lets us explode the metaphors of what it is like to be different. We will never close that chapter. '' On making a six - month time jump at the end of "Ascension '', Bell said that despite each character completing their arcs this season, "we still have a lot of plot. Emotionally, their arcs are done. What the jump lets you do is to do a reset... It allows us to put down a lot of old plot and pick up a lot of new. '' Whedon added, "We 've done it each season, so we just wanted to do it a little early... we would 've done (the time jump) in episode 1 next year but what we wanted to do was tease '' things to come at the end of this season.
All principal cast members from the first and second seasons (Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson, Ming - Na Wen as Melinda May, Brett Dalton as Grant Ward, Chloe Bennet as Daisy Johnson (no longer going by the name of "Skye ''), Iain De Caestecker as Leo Fitz, Elizabeth Henstridge as Jemma Simmons, Nick Blood as Lance Hunter, and Adrianne Palicki as Bobbi Morse) return for the third season. In May 2015, Bell said that the writers would look to incorporate the character Lincoln Campbell into the season, as he was a "nice addition '' to the second season, and that they were looking forward to exploring Mack 's character in new ways during the third season following his role in the second - season finale. Luke Mitchell and Henry Simmons, who recurred as Lincoln and Mack, respectively, throughout the second season, were subsequently promoted to the principal cast for the third. During the season, Grant Ward is killed. His body is possessed by the parasitic Inhuman Hive, based on a creature from the Secret Warriors comic, with Dalton taking on that role. Also returning from earlier in the series are Daz Crawford as Kebo, Peter MacNicol as Elliot Randolph, Blair Underwood as Andrew Garner, Alicia Vela - Bailey as Alisha Whitley, Brian Patrick Wade as Carl Creel, Adrian Pasdar as Glenn Talbot, Raquel Gardner as Carla Talbot, Titus Welliver as Felix Blake, Reed Diamond as Daniel Whitehall, and Derek Phillips as O'Brien.
In July 2015, the Inhuman Lash, a villainous character from the comics, was confirmed to be appearing in the season, while Andrew Howard and Constance Zimmer were cast as Luther Banks and Rosalind Price, respectively, both recurring. In August 2015, Matthew Willig was revealed to be cast as Lash, while Juan Pablo Raba was announced as another new Inhuman, Joey Gutierrez. The next month, Powers Boothe was announced in the recurring role of Gideon Malick, the previously unnamed World Security Council member that he portrayed in The Avengers. The next month, Lash was revealed to be the Inhuman form of Andrew Garner, and Mark Dacascos was announced in the "heavily recurring '' role of Giyera. Tyler Ritter appeared as Grant Ward 's younger brother Thomas in December 2015. The character previously appeared as a boy through flashbacks in "The Well ''. By February 2016, Natalia Cordova - Buckley was cast as Elena "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez, a Secret Warrior from the comics. Axle Whitehead and John Hannah also recur as the Inhuman James / Hellfire and scientist Holden Radcliffe, respectively. Additionally, Alexander Wraith makes multiple appearances as the minor S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Anderson, while William Sadler reprises his role of President Matthew Ellis from Iron Man 3.
The season introduces a new title graphic for the series, replacing the one that appeared for the first two seasons, as well as a new aircraft for the team called Zephyr One, designed by series visual effects vendor FuseFX. Glenn Hetrick again worked with the make - up and visual effects departments to design and create the more "unique '' - looking Inhumans, such as Lash, after having worked on Raina during season two. Willig 's Lash make - up initially took 6 hours to apply, but the make - up team was able to reduce the time to 4.5 hours. Before a new Inhuman character can be introduced, the cost of creating their powers must be weighed, with Bell saying, "Can we afford to produce this effect? Because every time last year Gordon (teleported) we went, ' Wow, that was (expensive). ' '' For the S.H.I.E.L.D. agents ' costumes, series costume designer Ann Foley made sure to reflect the fact that they have "graduated from the ragtag group of soldiers and scientists to the more precise militaristic outfit they always imagined they were. ''
Bennet cut her hair for the season, in order to further her character 's transformation to the Daisy Johnson / Quake of the comics, while not cutting her hair as short as her comic counterpart. Bennet stated, "The comic book version of Daisy Johnson has very short, Miley Cyrus-esque hair. We wanted to stay true to the comic book character fans love; I wanted to please them but also make sure there was still some movement and length and sexiness in the hair. '' Bennet also received a new costume for the season, along with Quake 's signature gauntlets. On the costume, Foley said, "It 's about strength. She feels very empowered in it... I wanted to stay true to some of the designs I saw in the comics. In the style lines, I wanted to pay a little bit of a tribute to (Daisy 's) tactical ability from last season, but we also incorporated the Quake symbol into her gauntlets and on the back of her suit. '' Legacy Effects created the gauntlets and utility belt, "out of flexible materials painted to look like metal '' so as not to injure anyone during stunts.
After losing a hand at the end of the second season, Coulson receives a prosthetic replacement with "a few surprises hidden inside ''. The hand evolves throughout the season, with a later iteration projecting an energy shield, inspired by a similar one used in the comics by Captain America. The energy shield was created by Cosa, one of the series ' visual effects vendors.
Production on the season began in late July 2015, in Culver City, California, and lasted until late April 2016. Location filming for the alien planet occurred in a work quarry in Simi Valley and in Northridge, Los Angeles near the Mojave Desert.
With the season reinventing the series again, composer Bear McCreary expanded the sound of the score "in a big way ''. In addition to introducing new themes for the characters of Lash and Rosalind Price, McCreary made some changes to the orchestra: "To represent Lash, I brought in larger percussion: merciless pounding taikos that I digitally compressed and distorted. This new, mangled percussion sound is horrific, and will become increasingly important as the season progresses. '' McCreary also brought in trombones "to get the scariest sound possible, '' which resulted in the recording space being reconfigured when they were recorded. For Price, her scenes with Coulson "give the series the feeling of a dense political thriller... I really leaned into that, musically. I introduce light acoustic percussion, mostly egg shakers, to give the pulsing synths a softer edge. And I used an acoustic piano to play the "Rosalind Theme '' at key moments in her scenes... her music is meant to add intrigue and suspicion, and simultaneously allow us to have some fun with their witty banter. '' For "Maveth '', McCreary used a 90 - piece orchestra rather than the series ' typical 50 or 70 players.
On the season 's potential for crossover with the rest of the MCU, Bell said in May 2015 that "I think (last) year worked really well -- we got to be our own show and tell our own stories in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and do a nice hand off or a tie - in, but neither are incumbent upon the other to be a follow, and I think that 's a great model for us. Ant - Man comes out this summer and will have come and gone before we air again in September, so whether there 's anything vestigial from that or for (Captain America: Civil War) next season is to be determined. But we 're in contact with the movie people and them with us, and any time we can put little easter eggs in, it 's a lot of fun for die - hard fans. '' Bell also stated that there was a possibility of Hayley Atwell once again reprising her role as Peggy Carter in the season for an Agent Carter crossover, and after the series acknowledged the character 's death in Civil War, added, "Any time we can make a connection to her, whether in a flashback or dealing with what 's happening now, it makes the universe smaller. ''
In June 2015, it was revealed that the season would include the Secret Warriors team by introducing Inhuman characters inspired by the comic of the same name. The episode "Emancipation '' is set in the aftermath of Civil War, and deals with how the Secret Warriors and other Inhumans are affected by the Sokovia Accords, with some members of the S.H.I.E.L.D. team feeling "Inhumans should be registered and (others) who feel that 's a first step to them being sequestered, imprisoned, exterminated. '' Wen noted that "The connection is there, but it 's also very tenuous at this point, because S.H.I.E.L.D. has become so isolated with what 's going on with the Avengers and them not knowing still that Coulson is alive. '' On how the themes of Civil War allowed the series to make more of a philosophical tie - in than with previous films, Whedon stated that "we do have people across the globe who have powers on our show and there would be varying reactions to that. A lot of fear, some excitement, some people wanting to use it for good, some people wanting to use it for evil. So, a lot of those same themes (from the film) will be addressed on our show. '' Bennet added, "we 've been dealing with the bigger issues of Civil War on a smaller, more personal scale for a while now. It 's been building. We 've been having our own mini version of Civil War. ''
Additionally, the episode "Many Heads, One Tale '' sees the season tie its Hydra and Inhuman storylines together, retconning the history of Hydra in the MCU, while the episode "Watchdogs '' connects the series to several other MCU television shows: by featuring the chemical compound nitramene, which was developed by Howard Stark and seen in the Agent Carter episodes "Now is Not the End '' and "Bridge and Tunnel ''; by noting a gang war in Hell 's Kitchen, as seen in the second season of Daredevil; and by referencing the company Damage Control, which was the focus of a potential MCU television series of the same name and later seen in Spider - Man: Homecoming. Despite similarities between the final conversation between Daisy and Lincoln in "Ascension '' and that of Steve Rogers and Carter in Captain America: The First Avenger, the executive producers did not mirror that scene intentionally, with Whedon stating "There 's something heartbreaking about not being able to be face - to - face with the person ''. "Ascension '' also introduces the concept of Life Model Decoys.
The season began airing in the United States on ABC on September 29, 2015, and ran for 22 episodes. In Australia, the season aired on Fox8, rather than Seven Network with previous seasons, with a two - week delay from the U.S. airings. In the United Kingdom, the season moved to E4 after previously airing on Channel 4, and debuted on January 10, 2016.
To promote the inclusion of the Secret Warriors in the season, at San Diego Comic - Con International 2015, Marvel gave fans a chance to be a part of the team, with ambassadors roaming the convention to find the most dedicated fans and rewarding them with limited edition "Secret Warriors '' pins. Fans with pins were then asked to post a photo of themselves wearing the pin to social media, for cast members of the series to select their favorites. A premiere was held for the season on September 23, 2015, at Pacific Theatres at The Grove in Los Angeles, where the first episode was shown. In early October, Marvel released a comedy video starring Dalton and Marvel Entertainment Chief Creative Officer Joe Quesada discussing a potential rebranding for Hydra, which was conceived and written by Dalton. On October 9, 2015, "A Wanted (Inhu) man '' was screened at New York Comic Con, and on March 26, 2016, "Watchdogs '' was screened at WonderCon.
Also at WonderCon, a poster based on the season was made available, with art by Mike McKone. It features Johnson, her pose an homage to a well - known Secret Warriors cover depicting the comic version of the character, with other main characters paired behind her (Coulson and Price, the latter because "she really was a big part of the first half of the season and... her death is the thing (that) drives Coulson '', according to Bell; Fitz and Simmons; Hunter and Morse; May and Garner / Lash; and Mack and Elena Rodriguez). Lincoln is featured on his own, so as not to "take a super strong female character (Johnson) and reduce her to being a part of a relationship where she wo n't be fulfilled until she finds her man '', as are Ward / Hive and Malick, the latter with the symbol of the former upon him: "We have told you who Ward 's become, and Hive is the person that Malick is really in a relationship with. So the fact that reflection is on him or in him or around him is pretty potent, '' explained Bell.
Beginning with "The Singularity '', the final episodes of the season were marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Fallen Agent, a "four - episode event ''. Marvel released clues as to who the Fallen Agent is online in the form of "sneak peek clips, artwork and more '', leading up to the final reveal in the season finale. Marvel also released a poster for the event that recreated the cover of the "iconic '' The Amazing Spider - Man # 121 that served as the first issue of the story arc "The Night Gwen Stacy Died ''. The poster, created by Greg Land, also appeared as a "rare 1: 1000 '' variant cover for Civil War II # 0. Ahead of the final two episodes of the season, Marvel released a series of videos that "memorialized '' each of the potential characters who could have been the Fallen Agent, with the Fallen Agent ultimately being Lincoln Campbell.
The season began streaming on Netflix on June 16, 2016, and was released on Blu - ray and DVD in Region 4 on March 1, 2017.
The season averaged 5.52 million total viewers, including from DVR, ranking 85th among network series in the 2015 -- 16 television season. It also had an average total 18 - 49 rating of 2.0, which was 47th.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 100 % approval rating with an average score of 8.31 / 10, based on 15 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Still evolving in its third season, Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. further hits its stride with a blend of thrills, humor, and heart. ''
Based on the premiere, Merrill Barr of Forbes felt that the show "has grown up a lot since its first year, and with the start of season three, it 's hard to imagine what complaints any fans could possibly still have. If you want overall continuity, you got it. If you want people with super powers going crazy, it 's there. If you want an ensemble cast that brings the broadcast television corner of the MCU to life, then look no further. The point is, with the new season of S.H.I.E.L.D., it 's everything one could ask from the show. '' Vulture 's Scott Meslow stated that the premiere was "riddled with (many) visual signifiers, highlighting the ways Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. has gradually become sharper, sleeker, and more reliant on the bones of its comic - book source material. ''
Kevin Fitzpatrick at Screen Crush said that "Laws of Nature '' "feels (like) the show 's most confident, ambitious swing yet, its action - packed opening minutes a clear mission statement with an even more specific focus than Season 2. '' Brian Lowry, reviewing the episode for Variety, said, "Television obviously ca n't compete with the budgets and action found in summer blockbusters... but it has an advantage in being able to explore characters. Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. obviously possesses a core audience drawn to those attributes, and showrunners Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen have admirably kept the plot moving ahead -- engaging in larger serialized narratives -- while grappling with the logistics of those ancillary considerations, which include plans for an Inhumans movie ''.
Eric Goldman of IGN scored the season a 7.9 out of 10, feeling it "had its up and downs, mixing in elements that worked (Daisy getting her Quake on, the Fitz and Simmons drama), elements we could have used more of (Secret Warriors!) and elements that just never felt right (Lincoln and his relationship with Daisy). '' Goldman also felt that the first half of the season was "the stronger, more cohesive of the two halves '' as it aired the episode "4,722 Hours '' which Goldman called "the best hour of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. to date. '' He criticized the pacing of the season, saying "some episodes felt a bit jumbled and could have benefited from slowing down a bit -- or simply not trying to do so much at once. Sometimes it was just a question of including too many characters or storylines in single episodes, causing some scenarios to not have time to breathe or get the proper build up they might have with more character - focused episodes. ''
The season 's connection to Captain America: Civil War of paralleling that film 's themes and events was noted by critics:
Alex McCown, writing for The A.V. Club, called the season 's use of the Watchdogs as "the most topical and relevant to our real - world situation Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. has ever gotten '', comparing the group to Cliven Bundy and supporters of Donald Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign, and feeling that "It 's heartening to see the series laying this much groundwork in anticipation of mirroring the events of Civil War. We 've all talked about how the films affect the shows, but not vice versa. This narrative means S.H.I.E.L.D. is taking full advantage of its medium in order to tell the story the upcoming Captain America film ca n't: A full and fraught exploration of the need to protect freedom and privacy, even for those with extraordinary abilities. ''
Fitzpatrick further discussed the "downright eerie parallel to current events '' the Watchdogs brought to the series, saying that "if you stare at the news long enough it starts to mirror fiction, and boy if Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. did n't terrifyingly benefit from that (in "Watchdogs '')... Sometimes, anyone in need of someone to blame for their troubles can fall in with radicals. '' Fitzpatrick noted other MCU tie - ins in the same episode "never felt particularly labored, but rather lived - in with a world that stretches back to Agent Carter - era Stark tech, drops the odd Daredevil Easter Egg, and helps contextualize a world where heroes create country - dropping robots... A topical bent like tonight 's "Watchdogs '' made for a great angle to build up that world mentality without feeling particularly subservient to the movies. ''
The Atlantic named "4,722 Hours '' one of the best television episodes of 2015.
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where is the sermon on the mount in the bible | Sermon on the Mount - wikipedia
Portals: Christianity Bible
The Sermon on the Mount (anglicized from the Matthean Vulgate Latin section title: Sermo in monte) is a collection of sayings and teachings of Jesus, which emphasizes his moral teaching found in the Gospel of Matthew (chapters 5, 6, and 7). It is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew and takes place relatively early in the Ministry of Jesus after he has been baptized by John the Baptist, had fasted and contemplated in the desert, and began to preach in Galilee.
The Sermon is the longest continuous discourse of Jesus found in the New Testament, and has been one of the most widely quoted elements of the Canonical Gospels. It includes some of the best known teachings of Jesus, such as the Beatitudes, and the widely recited Lord 's Prayer. The Sermon on the Mount is generally considered to contain the central tenets of Christian discipleship.
The Sermon on the Mount is Jesus ' longest speech and teaching in the New Testament, and occupies chapters 5, 6 and 7 of the Gospel of Matthew. The Sermon has been one of the most widely quoted elements of the Canonical Gospels.
This is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew, the other four being Matthew 10, Matthew 13 (1 -- 53), Matthew 18 and the Olivet discourse in Matthew 24.
The Sermon is set early in the Ministry of Jesus, after he has been baptized by John the Baptist in chapter 3 of Matthew 's Gospel, gathered his first disciples in chapter 4, and had returned from a long fast and contemplation in the Judaean Desert where he had been tempted by Satan to renounce his spiritual mission and gain worldly riches.
Before this episode, Jesus had been "all about Galilee '' preaching, as in Matthew 4: 23, and "great crowds followed him '' from all around the area. The setting for the sermon is given in Matthew 5: 1 - 2. Jesus sees the multitudes, goes up into the mountain, is followed by his disciples, and begins to preach. The sermon is brought to its close by Matthew 8: 1, which reports that Jesus "came down from the mountain followed by great multitudes ''.
While the issue of the exact theological structure and composition of the Sermon on the Mount is subject to debate among scholars, specific components within it, each associated with particular teachings, can be identified.
Matthew 5: 3 -- 12 discusses the Beatitudes. These describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of Heaven, expressed as "blessings ''. The Greek word most versions of the Gospel render as "blessed, '' can also be translated "happy ''. (See Matthew 5: 3 -- 12 of Young 's Literal Translation for an example.) In Matthew, there are eight (or nine) blessings, while in Luke there are four, followed by four woes.
In almost all cases the phrases used in the Beatitudes are familiar from an Old Testament context, but in the sermon Jesus gives them new meaning. Together, the Beatitudes present a new set of ideals that focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction; they echo the highest ideals of Jesus ' teachings on spirituality and compassion.
In Christian teachings, the Works of Mercy, which have corporal and spiritual components, have resonated with the theme of the Beatitude for mercy. These teachings emphasize that these acts of mercy provide both temporal and spiritual benefits.
Matthew 5: 13 -- 16 presents the metaphors of salt and light. This completes the profile of God 's people presented in the beatitudes, and acts as the introduction to the next section.
There are two parts in this section, using the terms "salt of the earth '' and Light of the World to refer to the disciples -- implying their value. Elsewhere, in John 8: 12, Jesus applies Light of the World to himself.
Jesus preaches about hell and what hell is like: "But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother "Raca (fool) '' shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire. '' Matthew 5: 22 KJV
The longest discourse in the Sermon is Matthew 5: 17 -- 48, traditionally referred to as the Antitheses or Matthew 's Antitheses though Gundry disputes that title. In the discourse, Jesus fulfills and reinterprets the Old Covenant and in particular its Ten Commandments, contrasting with what "you have heard '' from others. For example, he advises turning the other cheek, and to love your enemies, in contrast to taking an eye for an eye. According to most interpretations of Matthew 5: 17, 18, 19, and 20, and most Christian views of the Old Covenant, these new interpretations of the Law and Prophets are not opposed to the Old Testament, which was the position of Marcion, but form Jesus ' new teachings which bring about salvation, and hence must be adhered to, as emphasized in Matthew 7: 24 -- 27 towards the end of the sermon.
In Matthew 6 Jesus condemns doing what would normally be "good works '' simply for recognition and not from the heart, such as those of alms (6: 1 -- 4), prayer (6: 5 -- 15), and fasting (6: 16 -- 18). The discourse goes on to condemn the superficiality of materialism and call the disciples not to worry about material needs, but to "seek '' God 's kingdom first. Within the discourse on ostentation, Matthew presents an example of correct prayer. Luke places this in a different context. The Lord 's prayer (6: 9 -- 13) contains parallels to 1 Chronicles 29: 10 -- 18.
The first part of Matthew 7, i.e. Matthew 7: 1 -- 6 deals with judging. Jesus condemns those who judge others before first judging themselves: "Judge not, that ye be not judged. ''
In the last part in Matthew 7: 7 -- 29 Jesus concludes the sermon by warning against false prophets.
The teachings of the Sermon on the Mount have been a key element of Christian ethics, and for centuries the sermon has acted as a fundamental recipe for the conduct of the followers of Jesus. Various religious and moral thinkers (e.g. Tolstoy and Gandhi) have admired its message, and it has been one of the main sources of Christian pacifism.
In the 5th century, Saint Augustine began his book Our Lord 's Sermon on the Mount by stating:
The last verse of chapter 5 of Matthew (5: 48) is a focal point of the sermon that summarizes its teachings by advising the disciples to seek perfection. '' The Greek word telios used to refer to perfection also implies an end, or destination, advising the disciples to seek the path towards perfection and the Kingdom of God. It teaches that God 's children are those who act like God.
The teachings of the sermon are often referred to as the Ethics of the Kingdom: they place a high level of emphasis on "purity of the heart '' and embody the basic standard of Christian righteousness.
The issue of the theological structure and composition of the Sermon on the Mount remains unresolved. One group of theologians ranging from Saint Augustine in the 5th century to Michael Goulder in the 20th century, see the Beatitudes as the central element of the Sermon. Others such as Bornkamm see the Sermon arranged around the Lord 's prayer, while Daniel Patte, closely followed by Ulrich Luz, see a chiastic structure in the sermon. Dale Allison and Glen Stassen have proposed a structure based on triads. Jack Kingsbury and Hans Dieter Betz see the sermon as composed of theological themes, e.g. righteousness or way of life.
The high ethical standards of the sermon have been interpreted in a wide variety of ways by different Christian groups and Craig S. Keener states that at least 36 different interpretations regarding the message of the Sermon exist, which he divides into 8 categories of views:
Anabaptist groups would hold the Sermon on the Mount to be the primary section of the Gospels that gives direction to how a Christian should live. For example, Matthew 6: 24 says "No man can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye can not serve God and mammon. '' For this reason, certain Anabaptist groups such as the Bruderhof and Hutterites share all their possessions.
While Matthew groups Jesus ' teachings into sets of similar material, the same material is scattered when found in Luke. The Sermon on the Mount may be compared with the similar but more succinct Sermon on the Plain as recounted by the Gospel of Luke (6: 17 -- 49), which occurs at the same moment in Luke 's narrative, and also features Jesus heading up a mountain, but giving the sermon on the way down at a level spot. Some scholars believe that they are the same sermon, while others hold that Jesus frequently preached similar themes in different places.
Although modern parallels between the teachings of Jesus and Buddhist philosophy (concerning both the principle of dependent origination and the concept of no - self as a basis for morality) have been drawn (by the 14th Dalai Lama for example), these comparisons emerged after missionary contacts in the 19th century, and there is no historically reliable evidence of contacts between Buddhism and Jesus during his life. Modern scholarship has almost unanimously agreed that claims of the travels of Jesus to Tibet, Kashmir or India (see Unknown years of Jesus) and the influence of Buddhism on his teachings are without historical basis.
According to perennialist author Frithjof Schuon, the message of the Sermon is a perfect synthesis of the whole Christian tradition. The text has the largest number of perennial and universal doctrines, and spiritual advice of all Scripture. Much of what Bible readers remember from Scripture derives from the Sermon. Source of spiritual and moral instructions, the Sermon on the Mount is regarded by the Perennial Philosophy "as the quintessence itself of religion ''. Perennialism considers the injunctions of the Sermon on the Mount as belonging to the esoteric dimension of Christianity.
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who is signed to simon cowell's record label | Syco Music - wikipedia
Syco Music, also known as Syco Records, is a British record label founded by British music mogul Simon Cowell. It is a subsidiary of Cowell 's Syco.
Syco Music has offices in London and Los Angeles and is home to several artists. Syco has the exclusive right to sign winners and finalists of The X Factor and Got Talent. Susan Boyle 's debut album, I Dreamed a Dream, has sold over 9 million copies, making it one of the best selling releases of the last decade and Syco 's most successful release to date. Between 2004 and 2009, Il Divo achieved four multi-million selling albums and in 2007, Leona Lewis became one of the most successful talent show winners when her second single, "Bleeding Love '', propelled the album Spirit to 9 million global sales. They have signed three of the most successful bands in the world: One Direction, Little Mix, and Fifth Harmony.
In 2010, Syco began diversifying by adding producer / singer - songwriter Labrinth. Savan Kotecha, who had been writing for Syco acts for several years, also became an A&R Director and set up a joint venture, Kanani Songs. Syco also began forming closer partnerships with other Sony Music Entertainment UK labels. For the first time, Syco entered into an agreement with Columbia Records that would see them work together to launch the career of a The X Factor winner - Matt Cardle.
Syco Music and its artists have been the targets of illegal hacking on several separate occasions. In 2009 ahead of the release of Leona Lewis 's second album Echo, a number of unfinished demos and leftover songs from the project leaked online. An investigation was launched by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), working with the record label and police to identify those responsible. Alexandra Burke was also targeted, having two demo versions of songs from her debut album Overcome leak before the album 's release. At the end of March 2010 it was reported that Syco had suffered once again from computer hackers who managed to obtain 14 of Burke 's previously unheard studio recordings as well as 26 from Lewis.
Following the second incident of leaks, Cowell contacted the FBI to track down those responsible. Included in the leaks was a newly recorded version of Burke 's "All Night Long '' featuring American rapper Pitbull, which was tipped to be the singer 's third single in March 2010. According to Burke, the songs were leaked by "Two little boys in Germany on work experience '', working for Syco. It was later revealed in 2011 that songs recorded for Echo were targeted by the German hacker, Deniz A., also known as DJ Stolen. In July 2010, the Rasch law firm logged a criminal complaint against DJ Stolen for "constantly placing hacked songs on the internet ''. Amongst those songs listed in the complaint was one called "Pulse '', described at the time as a new recording by Lewis. DJ Stolen was jailed for 18 months in June 2011.
In 2011, Syco found itself being taken to court for plagiarism after it was reported that a new Lewis song "Collide '' significantly copied "Fade Into Darkness '', a 2010 song by Swedish house music DJ Avicii. The DJ took both artist and label to the British High Court just prior to its release however the case was resolved out of court by releasing the song as a joint single between both artists on 4 September 2011. In February 2013, it was announced that One Direction would be releasing a cover version of "One Way or Another '' and "Teenage Kicks '' as the 2013 Comic Relief single. However, an unfinished version of the song leaked online and on 7 February 2013 Syco launched an investigation. A spokesperson told the press "It is very disappointing that the song has been leaked and we are currently investigating the matter ''.
Some of the artists signed by Cowell such as Westlife and Gareth Gates released their music for a few years through S Records, another company formed by Cowell whose share he then sold to BMG in 2003. Syco Music started releasing music as a label in 2004.
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a term that is used to describe (only) different nuclear forms of the same element is | Isotope - wikipedia
Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number. All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons in each atom. The term isotope is formed from the Greek roots isos (ἴσος "equal '') and topos (τόπος "place ''), meaning "the same place ''; thus, the meaning behind the name is that different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the periodic table.
The number of protons within the atom 's nucleus is called atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of neutrons. The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom 's mass number, and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.
For example, carbon - 12, carbon - 13 and carbon - 14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, which means that every carbon atom has 6 protons, so that the neutron numbers of these isotopes are 6, 7 and 8 respectively.
A nuclide is a species of an atom with a specific number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, for example carbon - 13 with 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The nuclide concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, whereas the isotope concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes chemical over nuclear. The neutron number has large effects on nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties is negligible for most elements. Even in the case of the lightest elements where the ratio of neutron number to atomic number varies the most between isotopes it usually has only a small effect, although it does matter in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest element, the isotope effect is large enough to strongly affect biology). The term isotopes (originally also isotopic elements, now sometimes isotopic nuclides) is intended to imply comparison (like synonyms or isomers), for example: the nuclides,, are isotopes (nuclides with the same atomic number but different mass numbers), but Ar,, Ca are isobars (nuclides with the same mass number). However, because isotope is the older term, it is better known than nuclide, and is still sometimes used in contexts where nuclide might be more appropriate, such as nuclear technology and nuclear medicine.
Isotopes are different kinds of atoms of the same element which have the same numbers of protons (atomic number), but the different numbers of neutrons and different mass number (total number of protons and neutrons).
An isotope and / or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. helium - 3, helium - 4, carbon - 12, carbon - 14, uranium - 235 and uranium - 239). When a chemical symbol is used, e.g. "C '' for carbon, standard notation (now known as "AZE notation '' because A is the mass number, Z the atomic number, and E for element) is to indicate the mass number (number of nucleons) with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a subscript at the lower left (e.g. He, He,,, U, and U). Because the atomic number is given by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g. He, He,,, U, and U). The letter m is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a nuclear isomer, a metastable or energetically - excited nuclear state (as opposed to the lowest - energy ground state), for example Ta (tantalum - 180m).
The common pronunciation of the AZE notation is different from how it is written: He is commonly pronounced as helium - four instead of four - two - helium, and U as uranium two - thirty - five (American English) or uranium - two - three - five (British) instead of 235 - 92 - uranium.
Some isotopes / nuclides are radioactive, and are therefore referred to as radioisotopes or radionuclides, whereas others have never been observed to decay radioactively and are referred to as stable isotopes or stable nuclides. For example, C is a radioactive form of carbon, whereas and are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth, of which 286 are primordial nuclides, meaning that they have existed since the Solar System 's formation.
Primordial nuclides include 32 nuclides with very long half - lives (over 100 million years) and 253 that are formally considered as "stable nuclides '', because they have not been observed to decay. In most cases, for obvious reasons, if an element has stable isotopes, those isotopes predominate in the elemental abundance found on Earth and in the Solar System. However, in the cases of three elements (tellurium, indium, and rhenium) the most abundant isotope found in nature is actually one (or two) extremely long - lived radioisotope (s) of the element, despite these elements having one or more stable isotopes.
Theory predicts that many apparently "stable '' isotopes / nuclides are radioactive, with extremely long half - lives (discounting the possibility of proton decay, which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Of the 253 nuclides never observed to decay, only 90 of these (all from the first 40 elements) are theoretically stable to all known forms of decay. Element 41 (niobium) is theoretically unstable via spontaneous fission, but this has never been detected. Many other stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay products have yet been observed, and so these isotopes are said to be "observationally stable ''. The predicted half - lives for these nuclides often greatly exceed the estimated age of the universe, and in fact there are also 27 known radionuclides (see primordial nuclide) with half - lives longer than the age of the universe.
Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are 3,339 currently known nuclides. These include 905 nuclides that are either stable or have half - lives longer than 60 minutes. See list of nuclides for details.
The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy, based on studies of radioactive decay chains that indicated about 40 different species referred to as radioelements (i.e. radioactive elements) between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements from uranium to lead.
Several attempts to separate these new radioelements chemically had failed. For example, Soddy had shown in 1910 that mesothorium (later shown to be Ra), radium (Ra, the longest - lived isotope), and thorium X (Ra) are impossible to separate. Attempts to place the radioelements in the periodic table led Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently to propose their radioactive displacement law in 1913, to the effect that alpha decay produced an element two places to the left in the periodic table, whereas beta decay emission produced an element one place to the right. Soddy recognized that emission of an alpha particle followed by two beta particles led to the formation of an element chemically identical to the initial element but with a mass four units lighter and with different radioactive properties.
Soddy proposed that several types of atoms (differing in radioactive properties) could occupy the same place in the table. For example, the alpha - decay of uranium - 235 forms thorium - 231, whereas the beta decay of actinium - 230 forms thorium - 230. The term "isotope '', Greek for "at the same place '', was suggested to Soddy by Margaret Todd, a Scottish physician and family friend, during a conversation in which he explained his ideas to her. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry in part for his work on isotopes.
In 1914 T.W. Richards found variations between the atomic weight of lead from different mineral sources, attributable to variations in isotopic composition due to different radioactive origins.
The first evidence for multiple isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive) element was found by J.J. Thomson in 1913 as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive ions). Thomson channeled streams of neon ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path. Each stream created a glowing patch on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the rest.
F.W. Aston subsequently discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph. In 1919 Aston studied neon with sufficient resolution to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to the integers 20 and 22, and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas. This is an example of Aston 's whole number rule for isotopic masses, which states that large deviations of elemental molar masses from integers are primarily due to the fact that the element is a mixture of isotopes. Aston similarly showed that the molar mass of chlorine (35.45) is a weighted average of the almost integral masses for the two isotopes Cl and Cl.
A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus different isotopes of a given element all have the same number of electrons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior.
The main exception to this is the kinetic isotope effect: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced by far for protium (), deuterium (), and tritium (), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium and tritium has three times the mass of protium. These mass differences also affect the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by changing the center of gravity (reduced mass) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less, so that the mass - difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible. (Heavy elements also have relatively more neutrons than lighter elements, so the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is slightly greater.)
Similarly, two molecules that differ only in the isotopes of their atoms (isotopologues) have identical electronic structure, and therefore almost indistinguishable physical and chemical properties (again with deuterium and tritium being the primary exceptions). The vibrational modes of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms; so different isotopologues have different sets of vibrational modes. Because vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb photons of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the infrared range.
Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the residual strong force. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, stabilize the nucleus in two ways. Their copresence pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert the attractive nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to bind into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron: proton ratio of He is 1: 2, the neutron: proton ratio of U is greater than 3: 2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the ratio 1: 1 (Z = N). The nuclide Ca (calcium - 40) is observationally the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of neutrons and protons; (theoretically, the heaviest stable one is sulfur - 32). All stable nuclides heavier than calcium - 40 contain more neutrons than protons.
Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element tin). No element has nine stable isotopes. Xenon is the only element with eight stable isotopes. Four elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, nine have four stable isotopes, five have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting Ta as stable), and 26 elements have only a single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so - called mononuclidic elements, having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well). In total, there are 253 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 253 / 80 = 3.1625 isotopes per element.
The proton: neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. It depends also on evenness or oddness of its atomic number Z, neutron number N and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number A. Oddness of both Z and N tends to lower the nuclear binding energy, making odd nuclei, generally, less stable. This remarkable difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd - A isobars, has important consequences: unstable isotopes with a nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by beta decay (including positron decay), electron capture or other exotic means, such as spontaneous fission and cluster decay.
The majority of stable nuclides are even - proton - even - neutron, where all numbers Z, N, and A are even. The odd - A stable nuclides are divided (roughly evenly) into odd - proton - even - neutron, and even - proton - odd - neutron nuclides. Odd - proton - odd - neutron nuclei are the least common.
The 148 even - proton, even - neutron (EE) nuclides comprise ~ 58 % of all stable nuclides and all have spin 0 because of pairing. There are also 22 primordial long - lived even - even nuclides. As a result, each of the 41 even - numbered elements from 2 to 82 has at least one stable isotope, and most of these elements have several primordial isotopes. Half of these even - numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. The extreme stability of helium - 4 due to a double pairing of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents any nuclides containing five or eight nucleons from existing for long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements via nuclear fusion in stars (see triple alpha process).
These 53 stable nuclides have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. They are a minority in comparison to the even - even isotopes, which are about 3 times as numerous. Among the 41 even - Z elements that have a stable nuclide, only two elements (argon and cerium) have no even - odd stable nuclides. One element (tin) has three. There are 24 elements that have one even - odd nuclide and 13 that have two odd - even nuclides. Of 35 primordial radionuclides there exist four even - odd nuclides (see table at right), including the fissile U. Because of their odd neutron numbers, the even - odd nuclides tend to have large neutron capture cross sections, due to the energy that results from neutron - pairing effects. These stable even - proton odd - neutron nuclides tend to be uncommon by abundance in nature, generally because, to form and enter into primordial abundance, they must have escaped capturing neutrons to form yet other stable even - even isotopes, during both the s - process and r - process of neutron capture, during nucleosynthesis in stars. For this reason, only Pt and Be are the most naturally abundant isotopes of their element.
Forty - eight stable odd - proton - even - neutron nuclides, stabilized by their even numbers of paired neutrons, form most of the stable isotopes of the odd - numbered elements; the very few odd - proton - odd - neutron nuclides comprise the others. There are 41 odd - numbered elements with Z = 1 through 81, of which 39 have stable isotopes (the elements technetium (Tc) and promethium (Pm) have no stable isotopes). Of these 39 odd Z elements, 30 elements (including hydrogen - 1 where 0 neutrons is even) have one stable odd - even isotope, and nine elements: chlorine (Cl), potassium (), copper (Cu), gallium (Ga), bromine (Br), silver (Ag), antimony (Sb), iridium (Ir), and thallium (Tl), have two odd - even stable isotopes each. This makes a total 30 + 2 (9) = 48 stable odd - even isotopes.
There are also five primordial long - lived radioactive odd - even isotopes, Rb, In, Re, Eu, and Bi. The last two were only recently found to decay, with half - lives greater than 10 years.
Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. The first four "odd - odd '' nuclides occur in low mass nuclides, for which changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided proton - neutron ratio (, Li,, and; spins 1, 1, 3, 1). The only other entirely "stable '' odd - odd nuclide is Ta (spin 9) is thought to be the rarest of the 253 stable isotopes, and is the only primordial nuclear isomer, which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental attempts.
Many odd - odd radionuclides (like tantalum - 180) with comparatively short half lives are known. Usually, they beta - decay to their nearby even - even isobars that have paired protons and paired neutrons. Of the nine primordial odd - odd nuclides (five stable and four radioactive with long half lives), only is the most common isotope of a common element. This is the case because it is a part of the CNO cycle. The nuclides Li and are minority isotopes of elements that are themselves rare compared to other light elements, whereas the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of the natural abundance of their elements.
Actinides with odd neutron number are generally fissile (with thermal neutrons), whereas those with even neutron number are generally not, though they are fissionable with fast neutrons. All observationally stable odd - odd nuclides have nonzero integer spin. This is because the single unpaired neutron and unpaired proton have a larger nuclear force attraction to each other if their spins are aligned (producing a total spin of at least 1 unit), instead of anti-aligned. See deuterium for the simplest case of this nuclear behavior.
Only Pt, Be and have odd neutron number and are the most naturally abundant isotope of their element.
Elements are composed of one nuclide (mononuclidic elements) or of more naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either primordial or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of stellar nucleosynthesis or another type of nucleosynthesis such as cosmic ray spallation, and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g. uranium - 238 and potassium - 40). Post-primordial isotopes were created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic nuclides (e.g., tritium, carbon - 14), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive radiogenic nuclide daughter (e.g. uranium to radium). A few isotopes are naturally synthesized as nucleogenic nuclides, by some other natural nuclear reaction, such as when neutrons from natural nuclear fission are absorbed by another atom.
As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus, about two - thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with the largest number of stable isotopes for an element being ten, for tin (Sn). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to plutonium inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as plutonium - 244. Scientists estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes (nuclides) in total. Only 253 of these naturally occurring nuclides are stable in the sense of never having been observed to decay as of the present time. An additional 35 primordial nuclides (to a total of 289 primordial nuclides), are radioactive with known half - lives, but have half - lives longer than 80 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of the Solar System. See list of nuclides for details.
All the known stable nuclides occur naturally on Earth; the other naturally occurring nuclides are radioactive but occur on Earth due to their relatively long half - lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These include the afore - mentioned cosmogenic nuclides, the nucleogenic nuclides, and any radiogenic nuclides formed by ongoing decay of a primordial radioactive nuclide, such as radon and radium from uranium.
An additional ~ 3000 radioactive nuclides not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle accelerators. Many short - lived nuclides not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic analysis, being naturally created in stars or supernovae. An example is aluminium - 26, which is not naturally found on Earth, but is found in abundance on an astronomical scale.
The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass confounded scientists. For example, a sample of chlorine contains 75.8 % chlorine - 35 and 24.2 % chlorine - 37, giving an average atomic mass of 35.5 atomic mass units.
According to generally accepted cosmology theory, only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, traces of some isotopes of lithium and beryllium, and perhaps some boron, were created at the Big Bang, while all other nuclides were synthesized later, in stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced nuclides. (See nucleosynthesis for details of the various processes thought responsible for isotope production.) The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence of the Solar System, isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of meteorites.
The atomic mass (m) of an isotope (nuclide) is determined mainly by its mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus). Small corrections are due to the binding energy of the nucleus (see mass defect), the slight difference in mass between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the electron: nucleon ratio differs among isotopes.
The mass number is a dimensionless quantity. The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the atomic mass unit based on the mass of the carbon - 12 atom. It is denoted with symbols "u '' (for unified atomic mass unit) or "Da '' (for dalton).
The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the atomic mass of the element. When the element contains N isotopes, the expression below is applied for the average atomic mass m _̄ a (\ displaystyle (\ overline (m)) _ (a)):
m _̄ a = m 1 x 1 + m 2 x 2 +... + m N x N (\ displaystyle (\ overline (m)) _ (a) = m_ (1) x_ (1) + m_ (2) x_ (2) +... + m_ (N) x_ (N))
where m, m,..., m are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and x,..., x are the relative abundances of these isotopes.
Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. Isotope separation is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual because it is based on chemical rather than physical properties, for example in the Girdler sulfide process. Uranium isotopes have been separated in bulk by gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, laser ionization separation, and (in the Manhattan Project) by a type of production mass spectrometry.
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when did the toyota rav4 hybrid come out | Toyota RAV4 - wikipedia
The Toyota RAV4 (Japanese: トヨタ RAV4, Toyota Ravufō) is a compact crossover SUV (sport utility vehicle) produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota. This was the first compact crossover SUV; it made its debut in Japan and Europe in 1994, and in North America in 1995. The vehicle was designed for consumers wanting a vehicle that had most of the benefits of SUVs, such as increased cargo room, higher visibility, and the option of full - time four - wheel drive, along with the maneuverability and fuel economy of a compact car. Although not all RAV4s are four - wheel - drive, RAV4 stands for "Recreational Activity Vehicle: 4 - wheel drive '', because the aforementioned equipment is an option in select countries.
In most markets, the RAV4 is the only compact SUV or crossover available from Toyota. In other markets, it is the crossover counterpart of the Toyota FJ Cruiser.
For the third generation model, Toyota offered both short - and long - wheelbase versions of the RAV4. Short - wheelbase versions are sold in Japan and Europe; long - wheelbase versions in Australia and North America. Toyota of Japan also sells the longer - wheelbase version as the Toyota Vanguard (Japanese: トヨタ ヴァン ガード, Toyota Vangādo), at Toyopet Store locations. Japanese versions are sold at two different Toyota Japanese dealerships, called Toyota Corolla Store and Toyota NETZ Store.
The first generation RAV4, known as the XA10 series was constructed on a unique platform that shared Carina and Corolla elements. It launched in Japan in May 1994.
The XA10 series was available in both three and five door versions. In the US, a 2.0 - liter straight - four producing 89 kW (119 hp; 121 PS) was available. Both front - wheel drive and all - wheel drive were available, and the RAV4 could be had with either a five - speed manual or four - speed automatic transmission. It was named the 1997 Automobile of the Year by Automobile Magazine. In 1997 for the 1998 model year, the RAV4 was slightly restyled on the front and rear fascias, and a soft top three - door was made available. Power was increased slightly to 95 kW (127 hp; 129 PS). In June 1999, the two - door hardtop was dropped from the American lineup, leaving the five - door and soft top models. In Japan, the 2.0 - liter 3S - GE BEAMS engine with 132 kW (177 hp; 179 PS) was also available. Some variants of the 1998 Toyota RAV4 were labeled as SXA11 rather than XA10, paired with an owner given name of "RAV 4.1 ''.
The RAV4 EV is a plug - in, all - electric variant of the RAV4. Produced from 1997 to 2003 for fleet lease, this "zero emission '' model was only offered for public sale for seven months in 2002, in very small quantities in California. Powered by an advanced Nickel - metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack capable of storing 27 kWh, the RAV4 EV can go up to 193 km (120 mi) between charges, and came with a 97,000 km (60,000 mi) battery warranty. A total of 1,484 units were leased and / or sold in California, and as of mid-2012, there were almost 500 units still in use.
The second generation, XA20 series RAV4 went on sale in July 2000. Like the previous model, the XA20 was available in three - and five - door configurations and was constructed on a platform that shared Carina and Corolla elements. Development began in 1995, with a design freeze in the first half of 1998. Styling was done at Calty Design Research Incorporated (also simply known as Calty) by Yasuhide Hosoda and Kevin Hunter from 1996 to 1997.
The second generation RAV4 was originally offered in a number of trim levels in the UK: NV was front - wheel drive, while NRG, GX, and VX were permanent four - wheel drive with differing levels of equipment. Although the RAV4 was available as a three - door in Europe, Asia and Australia, the American model was now only available in a five - door configuration. A 1.8 - liter inline - four engine (only with 2WD) producing 92 kW (123 hp; 125 PS), 2.0 - liter inline - four engine producing 110 kW (150 hp; 150 PS), 2.4 - liter inline - four engine producing 118 kW (158 hp; 160 PS), and a D - 4D diesel engine were available. Some RAV4s came with anti-lock braking system, electronic stability control, air conditioning, a height - adjustable driver 's seat, cruise control, a six - speaker CD stereo and power windows, mirrors and seats. A sport package added a mesh grille, bonnet scoop, color - keyed door handles, a roof rack, silver sport pedals, heated mirrors, gray - painted bumpers and fender flares, and sport fabric seats. Other options included alloy wheels, heated seats, a sunroof and keyless entry. 16 - inch wheels were standard; larger tires were available on all - wheel - drive models.
In Australia, the RAV4 came in base Edge and upmarket Cruiser models in both three - and five - door configurations. The main differentiation between the two models was in appearance. Edge models came with unpainted grey bumpers and side cladding, mirrors, and door handles, and featured steel rims. Cruiser models gained body - colored (painted) bumpers and moldings, mirrors, and door handles, alloy wheels, and ABS brakes. All models came equipped with a brand - new 2.0 - liter four - cylinder engine featuring VVT (variable valve timing), resulting in improved power and torque, as well as fuel consumption. Permanent all - wheel - drive was a feature. Options were ABS brakes (on the Edge), and air conditioning (on all models). The second generation RAV4 enjoyed success in Australia, where it became the best - selling SUV in the country in 2001, overtaking its rival, the Honda CR - V, for the first time.
In late 2003, the 2004 model RAV4 was given a styling update, improved equipment, and, in certain markets, a new engine. In the United States the safety structure was improved and Vehicle Stability Control made standard. The RAV4 's 2.0 - liter engine was upgraded with a new 2.4 - liter engine, producing 120 kW (160 hp; 160 PS) and 220 N ⋅ m (162 lb ⋅ ft). Electric air conditioning also became available in Europe.
In Australia, for the facelift, the base Edge was renamed CV, and gained standard air conditioning (previously an option). The CV also received painted bumpers, which came in either silver or body - colored shades, depending on the body color. In addition, the model range was given a subtle facelift, consisting largely of a new front bumper with circular fog lights and white turn signals instead of the older orange lights. In 2005, a new "CV Sport '' model was added to the range in Australia, which included a non-functional bonnet scoop, giving the RAV4 a more aggressive appearance. The CV Sport model was short - lived, lasting only a year, and was introduced primarily to stimulate sales until the new model arrived in early 2006.
Notably, the second - generation RAV4 had the highest proportion of female drivers among all makes and models in the United States with the possible exception of the Volkswagen New Beetle, according to 2003 -- 2004 registration and survey data.
Pre-facelift Toyota RAV4 Cruiser hardtop (Australia)
Facelift Toyota RAV4 hardtop (Japan)
Facelift Toyota RAV4 CV (Australia)
The Toyota RAV4 was redesigned for the 2006 model year, using an all - new platform and was first unveiled at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show. The new RAV4 uses an Electric Power Steering (EPS) system.
The third generation RAV4 is offered in two versions: a short - or a long - wheelbase model. The short - wheelbase model is sold only in Japan, Europe and New Zealand (diesel only in NZ), with the long - wheelbase RAV4 sold in Australia, New Zealand and North America. Since 2007, the extended - length RAV4 is also sold alongside its shorter counterpart in Japan as the Toyota Vanguard, albeit with a revised front - end body work incorporating a revised grille, bumper, bonnet and headlamps.
Japanese models went on sale in 2005 at Toyota NETZ dealers. The 3 - door was dropped in the beginning of 2007, leaving Toyota without a mini SUV until the 2009 Toyota Urban Cruiser, which is sold in Europe, North America (as the Scion xD) and Japan (as the Toyota ist). The XA30 series RAV4 was sold in Japan until July 2016, where the XA40 is not to be offered and was replaced there by the Toyota C - HR. Toyota discontinued the Vanguard in November 2013 in favour of the redesigned Harrier XU60. As the RAV4 continued to grow, it became expensive to own in Japan due to the exterior dimensions and engine displacement placing it in the upper tax bracket as defined by Japanese Government dimension regulations and annual road tax obligations, and the C - HR became more affordable.
It is also the first generation of RAV4 to be offered in regular (for Asian and European markets, dropping the spare wheel from the rear) and extended (for North American and Australian markets) versions. The extended - length RAV4 is larger by 21 % in interior volume from the last generation and now has an available third - row seat for two small children (North America and Japan only). The RAV4 can still be had in either front - wheel - drive or all - wheel - drive in North America and Japan; however most countries only sell the all - wheel - drive version.
In 2008 (for the 2009 model year) RAV4 was given a mid-cycle refresh in some markets, featuring a number of changes, including an all - new 4 - cylinder engine, and a redesigned front end and tweaked rear end. The Limited model gets a different front grille and bumper cover from other models. The Sport model features a bigger spoiler and red badging along with an option on the V6 model to have a rear door without the externally mounted spare tire (run - flat tires are used on this model). New features / options include turn signals integrated into the side mirrors, backup camera (with monitor built into rear - view mirror), satellite navigation, smart keyless entry, a push button starter, a multi-function instrument cluster display, etc. Much of the interior remains the same. In 2009, it was also the first time for the Canadian market to have a 2WD model sold in Canada.
In 2011 (for the 2012 model year) the RAV4 underwent another, light, facelift.
The vehicles were built in Toyota 's Tahara, Aichi assembly plant, and under contract by Toyota Industries in its Nagakusa, Obu, Aichi plant. Beginning in November 2008, vehicles for the North American market were built in the Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada Inc., Second Plant. Beginning in March 2009, Chinese models began production by Tianjin FAW Toyota Motor Co. Ltd. in a joint - venture plant in Tianjin, China.
In 2015, the XA30 series RAV4 was awarded the WheelsTV pre-owned vehicle of the year title.
Model ranges include X, G, and Sport, replacing RAV4 L and RAV4 J. The X and G can be ordered with either front - wheel - drive or AWD. The Sport model with over fenders is AWD only. The extended - length RAV4 is sold in Japan as the Toyota Vanguard, released on August 30, 2007. It is sold in five - and seven - passenger versions and slots between the regular RAV4 and Kluger. As it is often the case in Japan - only vehicles, the Vanguard comes loaded with high - tech gadgets, including steering - assisted stability control, keyless entry and satellite navigation. The Toyota Vanguard was facelifted in 2010.
In Australia, the RAV4 is sold in four - cylinder base CV, Cruiser, Cruiser L and the limited edition "Altitude '' trim levels, and CV6, SX6, and ZR6 are 6 - cylinder variants. The V6 was available from 2007.
In Malaysia, only the 2.0 - liter automatic variant is available, in a single trim level. This model uses the 1AZ - FE four - cylinder, inline 16 - valve engine with DOHC and VVT - i. The output for the 2.0 - liter RAV4 in Malaysia is at 112 kW (150 hp; 152 PS) at 6,000 rpm with a torque of 194 N ⋅ m (143 lb ⋅ ft) at 4,000 rpm.
In the Middle East, the RAV4 is available with a 2.4 - liter engine. Most markets, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), get the all - wheel - drive model with an automatic gearbox, but KSA additionally gets a two - wheel - drive model as well, the base one with a manual gearbox.
North American models include choices of 2.4 - liter 2AZ - FE inline - four or 3.5 - liter 2GR - FE V6 engine. The V6 model has 201 kW (270 hp; 273 PS). In model year 2009, a slightly larger 133 kW (178 hp; 181 PS) 2.5 - liter 2AR - FE inline - four replaced the previous 124 kW (166 hp; 169 PS) 2.4 - liter engine. Either four - cylinder engine came equipped with a four - speed automatic transmission. The North American RAV4 with 3.5 - liter 2GR - FE V6 engine is fitted with a five - speed automatic transmission. All US models feature Toyota 's Star Safety System which includes Vehicle Stability Control. The new RAV4 topped Toyota SUV sales in the United States for the first time.
No manual transmission or diesel engines are available on North American models.
Facelifted for the 2009 model year, North American models include the choice of a new 2AR - FE inline - four or 2GR - FE V6 engine.
The RAV4 was first introduced in 2004; and was only available in two trim levels: Base and L. This was already an outgoing generation but still sold pretty well and both came in 2WD only and both models had, as standard equipment 16 - inch alloy wheels and a roof rack. The new generation RAV4, which is the current model, had more features as standard equipment. Base and Limited trims continue to be available, but on the Limited trim 4WD became an option and the Base model now added 17 - inch steel wheels but the roof rack was still standard in both trims. For the refresh of 2009 the roof rack in the Base model was eliminated as standard equipment and the Sport trim was added to the line - up. Up to 2008MY all RAV4s in Mexico had four - cylinder engines but for 2009 the Sport model became available with the V6 engine, although the four - cylinder engine was still available. The Limited trim was only available with the V6 engine and 4WD traction. For 2010, the RAV4 in Mexico has been simplified again to two trims but now the Limited trim was dropped and consequently killed the 4WD option, while the Base and Sport trims remained unchanged from 2009. The RAV4 in Mexico has experienced good acceptance since its introduction.
The XA30 RAV4 commenced production in China in April 2009. Trim levels were the 2.0 Classic, 2.0 Luxury, 2.0 Luxury Navi, 2.4 Luxury and 2.4 Luxury Navi. Pricing ranged from 198,800 yuan to 264,300 yuan (30,849 to 41,014 USD).
The RAV4 had different styling compared to the RAV4 in other counties where there was a black strip that was placed in between the radiator and licence plate like a moustache. It also had chrome bars below the front and rear bumpers. The licence plate was also moved to the bottom bumper area to make way for the RAV4 logo and a rear foglamp. Front and rear parking sensors are also standard.
Facelift Toyota RAV4 Limited (US)
Facelift Toyota RAV4 Altitude (Australia)
Facelift Toyota RAV4 (Japan)
Toyota Vanguard
Interior
Toyota RAV4 EV (US)
Toyota RAV4 front (China)
Toyota RAV4 rear (China)
Toyota worked together with Tesla Motors to develop the second generation RAV4 EV, and the electric SUV is scheduled for market launch late in the third quarter of 2012. Production will be limited to 2,600 units during the first three years, and sales will be limited to California only, beginning with the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles / Orange County and San Diego.
The second generation RAV4 EV has a 115 kW (154 hp; 156 PS) motor powered by a 41.8 kWh lithium ion battery pack, that Toyota expects to deliver a US Environmental Protection Agency rated range of 148 km (92 mi) in standard charge mode and 182 km (113 mi) in extended charge mode, for a combined range of 166 km (103 mi); and a combined fuel economy rating of 3.1 L / 100 km (91 mpg; 76 mpg). The RAV4 EV battery pack and electronic components are similar to those in used in the Tesla Model S sedan launched in June 2012, because Tesla Motors is the manufacturer of the powertrain.
The fourth generation RAV4 was a complete redesign; it was revealed at the November 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show.
US sales began in early January 2013. In the UK and Australia, the fourth generation RAV4 went on sale in February. Engine choices include a 2.0 - and 2.5 - liter four - cylinder gasoline, and 2.0 - and 2.2 - liter turbodiesels. Transmissions include a six - speed manual, Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), and six - speed automatic.
The RAV4 manufactured in Woodstock, Ontario, Canada has about 50 percent of its parts coming from Japan.
The UK model went on sale in 2013. Early European models include a choice of a 2.0 - liter gasoline or one of three 2.0 - liter diesel engines.
Taiwanese models include a 2.0 - liter Dual VVT - i inline four - cylinder engine with 7 - Speed Continuously Variable Transmission (Sequential Manual) or 2.5 - liter Dual VVT - i inline - four engine with six - speed automatic.
Indonesian models went on sale for a short time in early 2015 and first unveiled at the 2014 Indonesia International Motor Show (IIMS) in Jakarta in September, only available in G type. It includes a 2.0 - liter Dual VVT - i engine with CVT transmission (with seven - speed manual mode). The facelift version is currently available on local import car dealers in Indonesia as of 2017.
The RAV4 no longer uses the V6 from the previous generation -- all engine choices are inline four cylinder engines. Also, unlike the dual wheelbase strategy employed by the previous XA30 model, the XA40 is only sold in single wheelbase (corresponding with the LWB XA30). Therefore, as of April 2014, the previous generation in short - wheelbase length is still sold in Japan in lieu of the newer XA40 which is for export only. The Harrier replaces the long - wheelbase model in Japan, previously badged as the Vanguard. This generation RAV4 has a more traditional tailgate that opens upward instead of the side - opening tailgate of the previous generations.
The full hybrid system combines a 2.5 - liter Atkinson cycle gasoline engine with a powerful electric motor, a high voltage generator, a 204 cell nickel -- metal hydride battery located under the rear seats, a power control unit, and a power split device. RAV4 Hybrids are available in both front and all - wheel drive variants. The all - wheel edition comes equipped with a second, 50 kW high - voltage, rear mounted electric motor that offers increased traction and a 1,750 - pound (790 kg) towing capacity. The rear 's electric motor is capable of operating independently from the hybrid system front 's electric motor, driving the rear wheels alone.
In 2015 for the 2016 model year, Toyota released a facelift for the XA40 series. The facelift debuted with the RAV4 Hybrid shown at the April 2015 New York International Auto Show. The facelift includes redesigned LED front and rear lamps and updated speedometer dials with full color TFT multi information display.
Pre-facelift styling
Front (USA)
Rear (GXL; Australia)
Post-facelift styling
Front (GX; Australia)
Rear (Hybrid; Spain)
In the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) evaluations, the 2013 and 2014 model year RAV4 achieved a "good '' crashworthiness rating for head restraints and seats, roof strength, side, and moderate overlap front, while achieving a "poor '' rating in the IIHS Small Overlap Frontal Test. Modifications were made starting in the 2015 model year which increased the small overlap front rating to "good ''.
The small overlap test, introduced in 2012 by the IIHS, simulates a frontal collision on 25 percent of the driver 's side. Since its adoption, the IIHS has noticed several automakers making non-symmetrical modifications to their vehicles, including the RAV4. Another small overlap test was conducted on a number of vehicles, including a 2015 RAV4, but was conducted on the passenger side instead. The RAV4 fared the worst and would have received a "poor '' rating if the IIHS were to provide ratings for passenger - side protection. The crash test 's intrusion was 330 mm (13 in) further into the vehicle on the passenger 's side than on the driver 's side and caused the passenger door to open during the crash.
The RAV4 Adventure is a concept vehicle that accentuated the car 's look to reinforce its off - road capabilities. It included dark red body color, extended wheel arches, 20 - inch alloy wheels and matte painted front and rear bumpers.
The RAV4 Premium is a concept vehicle with Deep Bronze body color, bumpers in Deep Bronze, chrome - finished spoiler, chrome inserts in the rear bumper, brushed aluminium skid plates, integrated tailpipe at the rear bumper, 20 - inch wheels, leather interior upholstery designed by Toyota 's Kansei design department, seats with black piping and V - shaped outline, two - tone double stitching and grey and black leather on the instrument panel and door panels.
Both vehicles were unveiled at the March 2013 Geneva Motor Show.
A production version of the RAV4 Adventure was added to the US lineup in September 2017.
The fifth - generation RAV4 debuted at the March 2018 New York International Auto Show. The design was previewed by the FT - AC concept shown at December 2017 Los Angeles Auto Show. It will be based on the front - wheel - drive Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA - K) platform, which is also shared with eighth generation Camry, fifth generation Avalon and seventh generation Lexus ES. Both 4 - cylinder gasoline - powered and gasoline - electric hybrid (Hybrid Synergy Drive) variants will remain available.
It will have 6 variants which includes XLE, XSE, XSE Hybrid, Adventure, and Limited models. Both Adventure and Limited grades will have Torque Vectoring All Wheel Drive with Rear Drive Disconnect. The engine is a 2.5 L inline - 4 paired with an 8 - speed Direct Shift Automatic which increases horsepower by up to 15 % on gasoline models. It will have Multi Terrain Select giving drivers an ability to maximize traction when driving on sand, mud, rock, or dirt. A 7 - inch multi-touch screen is available with standard Entune 3.0 is available with Apple Carplay, Amazon Alexa, JBL Audio System and a WIFI Hotspot. It will have QI Wireless Charging with up to 5 USB Ports. Like all 2019 models, it will have Toyota Safety Sense 2.0.
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list and explain the 7 layers of the osi model | OSI model - wikipedia
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to their underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error - free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO / IEC 7498 - 1.
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee, or CCITT (the abbreviation is from the French version of the name). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU - T) as standard X. 200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven - layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven - layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6. 1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N) - layer by an (N - 1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU - T as the X. 200 - series of recommendations. Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU - T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO / IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.
The recommendation X. 200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol - related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI - compatible devices is done as such:
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU - T X. 800 Recommendation). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (for example, an electrical cable, an optical fiber cable, or a radio frequency link). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
The physical layer of Parallel SCSI operates in this layer, as do the physical layers of Ethernet and other local - area networks, such as token ring, FDDI, ITU - T G.hn, and IEEE 802.11 (Wi - Fi), as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15. 4.
The physical layer is the layer of low - level networking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters. The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or other such higher - layer items. Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, repeaters, network hubs, modems, and fiber media converters.
The data link layer provides node - to - node data transfer -- a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi - Fi, and 802.15. 4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU - T G.hn standard, which provides high - speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective - repeat sliding - window protocol.
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected in "different networks ''. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer - management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498 / 4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network - layer information and error, and network - layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable - length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
An example of a transport - layer protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), usually built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP).
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation / desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state - and connection - oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing the long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection - mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error - free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection - mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0 - 4 classes are shown in the following table:
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM 's SNA or Novell 's IPX over an IP network, or end - to - end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network - layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer - 4 protocols within OSI.
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full - duplex, half - duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
The presentation layer establishes context between application - layer entities, in which the application - layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. A common myth is that the Presentation Layer does compression and encryption. This is simply not true. The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN. 1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC - coded text file to an ASCII - coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN. 1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application - layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application - entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application - entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation - specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows ' Winsock, and Unix 's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
The design of protocols in the TCP / IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering. RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful ''. TCP / IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end - to - end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
These comparisons are based on the original seven - layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP / IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application - layer protocol in its own right.
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where is ink master filmed in new york | Ink Master - Wikipedia
Ink Master is an American reality competition television series airing on Spike which premiered on January 17, 2012. The show features tattoo artists who compete in various challenges assessing their tattoo and other related artistic skills. They are judged by renowned tattoo artists and enthusiasts, with one or more contestants being eliminated each episode. The last contestant standing each season receives a $100,000 prize and the title of Ink Master. The show is produced by Original Media which also produced the reality show Miami Ink.
The sixth season of the show premiered on June 23, 2015. In May, the network renewed Ink Master for a seventh season which premiered on March 1, 2016. The eighth season of the tattoo reality competition Ink Master (subtitled as Ink Master: Peck vs. Nuñez) premiered on August 23, 2016 on Spike. Season 8 had its first female winner. The show has been renewed for seasons 9 and 10. Two spin - off shows, titled Ink Master: Redemption and Ink Master: Angels, have also been released. The series has also released a number of special standalone episodes generally themed around an upcoming event or holiday such as Halloween.
All episodes aside from the finales have the following format, with some minor variations to the application of the format:
First, there is a Flash Challenge that will be evaluated based on how well an artist met the skill of the week. Some Flash Challenges involve tattooing, but typically, flash challenges do not incorporate the act of tattooing; but, instead, will require a non-related artistic skill (i.e. painting, hair cutting, etching, burning, etc.) The winner of the flash challenge wins the right to select their own human canvas in the elimination challenge, and, as of season two, pair up the other contestants with their human canvases.
After the Flash Challenge comes the Elimination Challenge, a further test of the skill of the week on a human canvas, typically incorporating a prominent style of tattooing. Once the contestants are paired up with their canvases, they are given the day to consult with their assignment. The next day, each contestant is given four to six hours to tattoo their design. Once completed, the contestants meet as a group with the judges and are critiqued one by one. The contestants then are dismissed, with four later being called back. The four typically represent a top two and bottom two for the week, though this breakdown can change. At the end of each episode, a winner is typically declared and one contestant is eliminated.
For the finale of season one, the final challenge was a marathon tattooing of up to 18 hours. The season two finale did not share this format, and instead consisted of each of the three finalists meeting with his or her respective canvas for four six - hour sessions to create a final piece. This final piece did not require a specific tattoo genre or location for the artist to tattoo. Instead, the artists were able to choose those aspects for themselves, and the only restriction they faced was a time limit. The season three finale followed a similar format to the season two finale, but the artists were allowed five seven - hour sessions for a cumulative 35 - hour master canvas tattoo.
Musician Dave Navarro and tattoo artists Chris Núñez and Oliver Peck are the show 's primary judges and have appeared in all episodes to date. Some episodes incorporate a fourth guest judge, usually a well - known tattoo artist who has knowledge or reputation in the style of tattoo (such as New School, Traditional, Japanese, Portrait, Black and Gray, etc.) chosen for the week 's elimination challenge.
Season two judging was taken to a new level with audience voting participation through the Ink Master website, and also via Facebook voting. The audience vote affected the final ruling by the judges. Sebastian Murphy was eliminated from consideration by the judges in the season finale because he was the contestant whose work in the elimination challenges received the fewest votes by the audience.
Season three introduced the human canvas jury, in which the human canvases review each other 's tattoos and nominate for elimination the artist who did the worst piece.
Season four introduced the elimination challenge winner 's selection, where the challenge winner picks an artist for elimination from his / her perspective.
Season five brought back Joshua Hibbard and Jason Clay Dunn from season three, along with eight other pairs of rivals. The winner 's worst selection did not return for season five.
There have been various standalone holiday and special event themed episodes made that do not follow the series seasons. They have typically followed an upcoming or recently passed holiday. These episodes feature previous Ink Master contestants competing for smaller cash prizes.
Ink Master licensed a Dutch / Belgian edition called Ink Master: Meesters van de Lage Landen (Masters of the Low Countries) to Spike NL in 2017. The format remains largely intact, filming takes place mainly around Amsterdam. The winner of the first season of this edition was the Belgian contestant "Djoels ''
Spin - off series Ink Master: Redemption premiered in September 2015. The spin - off features canvases who are unhappy with the tattoo they received during the competition. After discussing their tattoo with Navarro, the canvases are given the chance to confront the artist who did the original piece. The artist is offered the chance for redemption by being able to consult with the canvas on a new tattoo (or modification to improve their existing Ink Master piece). After reviewing the artist 's new drawing, the canvas is given a no - strings - attached choice to either proceed with the new tattoo or leave the shop. Episodes sometimes feature a twist, such as rival artists returning to draw a design for the same unhappy canvas, potentially stealing the original artist 's chance at redemption. Ink Master: Redemption was renewed for a second season to coincide with the premiere of season 7 of Ink Master.
In June 2017, Spike announced a new spin off series titled Ink Master: Angels. The premise follows four female contests from the eighth season of Ink Master - season winner Ryan Ashley, Kelly Doty, Nikki Simpson and Gia Rose - as they travel around the United States to face other artists in tattoo challenges with a spot on season ten of Ink Master on the line. The show premiered on October 3, 2017.
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who was the first woman nominated raj sabha | List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha - wikipedia
As per the Fourth Schedule (Articles 4 (1) and 80 (2)) of the Constitution of India, 12 members are nominated by President for term of six years for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services.
This is a Current list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.
This is a Complete list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.
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game of thrones season 7 have how many episodes | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
The seventh season contains original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. Some of the show 's sixth season also consists of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. In a June 2016 interview with Variety, co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss revealed the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. The seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran for 69 minutes.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 95 % approval rating from 42 critics with an average rating of 8.31 out of 10, and a 92 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platforms.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. In some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participated in this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
The season was released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times, making Game of Thrones the most - pirated television series in 2017.
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who sold more albums the beatles or the monkees | The Monkees - wikipedia
The Monkees were an American rock and pop band originally active between 1966 and 1971, with reunion albums and tours in the decades that followed. They were formed in Los Angeles in 1965 by Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider for the American television series The Monkees which aired from 1966 to 1968. The musical acting quartet was composed of Americans Micky Dolenz, Michael Nesmith, and Peter Tork; and British actor and singer Davy Jones. The band 's music was initially supervised by producer Don Kirshner, backed by the songwriting duo of Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart.
The four actor - musicians were allowed only limited roles in the recording studio for the first few months of their five - year career as "the Monkees ''. This was due in part to the amount of time required to film the television series. Nonetheless, Nesmith did compose and produce some songs from the beginning, and Peter Tork contributed limited guitar work on the sessions produced by Nesmith. They eventually fought for the right to collectively supervise all musical output under the band 's name. The television show was canceled in 1968, but the band continued to record music through 1971.
A revival of interest in the television show came in 1986, which led to a series of reunion tours and new records. The group reunited and toured several times with varying degrees of success.
Davy Jones died suddenly on February 29, 2012, but the surviving members reunited for a tour in November -- December 2012 and again in 2013 for a 24 - date tour. The Monkees continued to tour through their 2016 50th Anniverary, with Dolenz and Tork forming the core of the band and Nesmith continuing to join them occasionally.
Dolenz described the Monkees as initially being "a TV show about an imaginary band... that wanted to be the Beatles that was never successful ''. Ironically, the actor - musicians became one of the most successful bands of the 1960s. The Monkees have sold more than 75 million records worldwide making them one of the biggest selling groups of all time with international hits, including "Last Train to Clarksville '', "Pleasant Valley Sunday '', "Daydream Believer '', and "I 'm a Believer ''. Newspapers and magazines reported that the Monkees outsold the Beatles and the Rolling Stones combined in 1967, but Nesmith claims in his autobiography Infinite Tuesday that it was a lie that he told an Australian reporter.
Aspiring filmmaker Bob Rafelson developed the initial idea for The Monkees in 1962, but was unsuccessful in selling the series. He had tried selling it to Revue, the television division of Universal Pictures. In May 1964, while working at Screen Gems, Rafelson teamed up with Bert Schneider, whose father, Abraham Schneider, headed the Colpix Records and Screen Gems Television units of Columbia Pictures. Rafelson and Schneider ultimately formed Raybert Productions.
The Beatles ' film A Hard Day 's Night inspired Rafelson and Schneider to revive Rafelson 's idea for The Monkees. As "The Raybert Producers '', they sold the show to Screen Gems Television on April 16, 1965. Rafelson and Schneider 's original idea was to cast an existing New York folk rock group, the Lovin ' Spoonful, who were not widely known at the time. However, John Sebastian had already signed the band to a record contract, which would have denied Screen Gems the right to market music from the show.
On July 14, 1965, The Hollywood Reporter stated that future band member Davy Jones was expected to return to the United States in September 1965 after a trip to England "to prepare for (a) TV pilot for Bert Schneider and Bob Rafelson ''. Jones had previously starred as the Artful Dodger in the Broadway theatre show Oliver!, which debuted on December 17, 1962, and his performance was later seen on The Ed Sullivan Show the same night as the Beatles ' first appearance on that show, February 9, 1964. He was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical in 1963. In September 1964 he was signed to a long - term contract to appear in TV programs for Screen Gems, make feature films for Columbia Pictures and to record music for the Colpix label. Rafelson and Schneider already had him in mind for their project after their plans for the Lovin ' Spoonful fell through; when they chose him, he was essentially a proto - star looking for his lucky break.
On September 8 -- 10, 1965, Daily Variety and The Hollywood Reporter ran an ad to cast the remainder of the band / cast members for the TV show:
Madness!! Auditions. Folk & Roll Musicians - Singers for acting roles in new TV series. Running Parts for 4 insane boys, age 17 - 21. Want spirited Ben Frank 's types. Have courage to work. Must come down for interview.
Out of 437 applicants, the other three chosen for the cast of the TV show were Michael Nesmith, Peter Tork and Micky Dolenz. Nesmith had been working as a musician since early 1963 and had been recording and releasing music under various names, including Michael Blessing and "Mike & John & Bill '' and had studied drama in college. Of the final four, Nesmith was the only one who actually saw the ad in Daily Variety and The Hollywood Reporter. Tork, the last to be chosen, had been working the Greenwich Village scene as a musician, and had shared the stage with Pete Seeger; he learned of The Monkees from Stephen Stills, whom Rafelson and Schneider had rejected as a songwriter. Dolenz was an actor (his father was veteran character actor George Dolenz) who had starred in the TV series Circus Boy as a child, using the stage name Mickey Braddock, and he had also played guitar and sung in a band called the Missing Links before the Monkees, which had recorded and released a very minor single, "Do n't Do It ''. By that time he was using his real name; he found out about The Monkees through his agent.
During the casting process Don Kirshner, Screen Gems ' head of music, was contacted to secure music for the pilot that would become The Monkees. Not getting much interest from his usual stable of Brill Building writers, Kirshner assigned Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to the project. The duo contributed four demo recordings for the pilot. One of these recordings was "(Theme From) The Monkees '' which helped get the series the green light.
When The Monkees was picked up as a series, development of the musical side of the project accelerated. Columbia - Screen Gems and RCA Victor entered into a joint venture called Colgems Records primarily to distribute Monkees records. Raybert set up a rehearsal space and rented instruments for the group to practice playing in April 1966, but it quickly became apparent they would not be in shape in time for the series debut. The producers called upon Kirshner to recruit a producer for the Monkees sessions.
Kirshner called on Snuff Garrett, composer of several hits by Gary Lewis & the Playboys, to produce the initial musical cuts for the show. Garrett, upon meeting the four Monkees in June 1966, decided that Jones would sing lead, a choice that was unpopular with the group. This cool reception led Kirshner to drop Garrett and buy out his contract. Kirshner next allowed Nesmith to produce sessions, provided he did not play on any tracks he produced. Nesmith did, however, start using the other Monkees on his sessions, particularly Tork as a guitarist. Kirshner came back to the enthusiastic Boyce and Hart to be the regular producers, but he brought in one of his top East Coast associates, Jack Keller, to lend some production experience to the sessions. Boyce and Hart observed quickly that when brought into the studio together, the four actors would fool around and try to crack each other up. Because of this, they would often bring in each singer individually.
According to Nesmith, it was Dolenz 's voice that made the Monkees ' sound distinctive, and even during tension - filled times Nesmith and Tork sometimes turned over lead vocal duties to Dolenz on their own compositions, such as Tork 's "For Pete 's Sake '', which became the closing title theme for the second season of the television show.
The Monkees ' debut and second albums were meant to be a soundtrack to the first season of the TV show, to cash in on the audience. In the 2006 Rhino Deluxe Edition re-issue of their second album, More of the Monkees, Mike Nesmith stated, "The first album shows up and I look at it with horror because it makes (us) appear as if we are a rock ' n ' roll band. There 's no credit for the other musicians. I go completely ballistic, and I say, ' What are you people thinking? ' (The powers that be say), ' Well, you know, it 's the fantasy. ' I say, ' It 's not the fantasy. You 've crossed the line here! You are now duping the public. They know when they look at the television series that we 're not a rock ' n ' roll band; it 's a show about a rock ' n ' roll band... nobody for a minute believes that we are somehow this accomplished rock ' n ' roll band that got their own television show... you putting the record out like this is just beyond the pale. '' Within a few months of their debut album, Music Supervisor Don Kirshner would be forcibly dismissed and the Monkees would take control as a real band.
The Monkees ' first single, "Last Train to Clarksville '' b / w "Take a Giant Step '', was released in August 1966, just weeks prior to the TV broadcast debut. In conjunction with the first broadcast of the television show on September 12, 1966, on the NBC television network, NBC and Columbia had a major hit on their hands. The first long - playing album, The Monkees, was released a month later, spent 13 weeks at # 1 and stayed on the Billboard charts for 78 weeks. Twenty years later, during their reunion, it would spend another 24 weeks on the Billboard charts. This first album is also notable, in addition to containing their debut single, for containing band member Nesmith 's first foray into country - rock, "Papa Gene 's Blues '', which mixed country, rock and Latin flavors.
In assigning instruments for purposes of the television show, a dilemma arose as to which of the four would be the drummer. Both Nesmith (a skilled guitarist and bassist) and Tork (who could play several stringed and keyboard instruments) were peripherally familiar with the instrument but both declined to give the drum set a try. Jones knew how to play the drums and tested well enough initially on the instrument, but the producers felt that, behind a drum kit, the camera would exaggerate his short stature and make him virtually hidden from view. Thus, Dolenz (who only knew how to play the guitar) was assigned to become the drummer. Tork taught Dolenz his first few beats on the drums, enough for him to fake his way through filming the pilot, but he was soon taught how to play properly. Thus, the lineup for the TV show most frequently featured Nesmith on guitar, Tork on bass, Dolenz on drums and Jones as a frontman, singer and percussionist. This, however, is in opposition to the lineup which would have made the most sense based upon the members ' musical strengths. For example, Tork was actually a more experienced guitar player than Nesmith, while Nesmith had at one time specifically trained on the bass. While Jones certainly had a strong lead voice and sings lead on several Monkees recordings, Dolenz 's voice is regarded, particularly by Nesmith, as one of the most distinctive in popular music history and a hallmark of the Monkees ' sound. This theoretical lineup was actually depicted once, in the music video for the band 's song "Words '', which shows Jones on drums, Tork playing lead guitar, Nesmith on bass and Dolenz fronting the group. In concert appearances Tork also took much of the guitar duties, even in appearances with Nesmith, and Dolenz often plays rhythm guitar on stage.
Unlike most television shows of the time, The Monkees episodes were written with many setups, requiring frequent breaks to prepare the set and cameras for short bursts of filming. Some of the "bursts '' are considered proto - music videos, inasmuch as they were produced to sell the records. The Monkees Tale author Eric Lefcowitz noted that the Monkees were -- first and foremost -- a video group. The four actors would spend 12 - hour days on the set, many of them waiting for the production crew to do their jobs. Noticing that their instruments were left on the set unplugged, the four decided to turn them on and start playing.
After working on the set all day, the Monkees (usually Dolenz or Jones) would be called into the recording studio to cut vocal tracks. As the band was essential to this aspect of the recording process, there were few limits on how long they could spend in the recording studio, and the result was an extensive catalogue of unreleased recordings.
Pleased with their initial efforts, Columbia (over Kirshner 's objections) planned to send the Monkees out to play live concerts. The massive success of the series -- and its spin - off records -- created intense pressure to mount a touring version of the group. Against the initial wishes of the producers, the band went out on the road and made their debut live performance in December 1966 in Hawaii.
They had no time to rehearse a live performance except between takes on set. They worked on the TV series all day, recorded in the studio at night and slept very little. The weekends were usually filled with special appearances or filming of special sequences. These performances were sometimes used during the actual series. The episode "Too Many Girls (Fern and Davy) '' opens with a live version of "(I 'm Not Your) Steppin ' Stone '' being performed as the scene was shot. One entire episode was filmed featuring live music. The last show of the premiere season, "Monkees on Tour '', was shot in a documentary style by filming a concert in Phoenix, Arizona, on January 21, 1967. Bob Rafelson wrote and directed the episode.
In DVD commentary tracks included in the Season One release, Nesmith admitted that Tork was better at playing guitar than bass. In Tork 's commentary he stated that Jones was a good drummer, and had the live performance lineups been based solely on playing ability, it should have been Tork on guitar, Nesmith on bass and Jones on drums, with Dolenz taking the fronting role. The four Monkees performed all the instruments and vocals for most of the live set. The most notable exceptions were during each member 's solo sections where, during the December 1966 -- May 1967 tour, they were backed by the Candy Store Prophets. During the summer 1967 tour of the United States and the UK (from which the Live 1967 recordings are taken), they were backed by a band called the Sundowners. The Monkees toured Australia and Japan in 1968. The results were far better than expected. Wherever they went, the group was greeted by scenes of fan adulation reminiscent of Beatlemania. This gave the singers increased confidence in their fight for control over the musical material chosen for the series.
With Jones sticking primarily to vocals and tambourine (except when filling in on the drums when Dolenz came forward to sing a lead vocal), the Monkees ' live act constituted a classic power trio of electric guitar, electric bass and drums (except when Tork passed the bass part to Jones or one of the Sundowners in order to take up the banjo or electric keyboards).
Andrew Sandoval noted in Rhino 's 2006 Deluxe Edition CD reissue of More of the Monkees that album sales were outstripping Nielsen ratings, meaning that more people were buying the music than watching the television show, which meant that the producers decided that more attention needed to be paid to the music and that more music needed to be produced for more albums. Sandoval also noted that their second album, More of the Monkees, propelled by their second single, "I 'm a Believer '' b / w "(I 'm Not Your) Steppin ' Stone '', became the biggest selling LP of their career, spending 70 weeks on the Billboard charts, staying No. 1 for 18 weeks, becoming the third biggest selling album of the 1960s and also returning to the charts in 1986 for another 26 weeks.
At the time songwriters Boyce and Hart considered the Monkees to be their project, with Tommy Boyce stating in the 2006 Rhino reissue of More of the Monkees that he considered the Monkees to be actors in the television show, while Boyce and Hart were the songwriters and producers doing the records. They wanted Micky to sing the faster songs and have Davy sing the ballads. He also stated in the liner notes that he felt that Michael 's country leanings did n't fit in with the Monkees ' image, and although he thought that Peter was a great musician, he had a different process of thinking about songs that was n't right for the Monkees. Music Coordinator Kirshner, though, realizing how important the music was, wanted to move the music in a newer direction than Boyce and Hart to get the best record, and so he decided to move the production to New York where his A-list of writers / producers resided.
However, the Monkees had been complaining that the music publishing company would not allow them to play their own instruments on their records, or to use more of their own material. These complaints intensified when Kirshner moved track recording from California to New York, leaving the band out of the musical process until they were called upon to add their vocals to the completed tracks. This campaign eventually forced Kirshner to let the group have more participation in the recording process. Dolenz 's initial reaction, mentioned in the 2006 Rhino CD reissue of More of the Monkees, was "To me, these were the soundtrack albums to the show, and it was n't my job. My job was to be an actor and to come in and to sing the stuff when I was asked to do so. I had no problem with that... It was n't until Mike and Peter started getting so upset that Davy and I started defending them... they were upset because it was n't the way they were used to making music. The artist is the bottom line. The artist decides what songs are gon na go on and in what order and who writes ' em and who produces ' em. '' Nesmith, when asked about the situation, in Rolling Stone magazine, said, "... We were confused, especially me. But all of us shared the desire to play the songs we were singing. Everyone was accomplished -- the notion (that) I was the only musician is one of those rumors that got started and wo n't stop -- but it was not true... We were also kids with our own taste in music and were happier performing songs we liked -- and / or wrote -- than songs that were handed to us... The (TV show 's) producers (in Hollywood) backed us and David went along. None of us could have fought the battles we did (with the music publishers) without the explicit support of the show 's producers. ''
Four months after their debut single was released in September 1966, on January 16, 1967, the Monkees held their first recording session as a fully functioning, self - contained band, recording an early version of Nesmith 's self - composed top 40 hit single "The Girl I Knew Somewhere '', along with "All of Your Toys '' and "She 's So Far Out, She 's In ''. Four days later, on January 20, 1967, their debut self - titled album made its belated release in the UK (it was released in October ' 66 in the U.S.). This same month Kirshner released their second album of songs that used session musicians, More of the Monkees, without the band 's knowledge. Nesmith and Tork were particularly upset when they were on tour in January 1967 and discovered this second album. The Monkees were annoyed at not having even been told of the release in advance, at having their opinions on the track selection ignored, at Kirshner 's self - congratulatory liner notes and also because of the amateurish - looking cover art, which was merely a composite of pictures of the four taken for a J.C. Penney clothing advertisement. Indeed, the Monkees had not even been given a copy of the album; they had to buy it from a record store.
The climax of the rivalry between Kirshner and the band was an intense argument among Nesmith, Kirshner and Colgems lawyer Herb Moelis, which took place at the Beverly Hills Hotel in January 1967. Kirshner had presented the group with royalty checks and gold records. Nesmith had responded with an ultimatum, demanding a change in the way the Monkees ' music was chosen and recorded. Moelis reminded Nesmith that he was under contract. The confrontation ended with Nesmith punching a hole in a wall and saying, "That could have been your face! '' However, each of the members, including Nesmith, accepted the $250,000 royalty checks (equivalent to approximately $1,800,000 in today 's funds).
Kirshner 's dismissal came in early February 1967, when he violated an agreement between Colgems and the Monkees not to release material directly created by the group together with unrelated Kirshner - produced material. Kirshner violated this agreement when he released "A Little Bit Me, A Little Bit You '', composed and written by Neil Diamond, as a single with an early version of "She Hangs Out '', a song recorded in New York with Davy Jones ' vocals, as the B - side. This single was only released in Canada and was withdrawn after a couple of weeks.
Kirshner was reported to have been incensed by the group 's unexpected rebellion, especially when he felt they had "modicum talent '' when compared to the superstars of the day like John Lennon and Paul McCartney. In the liner notes for Rhino 's 2006 Deluxe Edition CD reissue of More of the Monkees, Kirshner stated, "(I controlled the group) because I had a contract. I kicked them out of the studio because I had a TV show that I had to put songs in, and to me it was a business and I had to knock off the songs. '' This experience led directly to Kirshner 's later venture, The Archies, which was an animated series -- the "stars '' existed only on animation cels, with music done by studio musicians, and obviously could not seize creative control over the records issued under their name.
Screen Gems held the publishing rights to a wealth of material, with the Monkees being offered the first choice of many new songs. Due to the abundance of material numerous tracks were recorded but left unreleased, until Rhino Records started releasing them through the Missing Links series of albums, starting in the late 1980s. A rumor persists that the Monkees were offered "Sugar, Sugar '' in 1967, but declined to record it. Producer and songwriter Jeff Barry, joint writer and composer of "Sugar, Sugar '' with Andy Kim, has denied this, saying that the song had not even been written at the time.
Phil Spector, 1968 Pop Chronicles interview.
The Monkees wanted to pick the songs they sang and play on the songs they recorded, and be the Monkees. With Kirshner dismissed as musical supervisor, in late February 1967 Nesmith hired former Turtles bassist Douglas Farthing Hatlelid, who was better known by his stage name Chip Douglas, to produce the next Monkees album, which was to be the first Monkees album where they were the only musicians, outside of most of the bass, and the horns. Douglas was responsible for both music presentation -- actually leading the band and engineering recordings -- and playing bass on most of Headquarters. This album, along with their next, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., would serve as the soundtrack to the second season of the television show.
In March 1967 "The Girl I Knew Somewhere '', composed by Nesmith and performed by Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork and bassist John London, was issued as the B - side to the Monkees ' third single, "A Little Bit Me, a Little Bit You '', and it rose to No. 39 on the charts. The A-side rose to No. 2.
Issued in May 1967, Headquarters had no songs released as singles in the United States, but it would still be their third No. 1 album in a row, with many of its songs played on the second season of the television show. Having a more country - folk - rock sound than the pop outings under Kirshner, Sandoval notes in the 2007 Deluxe Edition reissue from Rhino that the album rose to No. 1 on May 24, 1967, with the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper released the following week, which would knock Headquarters to the # 2 spot on the charts for the next 11 weeks, the same weeks which would become known by the counterculture as the "Summer of Love ''. A selection that Dolenz wrote and composed, "Randy Scouse Git '', was issued under the title "Alternate Title '' (owing to the controversial nature of its original title) as a single internationally, where it rose to No. 2 on the charts in the UK and Norway, and in the top 10 in other parts of the world. Tork 's "For Pete 's Sake '' would be used as the closing theme for the television show. Nesmith would continue in his country - rock leanings, adding the pedal steel guitar to three of the songs, along with contributing his self - composed countrified - rock song "Sunny Girlfriend ''. Tork added the banjo to the Nesmith - composed rocker "You Told Me '', a song whose introduction was satirical of the Beatles ' "Taxman ''. Other notable songs are the Nesmith - composed straightforward pop - rock song "You Just May Be the One '', used on the television series during both seasons, along with "Shades of Gray '' (with piano introduction written by Tork),) "Forget that Girl '' and "No Time '', used in the television show. The Monkees wrote five of the 12 songs on the album, plus the two tracks "Band 6 '' and "Zilch ''. The Los Angeles Times, when reviewing Headquarters, stated that "The Monkees Upgrade Album Quality '' and that "The Monkees are getting better. Headquarters has more interesting songs and a better quality level (than previous albums)... None of the tracks is a throwaway... The improvement trend is laudable. ''
The high of Headquarters was short - lived, however. Recording and producing as a group was Tork 's major interest and he hoped that the four would continue working together as a band on future recordings, according to the liner notes of the 2007 Rhino reissue of Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd... "Cuddly Toy '' on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. would mark the last time Dolenz, who originally played guitar before the Monkees, would make a solo stand as a studio drummer. In commentary for the DVD release of the second season of the show, Tork said that Dolenz was "incapable of repeating a triumph. '' Having been a drummer for one album, Dolenz lost interest in being a drummer and indeed, he largely gave up playing instruments on Monkees recordings (producer Chip Douglas also had identified Dolenz 's drumming as the weak point in the collective musicianship of the quartet, having to splice together multiple takes of Dolenz 's "shaky '' drumming for final use). By this point the four did not have a common vision regarding their musical interests, with Nesmith and Jones also moving in different directions -- Nesmith following his country / folk instincts and Jones reaching for Broadway - style numbers. The next three albums featured a diverse mixture of musical style influences, including country - rock, folk - rock, psychedelic rock, soul / R&B, guitar rock, Broadway and English music hall sensibilities.
At the height of their fame in 1967, they also suffered from a media backlash. Nesmith states in the 2007 Rhino reissue of Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., "Everybody in the press and in the hippie movement had got us into their target window as being illegitimate and not worthy of consideration as a musical force (or) certainly any kind of cultural force. We were under siege; wherever we went there was such resentment for us. We were constantly mocked and humiliated by the press. We were really gettin ' beat up pretty good. We all knew what was going on inside. Kirshner had been purged. We 'd gone to try to make Headquarters and found out that it was only marginally okay and that our better move was to just go back to the original songwriting and song - making strategy of the first albums except with a clear indication of how (the music) came to be... The rabid element and the hatred that was engendered is almost impossible to describe. It lingers to this day among people my own age. '' Tork disagreed with Nesmith 's assessment of Headquarters, stating, "I do n't think the Pisces album was as groovy to listen to as Headquarters. Technically it was much better, but I think it suffers for that reason. ''
With Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., the Monkees ' fourth album, they went back to making music for the television show, except that they had control over the music and which songs would be chosen. They used a mixture of themselves and session musicians on the album. They would use this strategy of themselves playing, plus adding session musicians (including the Wrecking Crew, Louie Shelton, Glen Campbell, members of the Byrds and the Association, drummer "Fast '' Eddie Hoh, Lowell George, Stephen Stills, Buddy Miles, and Neil Young) throughout their recording career, relying more on session musicians when the group became temporarily estranged after Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. and recorded some of their songs separately.
Using Chip Douglas again to produce, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., released in November 1967 was the Monkees ' fourth No. 1 album in a row, staying at No. 1 for 5 weeks, and was also their last No. 1 album. It featured the hit single "Pleasant Valley Sunday '' (# 3 on charts) b / w "Words '' (# 11 on charts), the A-side had Nesmith on electric guitar / backing vocals, Tork on piano / backing vocals, Dolenz on lead vocals and possibly guitar and Jones on backing vocals; the B - side had Micky and Peter alternating lead vocals, Peter played organ, Mike played guitar, percussion, and provided backing vocals, and Davy provided percussion and backing vocals. Other notable items about this album is that it features an early use of the Moog Synthesizer on two tracks, the Nesmith - penned "Daily Nightly '', along with "Star Collector ''. All of its songs, except for two, were featured on the Monkees ' television show during the second season.
The song "What Am I Doing Hangin ' ' Round? '', recorded in June 1967 and featured on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., is seen as a landmark in the fusion of country and rock despite Nesmith 's prior country - flavored rock songs for the Monkees. Nesmith stated, "One of the things that I really felt was honest was country - rock. I wanted to move the Monkees more into that because... if we get closer to country music, we 'll get closer to blues, and country blues, and so forth... It had a lot of un-country things in it: a familiar change from a I major to a VI minor -- those kinds of things. So it was a little kind of a new wave country song. It did n't sound like the country songs of the time, which was Buck Owens. ''
Their next single, "Daydream Believer '' (with a piano intro written by Tork), would shoot to No. 1 on the charts, letting the Monkees hold the No. 1 position in the singles chart and the album chart with Pisces simultaneously. "Daydream Believer '' used the non-album track "Goin ' Down '' as its B - side, which featured Nesmith and Tork on guitar with Micky on lead vocals.
During their 1986 reunion, both Headquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. would return to the charts for 17 weeks.
The Monkees decided that they no longer needed Chip Douglas as a producer, and starting in November 1967, they largely produced their own sessions. Although credited to the whole band, the songs were mostly solo efforts. In a couple of cases, Boyce and Hart had returned from the first two albums to produce, but credit was given to the Monkees. It was also during this time that Michael Nesmith recorded his first solo album, The Wichita Train Whistle Sings, a big band jazz instrumental collection of interpretations of Nesmith 's compositions, arranged by the jazz musician Shorty Rogers. Praised in The Los Angeles Times by the author of The Encyclopedia of Jazz, jazz critic Leonard Feather wrote "Verbally and musically, Mike Nesmith is one of the most articulate spokesmen for the new and literate breed of pop musicians who have spring from the loins of primitive rock. (The album) with its carriage trade of symphony, rock, country, western, and swing, and with jazz riding in the caboose, may well indicate where contemporary popular music will be situated in the early 1970s. ''
Considered by some to be the Monkees ' "White Album '' period (for example, Sandoval mentions this in the liner notes of Rhino Handmade 's 2010 Deluxe reissue of the album), each of the Monkees contributions reflected his own musical tastes, which resulted in an eclectic album. Micky sang the pop songs (e.g., "I 'll Be Back Upon My Feet ''), and performed a double - vocal with Mike on the Nesmith / Allison composed "Auntie 's Municipal Court ''. Davy sang the ballads (e.g., "Daydream Believer '' and "We Were Made for Each Other '') and Nesmith contributed some experimental songs, like the progressive "Writing Wrongs '', the unusual hit song "Tapioca Tundra '', and the lo - fi 1920s sound of "Magnolia Simms ''. This last song is notable for added effects to make it sound like an old record (even including a "record skipping '' simulation) made before the Beatles "Honey Pie '', which used a similar effect.
Propelled by the hit singles "Daydream Believer '' and "Valleri '', along with Nesmith 's self - penned top 40 hit "Tapioca Tundra '', The Birds, The Bees & The Monkees reached No. 3 on the Billboard charts shortly after it was released in April 1968. It was the first album released after NBC announced they were not renewing The Monkees for a third season. The album cover -- a quaint collage of items looking like a display in a jumble shop or toy store -- was chosen over the Monkees ' objections. It was the last Monkees ' album to be released in separate, dedicated mono and stereo mixes. During the 1986 reunion, it would return to the Billboard charts for 11 weeks.
During the filming of the second season, the band became tired of scripts which they deemed monotonous and stale. They had already succeeded in eliminating the laugh track (a then - standard on American sitcoms), with the bulk of Season 2 episodes airing minus the canned chuckles. They proposed switching the format of the series to become more like a variety show, with musical guests and live performances. This desire was partially fulfilled within some second - season episodes, with guest stars like musicians Frank Zappa, Tim Buckley and Charlie Smalls (composer of The Wiz) performing on the show. However, NBC was not interested in eliminating the existing format, and the group (except for Peter) had little desire to continue for a third season. Tork said in DVD commentary that everyone had developed such difficult personalities that the big - name stars invited as guests on the show would invariably leave the experience "hating everybody ''.
Screen Gems and NBC went ahead with the existing format anyway, commissioning Monkees writers Gerald Gardner and Dee Caruso to create a straight - comedy, no - music half - hour in the Monkees mold; a pilot episode was filmed with the then - popular nightclub act the Pickle Brothers. The pilot had the same energy and pace of The Monkees, but never became a series.
In June 1968, Music Supervisor Lester Sill chose to release the two non-album tracks "D.W. Washburn '' b / w "It 's Nice To Be With You '' as the Monkees ' next single. The Leiber / Stoller - penned A-side would break into the Top 20, peaking at No. 19 on the charts.
After The Monkees was canceled in February 1968, Rafelson directed the four Monkees in a feature film, Head. Schneider was executive producer, and the project was co-written and co-produced by Bob Rafelson with a then relatively unknown Jack Nicholson.
The film, conceived and edited in a stream of consciousness style, featured oddball cameo appearances by movie stars Victor Mature, Annette Funicello, a young Teri Garr, boxer Sonny Liston, famous stripper Carol Doda, Green Bay Packer linebacker Ray Nitschke, and musician Frank Zappa. It was filmed at Columbia Pictures ' Screen Gems studios and on location in California, Utah, and The Bahamas between February 19 and May 17, 1968 and premiered in New York City on November 6 of that year (the film later debuted in Hollywood on November 20).
The film was not a commercial success, in part because it was the antithesis of The Monkees television show, intended to comprehensively demolish the group 's carefully groomed public image. Rafelson and Nicholson 's "Ditty Diego - War Chant '' (recited at the start of the film by the group), ruthlessly parodies Boyce and Hart 's "Monkees Theme ''. A sparse advertising campaign (with no mention of the Monkees) squelched any chances of the film doing well, and it played in briefly in half - filled movie theaters. In the DVD commentary, Nesmith said that by this time, everyone associated with the Monkees "had gone crazy ''. They were each using the platform of the Monkees to push their own disparate career goals, to the detriment of the Monkees project. Indeed, Nesmith said, Head was Rafelson and Nicholson 's intentional effort to "kill '' the Monkees, so that they would no longer be bothered with the matter. Indeed, Rafelson and Schneider severed all ties to the band amid the bitterness that ensued over the commercial failure of Head. At the time, Rafelson told the press, "I grooved on those four in very special ways while at the same time thinking they had absolutely no talent. ''
Released in October 1968, the single from the album, "The Porpoise Song '', is a psychedelic pop song written by Goffin / King, with lead vocals from Micky Dolenz and backing vocals from Davy Jones, and it reached number 62 on the Billboard charts.
The soundtrack album to the movie, Head, reached No. 45 on the Billboard charts. Jack Nicholson assembled the film 's soundtrack album, weaving dialogue and sound effects from the film in between the songs from the film. The six (plus "Ditty Diego '') Monkees songs on the album range from psychedelic pop to straight ahead rockers to Broadway rock to eastern - influenced pop to a folk - rock ballad. Although the Monkees performed "Circle Sky '' live in the film, the studio version is chosen for the soundtrack album. The live version would later be released on various compilations, including Rhino 's Missing Links series of Monkees albums. The soundtrack album also includes a song from the film 's composer, Ken Thorne. The album had a mylar cover, to give it a mirror - like appearance, so that the person looking at the cover would see his own head, a play on the album title Head. Peter Tork said, "That was something special... (Jack) Nicholson coordinated the record, made it up from the soundtrack. He made it different from the movie. There 's a line in the movie where (Frank) Zappa says, ' That 's pretty white. ' Then there 's another line in the movie that was not juxtaposed in the movie, but Nicholson put them together in the (soundtrack album), when Mike says, ' And the same thing goes for Christmas. '... that 's funny,... very different from the movie... that was very important and wonderful that he assembled the record differently from the movie... It was a different artistic experience. '' The soundtrack album is a cult favorite among the Monkees ' fans.
Over the intervening years Head has developed a cult following for its innovative style and anarchic humor. Members of the Monkees, Nesmith in particular, cite the soundtrack album as one of the crowning achievements of the band.
Tensions within the group were increasing. Peter Tork, citing exhaustion, quit by buying out the last four years of his Monkees contract at $150,000 per year, equal to about $1,000,000 per year today. This was shortly after the band 's Far East tour in December 1968, after completing work on their 1969 NBC television special, 331⁄3 Revolutions Per Monkee, which rehashed many of the ideas from Head, only with the Monkees playing a strangely second - string role. In the DVD commentary for the television special, Dolenz noted that after filming was complete, Nesmith gave Tork a gold watch as a going - away present, engraved "From the guys down at work. '' (Tork kept the back, but replaced the watch several times in later years.) Most of the songs from the 33 1 / 3 Revolutions Per Monkee TV Special would not be officially released until over 40 years later, on the 2010 and 2011 Rhino Handmade Deluxe boxed sets of Head and Instant Replay.
Since the Monkees at this point were producing their own songs with very little of the other band members involvement, they planned a future double album (eventually to be reduced to The Monkees Present) on which each Monkee would separately produce one side of a disc.
In February 1969, the Monkees ' seventh album, Instant Replay, without Tork 's involvement beyond playing guitar on "I Wo n't Be the Same Without Her '', was released, which reached No. 32 on the charts. The single from the album was "Tear Drop City '', which peaked at No. 56 on the U.S. Billboard chart and No. 34 on the Australian chart. According to Rhino Handmade 's 2011 Deluxe Edition reissue of this album, Davy Jones told Melody Maker, "Half of the songs were recorded over the last three years, but there are also about six new ones. '' The Monkees wanted to please the original 1966 fans by offering up new recordings of some previously unreleased older styled songs, as well as gain a new audience with what they considered a more mature sound. Nesmith continued in his country - rock vein after offering straight ahead rock and experimental songs on the two prior albums. Nesmith stated in Rhino Handmade 's 2011 Deluxe Edition reissue, "I guess it was the same embryo beating in me that was somewhere in Don Henley and Glenn Frey and Linda Ronstadt and Neil Young. Everybody who was hanging out in those times. I could just feel this happening that there was this thing. So, I headed off to Nashville to see if I could n't get some of the Nashville country thing into the rock ' n ' roll or vice versa. What I found was that Nashville country was not the country that was going to be the basis of country - rock and that it was Western, Southwest country. It was coming much more out of the Southern California scene. I ended up with a lot of Dobro, mandolin, banjo, and things that were hard - core mountain music stuff... the Nashville cats were so blown out by playin ' this kind of music. They loved it, for one thing. ''
Dolenz contributed the biggest and longest Monkees ' production, "Shorty Blackwell '', a song inspired by his cat of the same name. Dolenz called it his "feeble attempt at something to do with Sgt. Pepper. '' Jones contributed an electric guitar rocker, "You and I ''. Both Jones and Dolenz continued their role of singing on the pop songs. Lyrically, it has a theme of being one of the Monkees ' most melancholy albums.
Throughout 1969 the trio appeared as guests on television programs such as The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour, The Johnny Cash Show, Hollywood Squares, and Laugh - In. The Monkees also had a contractual obligation to appear in several television commercials with Bugs Bunny for Kool - Aid drink mix as well as Post cereal box singles.
In April 1969, the single "Someday Man '' b / w "Listen to the Band '' was released, which had the unique distinction of the B - side, a Nesmith composed country - rock song, charting higher (No. 63) than the Jones - sung A-side (# 81).
The final album with Michael Nesmith from the Monkees original incarnation would be their eighth album, The Monkees Present, released in October 1969, which peaked at No. 100 on the Billboard charts. It would include the Nesmith composed country - rock singles "Listen to the Band '' and "Good Clean Fun '' (released in September 1969). Other notable songs include the Dolenz composition "Little Girl '', which featured Louie Shelton on electric guitar, joining Micky on acoustic guitar, along with "Mommy and Daddy '' (B - side to the "Good Clean Fun single) in which he sang about America 's treatment of the Native Americans and drug abuse, and in an earlier take, released on Rhino Handmade 's 2011 Deluxe Edition of Instant Replay, sang about JFK 's assassination and the Vietnam war. Jones collaborated with Bill Chadwick on some slower ballads, along with releasing a couple of older upbeat songs from 1966.
In the summer of 1969 the three Monkees embarked on a tour with the backing of the soul band "Sam and the Good - Timers ''. The concerts for this tour were longer sets than their earlier concert tours, many shows running over two hours. Although the tour was met with some positive critical reception (Billboard in particular praised it), other critics were not favorable of the mixing of the Monkees ' pop music with the Goodtimers ' R&B approach. Toward the end of the tour, some dates were canceled due to poor ticket sales, and the tour failed to re-establish the band commercially, with no single entering the Top 40 in 1969. Dolenz remarked that the tour "was like kicking a dead horse. The phenomenon had peaked. ''
On April 14, 1970, Nesmith joined Dolenz and Jones for the last time as part of the original incarnation of the Monkees to film a Kool - Aid commercial (with the then - newly introduced Nerf balls, thrown around a mock living room by the trio, available as a premium for Kool - Aid labels), with Nesmith leaving the group to continue recording songs with his own country - rock group called Michael Nesmith & The First National Band, which he had started recording with on February 10, 1970. His first album with his own band was called Magnetic South, and at the time he left the Monkees in April, he was recording songs for his second album with The First National Band, called Loose Salute.
This left Dolenz and Jones to record the bubblegum pop album Changes as the ninth and final album by the Monkees released during its original incarnation. By this time, Colgems was hardly putting any effort into the project, and they sent Dolenz and Jones to New York for the Changes sessions, to be produced by Jeff Barry. In comments for the liner notes of the 1994 re-release of Changes, Jones said that he felt they had been tricked into recording an "Andy Kim album '' under the Monkees name. Except for the two singers ' vocal performances, Changes is the only album that fails to win any significant praise from critics looking back 40 years to the Monkees ' recording output. The album spawned the single "Oh My My '', which was accompanied by a music film promo (produced / directed by Dolenz). Dolenz contributed one of his own compositions, "Midnight Train '', which was used in the re-runs of the Monkees TV series. The "Oh My My '' b / w "I Love You Better '' single from the Changes album would be the last single issued under the Monkees name in the United States, until 1986. Originally released in June 1970, Changes would first chart in Billboard 's Top 200 during the Monkees ' 1986 reunion, staying on the charts for 4 weeks.
September 22, 1970 marked the final recording session by the Monkees in their original incarnation, when Jones and Dolenz recorded "Do It in the Name of Love '' and "Lady Jane ''. Not mixed until February 19, 1971, and released later that year as a single ("Do It in the Name Of Love '' b / w "Lady Jane ''), the two remaining Monkees then lost the rights to use the name in several countries, the U.S. included. The single was not credited to the Monkees in the U.S., but to a misspelled "Mickey Dolenz and Davy Jones '', although in Japan it was issued under the Monkees ' name.
Jones released a solo album in 1971, titled Davy Jones, featuring the single "Rainy Jane '' / "Welcome to My Love ''. Both Jones and Dolenz released multiple singles as solo artists in the years following the original break - up of the Monkees. The duo continued to tour throughout most of the 1970s.
Partly because of repeats of the television series The Monkees on Saturday mornings and in syndication, The Monkees Greatest Hits charted in 1976. The LP, issued by Arista, who by this time had custody of the Monkees ' master tapes, courtesy of their corporate owner, Screen Gems, was actually a re-packaging of an earlier (1972) compilation LP called Refocus that had been issued by Arista 's previous label imprint, Bell Records, also owned by Screen Gems. Dolenz and Jones took advantage of this, joining ex-Monkees songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to tour the United States. From 1975 to 1977, as the "Golden Hits of the Monkees '' show ("The Guys who Wrote ' Em and the Guys who Sang ' Em! ''), they successfully performed in smaller venues such as state fairs and amusement parks, as well as making stops in Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong and Singapore. They also released an album of new material as Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart. Nesmith had not been interested in a reunion. Tork claimed later that he had not been asked, although a Christmas single (credited to Micky Dolenz, Davy Jones and Peter Tork due to legal reasons) was produced by Chip Douglas and released on his own label in 1976. The single featured Douglas ' and Howard Kaylan 's "Christmas Is My Time Of Year '' (originally recorded by a 1960s group Christmas Spirit), with a B - side of Irving Berlin 's "White Christmas '' (Douglas released a remixed version of the single, with additional overdubbed instruments, in 1986). This was the first (albeit unofficial) Monkees single since 1971. Tork also joined Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart on stage at Disneyland on July 4, 1976, and also joined Dolenz and Jones on stage at the Starwood in Hollywood in 1977.
Other semi-reunions occurred between 1970 and 1986. Tork helped arrange a Dolenz single, "Easy on You '' / "Oh Someone '' in 1971. Tork also recorded some unreleased tracks for Nesmith 's Countryside label during the 1970s, and Dolenz (by then a successful television director in the United Kingdom) directed a segment of Nesmith 's NBC - TV series Television Parts, although the segment in question was not included when the series ' six episodes aired during the summer of 1985.
Brushed off by critics during their heyday as manufactured and lacking talent, the Monkees experienced a critical and commercial rehabilitation two decades later. A Monkees TV show marathon ("Pleasant Valley Sunday '') was broadcast on February 23, 1986, on the then five - year - old MTV video music channel. In February and March, Tork and Jones played together in Australia. Then in May, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork announced a "20th Anniversary Tour '' produced by David Fishof and they began playing North America in June. Their original albums began selling again as Nickelodeon began to run their old series daily. MTV promotion also helped to resurrect a smaller version of Monkeemania, and tour dates grew from smaller to larger venues and became one of the biggest live acts of 1986 and 1987. A new greatest hits collection was issued, reaching platinum status.
By now, Nesmith was amenable to a reunion, but forced to sit out most projects because of prior commitments to his Pacific Arts video production company. However, he did appear with the band in a 1986 Christmas medley music video for MTV, and appeared on stage with Dolenz, Jones, and Tork at the Greek Theatre, in Los Angeles, on September 7, 1986. In September 1988, the three rejoined to play Australia again, Europe and then North America, with that string of tours ending in September 1989. Nesmith again returned at the Universal Amphitheatre, Los Angeles, show on July 10, 1989 and took part in a dedication ceremony at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, when the Monkees received a TV star there in 1989.
The sudden revival of the Monkees in 1986 helped move the first official Monkees single since 1971, "That Was Then, This Is Now '', to the No. 20 position in Billboard Magazine. The success, however, was not without controversy. Jones had declined to sing on the track, recorded along with two other new songs included in a compilation album, Then & Now... The Best of The Monkees. Some copies of the single and album credit the new songs to "the Monkees '', others as "Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork (of the Monkees) ''. Reportedly, these recordings were the source of some personal friction between Jones and the others during the 1986 tour; Jones would typically leave the stage when the new songs were performed.
The 1980s reunion tours were the most lucrative venture the three had ever seen in their days as the Monkees, far surpassing the money they had made in the 1960s. Nesmith had little financial need to join in Monkees - related projects, mostly as his mother Bette Nesmith Graham was the inventor of Liquid Paper, leaving Nesmith over $25 million upon her death in 1980.
A new album by the touring trio, Pool It! (the Monkees ' tenth), appeared the following year and was a moderate success. From 1986 to 1989, the Monkees would conduct major concert tours in the United States, Australia, Japan, and Europe.
In 1987, a new television series called New Monkees appeared. Four young musicians were placed in a similar series based on the original show, but "updated '' for the 1980s. The New Monkees left the air after 13 episodes. (Neither Bob Rafelson nor Bert Schneider were involved in the development or production of the series, although it was produced by "Straybert Productions '' headed by Steve Blauner, Rafelson and Schneider 's partner in BBS Productions.)
In the 1990s, the Monkees continued to record new material. In 1993, Dolenz and Jones worked together on a television commercial, and another reunion tour was launched with the two of them in 1994. Rhino Records (which in August 1994 acquired the complete Monkees back audio and video catalog, as well as the rights to the Monkees name and official logo, under an agreement with Rafelson and Schneider) re-issued all the original LPs on CD, each of which included between three and six bonus tracks of previously unreleased or alternate takes; the first editions came with collectible trading cards.
Dolenz, Jones and Tork appeared in a 1995 episode of Boy Meets World, but not as themselves; Tork appeared in two episodes as Topanga Lawrence 's father Jedediah.
Their eleventh album Justus was released in 1996. It was the first since 1968 on which all four original members performed and produced. Justus was produced by the Monkees, all songs were written by one of the four Monkees, and it was recorded using only the four Monkees for all instruments and vocals, which was the inspiration for the album title and spelling (Justus = Just Us).
The trio of Dolenz, Jones, and Tork reunited again for a successful 30th anniversary tour of American amphitheaters in 1996, while Nesmith joined them onstage in Los Angeles to promote the new songs from Justus. For the first time since the brief 1986 reunion, Nesmith returned to the concert stage for a tour of the United Kingdom in 1997, highlighted by two sold - out concerts at Wembley Arena in Wembley Park, London. This was a very fitting venue, as from 30 June to 2 July 1967 the Monkees had been the first group to headline on their own at the Empire Pool, as the Arena was then called.
The full quartet also appeared in an ABC television special titled Hey, Hey, It 's the Monkees, which was written and directed by Nesmith and spoofed the original series that had made them famous. Following the UK tour, Nesmith declined to continue future performances with the Monkees, having faced harsh criticism from the British music press for his deteriorating musicianship. Tork noted in DVD commentary that "In 1966, Nesmith had learned a reasonably good version of the famous ' Last Train to Clarksville ' guitar lick, but in 1996, Mike was no longer able to play it '' and so Tork took over the lead guitar parts.
Nesmith 's departure from the tour was acrimonious. Jones was quoted by the Los Angeles Times as complaining that Nesmith "made a new album with us. He toured Great Britain with us. Then all of a sudden, he 's not here. Later, I hear rumors he 's writing a script for our next movie. Oh, really? That 's bloody news to me. He 's always been this aloof, inaccessible person... the fourth part of the jigsaw puzzle that never quite fit in. ''
Tork, Jones, and Dolenz toured the United States in 1997, after which the group took another hiatus until 2001 when they once again reunited to tour the United States. However, this tour was also accompanied by public sniping. Dolenz and Jones had announced that they had "fired '' Tork for his constant complaining and threatening to quit. Tork was quoted as saying that, as well as the fact he wanted to tour with his own band, "Shoe Suede Blues. '' Tork told WENN News he was troubled by the overindulgence in alcohol by other members of the tour crew:
Micky Dolenz and Davy Jones fired me just before the last two shows of our 35th anniversary tour. I 'm both happy and sad over the whole thing. I always loved the work onstage -- but I just could n't handle the backstage problems. I 'd given them 30 days notice that I was leaving so my position is that I resigned first and then they dropped me. Thank God I do n't need the Monkees anymore... I 'm a recovering alcoholic and have n't had a drink in several years. I 'm not against people drinking -- just when they get mean and abusive. I went on the anniversary tour with the agreement that I did n't have to put up with drinking and difficult behavior offstage. When things were n't getting better, I gave the guys notice that I was leaving in 30 days for good.
Tork later stated in 2011 that the alcohol played only a small role and Tork then said, "I take full responsibility for the backstage problems on the 2001 tour. We were getting along pretty well until I had a meltdown. I ticked the other guys off good and proper and it was a serious mistake on my part. I was not in charge of myself to the best of my ability -- the way I hope I have become since. I really just behaved inappropriately, honestly. I apologized to them. ''
Jones and Dolenz went on to tour the United Kingdom in 2002, but Tork declined to participate. Jones and Dolenz toured the United States one more time as a duo in 2002, and then split to concentrate on their own individual projects. With different Monkees citing different reasons, the group chose not to mark their 40th anniversary in 2006.
In October 2010, Jones stated that a reunion marking the band 's 45th anniversary was a possibility. Noted Monkees biographer Andrew Sandoval commented in The Hollywood Reporter that he "spent three years cajoling them to look beyond their recent differences (which included putting aside solo projects to fully commit to the Monkees). ''
An Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour commenced on May 12, 2011 in Liverpool, England, before moving to North America in June and July for a total of 43 performances. Sandoval noted, "Their mixed feelings on the music business and their long and winding relationship weighed heavily, but once they hit the stage, the old magic was apparent. For the next three months... (they brought) the music and memories to fans in the band 's grandest stage show in decades. Images from their series and films flashed on a huge screen behind them; even Rolling Stone, whose owner, Jann Wenner, has vowed to keep them out of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, gushed. '' Nesmith did not take part in the tour, which grossed approximately $4 million.
On August 8, 2011, the band cancelled ten last - minute shows due to what was initially reported as "internal group issues and conflicts '', though Tork later confirmed "there were some business affairs that could n't be coordinated correctly. We hit a glitch and there was just this weird dislocation at one point. '' Jones clarified that "the (45th Anniversary) tour was only supposed to go until July. And it was great, the best time we 've had because we 're all on the same page now. We gelled onstage and off. But then more dates were being added. And more. And then the next thing we knew, they were talking about Japan, Australia, Brazil, and we were like, ' Wait a second. This is turning into something more than a tour. ' We were doing 40 songs a night, plus other material. Some of these shows were 2 ⁄ hours long. Then there was the travel, getting to the next venue with no time to revive. The audiences were great. But, let 's face it, we 're not kids. ''
The 45th anniversary tour would be the last with Jones, who died of a heart attack at age 66 due to atherosclerosis on February 29, 2012. Soon thereafter, rumors began to circulate that Nesmith would reunite with Dolenz and Tork in the wake of Jones ' death. This was confirmed on August 8, 2012, when the surviving trio announced a series of U.S. shows for November and December, commencing in Escondido, California and concluding in New York City. The brief tour marked the first time Nesmith performed with the Monkees since 1997, as well as the first without Jones. Jones ' memory was honored throughout the shows via recordings and video. During one point, the band went quiet and a recording of Jones singing "I Wanna Be Free '' played while footage of him was screening behind the band. For Jones ' signature song, "Daydream Believer '', Dolenz said that the band had discussed who should sing the song and had concluded that it should be the fans, saying "It does n't belong to us anymore. It belongs to you. ''
The Fall 2012 tour was very well received by both fans and critics, resulting in the band scheduling a 24 - date summer tour for 2013. Dubbed "A Midsummer 's Night With the Monkees '', concerts also featured Nesmith, Dolenz, and Tork. "The reaction to the last tour was euphoric '', Dolenz told Rolling Stone magazine. "It was pretty apparent there was a demand for another one. '' A third tour with Nesmith would follow in 2014.
In 2014, the Monkees were inducted into the Pop Music Hall of Fame at the 2014 Monkees Convention. At the convention the band announced a 2014 tour of the Eastern and Midwestern US.
Dolenz and Tork toured as the Monkees in 2015 without Nesmith 's participation. Nesmith stated that he was busy with other ventures, although Dolenz said that "He 's always invited. '' In February 2016, Dolenz announced that the Monkees would be releasing a new album, titled Good Times!, as a celebration of their 50th anniversary. Good Times!, produced by Adam Schlesinger of Fountains of Wayne, features contributions by all three surviving members, as well as a posthumous contribution from Jones. The album was released in May 2016 to considerable success, reaching No. 14 on the Billboard 200 and generally favorable reviews.
With the release of the album, the band, featuring Dolenz and Tork, commenced their 50th Anniversary Tour. Nesmith did not participate in most of the tour, again citing other commitments. He did, however, make a few appearances throughout the summer of 2016, appearing virtually via Skype to perform "Papa Gene 's Blues '' at one concert and in person for a four - song encore at another. In September, he replaced Tork on the tour for two dates while Tork attended to a family emergency. After Tork returned to the tour, Nesmith performed with the band for a concert at the Pantages Theatre in Hollywood on September 16, which he stated would likely be his final concert appearance with the Monkees. Dolenz and Tork 's tour announced dates to the end of the year, including concerts in Australia and New Zealand.
After the end of the 50th Anniversary Tour, Dolenz, Tork, and Nesmith spent 2017 engaging in solo activities. In 2018, Nesmith toured with a revived version of the First National Band and stated that he was in negotiations with promoters to tour again with Dolenz later in the summer. On February 20, the tour was announced as "The Monkees Present: The Mike and Micky Show '', their first tour as a duo. The pair will play Monkees music and promote the tour under the Monkees banner, but Nesmith stated that "there 's no pretense there about Micky and I being the Monkees. We 're not. ''
Controversy hit early in 1967 concerning the Monkees ' studio abilities. Dolenz told a reporter that the Wrecking Crew provided the backing tracks for the first two Monkees albums, and that his origin as a drummer was simply that a Monkee had to learn to play the drums, and he only knew the guitar. A January 28, 1967 Saturday Evening Post article quoted Nesmith railing against the music creation process. "Do you know how debilitating it is to sit up and have to duplicate somebody else 's records? '' he asked. "Tell the world we do n't record our own music. '' The whistle - blowing on themselves worked to force producer Don Kirshner out of the project, and the band took creative control for its third album.
But the Monkees toured the U.K. in 1967 and found a chilly reception. The front pages of several U.K. and international music papers proclaimed that the group members did not always play their own instruments or sing the backing vocals in the studio. They were derisively dubbed the "Pre-Fab Four '', and the London Sunday Mirror called them a "disgrace to the pop world. '' Jimi Hendrix was their tour - opener that year, and he told Melody Maker magazine, "Oh God, I hate them! Dishwater... You ca n't knock anybody for making it, but people like the Monkees? '' Dealing with the controversy proved challenging on the television series. Episode No. 31 "Monkees at the Movies '' first aired April 1967, and Bob Rafelson asked the group about accusations that they did not play their instruments in concert. Nesmith responded, "I 'm fixin ' to walk out there in front of fifteen thousand people, man! If I do n't play my own instrument, I 'm in a lot of trouble! '' But the "Devil and Peter Tork '' episode serves as a parable, as a Kirshner - like producer has Tork sign over his soul to be a success as a musician.
In November 1967, the wave of anti-Monkee sentiment was reaching its peak while they released their fourth album Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn, & Jones Ltd. The liner notes for the 1995 re-release of this album quote Nesmith: "The press went into a full - scale war against us, talking about how ' The Monkees are four guys who have no credits, no credibility whatsoever and have been trying to trick us into believing they are a rock band. ' Number 1, not only was this not the case; the reverse was true. Number 2, for the press to report with genuine alarm that the Monkees were not a real rock band was looney tunes! It was one of the great goofball moments of the media, but it stuck. '' Davy Jones stated in 1969 to Tiger Beat, "I get so angry when musicians say, ' Oh, your music is so bad, ' because it 's not bad to the kids. Those people who talk about ' doing their own thing ' are groups that go and play in the clubs that hold 50 people, while we 're playing to 10,000 kids. You know, it hurts me to think that anybody thinks we 're phony, because we 're not. We 're only doing what we think is our own thing. ''
Rolling Stone reported on October 11, 2011 that Tork still feels that the Monkees do not get the respect that they deserve. "The Monkees ' songbook is one of the better songbooks in pop history, '' he says. "Certainly in the top five in terms of breadth and depth. It was revealed that we did n't play our own instruments on the records much at the very moment when the idealism of early Beatlemania in rock was at its peak. So we became the ultimate betrayers. ''
After Headquarters, the Monkees started using a mixture of themselves playing along with other musicians, including members of the Wrecking Crew and Candy Store Prophets along with other musicians such as Stephen Stills, Neil Young, and Harry Nilsson; but they still wrote, sang, produced, and played on their remaining albums, except for their final offering from the original incarnation in 1970, Changes, which was recorded after Nesmith and Tork had left the group and featured Dolenz and Jones singing to the backing tracks of what Jones referred to in the liner notes of the 1994 reissue that album as "a rejected Andy Kim album ''. In the same liner notes, Jones stated that he was unhappy about that recording and claimed that it was not a real album. The final album featured one Dolenz composition.
Tork commented on some of the controversy when writing about Jones 's death: "When we first met, I was confronted with a slick, accomplished, young performer, vastly more experienced than I in the ways of show biz, and yes, I was intimidated. Englishness was at a high premium in my world, and his experience dwarfed my entertainer 's life as a hippie, basket - passing folk singer on the Greenwich Village coffee house circuit. If anything, I suppose I was selected for the cast of ' The Monkees ' TV show partly as a rough - hewn counterpart to David 's sophistication. (...) the Monkees -- the group now, not the TV series -- took a lot of flack for being ' manufactured, ' by which our critics meant that we had n't grown up together, paying our dues, sleeping five to a room, trying to make it as had the Beatles and Rolling Stones. Furthermore, critics said, the Monkees ' first albums -- remember albums? -- were almost entirely recorded by professional studio musicians, with hardly any input from any of us beyond lead vocals. I felt this criticism keenly, coming as I did from the world of the ethical folk singer, basically honoring the standards of the naysayers. We did play as a group live on tour. ''
Critics of the Monkees observed that they were simply the "Pre-Fab four '', a made - for - TV knockoff of the Beatles; however, the members of the Beatles themselves took it in their stride and even hosted a party for the Monkees when they visited England. The party occurred during the time when the Beatles were recording album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band; as such, the party inspired the line in the Monkees ' tune "Randy Scouse Git '', written by Dolenz, which read, "the four kings of EMI are sitting stately on the floor. ''
George Harrison praised their self - produced musical attempts, saying, "It 's obvious what 's happening, there 's talent there. They 're doing a TV show, it 's a difficult chore and I would n't be in their shoes for the world. When they get it all sorted out, they might turn out to be the best. '' (Monkees member Peter Tork was later one of the musicians on Harrison 's album Wonderwall Music, playing Paul McCartney 's five - string banjo.)
Nesmith attended the Beatles session recording for single "A Day in the Life '' at Abbey Road Studios; he can be seen in the Beatles ' home movies, including one scene where he is talking with John Lennon. During the conversation, Nesmith had reportedly asked Lennon "Do you think we 're a cheap imitation of the Beatles, your movies and your records? '' to which Lennon assuredly replied, "I think you 're the greatest comic talent since the Marx Brothers. I 've never missed one of your programs. '' Nesmith wrote about this encounter on Facebook:
When the Beatles were recording Sgt. Peppers, Phyllis and I spent a few days with John and wife Cynthia Lennon at their home, and one in the studio with "the boys. '' That 's where those pictures of John and I come from -- the "Day in the Life '' session. The minute I had the wherewithal -- cachet and money -- I raced to London and looked up John.
During the ' 60s it seemed to me London was the center of the World and the Beatles were the center of London and the Sgt Pepper session was the center of the Beatles. It was an extraordinary time, I thought, and I wanted to get as close as I could to the heart of it. But like a hurricane the center was not stormy or tumultuous. It was exciting, but it was calm, and to an extent peaceful. The confidence of the art permeated the atmosphere. Serene -- and really, really fun. Then I discovered the reason for this. During that time in one of our longer, more reflective, talks I realized that John was not aware of who the Beatles were. Of course he could not be. He was clueless in this regard. He had never seen or experienced them. In the strange paradox of fame, none of the Beatles ever saw the Beatles the way we did. Certainly not the way I did. I loved them beyond my ability to express it. As the years passed and I met more and more exceptional people sitting in the center of their own hurricane I saw they all shared this same sensibility. None of them could actually know the force of their own work.
Dolenz was also in the studio during a Sgt. Pepper session, which he mentioned while broadcasting for radio WCBS - FM in New York (incidentally, he interviewed Ringo Starr on his program). On February 21, 1967, he attended the overdub and mixing session for the Beatles ' "Fixing a Hole '' at EMI 's Abbey Road studio 2.
During the 1970s, during Lennon 's infamous "lost weekend '', Lennon, Ringo Starr, Micky Dolenz, Harry Nilsson and Keith Moon often hung out together, and were collectively known in the press as "The Hollywood Vampires ''.
Paul McCartney can be seen in the 2002 concert film Back in the U.S. singing "Hey, Hey, We 're The Monkees '', the theme from The Monkees television show, while backstage.
The Monkees "Cuddly Toy '' and "Daddy 's Song '' were written by songwriter Harry Nilsson. "Cuddly Toy '' would be recorded several months before Nilsson 's own debut in October 1967. At the press conference announcing the formation of Apple, the Beatles named Nilsson as both their favorite American artist and as their favorite American group. Derek Taylor, the Beatles ' press officer, had introduced them to Nilsson 's music.
In 1995, Ringo Starr joined Davy, Peter and Micky to film a Pizza Hut commercial.
Julian Lennon was a fan, stating at the time of Davy Jones ' passing, "You did some great work! ''
In June 2007, Tork complained to the New York Post that Jann Wenner had blackballed the Monkees from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Tork stated:
(Wenner) does n't care what the rules are and just operates how he sees fit. It is an abuse of power. I do n't know whether the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame, but it 's pretty clear that we 're not in there because of a personal whim. Jann seems to have taken it harder than everyone else, and now, 40 years later, everybody says, ' What 's the big deal? Everybody else does it. ' (Uses studio artists or backing bands.) Nobody cares now except him. He feels his moral judgment in 1967 and 1968 is supposed to serve in 2007.
In a Facebook post, Nesmith stated that he does not know if the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame because he can only see the impact of the Monkees from the inside, and further stated: "I can see the HOF (Hall of Fame) is a private enterprise. It seems to operate as a business, and the inductees are there by some action of the owners of the Enterprise. The inductees appear to be chosen at the owner 's pleasure. This seems proper to me. It is their business in any case. It does not seem to me that the HOF carries a public mandate, nor should it be compelled to conform to one. ''
In 1992, Davy Jones spoke to People magazine, stating "I 'm not as wealthy as some entertainers, but I work hard, and I think the best is yet to come. I know I 'm never going to make the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but maybe there 's something else for me in show business. I 've been given a talent -- however big or little -- that has given me many opportunities. I 've got to try to use it the best way I can. A lot of people go days without having someone hug them or shake their hand. I get that all the time. ''
In 2015, Micky Dolenz said, "As far as the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame I 've never been one to chase awards or anything like that; it 's never been very important to me. I was very proud to win an Emmy for The Monkees, having come out of television as a kid. When we won the Emmy for best TV show in ' 66 or ' 67 that was a huge feather in my cap. But I 've never chased that kind of stuff. I 've never done a project and thought, "What do I do here to win an award? '' Specifically as far as the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame I 've been very flattered that the fans and people have championed the Monkees. Very flattered and honored that they do. If you know anything about the organization, and I 've done charity work for the foundation, the Hall of Fame is a private club.
Various magazines and news outlets, such as Time, NPR radio, The Christian Science Monitor, Goldmine magazine, Yahoo Music and MSNBC have argued that the Monkees belong in the Rock n ' Roll Hall of Fame.
Beginning in 1987, Rhino Records started to make available previously unreleased Monkees recordings on a series of albums called Missing Links. Having numerous quality songwriters, musicians, producers and arrangers -- along with high budgets -- at their hands while making albums during the 1960s, the band was able to record as many songs as the Beatles in half the time.
The three volumes of this initial series contained 59 songs. These include the group 's first recordings as a self - contained band, including the intended single "All Of Your Toys, '' Nesmith 's Nashville sessions, and alternate versions of songs featured only on the television series. The Listen to the Band box set also contained previously unreleased recordings, as did the 1994 - 95 series CD album reissues. Rhino / Rhino Handmade 's Deluxe Edition reissue series has also included alternate mixes, unreleased songs, and the soundtrack to 331⁄3 Revolutions per Monkee.
The Monkees, selected specifically to appeal to the youth market as American television 's response to the Beatles with their manufactured personae and carefully produced singles, are seen as an original precursor to the modern proliferation of studio and corporation - created bands. But this critical reputation has softened somewhat, with the recognition that the Monkees were neither the first manufactured group nor unusual in this respect. The Monkees also frequently contributed their own songwriting efforts on their albums and saw their musical skills improve. They ultimately became a self - directed group, playing their own instruments and writing many of their own songs.
Noted Monkees and 1960s music historian Andrew Sandoval noted, in The Hollywood Reporter, that the Monkees "pioneered the music video format (and band member Mike Nesmith dreamed up the prototype for what would become MTV) and paved the way for every boy band that followed in their wake, from New Kids on the Block to ' N Sync to Jonas Brothers, while Davy set the stage for future teen idols David Cassidy and Justin Bieber. As pop stars go, you would be hard pressed to find a successful artist who did n't take a page from the Monkees ' playbook, even generations later. Monkee money also enabled Rafelson and Schneider to finance Easy Rider and Five Easy Pieces, which made Jack Nicholson a star. In fact, the Monkees series was the opening salvo in a revolution that brought on the New Hollywood cinema, an influence rarely acknowledged but no less impactful. ''
The Chicago Tribune interviewed Davy Jones, who said, "We touched a lot of musicians, you know. I ca n't tell you the amount of people that have come up and said, ' I would n't have been a musician if it had n't been for the Monkees. ' It baffles me even now, '' Jones added. "I met a guy from Guns N ' Roses, and he was overwhelmed by the meeting, and was just so complimentary. ''
The Monkees found unlikely fans among musicians of the punk rock period of the mid-1970s. Many of these punk performers had grown up on TV reruns of the series, and sympathized with the anti-industry, anti-Establishment trend of their career. Sex Pistols and Minor Threat both recorded versions of "(I 'm Not Your) Steppin ' Stone '' and it was often played live by Toy Love. The Japanese new wave pop group the Plastics recorded a synthesizer and drum - machine version of "Last Train to Clarksville '' for their 1979 album Welcome Back.
Glenn A. Baker, author of Monkeemania: The True Story of the Monkees, described the Monkees as "rock 's first great embarrassment '' in 1986:
Like an illegitimate child in a respectable family, the Monkees are destined to be regarded forever as rock 's first great embarrassment; misunderstood and maligned like a mongrel at a ritzy dog show, or a test tube baby at the Vatican. The rise of the pre-fab four coincided with rock 's desperate desire to cloak itself with the trappings of respectability, credibility and irreproachable heritage. The fact was ignored that session players were being heavily employed by the Beach Boys, the Beatles, the Mamas and the Papas, the Byrds and other titans of the age. However, what could not be ignored, as rock disdained its pubescent past, was a group of middle - aged Hollywood businessmen had actually assembled their concept of a profitable rock group and foisted it upon the world. What mattered was that the Monkees had success handed to them on a silver plate. Indeed, it was not so much righteous indignation but thinly disguised jealousy which motivated the scornful dismissal of what must, in retrospect, be seen as entertaining, imaginative and highly memorable exercise in pop culture.
Mediaite columnist Paul Levinson noted that "The Monkees were the first example of something created in a medium -- in this case, a rock group on television -- that jumped off the screen to have big impact in the real world. ''
When commenting on the death of Jones on February 29, 2012, Time magazine contributor James Poniewozik praised the television show, saying that "even if the show never meant to be more than entertainment and a hit - single generator, we should n't sell The Monkees short. It was far better TV than it had to be; during an era of formulaic domestic sitcoms and wacky comedies, it was a stylistically ambitious show, with a distinctive visual style, absurdist sense of humor and unusual story structure. Whatever Jones and the Monkees were meant to be, they became creative artists in their own right, and Jones ' chipper Brit - pop presence was a big reason they were able to produce work that was commercial, wholesome and yet impressively weird.
Both the style and substance of the Monkees were imitated by American boy band Big Time Rush (BTR), who performed in their own television series which -- by admission of series creator Scott Fellows -- was heavily influenced by the Monkees. Similarly to the Monkees, Big Time Rush featured a "made - for - tv '' boy band often caught in a series of misadventures, hijinks, and somewhat slapstick comedy. The show, now in reruns but still hugely popular on Teen Nick, is highly stylized and patterned after the Monkees, even capped with similar cartoonish sound effects. Like the Monkees, BTR has also seen critical and commercial success in America and worldwide through album, singles and high TV ratings worldwide. ''
The highly respected Criterion Collection, whose stated goal is to release "a continuing series of important classic and contemporary films, (and) has been dedicated to gathering the greatest films from around the world and publishing them in editions that offer the highest technical quality and award - winning, original supplements '' recognized The Monkees film Head as meeting their criteria when they fully restored and released it on DVD and Blu - ray in 2010. They stated that Head was "way, way ahead of its time '' and "arguably the most authentically psychedelic film made in 1960s Hollywood '', Head dodged commercial success on its release but has since been reclaimed as one of the great cult objects of its era. ''
In the book, Hey, Hey We 're The Monkees, Rafelson explains, "(Head) explored techniques on film that had n't been used before. The first shot of Micky under water is a perfect example. Now you see it on MTV all the time, but it was invented for the movie (...) I got two long - haired kids out of UCLA who created the effects that the established laboratory guys said could n't be done. We invented double - matted experiences. Polarization had n't been used in movies before. (...) When it was shown in France, the head of the Cinematheque overly praised the movie as a cinematic masterpiece, and from that point on, this movie began to acquire an underground reputation. '' In 2010, Nick Vernier Band created a digital "Monkees reunion '' through the release of Mister Bob (featuring the Monkees), a new song produced under license from Rhino Entertainment, containing vocal samples from the band 's recording "Zilch. '' The contract bridge convention known as either Last Train or Last Train to Clarksville was so named by its inventor, Jeff Meckstroth, after the Monkees ' song.
There was also "The Monkees '' comic published in the United States by Dell Comics, which ran for seventeen issues from 1967 to 1969. In the United Kingdom, a Daily Mirror "Crazy Cartoon Book '' featured four comic stories as well as four photos of The Monkees, all in black and white; it was published in 1967.
In 2000, VH - 1 produced the television biopic Daydream Believers: The Monkees ' Story. In 2002, the movie was released on DVD, and featured both commentaries and interviews with Dolenz, Jones and Tork. The aired version did differ from the DVD release as the TV version had an extended scene with all four Monkees meeting the Beatles but with a shortened Cleveland concert segment. It was also available on VHS.
A stage musical opened in the UK at the Manchester Opera House on Friday March 30, 2012, and was dedicated to Davy Jones (the Jones family attended the official opening on April 3). The production is a Jukebox musical and starred Stephen Kirwan, Ben Evans, Tom Parsons and Oliver Savile as actors playing the parts of the Monkees (respectively Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith, Tork) who are hired by an unscrupulous businessman to go on a world tour pretending to be the real band. The show includes 18 Monkees songs plus numbers by other 60s artists. It ran in Manchester as part of the "Manchester Gets it First '' program until April 14, 2012 before a UK tour. Following its Manchester run, the show appeared in the Glasgow King 's Theatre and the Sunderland Empire Theatre.
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who played thelma and louise in the movie | Thelma & Louise - wikipedia
Thelma & Louise is a 1991 American road film directed by Ridley Scott and written by Callie Khouri. It stars Geena Davis as Thelma and Susan Sarandon as Louise, two friends who embark on a road trip with unforeseen consequences. The supporting cast include Harvey Keitel, Michael Madsen, and Brad Pitt, whose career was launched by the film.
The film became a critical and commercial success, receiving six Academy Award nominations and winning for Best Original Screenplay. Scott was nominated for Best Director, and both Sarandon and Davis were nominated for Best Actress. At its release, the film stirred controversy. At the intersection of several genres, it is now considered a classic. It influenced other films and artistic works and became a landmark of feminist film. In 2016, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Best friends Thelma Dickinson and Louise Sawyer set out for a weekend vacation at a fishing cabin in the mountains to take a break from their dreary lives in Arkansas. Thelma, a ditzy housewife, is married to a disrespectful and controlling man, Darryl, while sharp - tongued Louise works as a waitress in a diner and is on -- off dating a musician, Jimmy, who spends most of his time on the road.
On the way, they stop for a drink at a roadhouse bar, where Thelma meets and dances with a flirtatious stranger, Harlan. When he takes her outside to the parking lot to get some fresh air, he starts kissing her and taking her clothes off without her consent. Thelma resists, but Harlan hits her, and then attempts to rape her. Louise finds them and threatens to shoot Harlan with the gun that Thelma brought with her. Harlan stops, but, as the women walk away, he yells that he should have continued the rape and continually insults them. Enraged, Louise shoots him dead, and the pair flee the scene.
At a motel, they discuss how to handle the situation. Thelma wants to go to the police, but Louise fears that no one will believe Thelma 's claim of attempted rape and they will be subsequently charged for murder. They decide to go on the run, but Louise insists that they travel from Oklahoma to Mexico without going through Texas. Something happened to Louise in Texas several years earlier, and Thelma suspects it was something similar to what had happened with Harlan but Louise vehemently says she will not talk about it. Heading west, the women come across an attractive young drifter, J.D., who Thelma quickly falls for, and Thelma convinces Louise to let him hitch a ride with them. Louise contacts Jimmy and asks him to wire transfer her life savings to her. When she goes to pick up the money, she finds that Jimmy has come to deliver the money in person, and the two spend the night together. Jimmy proposes to Louise, but she refuses. Meanwhile, Thelma invites J.D. to her room, and they sleep together. She then learns he is a thief who has broken parole.
The following morning, Thelma leaves J.D. in her motel room to meet Louise downstairs for breakfast, and, when they return, they discover J.D. has stolen Louise 's life savings and fled. Louise is distraught, so a guilty Thelma takes charge and later robs a nearby convenience store using tactics she learned from listening to J.D. Meanwhile, the FBI is getting closer to catching the fugitives after witnesses at the bar saw Louise 's 1966 Ford Thunderbird convertible speeding out of the parking lot the night of the shooting. Their whereabouts are also questioned by the owner of the fishing cabin after the women failed to arrive for the weekend. Arkansas State Police Investigator Hal Slocumb leads the investigation and questions both J.D. and Jimmy and taps into the phone line at Darryl 's house. He discovers that Louise had been raped years earlier in Texas, so sympathizes with her situation and understands why they did n't report Harlan 's murder to the authorities. During a couple of brief phone conversations with Louise, he expresses his sympathy but is unsuccessful in his attempts to persuade her to surrender.
Thelma tells Louise she understands if she wants to go back home, knowing she has Jimmy waiting for her, but explains she can not go back to Darryl. Louise promises they will keep going together. The pair are later pulled over by a New Mexico state trooper for speeding. Knowing he will soon discover they are wanted for murder and armed robbery, Thelma holds him at gunpoint and locks him in the trunk of his police car, while Louise takes his gun and ammunition. They drive away from the scene and spend the next few nights heading further west. On the road, they encounter a foul - mouthed truck driver who repeatedly makes obscene gestures at them. They pull over and demand an apology from him; when he refuses, they fire at the fuel tanker he is driving, causing it to explode.
Thelma and Louise are finally cornered by the authorities only one hundred yards from the edge of the Grand Canyon. Hal arrives on the scene, but he is refused the chance to make one last attempt to talk the women into surrendering. Rather than be captured and spend the rest of their lives in jail, Thelma proposes that they "keep going ''. Louise asks Thelma if she is certain, and Thelma says yes. They kiss, Louise steps on the gas, and they accelerate over the cliff. As they arc over the canyon, the film freezes and fades to white.
Although the setting for the film is a fictional route between Arkansas and the Grand Canyon, it was filmed almost entirely in the states of California and Utah. The primary filming locations were rural areas around Bakersfield, California and Moab, Utah. The Grand Canyon scenes were actually filmed just south of Dead Horse Point State Park in Utah. Parts of the film were also shot at Shafer Overlook, Monument Valley, La Sal Mountains, La Sal Junction, Cisco, Old Valley City Reservoir, Thompson Springs, Arches National Park, and Crescent Junction in Utah.
The film was an overwhelming critical success. Metacritic lists a composite critical score of 88 out of 100. Rotten Tomatoes rates Thelma & Louise 83 % "Fresh ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times had only praise for the film in her review:
Mr. Scott 's Thelma and Louise, with a sparkling screenplay by the first - time writer Callie Khouri, is a surprise on this and many other scores. It reveals the previously untapped talent of Mr. Scott (best known for majestically moody action films like Alien, Blade Runner and Black Rain) for exuberant comedy, and for vibrant American imagery, notwithstanding his English roots. It reimagines the buddy film with such freshness and vigor that the genre seems positively new. It discovers unexpected resources in both its stars, Susan Sarandon and Geena Davis, who are perfectly teamed as the spirited and original title characters.
Roger Ebert also praised the film but withheld a perfect score on the basis of "the last shot before the titles begin. It 's a freeze frame that fades to white, which is fine, except it does so with unseemly haste... It 's unsettling to get involved in a movie that takes 128 minutes to bring you to a payoff that the filmmakers seem to fear. ''
The film was screened out of competition at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival. After watching the film, singer - songwriter Tori Amos wrote "Me and a Gun '', the story of her rape several years earlier.
Argentinian singer and musician Fito Páez wrote a hit song called "Dos días en la vida '' ("Two days in one lifetime '') after watching the film. The lyrics tell the story of the main characters, with verses played by singers Fabiana Cantilo (in the role of Thelma) and Celeste Carballo (Louise). It was one of the most successful singles from his 1992 album El amor después del amor.
The final scene, where the two embrace before driving off a cliff, has become iconic. Numerous homages and parodies of the scene have appeared, including alternate film endings, cartoon parodies, video game "Easter eggs '', and as a tragic ending to television series, music videos, and commercials.
The film also received harsh and significant criticism from those who thought it was biased against men and that its depictions of men were unfairly negative.
Numerous critics and writers have remarked on the strong feminist overtones of Thelma & Louise. Film critic B. Ruby Rich praises the film as an uncompromising validation of women 's experiences, while Kenneth Turan calls it a "neo-feminist road movie ''. In her essay "The Daughters of Thelma and Louise '', Jessica Enevold argues that the film constitutes "an attack on conventional patterns of chauvinist male behavior toward females ''. In addition, it "exposes the traditional stereotyping of male -- female relationships '' while rescripting the typical gender roles of the road movie genre.
In her review for The Los Angeles Times, film critic Sheila Benson objects to the characterization of the film as feminist, arguing that it is more preoccupied with revenge and violence than feminist values.
In his review for The New York Post, film critic Kyle Smith describes the film as "a misogynist tale about unbelievably ditzy women who lose what remains of their reason under pressure and suffer the ultimate punishment. '' Smith 's review focused less on the fact that the film stars strong female characters and instead points out the terrible decisions these strong female characters make throughout the entire film.
In an article commemorating the film 's 20th anniversary in 2011, Raina Lipsitz called it "the last great film about women '' and said that it heralded the achievements of women that caused 1992 to become "the year of the woman ''. However, she also said that women - themed films have since been losing ground.
Khouri won an Academy Award for Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen; Scott, Davis, Sarandon, cinematographer Adrian Biddle, and film editor Thom Noble were nominated for Oscars.
The British Film Institute published a book about the film in 2000 as part of a Modern Classics series. On the Writers Guild of America Award 's list of 101 best screenplays, it made No. 72. The film was ranked on the Australian program 20 to 1, in the episode Magnificent Movie Moments.
American Film Institute lists
Pete Haycock on slide guitar contributed to Thunderbird, the theme music for the film. In addition to Glenn Frey 's "Part of Me, Part of You '', which became the film 's primary theme song, the soundtrack included songs by Chris Whitley, Martha Reeves, Toni Childs, Marianne Faithfull, Charlie Sexton, Grayson Hugh, B.B. King, and Michael McDonald.
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the fall of rome moved europe into what period in history | Fall of the Western Roman Empire - wikipedia
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called Fall of the Roman Empire or Fall of Rome) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces; modern historians mention factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the competence of the Emperors, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure.
Relevant dates include 117 CE, when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent, and the accession of Diocletian in 284. Irreversible major territorial loss, however, began in 376 with a large - scale irruption of Goths and others. In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died, leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire, still plagued by Goths, divided between the warring ministers of his two incapable sons. Further barbarians crossed the Rhine and other frontiers, and like the Goths were never killed, expelled or subjected. The armed forces of the Western Empire became few and ineffective, and despite brief recoveries under able leaders, central rule was never effectively consolidated. By 476 when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus, the Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman. Barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire. While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again. The Eastern Empire survived, and though lessened in strength remained for centuries an effective power of the Eastern Mediterranean.
While the loss of political unity and military control is universally acknowledged, the Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.
Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward, '' historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears. '' The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule. The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron ''. Gibbon started his story in 98 and Theodor Mommsen regarded the whole of the imperial period as unworthy of inclusion in his Nobel Prize - winning History of Rome. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times. As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other markers include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405), the sack of Rome in 410, the death of Julius Nepos in 480, all the way to the Fall of New Rome in 1453.
Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began an ongoing controversy by attributing a significant role to Christianity in the Western Roman Empire 's fall, which is no longer accepted by modern Roman historians. However, he did give great weight to other causes of internal decline as well and to the attacks from outside the Empire.
The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians.
Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since. Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory (and, as a subsidiary theme, the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire). Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty, which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited.
From at least the time of Henri Pirenne scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476. Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and suggested that only the Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "Late Antiquity '' emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically - based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century. Observing the political reality of lost control, but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (emperor 98 -- 117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, as well as a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric. The Empire 's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status (including slavery on a large scale), and its wide - ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away.
Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen became familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well - rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle. City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision - making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects. The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth, and their followers displayed mutual tolerance, producing a polyphonous religious harmony. Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 (after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest). Heavy mortality in 165 -- 180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire.
The Empire suffered multiple serious crises during the third century. The rising Sassanid Empire inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries. Other disasters included repeated civil wars, barbarian invasions, and more mass - mortality in the Plague of Cyprian (from 250 onwards). Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube (271), and for a short period the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West (260 -- 274), a Palmyrene Empire in the East (260 -- 273), and a central Roman rump state. The Rhine / Danube frontier also came under more effective threats from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed improved agriculture and increased their populations. The Empire survived the "Crisis of the Third Century '', directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state. Under Gallienus (Emperor from 253 to 268) the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders, its typical members lacking interest in military service and showing incompetence at command.
Aurelian reunited the empire in 274; and from 284 Diocletian and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military. John the Lydian, writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian 's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in the fleets, and numbers may have increased later. With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own supreme commanders. Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior (Augustus) and junior (Caesar) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of tetrarchy broke down within one generation; the hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results, and thereafter civil war became again the main method of establishing new imperial regimes. Although Constantine the Great (in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between the need for two emperors and their mutual mistrust.
Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire. Receptio of barbarians became widely practiced: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system. In this way many groups provided unfree workers (coloni) for Roman landowners, and recruits (laeti) for the Roman army. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance, and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two.
The new supreme rulers disposed of the legal fiction of the early Empire (seeing the emperor as but the first among equals); emperors from Aurelian (reigned 270 -- 275) onwards openly styled themselves as dominus et deus, "lord and god '', titles appropriate for a master - slave relationship. An elaborate court ceremonial developed, and obsequious flattery became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his courtiers.
Official cruelty, supporting extortion and corruption, may also have become more commonplace. While the scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched, the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it. Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income, while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century, which may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold - rich elite and a cash - poor peasantry.
Within the late Roman military, many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins, and soldiers are recorded as using possibly - barbarian rituals such as elevating a claimant on shields. Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness; others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army.
In 313 Constantine I declared official toleration of Christianity, followed over the ensuing decades by establishment of Christian orthodoxy and by official and private action against pagans and non-orthodox Christians. His successors generally continued this process, and Christianity became the religion of any ambitious civil official. Under Constantine the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under Constantius II (r. 337 -- 361) their endowments of property. This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and the services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned. Public building projects became fewer, more often repairs than new construction, and now provided at state expense rather than by local grandees wishing to consolidate long - term local influence. A further financial abuse was Constantius 's increased habit of granting to his immediate entourage the estates of persons condemned of treason and other capital charges; this reduced future though not immediate income, and those close to the emperor gained a strong incentive to stimulate his suspicion of plots.
Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine; their settlements required a line of fortifications to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control. Under Constantius, bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria well within the empire. The tribes of Germany also became more populous and more threatening. In Gaul, which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s, perhaps worst in Armorica. By 350, after decades of pirate attacks, virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted, and local use of money ceased about 360. Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians. Except in the rare case of a determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians. Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay; as they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and there was much less economic stimulus to the frontier economy. However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine, the agricultural economy was generally doing well. The average nutritional state of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of North - Western Europe did not recover, though the Mediterranean regions did.
The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century: payrolls were inflated so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold, their opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, and their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of drill. However, extortion, gross corruption, and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army; there is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376. Ammianus Marcellinus, himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to physical size or strength. Despite a possible decrease in its ability to assemble and supply large armies, Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century.
Julian (r. 360 -- 363) launched a drive against official corruption which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one - third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met. In civil legislation Julian was notable for his pro-pagan policies. All Christian sects were officially tolerated by Julian, persecution of heretics was forbidden, and non-Christian religions were encouraged. Some Christians continued to destroy temples, disrupt rituals, and break sacred images, seeking martyrdom and at times achieving it at the hands of non-Christian mobs or secular authorities; some pagans attacked the Christians who had previously been involved with the destruction of temples.
Julian won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul. He launched an expensive campaign against the Persians, which ended in defeat and his own death. He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, but lacked adequate supplies for an assault. He burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations, but the Sassanids began a war of attrition by burning crops. Finding himself cut off in enemy territory, he began a land retreat during which he was mortally wounded. His successor Jovian, acclaimed by a demoralized army, began his brief reign (363 -- 364) trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis, which had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299.
The brothers Valens (r. 364 -- 378) and Valentinian I (r. 364 -- 375) energetically tackled the threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers and tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year.
Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julian had restored, but were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy; in the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. The wealth of the church increased dramatically, immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life. Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage; Ammianus described some as "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings ''. Edward Gibbon remarked that "the soldiers ' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity '', though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs. Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances. Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty - seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus.
Valentinian died of an apoplexy while shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in the West were children, his sons Gratian (r. 375 -- 383) and Valentinian II (r. 375 -- 392). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training '' removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House, and he rejected the pagan title of Pontifex Maximus.
In 376 the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly Goths who were refugees from the Huns. They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively resettled, and they took up arms, joined by more Goths and by some Alans and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army, preparing for an assault on the Persians, and redirecting the army and its logistic support would have required time. Gratian 's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across the Rhine. In 378 Valens attacked the invaders with the Eastern field army, perhaps some 20,000 men -- possibly only 10 % of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces -- and in the Battle of Adrianople, 9 August 378, he lost much of that army and his own life. All of the Balkan provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from the remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep ''. Cities were able to hold their own walls against barbarians who had no siege equipment, and they generally remained intact although the countryside suffered.
Gratian appointed a new Augustus, a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East. These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust -- between 379 and 380 Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum. Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. In contrast, during the Cimbrian War, the Roman Republic, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople, and it ended that war with the near - extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each recorded as having more than 100,000 warriors (with allowances for the usual exaggeration of numbers by ancient authors). Theodosius 's partial failure may have stimulated Vegetius to offer advice on re-forming an effective army (the advice may date from the 390s or from the 430s):
From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot - archer without cuirass or helmet, who can not hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who can not at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.
The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief, even the official panegyrist admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status. Instead they were either recruited into the imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established. In some later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire in which they retained their political and military cohesion. No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement was actually made; when the Goths are next mentioned in Roman records, they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort. In 391 Alaric, a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius 's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over.
Theodosius 's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal. Nevertheless, he is represented as financially lavish, though personally frugal when on campaign. At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting in which the emperor 's statues were destroyed. He was pious, a Nicene Christian heavily influenced by Ambrose, and implacable against heretics. In 392 he forbade even private honor to the gods, and pagan rituals such as the Olympic Games. He either ordered or connived at the widespread destruction of sacred buildings.
Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West; Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from the outlying regions of Britannia (probably replacing some with federate chieftains and their war - bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of Christian heretics. To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the diocese of Dacia and the diocese of Macedonia to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to Ambrose of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius. Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as Augustus of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked, winning the civil war in 388. There were heavy troop losses on both sides of the conflict. Later Welsh legend has Maximus 's defeated troops resettled in Armorica, instead of returning to Britannia, and by 400, Armorica was controlled by Bagaudae rather than by imperial authority.
Theodosius restored Valentinian II, still a very young man, as Augustus in the West. He also appointed Arbogast, a pagan general of Frankish origin, as Valentinian 's commander - in - chief and guardian. Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast, failed to assert any authority, and died, either by suicide or by murder, at the age of 21. Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official, Eugenius (r. 392 -- 394), as emperor in the West. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support, and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. They were defeated and killed at the Battle of the Frigidus, which was attended by further heavy losses especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius. The north - eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again.
Theodosius died a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons Honorius (r. 395 -- 423) and Arcadius (r. 395 -- 408) as emperors. In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius 's death, the magister militum Stilicho, married to Theodosius 's niece, asserted himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army. He also claimed control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but Rufinus, magister officiorum on the spot, had already established his own power there. Henceforward the Empire was not under the control of one man, until much of the West had been permanently lost. Neither Honorius nor Arcadius ever displayed any ability either as rulers or as generals, and both lived as the puppets of their courts. Stilicho tried to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieved only the continued hostility of all of Arcadius 's successive supreme ministers.
The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses from Stilicho onwards has been described as "shocking '', with little evidence of indigenous field forces or of adequate training, discipline, pay, or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops. Local defence was occasionally effective, but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes; in many areas, barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally - Roman "Bagaudae ''.
Corruption, in this context the diversion of public finance from the needs of the army, may have contributed greatly to the Fall. The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century; they supported armed strength in theory, but did not wish to pay for it or to offer their own workers as army recruits. They did, however, pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church. At a local level, from the early fourth century, the town councils lost their property and their power, which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law.
The fifth - century Western emperors, with brief exceptions, were individuals incapable of ruling effectively or even of controlling their own courts. Those exceptions were responsible for brief, but remarkable resurgences of Roman power.
Without an authoritative ruler, the Balkan provinces fell rapidly into disorder. Alaric was disappointed in his hopes for promotion to magister militum after the battle of the Frigidus. He again led Gothic tribesmen in arms and established himself as an independent power, burning the countryside as far as the walls of Constantinople. Alaric 's ambitions for long - term Roman office were never quite acceptable to the Roman imperial courts, and his men could never settle long enough to farm in any one area. They showed no inclination to leave the Empire and face the Huns from whom they had fled in 376; indeed the Huns were still stirring up further migrations which often ended by attacking Rome in turn. Alaric 's group was never destroyed nor expelled from the Empire, nor acculturated under effective Roman domination.
Stilicho moved with his remaining mobile forces into Greece, a clear threat to Rufinus ' control of the Eastern empire. The bulk of Rufinus ' forces were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria, leaving Thrace undefended. He opted to enlist Alaric and his men, and sent them to Thessaly to stave off Stilicho 's threat, which they did. No battle took place. Stilicho was forced to send some of his Eastern forces home. They went to Constantinople under the command of one Gainas, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed magister militum for Thrace by Eutropius, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome, who controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep ''. Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign ineffectively against the Eastern empire; again he was successfully opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some Huns who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as magister militum per Illyricum. A poem by Synesius advises the emperor to display manliness and remove a "skin - clad savage '' (probably Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of the existence of this advice, but it had no recorded effect. Synesius, from a province suffering the widespread ravages of a few poor but greedy barbarians, also complained of "the peacetime war, one almost worse than the barbarian war and arising from military indiscipline and the officer 's greed. ''
The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome. Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa, and he strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them. In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any "laetus, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran '' or any other person liable to serve. He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool. Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets; the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army.
In 399, Tribigild 's rebellion in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army (mostly Goths), become supreme in the Eastern court, and execute Eutropius. He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric 's services and he nominally transferred Alaric 's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric 's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army -- the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans -- as a problem for Stilicho. In 400, the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people, soldiers and their families, as they could catch. Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe; the Roman navy slaughtered them. By the beginning of 401, Gainas ' head rode a pike through Constantinople while another Gothic general became consul. Meanwhile, groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube, and the Isaurians marauded far and wide in Anatolia.
In 401 Stilicho travelled over the Alps to Raetia, to scrape up further troops. He left the Rhine defended only by the "dread '' of Roman retaliation, rather than by adequate forces able to take the field. Early in spring, Alaric, probably desperate, invaded Italy, and he drove Honorius westward from Mediolanum, besieging him in Hasta Pompeia in Liguria. Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared, meeting Alaric in two battles (near Pollentia and Verona) without decisive results. The Goths, weakened, were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office, though only as comes and only over Dalmatia and Pannonia Secunda rather than the whole of Illyricum. Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops. He may also have planned with Alaric 's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court.
However, in 405, Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy. Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns, led by one Radagaisus, devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them. Stilicho recalled troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them. His forces, including Hun and Alan auxiliaries, may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men. Radagaisus was defeated and executed. 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho 's service. Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric; Flavius Aetius, son of one of Stilicho 's major supporters, was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405. In 406 Stilicho, hearing of new invaders and rebels who had appeared in the northern provinces, insisted on making peace with Alaric, probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul. The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric; in 407, when Alaric marched into Noricum and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho 's interests, the senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors, '' preferred war. One senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude ''). Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless. Stilicho sent Sarus, a Gothic general, over the Alps to face the usurper Constantine III, but he lost and barely escaped, having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes.
The empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, died in 407 or early 408 and her sister Aemilia Materna Thermantia married Honorius. In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son Theodosius II; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself. He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before he could do so, while he was away at Ticinum at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius 's court. It was led by Stilicho 's own creature, one Olympius.
Stilicho had news of the coup at Bononia (where he was probably waiting for Alaric). His small escort of barbarians was led by Sarus, who rebelled. His Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and then withdrew towards the cities in which their families were billeted. Stilicho ordered that these troops should not be admitted, but, now without an army, he was forced to flee for sanctuary, promised his life, and killed.
Alaric was again declared an enemy of the Emperor. The conspiracy then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected en masse to Alaric. The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate, and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho. Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter. Heraclianus, a co-conspirator of Olympius, became governor of the Diocese of Africa, where he controlled the source of most of Italy 's grain, and he supplied food only in the interests of Honorius 's regime.
As a declared ' enemy of the Emperor ', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to Pannonia, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes, but he was refused as a supporter of Stilicho. He moved into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho, bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and he menaced the city of Rome itself. In 407, there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, when the entire Roman population, even slaves, had been mobilized to resist the enemy.
Alaric 's military operations centred on the port of Rome, through which Rome 's grain supply had to pass. Alaric 's first siege of Rome in 408 caused dreadful famine within the walls. It was ended by a payment that, though large, was less than one of the richest senators could have produced. The super-rich aristocrats made little contribution; pagan temples were stripped of ornaments to make up the total. With promises of freedom, Alaric also recruited many of the slaves in Rome.
Alaric withdrew to Tuscany and recruited more slaves. Ataulf, a Goth nominally in Roman service and brother - in - law to Alaric, marched through Italy to join Alaric despite taking casualties from a small force of Hunnic mercenaries led by Olympius. Sarus was an enemy of Ataulf, and on Ataulf 's arrival went back into imperial service.
In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death. Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults, which were reported verbatim to Alaric. He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued. Honorius 's court made overtures to the usurper Constantine III in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy, Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities (which he could not garrison), and the Romans refused open battle (for which they had inadequate forces). Late in the year Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius would only grant his people a supply of grain. Honorius, sensing weakness, flatly refused.
Alaric moved to Rome and captured Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius. The Senate in Rome, despite its loathing for Alaric, was now desperate enough to give him almost anything he wanted. They had no food to offer, but they tried to give him imperial legitimacy; with the Senate 's acquiescence, he elevated Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor, and he marched on Ravenna. Honorius was planning to flee to Constantinople when a reinforcing army of 4,000 soldiers from the East disembarked in Ravenna. These garrisoned the walls and Honorius held on. He had Constantine 's principal court supporter executed and Constantine abandoned plans to march to Honorius 's defence. Attalus failed to establish his control over the Diocese of Africa, and no grain arrived in Rome where the famine became even more frightful. Jerome reports cannibalism within the walls. Attalus brought Alaric no real advantage, failing also to come to any useful agreement with Honorius (who was offered mutilation, humiliation, and exile). Indeed, Attalus 's claim was a marker of threat to Honorius, and Alaric dethroned him after a few months.
In 410 Alaric took Rome by starvation, sacked it for three days (there was relatively little destruction, and in some Christian holy places Alaric 's men even refrained from wanton wrecking and rape), and invited its remaining barbarian slaves to join him, which many did. The city of Rome was the seat of the richest senatorial noble families and the centre of their cultural patronage; to pagans it was the sacred origin of the empire, and to Christians the seat of the heir of Saint Peter, Pope Innocent I, the most authoritative bishop of the West. Rome had not fallen to an enemy since the Battle of the Allia over eight centuries before. Refugees spread the news and their stories throughout the Empire, and the meaning of the fall was debated with religious fervour. Both Christians and pagans wrote embittered tracts, blaming paganism or Christianity respectively for the loss of Rome 's supernatural protection, and blaming Stilicho 's earthly failures in either case. Some Christian responses anticipated the imminence of Judgement Day. Augustine in his book "City of God '' ultimately rejected the pagan and Christian idea that religion should have worldly benefits; he developed the doctrine that the City of God in heaven, undamaged by mundane disasters, was the true objective of Christians. More practically, Honorius was briefly persuaded to set aside the laws forbidding pagans to be military officers, so that one Generidus could re-establish Roman control in Dalmatia. Generidus did this with unusual effectiveness; his techniques were remarkable for this period, in that they included training his troops, disciplining them, and giving them appropriate supplies even if he had to use his own money. The penal laws were reinstated no later than 25 August 410 and the overall trend of repression of paganism continued.
Procopius mentions a story in which Honorius, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished '', was shocked, thinking the news was in reference to his favorite chicken he had named "Roma ''. On hearing that Rome itself had fallen he breathed a sigh of relief:
At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Roma had perished. And he cried out and said, "And yet it has just eaten from my hands! '' For he had a very large cockerel, Roma by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Roma which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: "But I thought that my fowl Roma had perished. '' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed.
Alaric then moved south, intending to sail to Africa, but his ships were wrecked in a storm and he shortly died of fever. His successor Ataulf, still regarded as an usurper and given only occasional and short - term grants of supplies, moved north into the turmoil of Gaul, where there was some prospect of food. His supergroup of barbarians are called the Visigoths in modern works: they may now have been developing their own sense of identity.
The Crossing of the Rhine in 405 / 6 brought unmanageable numbers of German and Alan barbarians (perhaps some 30,000 warriors, 100,000 people) into Gaul. They may have been trying to get away from the Huns, who about this time advanced to occupy the Great Hungarian Plain. For the next few years these barbarian tribes wandered in search of food and employment, while Roman forces fought each other in the name of Honorius and a number of competing claimants to the imperial throne.
The remaining troops in Britannia elevated a succession of imperial usurpers. The last, Constantine III, raised an army from the remaining troops in Britannia, invaded Gaul and defeated forces loyal to Honorius led by Sarus. Constantine 's power reached its peak in 409 when he controlled Gaul and beyond, he was joint consul with Honorius and his magister militum Gerontius defeated the last Roman force to try to hold the borders of Hispania. It was led by relatives of Honorius; Constantine executed them. Gerontius went to Hispania where he may have settled the Sueves and the Asding Vandals. Gerontius then fell out with his master and elevated one Maximus as his own puppet emperor. He defeated Constantine and was besieging him in Arelate when Honorius 's general Constantius arrived from Italy with an army (possibly, mainly of Hun mercenaries). Gerontius 's troops deserted him and he committed suicide. Constantius continued the siege, defeating a relieving army. Constantine surrendered in 411 with a promise that his life would be spared, and was executed.
In 410, the Roman civitates of Britannia rebelled against Constantine and evicted his officials. They asked for help from Honorius, who replied that they should look to their own defence. While the British may have regarded themselves as Roman for several generations, and British armies may at times have fought in Gaul, no central Roman government is known to have appointed officials in Britannia thereafter.
In 411, Jovinus rebelled and took over Constantine 's remaining troops on the Rhine. He relied on the support of Burgundians and Alans to whom he offered supplies and land. In 413 Jovinus also recruited Sarus; Ataulf destroyed their regime in the name of Honorius and both Jovinus and Sarus were executed. The Burgundians were settled on the left bank of the Rhine. Ataulf then operated in the south of Gaul, sometimes with short - term supplies from the Romans. All usurpers had been defeated, but large barbarian groups remained un-subdued in both Gaul and Hispania. The imperial government was quick to restore the Rhine frontier. The invading tribes of 407 had passed into Spain at the end of 409 but the Visigoths had exited Italy at the beginning of 412 and settled themselves in Narbo.
Heraclianus was still in command in the diocese of Africa, the last of the clique that overthrew Stilicho to retain power. In 413 he led an invasion of Italy, lost to a subordinate of Constantius, and fled back to Africa where he was murdered by Constantius 's agents.
In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Ataulf in Narbo, where he married Galla Placidia. The choir at the wedding included Attalus, a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers. Ataulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire because of the irredeemable barbarity of his followers, and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire. He handed Attalus over to Honorius 's regime for mutilation, humiliation, and exile, and abandoned Attalus 's supporters. (One of them, Paulinus Pellaeus, recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful for allowing him and his household to leave destitute, but alive, without being raped.) Ataulf moved out of Gaul, to Barcelona. There his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried, and there Ataulf was assassinated by one of his household retainers, possibly a former follower of Sarus. His ultimate successor Wallia had no agreement with the Romans; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food.
In 416 Wallia reached agreement with Constantius; he sent Galla Placidia back to Honorius and received provisions, six hundred thousand modii of wheat. From 416 to 418, Wallia 's Goths campaigned in Hispania on Constantius 's behalf, exterminating the Siling Vandals in Baetica and reducing the Alans to the point where the survivors sought the protection of the king of the Asding Vandals. (After retrenchment they formed another barbarian supergroup, but for the moment they were reduced in numbers and effectively cowed.) In 418, by agreement with Constantius, Wallia 's Goths accepted land to farm in Aquitania. Constantius also reinstituted an annual council of the southern Gallic provinces, to meet at Arelate. Although Constantius rebuilt the western field army to some extent -- the Notitia Dignitatum gives a list of the units of the western field army at this time -- he did so only by replacing half of its units (vanished in the wars since 395) by re-graded barbarians, and by garrison troops removed from the frontier.
Constantius had married the princess Galla Placidia (despite her protests) in 417. The couple soon had two children, Honoria and Valentinian III, and Constantius was elevated to the position of Augustus in 420. This earned him the hostility of the Eastern court, which had not agreed to his elevation. Nevertheless, Constantius had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander - in - chief of a partially restored army.
This settlement represented a real success for the Empire -- a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany, and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul. In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of Cologne (lost to the Ripuarian Franks in 459) to Boulogne. The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years. Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained, with thousands of warriors, in their own non-Roman military and social systems. Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control, but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests.
Constantius died in 421, after only seven months as Augustus. He had been careful to make sure that there was no successor in waiting, and his own children were far too young to take his place. Honorius was unable to control his own court and the death of Constantius initiated more than ten years of instability. Initially Galla Placidia sought Honorius 's favour in the hope that her son might ultimately inherit. Other court interests managed to defeat her, and she fled with her children to the Eastern court in 422. Honorius himself died, shortly before his thirty - ninth birthday, in 423. After some months of intrigue, the patrician Castinus installed Joannes as Western Emperor, but the Eastern Roman government proclaimed the child Valentinian III instead, his mother Galla Placidia acting as regent during his minority. Joannes had few troops of his own. He sent Aetius to raise help from the Huns. An Eastern army landed in Italy, captured Joannes, cut his hand off, abused him in public, and killed him with most of his senior officials. Aetius returned, three days after Joannes ' death, at the head of a substantial Hunnic army which made him the most powerful general in Italy. After some fighting, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement; the Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum.
Galla Placidia, as Augusta, mother of the Emperor, and his guardian until 437, could maintain a dominant position in court, but women in Ancient Rome did not exercise military power and she could not herself become a general. She tried for some years to avoid reliance on a single dominant military figure, maintaining a balance of power between her three senior officers, Aetius (magister militum in Gaul), Count Boniface governor in the Diocese of Africa, and Flavius Felix magister militum praesentalis in Italy. Meanwhile, the Empire deteriorated seriously. Apart from the losses in the Diocese of Africa, Hispania was slipping out of central control and into the hands of local rulers and Suevic bandits. In Gaul the Rhine frontier had collapsed, the Visigoths in Aquitaine may have launched further attacks on Narbo and Arelate, and the Franks, increasingly powerful although disunited, were the major power in the north - east. Aremorica was controlled by Bagaudae, local leaders not under the authority of the Empire. Aetius at least campaigned vigorously and mostly victoriously, defeating aggressive Visigoths, Franks, fresh Germanic invaders, Bagaudae in Aremorica, and a rebellion in Noricum. Not for the first time in Rome 's history, a triumvirate of mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable. In 427 Felix tried to recall Boniface from Africa; he refused, and overcame Felix 's invading force. Boniface probably recruited some Vandal troops among others.
In 428 the Vandals and Alans were united under the able, ferocious, and long - lived king Genseric; he moved his entire people to Tarifa near Gibraltar, divided them into 80 groups nominally of 1,000 people, (perhaps 20,000 warriors in total), and crossed from Hispania to Mauretania without opposition. (The Straits of Gibraltar were not an important thoroughfare at the time, and there were no significant fortifications nor military presence at this end of the Mediterranean.) They spent a year moving slowly to Numidia, defeating Boniface. He returned to Italy where Aetius had recently had Felix executed. Boniface was promoted to magister militum and earned the enmity of Aetius, who may have been absent in Gaul at the time. In 432 the two met at the Battle of Ravenna which left Aetius 's forces defeated and Boniface mortally wounded. Aetius temporarily retired to his estates, but after an attempt to murder him he raised another Hunnic army (probably by conceding parts of Pannonia to them) and in 433 he returned to Italy, overcoming all rivals. He never threatened to become an Augustus himself and thus maintained the support of the Eastern court, where Valentinian 's cousin Theodosius II reigned until 450.
Aetius campaigned vigorously, somewhat stabilizing the situation in Gaul and in Hispania. He relied heavily on his forces of Huns. With a ferocity celebrated centuries later in the Nibelungenlied, the Huns slaughtered many Burgundians on the middle Rhine, re-establishing the survivors as Roman allies, the first Kingdom of the Burgundians. This may have returned some sort of Roman authority to Trier. Eastern troops reinforced Carthage, temporarily halting the Vandals, who in 435 agreed to limit themselves to Numidia and leave the most fertile parts of North Africa in peace. Aetius concentrated his limited military resources to defeat the Visigoths again, and his diplomacy restored a degree of order to Hispania. However, his general Litorius was badly defeated by the Visigoths at Toulouse, and a new Suevic king, Rechiar, began vigorous assaults on what remained of Roman Hispania. At one point Rechiar even allied with Bagaudae. These were Romans not under imperial control; some of their reasons for rebellion may be indicated by the remarks of a Roman captive under Attila who was happy in his lot, giving a lively account of
the vices of a declining empire, of which he had so long been the victim; the cruel absurdity of the Roman princes, unable to protect their subjects against the public enemy, unwilling to trust them with arms for their own defence; the intolerable weight of taxes, rendered still more oppressive by the intricate or arbitrary modes of collection; the obscurity of numerous and contradictory laws; the tedious and expensive forms of judicial proceedings; the partial administration of justice; and the universal corruption, which increased the influence of the rich, and aggravated the misfortunes of the poor.
A religious polemic of about this time complains bitterly of the oppression and extortion suffered by all but the richest Romans. Many wished to flee to the Bagaudae or even to foul - smelling barbarians.
Although these men differ in customs and language from those with whom they have taken refuge, and are unaccustomed too, if I may say so, to the nauseous odor of the bodies and clothing of the barbarians, yet they prefer the strange life they find there to the injustice rife among the Romans. So you find men passing over everywhere, now to the Goths, now to the Bagaudae, or whatever other barbarians have established their power anywhere... We call those men rebels and utterly abandoned, whom we ourselves have forced into crime. For by what other causes were they made Bagaudae save by our unjust acts, the wicked decisions of the magistrates, the proscription and extortion of those who have turned the public exactions to the increase of their private fortunes and made the tax indictions their opportunity for plunder?
From Britannia comes an indication of the prosperity which freedom from taxes could bring.
No sooner were the ravages of the enemy checked, than the island was deluged with a most extraordinary plenty of all things, greater than was before known, and with it grew up every kind of luxury and licentiousness.
Nevertheless, effective imperial protection from barbarian ravages was eagerly sought. About this time authorities in Britannia asked Aetius for help:
"To Aetius, now consul for the third time: the groans of the Britons. '' And again a little further, thus: -- "The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throws us back on the barbarians: thus two modes of death await us, we are either slain or drowned. '' The Romans, however, could not assist them...
The Visigoths passed another waymark on their journey to full independence; they made their own foreign policy, sending princesses to make (rather unsuccessful) marriage alliances with Rechiar of the Sueves and with Huneric, son of the Vandal king Genseric.
In 439 the Vandals moved eastward (temporarily abandoning Numidia) and captured Carthage, where they established an independent state with a powerful navy. This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire; the diocese of Africa was prosperous, normally required few troops to keep it secure, contributed large tax revenues, and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas. Roman troops assembled in Sicily, but the planned counter-attack never happened. Huns attacked the Eastern empire, and
the troops, which had been sent against Genseric, were hastily recalled from Sicily; the garrisons, on the side of Persia, were exhausted; and a military force was collected in Europe, formidable by their arms and numbers, if the generals had understood the science of command, and the soldiers the duty of obedience. The armies of the Eastern empire were vanquished in three successive engagements... From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, and the suburbs of Constantinople, (Attila) ravaged, without resistance, and without mercy, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia.
Attila 's invasions of the East were stopped by the walls of Constantinople, and at this heavily fortified Eastern end of the Mediterranean there were no significant barbarian invasions across the sea into the rich southerly areas of Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Despite internal and external threats, and more religious discord than the West, these provinces remained prosperous contributors to tax revenue; despite the ravages of Attila 's armies and the extortions of his peace treaties, tax revenue generally continued to be adequate for the essential state functions of the Eastern empire.
Genseric settled his Vandals as landowners and in 442 was able to negotiate very favourable peace terms with the Western court. He kept his latest gains and his eldest son Huneric was honoured by betrothal to Princess Eudocia, who carried the legitimacy of the Theodosian dynasty. Huneric 's Gothic wife was suspected of trying to poison her father - in - law Genseric; he sent her home without her nose or ears, and his Gothic alliance came to an early end. The Romans regained Numidia, and Rome again received a grain supply from Africa.
The losses of income from the Diocese of Africa were equivalent to the costs of nearly 40,000 infantry or over 20,000 cavalry. The imperial regime had to increase taxes. Despite admitting that the peasantry could pay no more, and that a sufficient army could not be raised, the imperial regime protected the interests of landowners displaced from Africa and allowed wealthy individuals to avoid taxes.
In 444, the Huns were united under Attila. His subjects included Huns, outnumbered several times over by other groups, predominantly Germanic. His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals, and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450, by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions.
Attila may not have needed any excuse to turn West, but he received one in the form of a plea for help from Honoria, the Emperor 's sister, who was being forced into a marriage which she resented. Attila claimed Honoria as his wife and half of the Western Empire 's territory as his dowry. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul in 451 with a huge army. In the bloody battle of the Catalaunian Plains the invasion was stopped by the combined forces of the barbarians within the Western empire, coordinated by Aetius and supported by what troops he could muster. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, lack of supplies, reports that Eastern Roman troops were attacking his noncombatant population in Pannonia, and, possibly, Pope Leo 's plea for peace induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453) and his empire crumbled as his followers fought for power. The life of Severinus of Noricum gives glimpses of the general insecurity, and ultimate retreat of the Romans on the Upper Danube, in the aftermath of Attila 's death. The Romans were without adequate forces; the barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion, murder, kidnap, and plunder on the Romans and on each other.
So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall. When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way.
In 454 Aetius was personally stabbed to death by Valentinian, who was himself murdered by the dead general 's supporters a year later.
(Valentinian) thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne.
A rich senatorial aristocrat, Petronius Maximus, who had encouraged both murders, then seized the throne. He broke the engagement between Huneric, prince of the Vandals, and Princess Eudocia, and had time to send Avitus to ask for the help of the Visigoths in Gaul before the Vandals sailed to Italy. Petronius was unable to muster any effective response and was killed by a mob as he tried to flee the city. The Vandals entered Rome, and plundered it for two weeks. Despite the shortage of money for the defence of the state, considerable private wealth had accumulated since the previous sack in 410. The Vandals sailed away with large amounts of treasure and also with the Princess Eudocia, who became the wife of one Vandal king and the mother of another.
The Vandals conquered Sicily, and their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean.
Avitus, at the Visigothic court in Burdigala, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support which gained his acceptance by Majorian and Ricimer, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a barbarian kingdom had played a key role in the imperial succession. Avitus 's son - in - law Sidonius wrote propaganda to present the Visigothic king Theoderic II as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business. Theoderic 's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy, and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother - in - law Rechiar, but he also plundered Roman cities. The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the Rhone valley and the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa. In 456 the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy, and Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships; Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus and defeated him near Placentia. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later.
Majorian and Ricimer were now in control of Italy. Ricimer was the son of a Suevic king and his mother was the daughter of a Gothic one, so he could not aspire to an imperial throne. After some months, allowing for negotiation with the new emperor of Constantinople and the defeat of 900 Alamannic invaders of Italy by one of his subordinates, Majorian was acclaimed as Augustus. Majorian is described by Gibbon as "a great and heroic character ''. He rebuilt the army and navy of Italy with vigour and set about recovering the remaining Gallic provinces, which had not recognized his elevation. He defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Arelate, reducing them to federate status and obliging them to give up their claims in Hispania; he moved on to subdue the Burgundians, the Gallo - Romans around Lugdunum (who were granted tax concessions and whose senior officials were appointed from their own ranks) and the Suevi and Bagaudae in Hispania. Marcellinus, magister militum in Dalmatia and the pagan general of a well - equipped army, acknowledged him as emperor and recovered Sicily from the Vandals. Aegidius also acknowledged Majorian and took effective charge of northern Gaul. (Aegidius may also have used the title "King of the Franks ''.) Abuses in tax collection were reformed and the city councils were strengthened, both actions necessary to rebuild the strength of the Empire but disadvantageous to the richest aristocrats. Majorian prepared a fleet at Carthago Nova for the essential reconquest of the Diocese of Africa.
The fleet was burned by traitors, and Majorian made peace with the Vandals and returned to Italy. Here Ricimer met him, arrested him, and executed him five days later. Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and Aegidius around Soissons in northern Gaul, rejected both Ricimer and his puppets and maintained some version of Roman rule in their areas. Ricimer later ceded Narbo and its hinterland to the Visigoths for their help against Aegidius; this made it impossible for Roman armies to march from Italy to Hispania. Ricimer was then the effective ruler of Italy (but little else) for several years. From 461 to 465 the pious Italian aristocrat Libius Severus reigned. There is no record of anything significant that he even tried to achieve, he was never acknowledged by the East whose help Ricimer needed, and he died conveniently in 465.
After two years without a Western Emperor, the Eastern court nominated Anthemius, a successful general who had a strong claim on the Eastern throne. He arrived in Italy with an army, supported by Marcellinus and his fleet; he married his daughter to Ricimer, and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467. In 468, at vast expense, the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa. Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from Sardinia and Sicily, and a land invasion evicted them from Tripolitania. The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily and landed at Cape Bon. Here Genseric offered to surrender, if he could have a five - day truce to prepare the process. He used the respite to prepare a full - scale attack preceded by fireships, which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers. The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa and they retook Sardinia and Sicily. Marcellinus was murdered, possibly on orders from Ricimer. The Praetorian prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, tried to persuade the new king of the Visigoths to rebel, on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway, but he refused.
Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy. Additionally, in northern Gaul, a British army led by one Riothamus, operated in imperial interests. Anthemius sent his son over the Alps, with an army, to request that the Visigoths return southern Gaul to Roman control. This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again. The Visigoths refused, defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius, and with the Burgundians took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul.
Ricimer then quarreled with Anthemius, and besieged him in Rome, which surrendered in July 472 after more months of starvation. Anthemius was captured and executed (on Ricimer 's orders) by the Burgundian prince Gundobad. In August Ricimer died of a pulmonary haemorrhage. Olybrius, his new emperor, named Gundobad as his patrician, then died himself shortly thereafter.
After the death of Olybrius there was a further interregnum until March 473, when Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius emperor. He may have made some attempt to intervene in Gaul; if so, it was unsuccessful.
In 474 Julius Nepos, nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus, arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor Leo I. Gundobad had already left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul and Glycerius gave up without a fight, retiring to become bishop of Salona in Dalmatia.
In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus) to be Emperor, on October 31. His surname ' Augustus ' was given the diminutive form ' Augustulus ' by rivals because he was still a minor, and he was never recognized outside of Italy as a legitimate ruler.
In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes fled to the city of Pavia on August 23, 476, where the city 's bishop gave him sanctuary. Orestes was soon forced to flee Pavia when Odoacer 's army broke through the city walls and ravaged the city. Odoacer 's army chased Orestes to Piacenza, where they captured and executed him on August 28, 476.
On September 4, 476, Odoacer forced then 16 - year - old Romulus Augustulus, whom his father Orestes had proclaimed to be Rome 's Emperor, to abdicate. After deposing Romulus, Odoacer did not execute him. The Anonymus Valesianus wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth '', spared Romulus ' life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania. Odoacer then installed himself as ruler over Italy, and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople.
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self - defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors, they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized.
Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Zeno, who was busy dealing with unrest in the East. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of patrician and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer never returned any territory or real power, but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 (Glycerius may have been among the conspirators) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth, Theoderic (later known as "the Great '') to take Italy. After several indecisive campaigns, in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly. They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation, at which Theoderic 's men murdered Odoacer 's, and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half.
The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by violence. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.
Observing the cultural and archaeological continuities through and beyond the period of lost political control, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
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is there a taco bell in mexico city | Taco Bell - Wikipedia
Taco Bell is an American chain of fast food restaurants based out of Irvine, California and a subsidiary of Yum! Brands, Inc. The restaurants serve a variety of Tex - Mex foods that include tacos, burritos, quesadillas, nachos, novelty and specialty items, and a variety of "value menu '' items. As of 2018, Taco Bell serves more than 2 billion customers each year at 7,000 restaurants, more than 80 percent of which are owned and operated by independent franchisees and licensees.
Taco Bell was founded by Glen Bell, an entrepreneur who first opened a hot dog stand called Bell 's Drive - In in San Bernardino, California in 1948. Bell watched long lines of customers at a Mexican restaurant called the Mitla Cafe, located across the street, which became become famous among residents for its hard - shelled tacos. Bell attempted to reverse - engineer the recipe, and eventually the owners allowed him to see how the tacos were made. He took what he had learned and opened a new stand under the name of Taco - Tia in late 1951 or early 1952, which sold tacos.
Eventually over the years, Bell owned and operated a number of four El Taco restaurants in southern California. Bell would sell the El Tacos to his partner and built the first Taco Bell in Downey in 1962. The first Taco Bell franchise opened in Torrance in 1964, and by 1967, the company was growing rapidly, opening it 's 100th restaurant in the same year.
PepsiCo would purchase Taco Bell in 1978, and later spun off its restaurants division as Tricon Global Restaurants, which later changed its name to Yum! Brands. Taco Bell has attracted some controversy over the years, regarding its use of genetically modified food (GMO) as well as its welfare polices.
Taco Bell was founded by Glen Bell, who first opened a hot dog stand called Bell 's Drive - In in San Bernardino, California in 1948 when he was 25 years old. In 1950, he opened Bell 's Hamburgers and Hot Dogs in San Bernardino 's West Side barrio. According to Gustavo Arellano, author of Taco USA: How Mexican Food Conquered America, Bell watched long lines of customers at a Mexican restaurant called the Mitla Cafe, located across the street, which attracted a dedicated customer base for its hard - shelled tacos. Bell began eating there regularly, attempting to reverse - engineer the recipe, and eventually won the confidence of the proprietors such that they allowed him to see how the tacos and other foods were prepared. In late 1951 or early 1952, he took what he had learned and opened a new stand, this time selling tacos under the name of Taco - Tia.
Over the next few years, Bell owned and operated a number of restaurants in southern California including four called El Taco. Bell sold the El Tacos to his partner and built the first Taco Bell in Downey in 1962. Kermit Becky, a former Los Angeles police officer, bought the first Taco Bell franchise from Glen Bell in 1964, and located it in Torrance. The company grew rapidly, and by 1967, the 100th restaurant opened at 400 South Brookhurst in Anaheim. In 1968, its first franchise location east of the Mississippi River opened in Springfield, Ohio. In 1970, Taco Bell went public with 325 restaurants.
In 1978, PepsiCo purchased Taco Bell from Glen Bell. On the night of November 19, 2015, the original Taco Bell building in Downey was moved to the Taco Bell Corporate Headquarters in Irvine, California. Several locations in the Midwestern United States were converted from Zantigo, a Minneapolis, Minnesota - based Mexican chain which PepsiCo acquired in 1986. In 1990, the Hot ' n Now chain was acquired. Taco Bell sold Hot ' n Now to a Connecticut company in 1996.
In 1991, Taco Bell opened the first Taco Bell Express in San Francisco. This concept is a reduced - size restaurant with a limited menu (primarily items priced under $1), meant to emphasize volume. Taco Bell Express locations operate primarily inside convenience stores, truck stops, shopping malls, and airports. Taco Bell began co-branding with KFC in 1995 when the first such co-brand opened in Clayton, North Carolina. The chain has since co-branded with Pizza Hut and Long John Silver 's as well.
In 1997, PepsiCo experimented with a new "fresh grill '' concept, opening at least one Border Bell restaurant in Mountain View, California on El Camino Real (SR 82). In addition to a subset of the regular Taco Bell menu, Border Bell offered Mexican - inspired items like those available from Chevys Fresh Mex restaurants (then owned by PepsiCo), such as Chevys signature sweet corn tamalito pudding and a fresh salsa bar. Close to the time that PepsiCo spun off its restaurant business in 1997, the Border Bell in Mountain View was closed and converted to a Taco Bell restaurant which was still open in 2012.
In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of Taco Bell - branded shells were recalled from supermarkets. The shells contained a variety of genetically modified corn called StarLink that was not approved for human consumption. StarLink was approved only for use in animal feed because of questions about whether it can cause allergic reactions in people. It was the first - ever recall of genetically modified food (GMO). Corn was not segregated at grain elevators and the miller in Texas did not order that type. In 2001, Tricon Global announced a $60 million settlement with the suppliers. They stated that it would go to Taco Bell franchisees and TGR would not take any of it.
PepsiCo spun out Taco Bell and its other restaurant chains in late 1997 in Tricon Global Restaurants. With the purchased of two other chains, Tricon changed its name to Yum! Brands on May 22, 2002.
Taco Bell began experimenting with fast - casual and urban concepts when it created U.S. Taco Co. and Urban Taproom in 2014. The menu consists of tacos with American fillings, and did not sell food sold in Taco Bell restaurants such as burritos. It was launched in Huntington Beach, California in August 2014. U.S. Taco Co. closed on September 15, 2015 so the company could focus on its new similar Taco Bell Cantina concept, which featured special menu items and served alcohol. It opened its first location a few days later in Chicago 's Wicker Park neighborhood, followed by a location in San Francisco about a month later, located less than a block away from AT&T Park. In 2016, Taco Bell launched the Taco Bell Catina flagship store located on the Las Vegas strip. This 24 - hour restaurant hosts a variety of unique features including alcohol, new menu items, and a DJ. It was announced in August 2017 that the store would begin hosting weddings. Taco Bell Cantina currently has locations in San Francisco, Berkeley, Chicago (2 locations), Las Vegas, Austin, Fayetteville, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Atlanta, Newport Beach, and plans to open soon in Somerville, MA.
In March 2016, Taco Bell introduced private beta testing of an artificial intelligence bot on the messaging platform Slack designed to take orders of select menu items from local Taco Bell locations and have the orders delivered. Taco Bell plans to have a wider roll out of this functionality in the coming months.
In March 2005, the Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW) won a landmark victory in its national boycott of Taco Bell for human rights. Taco Bell agreed to meet all the coalition 's demands to improve wages and working conditions for Florida tomato pickers in its supply chain. After four years of a tenacious and growing boycott, Taco Bell and Yum! Brands agreed to make an agreement called the CIW - Yum agreement with representatives of CIW at Yum! Brands headquarters.
Previously, Taco Bell 's hot sauces were only available in sauce packets at the Taco Bell chain itself. In February 2014, Taco Bell made its hot sauces available for purchase, sold in bottle form at grocery stores. In September 2016, Taco Bell opened a pop - up in New York City in the SoHo, Manhattan area called the Taco Bell VR Arcade. Taco Bell and VR fans could demo PlayStation VR, games, and food.
In 2016, Taco Bell built a restaurant out of five cargo shipping containers for the Texas music festival, South by Southwest. Due to popularity, the franchise decided to move the restaurant to a lot in South Gate, CA, and it opened to the public a year later. The restaurant features Taco Bell 's full menu, with outdoor seating, a walk - up window, and a drive thru, but no indoor seating unlike regular Taco Bell locations. Taco Bell announced plans in November 2017 to open 300 more urban and Cantina - style locations by 2022, with 50 to be located about New York City 's five boroughs.
In March 2001, Taco Bell announced a promotion to coincide with the re-entry of the Mir space station. They towed a large target out into the Pacific Ocean, announcing that if the target was hit by a falling piece of Mir, every person in the United States would be entitled to a free Taco Bell taco. The company bought a sizable insurance policy for this gamble. No piece of the station struck the target.
In 2004, a local Taco Bell franchisee bought the naming rights to the Boise State Pavilion in Boise, Idaho and renamed the stadium Taco Bell Arena. Also, in 2004, Mountain Dew offered Taco Bell stores the exclusive right to carry Mountain Dew Baja Blast, a tropical - lime - flavored variety of the popular soft drink.
In 2007, Taco Bell offered the "Steal a Base, Steal a Taco '' promotion -- if any player from either team stole a base in the 2007 World Series the company would give away free tacos to everyone in the United States in a campaign similar to the Mir promotion, albeit with a much higher likelihood of being realized. After Jacoby Ellsbury of the Boston Red Sox stole a base in Game 2, the company paid out this promotion on October 30, 2007. This promotion was used again in the 2008 World Series, when Jason Bartlett of the Tampa Bay Rays stole a base during Game 1 at Tropicana Field, which was paid out on October 28, 2008. The offer returned for the 2012 World Series. A similar offer was made during the 2015 World Series, if a player stole a base, the company would give away free A.M Crunchwraps. This promotion was also used during the 2016 NBA Finals under the slightly modified "Steal A Game, Steal A Taco '' name after the Golden State Warriors "stole '' a win during Game 4 of the NBA Finals. The promotion was offered again for the 2016 World Series.
Taco Bell sponsors a promotion at home games for both the Portland Trail Blazers and the Cleveland Cavaliers in which everyone in attendance receives a coupon for a free Chalupa if the home team scores 100 points or more.
In 2009, Taco Bell introduced a music video style commercial entitled, "It 's all about the Roosevelts '' composed and produced by Danny de Matos at his studio for Amber Music on behalf of DraftFCB Agency. Featuring Varsity Fanclub 's Bobby Edner, the rap music style commercial shows a group of friends gathering change as they drive toward Taco Bell. The commercial represents Taco Bell 's first foray into movie theater advertising, featuring the ad during the opening previews of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen and Public Enemies as well as screens in some movie theater lobbies.
On July 1, 2009, Taco Bell replaced 20 - year sponsor McDonald 's as the fast - food partner of the NBA. Taco Bell and the NBA agreed on a 4 - year deal allowing them to advertise on ABC, TNT and ESPN, and NBA - themed promotions. On July 21, 2009, Gidget, the Chihuahua featured in Taco Bell ads in the late 1990s, was euthanized after suffering a stroke. She was 15 years old. 2009 commercials for the "Frutista Freeze '' frozen drink feature Snowball, an Eleonora Cockatoo noted for his ability to dance to human music. In an effort to promote its $2 Meal Deals, Taco Bell started a Facebook group in June 2010 to collect signatures on a petition that appeals to the Federal Reserve to produce more two - dollar bills.
A large advertising push by Taco Bell was begun in late February 2011 in response to a consumer protection lawsuit filed against the company by an Alabama law firm. The promotion sought to counter allegations that the company falsely advertised the ratio of ingredients in its beef filling for its tacos. The spots featured employees and franchisees stating that the filling has always been a mixture of 88 % beef and various spices and binders and nothing else. The ad followed several full - page print ads in the New York Times and other newspapers that featured the headline "Thank you for suing us. '' Additionally, the chain added a new social campaign using Twitter and Facebook. The company invested heavily in the campaign, spending more than $3 million (USD) putting out its message -- about 20 percent more than the company usually spends on an advertising program. The various campaigns came shortly before the company began its official response to the suit in the United States District Court for the Central District of California and were designed to bring public opinion into their camp. Various analysts stated that the company would have been better off using a grass - root campaign that involved in store advertising and other non-broadcast media. The suit was eventually withdrawn, and the company continued its advertising response by publicly requesting an apology from the suing firm of Beasley Allen. Analyst Laura Ries, of marketing strategy firm Ries & Ries, stated she believed Taco Bell 's latest response was a mistake. She commented that reviving memories of a suit that the majority of the public had forgotten after the initial burst of publicity was the wrong strategy from Taco Bell.
In March 2012, Taco Bell teamed up with Frito Lay and created the Doritos Locos Tacos, which is a taco with a Dorito Nacho Cheese flavored taco shell. In early 2012, Taco Bell announced they would be launching a new line of breakfast menu items including a Johnsonville Foods sausage and egg wrap, breakfast burritos, hash browns, Cinnabon Delights, Seattle 's Best Coffee, and orange juice. Taco Bell is releasing a Mountain Dew infused drink called Mountain Dew A.M.
On June 6, 2012, Taco Bell announced it would be testing a new "Cantina Menu '' with upscale items in their Kentucky and California restaurants. The new menu was created by celebrity chef Lorena Garcia, which will feature black beans, cilantro rice, citrus and herb marinated chicken and cilantro dressing.
The Cool Ranch Doritos taco began being sold in stores March 7, 2013. Shortly before launch, Taco Bell launched a promotion advertising that fans could get the new flavor at its stores a day early if they "just asked '' on March 6. However, they neglected to inform the majority of their stores of this leading to numerous complaints on its social media sites and news sites from disappointed consumers who were unable to obtain the new taco.
On July 23, 2013, Taco Bell announced they will stop selling kids ' meals and toys at all their U.S. restaurants by January 2014. Some outlets will stop selling them as early as July 2013.
On August 6, 2013, Taco Bell announced it was expanding its test market of waffle tacos to about 100 restaurants in Fresno, California, Omaha, Nebraska and Chattanooga, Tennessee, starting August 8. The waffle taco includes scrambled eggs, sausage and a side of syrup. It was the top selling item during breakfast hours at the five Southern California restaurants where they were tested earlier in 2013. The breakfast menu started on March 27, 2014. Other items include A.M. Crunchwrap, Cinnabon Delights, breakfast burrito, A.M. grilled sausage flatbread melt, hash browns, coffee and orange juice. The ad campaign which began March 27 used twenty - five men who were named Ronald McDonald, a reference to the famous clown of a rival chain. Another commercial advertising the Waffle Taco has the narrator singing "I 've been eating Egg McMuffins since 1984. But when I saw Taco Bell made a Waffle Taco, I figured I would get with the times '' set to the tune of "Old MacDonald Had a Farm '', another shot at the rival hamburger chain.
On April 28, 2014, Taco Bell ridiculed McDonald 's for its old muffins in a breakfast campaign devised by Taylor. The advertisement states that the McMuffin belongs in 1984. In October 2014, Taco Bell launched Pink Strawberry Starburst Freeze for a limited time. In August 2016, Taco Bell brought back its Pink Strawberry Starburst Freeze. In October 2015, Taco Bell launched a certified vegetarian menu.
In August 2016, Taco Bell announced it would begin testing a mashup known as Cheetos Burritos at select Taco Bell restaurants On September 19, 2016, Taco Bell launched Airheads Freeze, a drink inspired by the candy Airheads White Mystery, and allow people to guess its flavor on social media. On September 15, 2016, Taco Bell introduced the Cheddar Habanero Quesarito, a quesadilla shelled burrito. In April 2017, Taco bell announced that it will begin testing the Naked Breakfast Taco in Flint, Michigan in mid-April. The breakfast taco, which uses a fried egg as the shell for potato bites, nacho cheese, shredded cheddar, and bacon or sausage crumble.
In 2017, the company released the Naked Chicken Chalupa that uses a chalupa shell made from chicken, using a similar idea to the Double Down and later that year the Naked Chicken Chips, which are chicken nuggets shaped like ships with nacho cheese. In July 2017, Taco Bell announced a partnership with Lyft in which Lyft passengers in Orange County, California can request "Taco Mode '' on their way to their destination from 9 PM - 2 AM, having a stop at Taco Bell. "Taco Mode '', seen as a way Lyft could compete with UberEATS from rival TNC Uber, has received harsh criticism from drivers, most of which work as independent contractors. The program is expected to go nationwide by 2018.
On August 18, 2014, Taco Bell launched a new value menu called Dollar Cravings. Replacing the old Why Pay More menu, Dollar Cravings currently contains eleven food items all priced a United States dollar.
In the 1960s, Taco Bell introduced the Chiliburger, later known as the Bell Burger, then the Bell Beefer. This was a loose meat sandwich with taco - seasoned ground beef on a hamburger bun with cheese, lettuce, onions and tomato. The Beefer was removed from the menu in the late - 1980s to keep a strictly Tex Mex - inspired line up.
Other discontinued items include: Beefy Crunch Burrito, Seafood Salad; Enchirito (name brought back for a different item); Chicken Fiesta Burrito; Chili Cheese Burrito; Blackjack Taco.
In 2003 Taco Bell entered the Chinese market by opening a restaurant in Shanghai 's People 's Square named "Taco Bell Grande ''. Three more TBG restaurants opened before they were closed in 2008. Taco Bell relaunched in the Chinese market when a store opened in Pudong, Shanghai in late 2015. India 's first Taco Bell outlet opened at the Mantri Square mall, Bangalore. Another outlet at the Gopalan Mall, Bangalore opened in February 2011. In July 2017, Taco Bell opened an outlet in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Taco Bell once operated shops at Tokyo and Nagoya in the 1980s but withdrew several years later Since then, there were shops only at United States Forces Japan bases. In 2015, Taco Bell returned to the Japanese market with a new shop in the downtown area of Shibuya, Tokyo. It has "Taco rice '' and "Shrimp and avocado burrito '' as its original menu.
There are currently two locations in Seoul, in the Itaewon and Hongdae districts, which attract the most foreigners and college students. The two branches opened in the summer of 2010, Itaewon 's branch coming first. A Taco Bell had long been a presence at the U.S. Army 's Yongsan Garrison, which is off - limits to non-military people, and for a time there was a tongue - in - cheek grassroots campaign by non-Korean, non-military foreigners in Seoul to get another Taco Bell location.
Taco Bell opened its first Philippine branch on October 30, 2004, at the Gateway Mall in Cubao, Quezon City. They now have one on the ground floor and one on the fourth floor in the food court at the Gateway Mall. There is also a branch at the TriNoma mall in Quezon City.
Taco Bell in Singapore existed for a number of years, mostly as combination stores with KFC such as the one that operated at the Funan Digital Life Mall, but in 2008, Taco Bell completely pulled out of Singapore.
The United Kingdom was the first European country with a Taco Bell. In 1986, a location was opened in London on Coventry Street (between Leicester Square and Piccadilly Circus) followed by a second location in Earls Court near the Earl 's Court tube station. One other store opened in Uxbridge but all closed in the mid-1990s. In 1994, the university food provider Compass announced plans for outlets on its university and college sites. However, only one store was opened at Birmingham University, which is now closed.
After the Birmingham University branch closed, there were only two Taco Bell branches in the UK, at the Strategic Air Command and United States Air Force bases at RAF Mildenhall and RAF Lakenheath. Access is restricted to relevant service personnel.
In the late 2000s, Yum! Brands announced that it was reopening Taco Bell locations in the United Kingdom as part of a large planned expansion into Europe. Yum! is taking advantage of the recent recession which led to increasing sales at other fast food outlets; it also said that there was now a greater awareness of Mexican food in the UK and that it can be successful with improved menu offerings and marketing. The first new store opened at the Lakeside Shopping Centre in Essex on June 28, 2010. Another store opened in Basildon, Essex on November 29, 2010, and a third in the Manchester Arndale Food Court on November 7, 2011.
On March 1, 2013, it was announced that horse meat had been found in Taco Bell 's beef in the UK, hampering the chain 's growth in that already - stubborn market. As of August 2017, there are 17 Taco Bell branches in the United Kingdom, all of which are in England and outside of London. The first Scottish branch was opened in Glasgow in December 2017.
Spain is the most important market for Taco Bell inside Europe. There are 32 Taco Bell branches in Spain. The first Taco Bell in Spain was opened at Naval Station Rota in 2004 and is available only to those authorized to access the naval base. The first Taco Bell for the public was opened in the Islazul Shopping Mall, Madrid, in December 2008. Yum! Brands announced that it would open additional restaurants in Spain in early 2009 as part of a test trial for the European market. The second location of Taco Bell in Spain was opened at the La Vaguada Shopping Mall, Madrid (03 / 2010). Taco Bell announced, at least, 10 new restaurants through Spain.
As of March 2017, there are 32 Taco Bell restaurants in Spain; 13 of them are in Madrid, and the other 19 Taco Bell are distributed through Valencia (5), Málaga (2), Barcelona (2), Zaragoza (2), Alicante (2) and Jerez de la Frontera, Murcia, Cádiz, Granada, Sevilla and Naval Station Rota with 1 restaurant.
In the early 1990s, PepsCo opened several Taco Bell locations inside the Moscow metro system, including Metro Park Kulturi and Metro Komsomolskaya. This experiment lasted only a few years but these locations live on under different ownership and a different name.
On June 15, 2017, Finnish restaurant company Restel (fi) announced that it is bringing Taco Bell to Finland. The first restaurant opened in central Helsinki on 9 November 2017. Restaurants in Sello and Iso Omena malls in Espoo opened later in November 2017. Finland is the first country to include pulled oats (a meat substitute) in the menu.
Taco Bell in Iceland is operated as a part of the KFC establishment in Hafnarfjörður, suburb of Reykjavík. It was established in late 2006, after the departure of the U.S. Navy from Naval Air Station Keflavik. A second location opened in the Ártúnshöfði part of Reykjavík in November 2008.
The first Taco Bell store opened in Romania 's capital, Bucharest, on 12 October 2017. For the time being, Romania is the only country in Eastern Europe that has a Taco Bell store. A Taco Bell opened in Cyprus in December 2009 in Limassol at the MY MALL Limassol. Further restaurants are planned to be opened within the next 18 months (probably also in Cyprus ' capital Nicosia).
Greece 's first Taco Bell opened in Athens upon the grand opening of the newly constructed Athens Metro Mall on November 30, 2010. The restaurant closed in August 2012 and the chain withdrew from the Greek market due to the country 's recession. The first Polish Taco Bell store was opened in 1993. Following an aggressive campaign of expansion, Taco Bell 's efforts soon withered, and the chain withdrew from Poland shortly thereafter.
On 4 April 2017, Taco Bell opened its first restaurant in Eindhoven, Netherlands. On October 12, Taco Bell opened another restaurant in Tilburg. A third restaurant has opened in Breda.
A Taco Bell opened in the United Arab Emirates in November 2008 in Dubai at the Dubai Mall. A fourth UAE location was also planned for Bawadi Mall in the city of Al Ain. As of February 2012, the locations at Dubai Mall, Deira City Centre, and Mirdif City Centre have all closed and Taco Bell has completely pulled out of the UAE market.
Taco Bell has been present in Canada since 1981 with the first store opening in Windsor, Ontario. There are currently Taco Bell locations in 8 of the 10 Canadian provinces: British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. For some time it was possible to order draft beer with one 's order. Taco Bell offers free soda refills in its stores.
On March 31, 2011, Priszm, owner of Taco Bell (Canada), went into bankruptcy protection in Ontario and British Columbia. On May 6, 2011, Priszm Income Fund was delisted from the Toronto Stock Exchange for failure to meet the continued listing requirements. Since then, some Taco Bell restaurants have been closed down including those in Guelph, Hamilton, and Cambridge, Ontario among others.
Taco Bell has attempted to enter the Mexican market twice. After a highly publicised launch in Mexico City in 1992, all the restaurants were closed two years later. In September 2007, Taco Bell returned to Monterrey, projecting an American image with an Americanized menu that included french fries, but it closed in January 2010 due to low patronage.
Taco Bell first opened in Australia in September 1981, but Taco Bell was ordered to change its name after the owner of a local restaurant successfully sued Taco Bell for misleading conduct. The local restaurant was called "Taco Bell 's Casa '' and had been operating in Australia since the 1970s. The owner successfully argued that Sydneysiders would confuse the takeaway chain with his restaurant, and this would damage his reputation. Taco Bell later opened in 1997 in Australia with a store in the cinema district on George Street, Sydney and a year later in 1998 within a few KFC stores in the state of New South Wales, but by 2005, the Taco Bell brand was pulled out of the country.
On 13 September 2017, Collins Foods announced that Taco Bell would return to the Australian market, with their first store being situated in the Brisbane suburb of Annerley in Queensland using a refurbished Sizzler restaurant which had closed earlier that year. The Annerley store opened on Saturday 4 November 2017 with about 50 people camping out overnight to be first to try the store. The store has 96 seats in indoor and outdoor settings and has an open kitchen so diners can see their food being prepared. There is also a drive - through. The menu appears to be a subset of the USA menu based on food tasting research undertaken by the company. The Annerley store does not have a breakfast menu, but offers beers and margaritas similar to their Mexican food competitors in the Australian market.
There are 15 outlets in Brazil, mainly in the Sao Paulo area. Taco Bell has fourteen stores in Chile, thirteen of which are operated in conjunction (and in the same facilities) with Pizza Hut. All Taco Bell stores are in shopping malls located mainly in Santiago. There are four outlets in the Bogotá area in Colombia.
Taco Bell is present in the Dominican Republic, Guam, Aruba, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and on AAFES military bases in Germany, Iraq, Brazil, Guatemala, and El Salvador.
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the ocean is productive in these locations due to | Upwelling - wikipedia
the replacement by deep water moving upwards of surface water driven offshore by wind
Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind - driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient - rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient - depleted surface water. The nutrient - rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton. Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions, upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures (SST) and high concentrations of chlorophyll - a.
The increased availability of nutrients in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary production and thus fishery production. Approximately 25 % of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5 % of the total ocean area. Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient - enriched waters and global fishery yields.
The three main drivers that work together to cause upwelling are wind, Coriolis effect, and Ekman transport. They operate differently for different types of upwelling, but the general effects are the same. In the overall process of upwelling, winds blow across the sea surface at a particular direction, which causes a wind - water interaction. As a result of the wind, the water is transported a net of 90 degrees from the direction of the wind due to Coriolis forces and Ekman transport. Ekman transport causes the surface layer of water to move at about a 45 degree angle from the direction of the wind, and the friction between that layer and the layer beneath it causes the successive layers to move in the same direction. This results in a spiral of water movement down the water column. Then, it is the Coriolis forces that dictate which way the water will move; in the Northern hemisphere, the water is transported to the right of the direction of the wind. In the Southern Hemisphere, the water is transported to the left of the wind. If this net movement of water is divergent, then upwelling of deep water occurs to replace the water that was lost.
The major upwellings in the ocean are associated with the divergence of currents that bring deeper, colder, nutrient rich waters to the surface. There are at least five types of upwelling: coastal upwelling, large - scale wind - driven upwelling in the ocean interior, upwelling associated with eddies, topographically - associated upwelling, and broad - diffusive upwelling in the ocean interior.
Coastal upwelling is the best known type of upwelling, and the most closely related to human activities as it supports some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Wind - driven currents are diverted to the right of the winds in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect. The result is a net movement of surface water at right angles to the direction of the wind, known as the Ekman transport (See also Ekman Spiral). When Ekman transport is occurring away from the coast, surface waters moving away are replaced by deeper, colder, and denser water. Normally, this upwelling process occurs at a rate of about 5 -- 10 meters per day, but the rate and proximity of upwelling to the coast can be changed due to the strength and distance of the wind.
Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid, themselves the result of decomposition of sinking organic matter (dead / detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by phytoplankton, along with dissolved CO (carbon dioxide) and light energy from the sun, to produce organic compounds, through the process of photosynthesis. Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50 % of global marine productivity. High primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of the oceanic food chain.
The food chain follows the course of:
Worldwide, there are five major coastal currents associated with upwelling areas: the Canary Current (off Northwest Africa), the Benguela Current (off southern Africa), the California Current (off California and Oregon), the Humboldt Current (off Peru and Chile), and the Somali Current (off Somalia and Oman). All of these currents support major fisheries. The four major eastern boundary currents in which coastal upwelling primarily occurs are the Canary Current, Benguela Current, California Current, and Humboldt Current. The Benguela Current is the eastern boundary of the South Atlantic subtropical gyre and can be divided into a northern and southern sub-system with upwelling occurring in both areas. The subsystems are divided by an area of permanent upwelling off of Luderitz, which is the strongest upwelling zone in the world. The California Current System (CCS) is an eastern boundary current of the North Pacific that is also characterized by a north and south split. The split in this system occurs at Point Conception, California due to weak upwelling in the South and strong upwelling in the north. The Canary Current is an eastern boundary current of the North Atlantic Gyre and is also separated due to the presence of the Canary Islands. Finally, the Humboldt Current or the Peru Current flows west along the coast of South America from Peru to Chile and extends up to 1,000 kilometers offshore. These four eastern boundary currents comprise the majority of coastal upwelling zones in the oceans.
Upwelling at the equator is associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which actually moves, and consequently, is often located just north or south of the equator. Easterly (westward) trade winds blow from the Northeast and Southeast and converge along the equator blowing West to form the ITCZ. Although there are no Coriolis forces present along the equator, upwelling still occurs just north and south of the equator. This results in a divergence, with denser, nutrient - rich water being upwelled from below, and results in the remarkable fact that the equatorial region in the Pacific can be detected from space as a broad line of high phytoplankton concentration.
Large - scale upwelling is also found in the Southern Ocean. Here, strong westerly (eastward) winds blow around Antarctica, driving a significant flow of water northwards. This is actually a type of coastal upwelling. Since there are no continents in a band of open latitudes between South America and the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In many numerical models and observational syntheses, the Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means by which deep dense water is brought to the surface. In some regions of Antarctica, wind - driven upwelling near the coast pulls relatively warm Circumpolar deep water onto the continental shelf, where it can enhance ice shelf melt and influence ice sheet stability. Shallower, wind - driven upwelling is also found in off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest Africa, and southwest and south Australia, all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure circulations (see coastal upwelling above).
Some models of the ocean circulation suggest that broad - scale upwelling occurs in the tropics, as pressure driven flows converge water toward the low latitudes where it is diffusively warmed from above. The required diffusion coefficients, however, appear to be larger than are observed in the real ocean. Nonetheless, some diffusive upwelling does probably occur.
Upwelling intensity depends on wind strength and seasonal variability, as well as the vertical structure of the water, variations in the bottom bathymetry, and instabilities in the currents.
In some areas, upwelling is a seasonal event leading to periodic bursts of productivity similar to spring blooms in coastal waters. Wind - induced upwelling is generated by temperature differences between the warm, light air above the land and the cooler denser air over the sea. In temperate latitudes, the temperature contrast is greatly seasonably variable, creating periods of strong upwelling in the spring and summer, to weak or no upwelling in the winter. For example, off the coast of Oregon, there are four or five strong upwelling events separated by periods of little to no upwelling during the six - month season of upwelling. In contrast, tropical latitudes have a more constant temperature contrast, creating constant upwelling throughout the year. The Peruvian upwelling, for instance, occurs throughout most of the year, resulting in one of the world 's largest marine fisheries for sardines and anchovies.
In anomalous years when the trade winds weaken or reverse, the water that is upwelled is much warmer and low in nutrients, resulting in a sharp reduction in the biomass and phytoplankton productivity. This event is known as the El Nino - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event. The Peruvian upwelling system is particularly vulnerable to ENSO events, and can cause extreme interannual variability in productivity.
Changes in bathymetry can affect the strength of an upwelling. For example, a submarine ridge that extends out from the coast will produce more favorable upwelling conditions than neighboring regions. Upwelling typically begins at such ridges and remains strongest at the ridge even after developing in other locations.
Since upwelling regions are important sources of marine productivity, and they attract hundreds of species throughout the trophic levels, the diversity of these systems has been a focal point for marine research. While studying the trophic levels and patterns typical of upwelling regions, researchers have discovered that upwelling systems exhibit a wasp - waist richness pattern. In this type of pattern, the high and low trophic levels are well - represented by high species diversity. However, the intermediate trophic level is only represented by one or two species. This trophic layer, which consists of small, pelagic fish usually makes up about only three to four percent of the species diversity of all fish species present. The lower trophic layers are very well - represented with about 500 species of copepods, 2500 species of gastropods, and 2500 species of crustaceans on average. At the apex and near - apex trophic levels, there are usually about 100 species of marine mammals and about 50 species of marine birds. The vital intermediate trophic species however are small pelagic fish that usually feed on phytoplankton. In most upwelling systems, these species are either anchovies or sardines, and usually only one is present, although two or three species may be present occasionally. These fish are an important food source for predators, such as large pelagic fish, marine mammals, and marine birds. Although they are not at the base of the trophic pyramid, they are the vital species that connect the entire marine ecosystem and keep the productivity of upwelling zones so high
A major threat to both this crucial intermediate trophic level and the entire upwelling trophic ecosystem is the problem of commercial fishing. Since upwelling regions are the most productive and species rich areas in the world, they attract a high number of commercial fishers and fisheries. On one hand, this is another benefit of the upwelling process as it serves as a viable source of food and income for so many people and nations besides marine animals. However, just as in any ecosystem, the consequences of over-fishing from a population could be detrimental to that population and the ecosystem as a whole. In upwelling ecosystems, every species present plays a vital role in the functioning of that ecosystem. If one species is significantly depleted, that will have an effect throughout the rest of the trophic levels. For example, if a popular prey species is targeted by fisheries, fishermen may collect hundreds of thousands of individuals of this species just by casting their nets into the upwelling waters. As these fish are depleted, the food source for those who preyed on these fish is depleted. Therefore, the predators of the targeted fish will begin to die off, and there will not be as many of them to feed the predators above them. This system continues throughout the entire food chain, resulting in a possible collapse of the ecosystem. It is possible that the ecosystem may be restored over time, but not all species can recover from events such as these. Even if the species can adapt, there may be a delay in the reconstruction of this upwelling community.
The possibility of such an ecosystem collapse is the very danger of fisheries in upwelling regions. Fisheries may target a variety of different species, and therefore they are a direct threat to many species in the ecosystem, however they pose the highest threat to the intermediate pelagic fish. Since these fish form the crux of the entire trophic process of upwelling ecosystems, they are highly represented throughout the ecosystem (even if there is only one species present). Unfortunately, these fish tend to be the most popular targets of fisheries as about 64 percent of their entire catch consists of pelagic fish. Among those, the six main species that usually form the intermediate trophic layer represent over half of the catch.
Besides directly causing the collapse of the ecosystem due to their absence, this can create problems in the ecosystem through a variety of other methods as well. The animals higher in the trophic levels may not completely starve to death and die off, but the decreased food supply could still hurt the populations. If animals do not get enough food, it will decrease their reproductive viability meaning that they will not breed as often or as successfully as usual. This can lead to a decreasing population, especially in species that do not breed often under normal circumstances or become reproductively mature late in life. Another problem is that the decrease in the population of a species due to fisheries can lead to a decrease in genetic diversity, resulting in a decrease in bio-diversity of a species. If the species diversity is decreased significantly, this could cause problems for the species in an environment that is so variable and quick - changing; they may not be able to adapt, which could result in a collapse of the population or ecosystem.
Another threat to the productivity and ecosystems of upwelling regions is El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system, or more specifically El Niño events. During the normal period and La Niña events, the easterly trade winds are still strong, which continues to drive the process of upwelling. However, during El Niño events, trade winds are weaker, causing decreased upwelling in the equatorial regions as the divergence of water north and south of the equator is not as strong or as prevalent. The coastal upwelling zones diminish as well since they are wind driven systems, and the wind is no longer a very strong driving force in these areas. As a result, global upwelling drastically decreases, causing a decrease in productivity as the waters are no longer receiving nutrient - rich water. Without these nutrients, the rest of the trophic pyramid can not be sustained, and the rich upwelling ecosystem will collapse.
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who sings the lion sleeps tonight original version | The Lion Sleeps Tonight - wikipedia
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' is a song written and recorded originally by Solomon Linda with the Evening Birds for the South African Gallo Record Company in 1939, under the title "Mbube ''. Composed in Zulu, it was adapted and covered internationally by many 1950 's and 60 's pop and folk revival artists, including the Weavers, Jimmy Dorsey, Yma Sumac, Miriam Makeba and the Kingston Trio. In 1961, it became a number one hit in the United States as adapted in English with the best - known version by the doo - wop group the Tokens. It went on to earn at least US $15 million in royalties from cover versions and film licensing.
"Mbube '' (Zulu for "lion '') was written in the 1920s, by Solomon Linda, a South African singer of Zulu origin, who later worked for the Gallo Record Company in Johannesburg as a cleaner and record packer. He spent his weekends performing with the Evening Birds, a musical ensemble, and it was at Gallo Records, under the direction of producer Griffiths Motsieloa, that Linda and his fellow musicians recorded several songs including "Mbube, '' which incorporated a call - response pattern common among many Sub-Saharan African ethnic groups, including the Zulu.
According to journalist Rian Malan:
"Mbube '' was n't the most remarkable tune, but there was something compelling about the underlying chant, a dense meshing of low male voices above which Solomon yodelled and howled for two exhilarating minutes, improvising occasionally. The third take was the best, achieving immortality when Solly took a deep breath, opened his mouth, and improvised the melody that the world now associates with these words:
In the jungle, the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps tonight.
Issued by Gallo as a 78 - rpm record in 1939, and marketed to black audiences, "Mbube '' became a hit and Linda a star throughout South Africa. By 1948, the song had sold over 100,000 copies in Africa and among black South African immigrants in Great Britain. Linda also lent its name to a style of African a cappella music that evolved into isicathamiya (also called mbube), popularized by Ladysmith Black Mambazo.
In 1949, Alan Lomax, then working as folk music director for Decca Records, brought Solomon Linda 's 78 recording to the attention of his friend Pete Seeger of the folk group The Weavers. In November 1951, after having performed the song for at least a year in their concerts, The Weavers recorded an adapted version with brass and string orchestra and chorus and released it as a 78 single entitled "Wimoweh '', a mishearing of the original song 's chorus of "Uyimbube '', Zulu: You are a lion. Their version contained the chanting chorus "Wimoweh '' and Linda 's improvised melodic line. The Weavers credited the song as "Traditional '', with arrangement by "Paul Campbell '', later found to be a pseudonym used by the Weavers in order to claim royalties. It reached Billboard 's top ten and became a staple of The Weavers ' live repertoire, achieving further exposure on their best - selling The Weavers at Carnegie Hall LP album, recorded in 1955 and issued in 1957. The song was also covered extensively by other folk revival groups such as The Kingston Trio, and exotica singer Yma Sumac. However, Miriam Makeba, in 1960, recorded the same song as "Mbube '', with the writing credit given to "J. Linda ''.
In 1961, two RCA records producers, Hugo Peretti and Luigi Creatore, hired Juilliard - trained musician and lyricist George David Weiss to arrange a pop music cover of "Wimoweh '', for the B - side of a 45 - rpm single called "Tina, '' sung by the teenage doo - wop group The Tokens. Weiss wrote the English lyrics: "In the jungle, the mighty jungle, The lion sleeps tonight... '' and "Hush, my darling, do n't fear, my darling... ''
Weiss also brought in soprano Anita Darian to reprise Yma Sumac 's version, before, during and after the saxophone solo. "The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' was issued by RCA in 1961, and it rocketed to number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Weiss ' Abilene Music Inc., was the publisher of this arrangement, and listed "Albert Stanton '' (a pseudonym for Al Brackman, the business partner of Pete Seeger 's music publisher, Howie Richmond), as one of the song 's writers or arrangers.
Social historian Ronald D. Cohen writes, "Howie Richmond copyrighted many songs originally in the public domain (sic) but now slightly revised to satisfy Decca and also to reap profits. '' Canadian writer Mark Steyn, on the other hand, attributes the invention of the pseudonym "Paul Campbell '' to Pete Seeger. Howie Richmond 's claim of author 's copyright could secure both the songwriter 's royalties and his company 's publishing share of the song 's earnings.
Although Linda was listed as a performer on the record itself, the Weavers thought he had recorded a traditional Zulu song. Their managers, publisher, and their attorneys knew otherwise because they had been contacted by -- and had reached an agreement with -- Eric Gallo of Gallo Records in South Africa. The Americans maintained, however, that South African copyrights were not valid because South Africa was not a signatory to U.S. copyright law. In the 1950s, after Linda 's authorship was made clear, Seeger sent Linda $1000. Seeger also instructed TRO / Folkways to henceforth pay his share of authors ' earnings to Linda. The folksinger apparently trusted his publisher 's word of honor and either saw no need, or was unable to make sure these instructions were carried out.
In 2000, South African journalist Rian Malan wrote a feature article for Rolling Stone magazine in which he recounted Linda 's story and estimated that the song had earned $15 million for its use in the Disney movie The Lion King alone. The piece prompted filmmaker François Verster to create the Emmy - winning documentary A Lion 's Trail, that told Linda 's story while incidentally exposing the workings of the multi-million dollar corporate music publishing industry.
In July 2004, as a result of the publicity generated by Malan 's article and the subsequent documentary, the song became the subject of a lawsuit between Linda 's estate and Disney, claiming that Disney owed $1.6 million in royalties for the use of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' in the film and musical stage productions of The Lion King. At the same time, the Richmond Organization began to pay $3,000 annually into Linda 's estate. In February 2006, Linda 's descendants reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music Publishers, who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney, to place the earnings of the song in a trust.
The song has been recorded by numerous artists, and is a standard that has become a part of popular culture.
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what type of animals are in the tropical rain forest | Rainforest - wikipedia
Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with annual rainfall in the case of tropical rainforests between 250 and 450 centimetres (98 and 177 in), and definitions varying by region for temperate rainforests. The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earth 's tropical rainforests.
Around 40 % to 75 % of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the Earth '' and the "world 's largest pharmacy '', because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests are also responsible for 28 % of the world 's oxygen turnover, sometimes misnamed oxygen production, processing it through photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and consuming it through respiration.
The undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, called a jungle. The term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally.
Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of the equator. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 ° C (64 ° F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).
Many of the world 's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone. The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, the southern Yucatán Peninsula - El Peten - Belize - Calakmul), Australia, and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawai ʻi). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth 's lungs '', although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, southern Norway, parts of the western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea, including Georgia and coastal Turkey), in East Asia (in southern China, Highlands of Taiwan, much of Japan and Korea, and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile) and also in Australia and New Zealand.
A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy, understory and forest floor layers.
The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45 -- 55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70 -- 80 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer.
The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles. '' True exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows. Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and the building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics.
The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors and leopards. The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5 % of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.
The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2 % of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.
More than half of the world 's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest. Rainforests support a very broad array of fauna, including mammals, reptiles, birds and invertebrates. Mammals may include primates, felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes, turtles, chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae. Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals. Many rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.
Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees ' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run - off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible.
A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide. On a global scale, long - term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed. Human - induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide, as do other factors, whether human - induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought. Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought, forest dieback and the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide. Five million years from now, the Amazon rainforest may long since have dried and transformed itself into savannah, killing itself in the progress (changes such as this may happen even if all human deforestation activity ceases overnight). The descendants of our known animals may adapt to the dry savannah of the former Amazonian rainforest and thrive in the new, warmer temperatures.
Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. Also, plant - derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment.
On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil.
Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies, one of the hunter - gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of a study by Colin Turnbull, The Forest People, in 1962. Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as "Negrito ''.
Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking. Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E.O. Wilson of Harvard University, a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years) due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests.
Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles.
Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace. Almost 90 % of West Africa 's rainforest has been destroyed. Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest. At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. According to Rainforest Rescue, an important reason for the increasing deforestation rate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels. In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia, the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world 's palm oil.
Several countries, notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency. Amazon deforestation jumped by 69 % in 2008 compared to 2007 's twelve months, according to official government data. Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60 % of the Amazon Rainforest by 2030, says a 2007 report from WWF.
However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics... '' The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so - called degraded forest.
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who played m in the first james bond movie | M (James Bond) - wikipedia
M is a fictional character in Ian Fleming 's James Bond book and film series; the character is the Head of the Secret Intelligence Service -- also known as MI6 -- and is Bond 's superior. Fleming based the character on a number of people he knew who commanded sections of British intelligence. M has appeared in the novels by Fleming and seven continuation authors, as well as appearing in twenty - four films. In the Eon Productions series of films, M has been portrayed by four actors: Bernard Lee, Robert Brown, Judi Dench and Ralph Fiennes, the incumbent; in the two independent productions, M was played by John Huston, David Niven and Edward Fox.
Fleming based much of M 's character on Rear Admiral John Godfrey, who was Fleming 's superior at the Naval Intelligence Division during the Second World War. After Fleming 's death, Godfrey complained "He turned me into that unsavoury character, M. ''
Other possible inspirations include Lieutenant Colonel Sir Claude Dansey, the deputy head of MI6 and head of the wartime Z network, who achieved different interpretations of his character from those who knew him: Malcolm Muggeridge thought him "the only professional in MI6 '', while Hugh Trevor - Roper considered Dansey to be "an utter shit, corrupt, incompetent, but with a certain low cunning ''. A further inspiration for M was Maxwell Knight, the head of MI5, who signed his memos as "M '' and whom Fleming knew well. The tradition of the head of MI6 signing their name with a single letter came from Mansfield Smith - Cumming, who would sign his initial "C '' with green ink.
Another possibility for the model of M was William Melville, an Irishman who became the head of the Secret Service Bureau, the forerunner to both MI5 and MI6: Melville was referred to within government circles as M. Melville recruited Sidney Reilly into government service and foiled an assassination plot against Queen Victoria on her 1887 Golden Jubilee. Fleming 's biographer John Pearson also hypothesised that Fleming 's characterisation of M reflects memories of his mother:
Fleming 's third Bond novel, Moonraker, establishes M 's initials as "M * * * * M * * * * * * * '' and his first name is subsequently revealed to be Miles. In the final novel of the series, The Man with the Golden Gun, M 's full identity is revealed as Vice Admiral Sir Miles Messervy KCMG; Messervy had been appointed to head of MI6 after his predecessor had been assassinated at his desk.
A naval theme runs throughout Fleming 's description of M and his surroundings, and his character was described by journalist and Bond scholar Ben Macintyre as "every inch the naval martinet ''. Macintyre also notes that in his study of Fleming 's work, Kingsley Amis outlined the way Fleming had described M 's voice, being: angry (three times); brutal, cold (seven times); curt, dry (five times); gruff (seven times); stern, testy (five times).
Over the course of twelve novels and two collections of short stories, Fleming provided a number of details relating to M 's background and character. In On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6,500 a year, (£ 124,910 in 2018 pounds) £ 1,500 of which comes from retired naval pay. Although his pay is good for the 1950s and 1960s, it is never explained how M received or can afford his membership at Blades, an upscale private club for gentlemen he frequents in London to gamble and dine. Blades has a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen and all must be able to show £ 100,000 (£ 1,921,689 in 2018 pounds) in cash or gilt - edged securities. Kingsley Amis noted in his study, The James Bond Dossier, that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling. As a personal favour to M, the staff at Blades keeps a supply of cheap red wine from Algeria on hand but does not include it on the wine list. M refers to it as "Infuriator '' and tends only to drink it in moderate quantities unless he is in a very bad mood.
The academic Paul Stock argues that M 's office is a metonym for England and a stable point from which Bond departs on a mission, whilst he sees M as being an iconic representative of England and Englishness.
In the first post-Fleming book, Colonel Sun, M is kidnapped from Quarterdeck, his home, and Bond goes to great lengths to rescue him. The later continuation books, written by John Gardner, retain Sir Miles Messervy as M, who protects Bond from the new, less aggressive climate in the Secret Service, saying that at some point Britain will need "a blunt instrument ''. In Gardner 's final novel, COLD, M is kidnapped and rescued by Bond and finishes the book by retiring from MI6. Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson 's 1998 novel The Facts of Death continued Messervy 's retirement, where he still resides in Quarterdeck. The book also introduces a new M, Barbara Mawdsley.
M was played by Bernard Lee from the first Bond film, Dr. No, until Moonraker (1979). In Dr. No, M refers to his record of reducing the number of operative casualties since taking the job, implying someone else held the job recently before him. The film also saw M refer to himself as head of MI7; Lee had originally said MI6, but was overdubbed with the name MI7 prior to the film 's release. Earlier in the film, the department had been referred to as MI6 by a radio operator.
A number of Bond scholars have noted that Lee 's interpretation of the character was in line with the original literary representation; Cork and Stutz observed that Lee was "very close to Fleming 's version of the character '', while Rubin commented on the serious, efficient, no - nonsense authority figure. Smith and Lavington, meanwhile, remarked that Lee was "the very incarnation of Fleming 's crusty admiral. ''
Lee died of cancer in January 1981, four months into the filming of For Your Eyes Only and before any of his scenes could be filmed. Out of respect, no new actor was hired to assume the role and, instead, the script was re-written so that the character is said to be on leave, with his lines given to either his Chief of Staff Bill Tanner or the Minister of Defence, Sir Frederick Gray. Later films referred to Lee 's tenure as head of the service, with a painting of him as M in MI6 's Scottish headquarters during the 1999 instalment The World Is Not Enough.
After Lee 's death in 1981, the producers hired actor Robert Brown to play M in Octopussy. Brown had previously played Admiral Hargreaves, Flag Officer Submarines, in the 1977 film, The Spy Who Loved Me. Bond scholars Steven Jay Rubin, John Cork, and Collin Stutz all consider Admiral Hargreaves would have been appointed to the role of M, rather than Brown playing a different character as M.
Pfeiffer and Worrall considered that whilst Brown looks perfect, the role had been softened from that of Lee; they also considered him "far too avuncular '', although in Licence to Kill they remarked that he came across as being very effective as he removed Bond 's double - 0 licence. Continuation author Raymond Benson agrees, noting that the M role was "once again under written, and Brown is not allowed the opportunity to explore and reveal his character traits ''; Benson also considered the character to be "too nice ''.
After the long period between Licence to Kill and GoldenEye, the producers brought in Dame Judi Dench to take over as the new M replacing Robert Brown. The character is based on Stella Rimington, the real - life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996. For GoldenEye, Dench 's M is cold, blunt and initially dislikes Bond, whom she calls a "sexist, misogynist dinosaur, a relic of the Cold War. '' Tanner, her Chief of Staff, refers to her during the film as "the Evil Queen of Numbers '', given her reputation at that stage for relying on statistics and analysis rather than impulse and initiative.
Following Pierce Brosnan 's departure from the role, Dench continued playing M for the 2006 film Casino Royale, which rebooted the series with Daniel Craig playing Bond. In this new continuity, M has worked for MI6 for some time, at one point muttering, "Christ, I miss the Cold War ''. According to Skyfall, M was previously in charge of MI6 's operations in Hong Kong during the 1990s. Her ability to run MI6 has been questioned several times; in Casino Royale, she is the subject of a review when Bond is caught shooting an unarmed prisoner and blowing up a foreign embassy on camera; in Quantum of Solace, the Foreign Secretary orders her to personally withdraw Bond from the field in Bolivia and to stop any investigations into Dominic Greene 's eco-terrorist organisation; and in Skyfall, she is the subject of a public inquiry when MI6 loses a computer hard drive containing the identities of undercover agents around the world. Skyfall marks Dench 's seventh and final appearance as M, where she is targeted by former MI6 agent Raoul Silva, whom she turned over to the Chinese in order to save six other agents. She is shot and killed in the film, making her the only M to die in the Eon Bond films. Dench 's M makes a cameo appearance in Spectre in a video will, giving Bond a final order to hunt down and terminate someone, which ultimately leads him to the film 's titular criminal organisation.
There have also been brief references to M 's family: in GoldenEye, she responds to Tanner 's "Evil Queen of Numbers '' jibe by telling him that when she wants to hear sarcasm she will listen to her children. Quantum of Solace director Marc Forster suggested that Dench 's casting gave the character maternal overtones in her relationship with Bond, overtones made overt in Skyfall, in which Silva repeatedly refers to her as "Mother '' and "Mommy ''. In Skyfall she is revealed to be a widow.
Dench also appeared in six James Bond video games:
After the death of Judi Dench 's M at the end of Skyfall, she is succeeded by Gareth Mallory, played by Ralph Fiennes. Mallory had been the Chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee prior to heading up MI6, and is a former lieutenant colonel in the British Army. He served in Northern Ireland with the "Hereford Regiment '' (assumed by many commentators to mean the Special Air Service) during the Troubles, where he had been held hostage by the Irish Republican Army for three months. In Spectre, the 00 Section of MI6 is briefly dismantled in addition to Mallory being demoted. He assists Bond in the field when it is revealed that the Nine Eyes initiative is part of Spectre 's plan for world domination.
The 1967 satire Casino Royale featured not one but two Ms. The first is played by John Huston, who also co-directed. In this film, M 's real name is McTarry and he is accidentally killed when, in order to get Bond out of retirement, he orders the military to fire mortars at Bond 's mansion when the retired spy refuses to return to duty. The first quarter of the film features Bond 's subsequent visit to McTarry Castle in Scotland, on a quest to return the only piece of M 's remains recovered after the attack -- his bright red toupée. Subsequently, Bond -- played by David Niven -- becomes the new M and proceeds to order that all MI6 agents, male and female, be renamed "James Bond 007 '' in order to confuse the enemy.
In 1983 's Never Say Never Again, Edward Fox played M as a bureaucrat, contemptuous of Bond -- far removed from the relationship shared between Bernard Lee 's M and Sean Connery 's Bond; the academic Jeremy Black notes that the contempt felt for the 00 section by Fox 's M was reciprocated by Connery 's Bond. Fox 's M is also younger than any of the previous incarnations. The media historian James Chapman notes that whilst M considers Bond to be an out - dated relic, the Foreign Secretary orders the 00 section to be re-activated.
M appeared in every James Bond comic book released from 1962 to 1995. With the relaunch of the series in 2015 by Dynamite Entertainment, M is once again Bond 's superior. In a notable departure from both the original novels and the movies, M is black instead of white, and his identity is revealed to be none other than Miles Messervy when he was referred to by his first name in Hammerhead. M is scheduled to have his own one - shot comic book in which his backstory is explored while dealing with his past that comes back to haunt him, delivered by creators Declan Shalvey and P.J. Holden.
Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill 's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen comic series establishes that the 1898 - era League (led by Mina Harker) was directed by Campion Bond (James Bond 's grandfather), who served under a master called M. This M was later revealed to be none other than James Moriarty in disguise, using the League to win a gang war against Fu Manchu. After the death of Moriarty, Sherlock Holmes 's older brother Mycroft Holmes assumed the role of M. In the sequel volume The Black Dossier, set during a moribund and dystopian 1950s post-war Britain, the head of the British secret service, M, is Harry Lime, from Graham Greene 's The Third Man. In the final volume of Century, spanning from 1910 to 2009, the M of 2009 is an elderly Emma Peel from The Avengers. In the 2003 film adaptation of the series, M is once again Moriarty, and played by Richard Roxburgh.
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who plays bonnie lockhart on days of our lives | Judi Evans - wikipedia
Judi Evans (also credited as Judi Evans Luciano, born July 12, 1964) is an American actress. She played Beth Raines on the CBS series Guiding Light from (1983 -- 1986), but is also known for playing Adrienne Johnson Kiriakis, a role she originated in 1986 on NBC 's Days of Our Lives. She was a regular cast member from 1986 until 1991. She then played the role of Paulina Cory Carlino on the NBC series Another World from 1991 till the show 's end in 1999. Evans returned to Days of Our Lives in 2003 to play Bonnie Lockhart, another role she originated and played until early 2007; she reprised the role of Adrienne a few months later till early 2008. Later in 2010, she returned to Days of Our Lives to reprise the role of Adrienne once again, which she has played on a recurring basis since then.
In June 2009, it was reported that Evans would be joining the cast of As the World Turns as Maeve, a new character on the show, scheduled to air in August 2009. The announcement ended speculation that Evans would be returning yet again to Days of our Lives, this time with former on - screen husband Wally Kurth.
Evans has been nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award in 2008 for Days of our Lives, 24 years after her first nomination and win for her role on Guiding Light.
2017 Evans play in Romane Antoine Simon Horror film Blood Runs Thick alone side his co soap star Matthew Ashford And legendary actor Tom Sizemore the play Directed by Romane Simon
Blood Runs thick by Romane Simon 2017
Daytime Emmy Awards
Soap Opera Digest Awards
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what is the capacity of the at&t center in san antonio | AT&T Center - wikipedia
The AT&T Center is a multi-purpose indoor arena on the east side of San Antonio, Texas, United States. It is the home of two professional sports teams: the San Antonio Spurs (National Basketball Association), and the San Antonio Rampage (American Hockey League).
The arena seats 18,418 for basketball, 16,151 for ice hockey, and 19,000 for concerts or gatherings, and contains 2,018 club seats, 50 luxury suites and 32 bathrooms. It was opened in 2002 as the SBC Center, at a cost of US $175 million, financed by county - issued bonds, which were supported by a hotel - occupancy and car - rental tax increase and an additional contribution of $28.5 million from the Spurs. SBC Communications, Inc., purchased the naming rights to the facility under a 20 - year, $41 million naming rights agreement with Bexar County, the San Antonio Spurs, and the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo in July 2000. SBC Communications changed its name to AT&T Inc. in November 2005. The arena officially changed its name to AT&T Center in January 2006.
From 2003 to 2017 the arena was home to the San Antonio Stars of the Women 's National Basketball Association.
Previously, the Spurs played at the Alamodome, a multi-purpose facility with a configuration that allowed half the floor space to be used for basketball. Although the Alamodome was still relatively new (opening in 1993), it had become clear over the years that the Spurs were using it for most of the year, making it difficult to schedule contiguous dates for conventions or even a regular - season football schedule. The Alamodome 's seating capacity could be expanded to 35,000 for popular regular - season opponents, and attracted nearly 40,000 for a 1999 NBA Finals game. Although it had been designed with the Spurs in mind, the Spurs and their fans grew increasingly dissatisfied with the facility because of its poor sight lines and cavernous feel. The Alamodome 's basketball configuration had the basketball court at one end of where the football field would have been, leaving almost half of the stadium curtained off. Being primarily a football stadium differentiated the Alamodome from most other NBA facilities, including the Spurs ' previous home, HemisFair Arena.
Additionally, since the Alamodome opened, there had been a plethora of new arena construction including facilities such as Conseco Fieldhouse (now Bankers Life Fieldhouse), which, in addition to offering an intimate atmosphere, offered teams several new revenue generating opportunities, including suites located on the lower levels and large club level seating areas.
The Spurs campaigned for several years for a new facility. The Spurs and the city had come to an agreement to build a new facility adjacent to the Alamodome, but in a last - minute reversal, the team partnered with Bexar County to construct a new arena adjacent to the Freeman Coliseum. As a part of the agreement, the facility would be home to the Spurs, a new ice hockey team (what became the Rampage), and the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo event.
The facility would be funded through an increase of hotel and car rental taxes, and Bexar County voters approved the plan in November 1999. Coincidentally, the election was held on the same day the Spurs received their NBA Championship rings for their first NBA championship.
Rick Pych is the Chief Development Officer of the AT&T Center and led the Spurs franchise through its development, construction and opening in 2002.
Unlike most arenas that can accommodate basketball and ice hockey, AT&T Center was primarily designed for basketball. Nevertheless, it can accommodate an NHL - sized ice hockey rink, but it can only accommodate a maximum of 16,151 people for ice hockey since the seating arrangement for ice hockey is asymmetrical. There are only a few permanent rows of seating on the lower level of the west end, and all of the upper - level sets on the west end of the arena have obstructed views. This would result in poor sightlines. However, the seating capacity for Rampage games is under 7,000 people, making the upper level not necessary for those events.
In 2012, the Rampage renamed the press box to the "Jessica Redfield Press Box '' after Jessica Redfield, an aspiring news broadcaster and a former team intern who was killed in the Aurora theater shooting.
After the arena referendum passed, planning quickly began for construction on the new facility. Naming rights were obtained in July 2000 when an agreement was reached with San Antonio - based SBC Communications to name the new arena the SBC Center. The agreement was reported to be for a total of $41 million over 20 years.
Ground was officially broken on the facility in August 2000. The arena 's basic design was similar to many of the other newer arenas in the NBA, thanks to the choice of Minneapolis - based Ellerbe Becket as the primary architects. A nationally recognized, local architecture firm, Lake / Flato, was teamed with Ellerbe Becket to work on the design of the structure. Lake / Flato is responsible for introducing a South Texas vernacular to the overall look of the arena. Ellerbe Becket was responsible for Bankers Life Fieldhouse (Indianapolis) design as well as Capital One Arena (Washington, D.C.).
On December 9, 2014 the Bexar County Commissioners Court gave Spurs Sports and Entertainment permission to begin up to $101.5 million in renovations to the AT&T Center.
The renovations started in the summer of 2015 when the San Antonio Spurs ended the 2015 season. They are planned to include a new scoreboard, updated televisions inside and outside of the arena, a new state of the art sound system, and improved wifi that will cover about 90 % of the venue. Expansions to the fan shop and other major parts of the AT&T Center are also in the plans. The renovations were funded by a 2008 tax increase for improvements to the Tobin Center, parts of the Mission Reach expansion, and the rodeo grounds located next to the AT&T Center.
In addition to many local community and sporting events, the center hosts San Antonio Sports Car Association autocross competitions in the parking lot each month.
The Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association holds the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo and an Xtreme Bulls tour event annually there. The Rodeo is held in February, necessitating the Spurs and Rampage to make long road trips during this time (commonly referred to as the "Rodeo Road Trip '').
On the weekend of August 1 -- 2, 2009, the Professional Bull Riders hosted a Built Ford Tough Series event there (an event previously held at the Alamodome in 2007 and 2008). Since May 2013, the venue has also hosted the annual Bud Light River City Rockfest.
The arena has also hosted many WWE events including numerous episodes of WWE Raw and WWE SmackDown and the following pay - per views: Royal Rumble (2007), TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2009) and Vengeance (2011).
In 2014, UFC Fight Night: Swanson vs. Stephens was held at the arena.
See also: List of museums in Central Texas
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who wrote most of george strait's songs | Dean Dillon - wikipedia
Dean Dillon (born March 26, 1955) is an American country music artist and songwriter. Between 1982 and 1993, Dillon recorded six studio albums on various labels, and charted several singles on the Billboard country charts. Since 1993, Dillon has continued to write hit songs for other artists, most notably George Strait. In 2002, he was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. Dillon is the father of country music songwriter, Jessie Jo Dillon, and the two often collaborate.
Dean Dillon was born Larry Dean Flynn on March 26, 1955 in Lake City, Tennessee, where he was raised. He began playing the guitar at the age of seven, and when he was 15 he made his first public appearance as a singer and performer in the Knoxville variety show Jim Clayton Startime. After finishing high school in 1973 he hitchhiked to Nashville with hopes of starting a music career. Dillon first recorded on the Plantation label as Dean Rutherford, and then as Dean Dalton. Upon moving to RCA Records, he was persuaded to change his recording name; record executive Jerry Bradley randomly picked the name Dillon from a telephone book.
As a recording artist between 1979 and 1983, Dillon charted eight times, including one top 30 hit, "I 'm into the Bottle (To Get You out of My Mind). '' He was featured on several duet albums with songwriting partner Gary Stewart. Early songwriting success earned Dillon a recording deal with Capitol Records for whom he released two studio albums. In 1991, now at Atlantic Records, Dillon released his most successful and most recent studio album, Out of Your Ever Lovin ' Mind.
As a songwriter, early successes includes George Jones ' 1983 hit "Tennessee Whiskey ''. Dillon has written many singles for George Strait, including "The Chair, '' "Nobody in His Right Mind Would 've Left Her, '' "It Ai n't Cool to Be Crazy About You, '' "Ocean Front Property, '' "Famous Last Words of a Fool, '' "I 've Come to Expect It From You, '' "If I Know Me, '' "Easy Come, Easy Go, '' "Lead On, '' "The Best Day, '' "She Let Herself Go '', "Living for the Night, '' "Drinkin ' Man '' and "I Believe ''. Strait and his son Bubba co-wrote the latter three with Dillon.
Dillon has worked with a younger generation of country stars including Toby Keith and Kenny Chesney. In 2002, he was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame along with Bob Dylan and Shel Silverstein. Dillon co-wrote two songs on Toby Keith 's 2005 album Honkytonk University, and five on his 2006 album White Trash with Money, including the single "A Little Too Late. ''
Dillon has either written or co-written the following singles for other artists:
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what did rahab ask the spies to do for her | Rahab - wikipedia
Rahab, (/ ˈreɪhæb /; Hebrew: רָחָב, Modern: Raẖav, Tiberian: Rāḥāḇ, "broad, '' "large. '' Arabic: رحاب, a vast space of a land) was, according to the Book of Joshua, a woman who lived in Jericho in the Promised Land and assisted the Israelites in capturing the city by betraying her people (Joshua 2: 1 - 24). In the New Testament she is lauded both as an example of a saint who lived by faith, and as someone "considered righteous '' for her works.
Although the King James Version renders the name as Rachab in Matthew 1: 5, most modern versions render it as Rahab instead.
The Hebrew אשה זונה, used to describe Rahab in Joshua 2: 1, literally means "a prostitute woman '' Rahab 's name is presumably the shortened form of a sentence name rāḥāb - N, "the god N has opened / widened (the womb?) ''. The Hebrew zōnâ may refer to secular or cultic prostitution, and the latter is widely believed to have been an invariable element of Canaanite religious practice, although recent scholarship has disputed this. However, there was a separate word, qědēšâ, that could be used to designate prostitutes of the cultic variety.
Josephus mentions that Rahab kept an inn but is silent as to whether merely renting out rooms was her only source of income. It was not uncommon for both an inn and a brothel to operate within the same building; thus entering Rahab 's quarters was not necessarily a deviation from Joshua 's orders. Indeed, as Robert Boling notes, such an establishment might have represented an ideal location for spies to gather intelligence. A number of scholars have noted that the narrator in Joshua 2 may have intended to remind the readers of the "immemorial symbiosis between military service and bawdy house ''.
In the Christian New Testament, the Epistle of James and the Epistle to the Hebrews follow the tradition set by the translators of the Septuagint in using the Greek word "πόρνη '' (pórnē, which is usually translated to English as "harlot '' or "prostitute '') to describe Rahab.
William L. Lyons observed that biblical interpreters have viewed Rahab as a model of hospitality, mercy, faith, patience, and repentance in her interaction with Joshua 's spies. Thus the harlot of Jericho became a paragon of virtue.
According to the book of Joshua, when the Hebrews were encamped at Shittim, in the "Arabah '' or Jordan valley opposite Jericho, ready to cross the river, Joshua, as a final preparation, sent out two spies to investigate the military strength of Jericho. The spies stayed in Rahab 's house, which was built into the city wall. The soldiers sent to capture the spies asked Rahab to bring out the spies. Instead, she hid them under bundles of flax on the roof. It was the time of the barley harvest, and flax and barley are ripe at the same time in the Jordan valley, so that "the bundles of flax stalks might have been expected to be drying just then ''.
Rahab told the spies:
I know that the LORD has given you the land, and that dread of you has fallen on us, and that all the inhabitants of the land melt in fear before you. For we have heard how the LORD dried up the water of the Red Sea before you when you came out of Egypt, and what you did to the two kings of the Amorites that were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon and Og, whom you utterly destroyed. As soon as we heard it, our hearts melted, and there was no courage left in any of us because of you. The LORD your God is indeed God in heaven above and on earth below. Now then, since I have dealt kindly with you, swear to me by the LORD that you in turn will deal kindly with my family. Give me a sign of good faith that you will spare my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, and all who belong to them, and deliver our lives from death.
After escaping, the spies promised to spare Rahab and her family after taking the city, even if there should be a massacre, if she would mark her house by hanging a red cord out the window. Some have claimed that the symbol of the red cord is related to the practice of the "red - light district ''.
When the city of Jericho fell, Rahab and her whole family were preserved according to the promise of the spies, and were incorporated among the Jewish people. (In siege warfare of antiquity, a city that fell after a prolonged siege was commonly subjected to a massacre and sack.)
Michael Coogan claims the book of Joshua, more than any other book of the Bible, contains short etiological narratives that explain the origins of religious rituals, topographical features, genealogical relationships, and other aspects of ancient Israelite life, and that the legend of Rahab is such an example. The story of Rahab would therefore provide an answer as to how a Canaanite group became part of Israel in spite of the Deuteronomistic injunction to kill all Canaanites and not to intermarry with them.
In the midrash, Rahab is named as one of the four most beautiful women the world has ever known, along with Sarah, Abigail, and Esther. In the Babylonian Talmud, anyone who mentions Rahab 's name immediately lusts after her, and according to one Rabbi the mere invocation of her name may even cause the person to have an orgasm (Megillah 15a). Rahab is said to have converted at the age of 50 and repented according to three sins, saying:
Master of the Universe! I have sinned with three things (with my eye, my thigh, and my stomach). By the merit of three things pardon me: the rope, the window, and the wall (pardon me for engaging in harlotry because I endangered myself when I lowered the rope for the spies from the window in the wall). '' (Babylonian Talmud, Zevahim 116a - b).
A similar tradition has Rahab declaring, "Pardon me by merit of the rope, the window, and the flaxen (the stalks of flax under which she concealed the spies). ''
The rabbis viewed Rahab as a worthy convert to Judaism, and attested that Rahab married Joshua following her conversion; their descendants included the prophets Jeremiah, Hilkiah, Seraiah, Mahseiah, and Baruch, and the prophetess Hulda, although there is no report in the book of Joshua of the leader marrying anyone, or having any family life. Rahab often is mentioned alongside Jethro (Yitro) and Na'aman as "positive examples '' of the converts who joined Israel, and another midrash has Rahab acting as an advocate for all nations of the world.
In the New Testament, Rahab (Greek Ῥαάβ) of the Book of Joshua is mentioned as an example of a person of faith and of good works. Rahab is referred to as "the harlot '' in each of these passages.
A different spelling of the name, Rachab (as transliterated in the King James translation of the Greek Ῥαχάβ) is mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew as one of the ancestors of Jesus (Matthew 1: 5). She married Salmon of the tribe of Judah and was the mother of Boaz. Most other English Bibles transcribe her name as Rahab, suggesting an attempt to differentiate between the figures.
At least one apologist has argued that linguistic and textual evidence suggests that the two women were not the same.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Rahab ''. Easton 's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
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what is the name of the yellow car in cars 2 | List of Cars characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from the Pixar franchise Cars, as well as the Disney franchise Planes, which is set in the same fictional universe:
Lightning McQueen, often referred to as "McQueen '', is the main character in Cars and Cars 3. He is voiced by Owen Wilson in the films, Mater and the Ghostlight, Cars: The Video Game and the last episode of Cars Toons: Tales from Radiator Springs and by Keith Ferguson in all other media. McQueen is not modeled directly after a specific make and model, although his design contains some elements inspired by the Chevrolet Corvette C6. His Corvette lineage is further suggested by the "retro '' paint scheme he acquires in Radiator Springs, which resembles that of a Corvette C1.
Mack (voiced by John Ratzenberger) is a 1985 Mack Super-Liner bearing license plate "RUSTEZ3 ''. A dedicated member of the Rust - eze Medicated Bumper Ointment Team (and now Dinoco Oil), having the role of McQueen 's (and now Ramirez 's) transport, Mack pulls Lightning McQueen 's (and now Cruz Ramirez 's) trailer to his (and now her) races. Lightning 's one loyal teammate after his entire pit crew resigns in protest at the end of the season decider, he inadvertently sets up the predicament suffered by McQueen throughout the movie. The grill on him suggests a nose and his top cover (with the Rusteze logo) suggests a baseball - style cap.
McQueen exhorts Mack to drive through the night to his tiebreaker race with Chick Hicks and The King in Los Angeles, despite federal DOT regulations which legally grant Mack ten hours daily of much - needed off - duty rest alongside "all those sleeping trucks '' at the last truck stop on I - 40. Lightning hopes to reach the venue first and to hang out with the Dinoco team. As a result, Mack falls asleep and, distracted by the Delinquent Road Hazards (who attempt to push him off the road to the shoulder), loses Lightning. Mack arrives in Radiator Springs after Doc reveals Lightning 's location and is both very relieved ("Thank the manufacturer, you 're alive! '') and apologetic ("I 'm so sorry I lost you, boss. I 'll make it up to you... ''). Lightning, who is glad to see him, forgives him.
Mack acts as Lightning 's pit crew for the big race (since he has none) and worriedly asks if he 's alright when he spins out, just before Doc and the others show up to help. Following the race, he congratulates McQueen on his loss for helping Strip Weathers after he is taken out. During the closing credits, Mack views automotive versions of previous Pixar films (such as Toy Car Story and Monster Trucks, Inc.) at a restored 1950s drive - in cinema. Commenting on other characters played by John Ratzenberger (including Hamm the piggy truck and the Abominable Snowplow), he eagerly applauds each of them until he realizes they 're all played by the same actor, then demands to know "what kind of cut - rate production is this?! ''
"This one is a homage to my father... John Lasseter knew that my father drove a Mack truck and that 's why he gave me this character. The truck was one of my first loves because I used to ride around with him in it from time to time. ''
Allentown Mayor Ed Pawlowski proclaimed April 21, 2006, Friday Mack Trucks - Disney / Pixar "Cars '' Day in Mack 's honor during the 41 - city "CARS Road Trip ' 06 '' promotional tour.
Mack is seen in the short Mater and the Ghostlight after Lightning established his headquarters on US Route 66. In Cars 2 he appears in a pair of brief cameo appearances at the start and end, where his two lines are "Oh, his best friend greetings. They get longer every year, '' and "Oh, those two are perfect for each other. '' He appears in Cars 3 with a much larger role compared to Cars 2. He is still working as McQueen 's transport. 4 months after McQueen 's accident, he is in Radiator Springs and picks McQueen up to the Rust - eze training center. Later, he takes McQueen, Cruz, Luigi, and Guido to the Thunder Hollow demolition derby circuit and after arriving, he come up with the idea to disguise McQueen. On their way back, he is forced to pull over when Cruz opens his hauler and decide to part ways. He accompanies McQueen to pick Cruz up again and they head to Thomasville, and then to Florida 500.
In a deleted scene, before McQueen heads to the tiebreaker race in California, Mack heads to a truck stop, after his grill is covered by a moth blizzard, to be washed. A still impatient McQueen comes outside the trailer to chase after Mack, and that 's how he was lost. In another deleted scene, albeit a dream sequence where McQueen is in radiator springs, his V8 Alcohol motor is inside a steamroller, and Mater borrows his body, he makes a mistake, thinking Mater is McQueen, and takes him to the race.
Lightning McQueen 's pit crew are generic forklifts who only appear at the start of the film, never to be acknowledged again. They quit after McQueen said that he is a one - man show. One of them, presumably the acting crew chief is voiced by Mike "No Name '' Nelson, not to be confused with Michael J. Nelson. After the official crew chief had decided to quit, he is referred to by McQueen as "Chuck '', and retorts angrily afterwards, "And my name is not Chuck! '' In the credits, he is referred to as "Not Chuck ''. They appear in the film (only to leave almost immediately) to show McQueen 's selfishness and inability to work with others. McQueen had a crew chief before the film, but was not seen in the film, because McQueen fired him (believing he was a one - man show, which later came back to haunt him for his return). The chief was mentioned several times at the Dinoco 400 race. The crew is later replaced by McQueen 's friends from Radiator Springs and Mack for the big race. In Cars 2, McQueen has apparently hired a new pit crew as he mentions having given them all a vacation when asked to attend the World Grand Prix, but his friends from Radiator Springs again offer to become his crew for a race and he accepts.
Harv is Lightning McQueen 's agent. Never seen on - screen, McQueen speaks to Harv via his speaker phone when McQueen and Mack are en route to the tiebreaker race and again when Mack is in Radiator Springs to pick up McQueen. Consequently, very little is known of Harv 's character except that he threatened to fire Mack if he does n't get McQueen into his trailer.
Harv is voiced by Jeremy Piven in the U.S. version and The Grand Tour presenter Jeremy Clarkson in the UK version. He is also based on the character Ari Gold from the HBO series Entourage. Although he is not seen in the actual film, Jeremy Clarkson believes that he is a 1979 Ford Granada Ghia while the American version, he is thought to be a 1996 Oldsmobile.
The Rust - eze Brothers, Rusty and Dusty, are the spokescars and owners of Rust - eze, the team that sponsors Lightning and that gave him his "big break '', they are somewhat awkward. Rusty is a 1963 Dodge Dart and Dusty, a 1967 Dodge A100. Rusty and Dusty are voiced by real - life brothers Tom and Ray Magliozzi (respectively) of National Public Radio 's Car Talk, using that program 's closing line "... and do n't drive like my brother! ''. Rusty bears an intentional resemblance to Tom Magliozzi 's infamous green 1963 Dart, named "The Dartre ''.
They appear three times in the first film, at the beginning with McQueen looking forward to leaving them, in the middle very briefly being interviewed and at the end after the race when McQueen realises he is happy with them. In a deleted scene on the DVD, much of their dialogue (heard at the sponsors ' tent in the final script) was originally part of a brief stop at the Top Down Truck Stop. On the die - cast cars, Rusty 's license plate states "Rust '' and Dusty 's sports "Eze ''. Their license plates are from "R Fair City '', a term the Car Talk brothers use to describe their home town of Cambridge, Massachusetts. They appear four times in the third film, when they talked with McQueen about his winnings, McQueen was going to see Cal Weathers, when the Radiator Springs gang members and McQueen were talking on the phone and at the Rust - eze racing center to hand the sponsor over to Sterling.
Following Tom 's death in 2014, unused archive recordings from the first film were used to provide Rusty 's speaking parts in Cars 3.
Sterling is a billionaire and the new owner of the Rust - eze Racing Center. He reveals himself to be a fan of Lightning McQueen. He assigns Cruz Ramirez to train McQueen and prepare him for the Florida 500. After watching McQueen 's poor performance on the simulator, Sterling attempted to convince McQueen to retire and become a racing brand. McQueen convinces him to give him a chance at winning the Florida 500, then McQueen could decide when to stop racing. Sterling reluctantly agrees.
At the Florida 500, Sterling reveals himself as greedy and self - centered when he cruelly ordered Cruz to leave and resume her job as a trainer. Against Sterling 's will, McQueen puts Cruz in the race. After Cruz wins, Sterling asks her to race for him, but she refuses and quits. Tex Dinoco, owner of Dinoco, purchases Rust - eze from him, allowing Cruz to race and McQueen to train her.
He is voiced by Nathan Fillion.
A personal voice command assistant to Cruz Ramirez that 's able to track McQueen 's speed through his electronic suit. Played by British Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton.
Cruz Ramirez, a Hispanic female, is Lightning McQueen 's trainer and technician at the Rust - eze Racing Center. She is known for training some of the best newer elite rookies through her unconventional training methods. She is assigned to train McQueen for the Florida 500. She attempts to train McQueen at Fireball Beach, but McQueen ends up teaching her how to race on sand. After surviving a Demolition Derby, which Cruz wins, McQueen lashes out on her for wasting his time. Then, Cruz reveals that she always wanted to be a racer, but never found the confidence to do so.
Cruz and McQueen reconcile and head to Thomasville where they meet the former crew chief of Doc Hudson, Smokey. Smokey trains McQueen and inspires Cruz as well. At the Florida 500, Cruz is sent back to the Racing Center. McQueen exits the race to allow Cruz to race. Using what she 's learned on the road, Cruz catches up to Jackson Storm, who tries to overtake her. However, Cruz flips over him and lands in first place. She begins to race for the Dinoco team, sporting # 51, with McQueen as her mentor.
Cruz is voiced by Cristela Alonzo.
Strip Weathers, better known as The King, is a "Dinoco - blue '' veteran racecar and racing legend voiced by NASCAR Hall of Famer Richard Petty. Weathers is an anthropomorphic version of Petty 's aerodynamic 1970 Plymouth Superbird, sporting same shade of blue and Petty 's racecar number, 43. He is one of the racecars in the 2006 Piston Cup three - way tie, along with Chick Hicks and Lightning McQueen. His sponsor (Dinoco), like Petty 's (STP), is a well - known oil company.
He is Dinoco 's "Golden Boy '', having won seven Piston Cups (the same number of NASCAR Cup Series championships Petty himself won in his career) and is hoping for another in the tiebreaker race before entering retirement. He tells McQueen to remember the importance of his team, but the rookie does not pay any attention, being more preoccupied with the thought of taking over the Dinoco sponsorship after Weathers ' retirement.
On the final lap of the tie - breaker race, Hicks rams into Weathers, sending him into a dangerous rollover. When McQueen sees this, he realizes that Weathers ' career might end the way Doc Hudson 's did. After stopping short of the finish line, allowing Hicks to win, McQueen pushes Weathers across the finish line to let him finish his last race before his retirement, much to the audience 's delight. Weathers is last seen visiting the racing museum in Radiator Springs with his wife and another Piston Cup racer, "Junior '', stating that Hudson was his inspiration (In NASCAR, "The King '' # 43 is the second of four generations of racers; his father Lee Petty won his first Cup in 1954, one year after the multiple Fabulous Hudson Hornet victories).
He returns in Cars 3 as the crew chief of his nephew and new Dinoco racer Cal Weathers with Richard Petty reprising his role as the voice of The King. He is only shown in the first race of the film, where he tells Cal nice comeback after he gets his tires for a pit stop, and when he and his nephew pass the sponsorship to Cruz Ramirez after she wins the Florida 500. His only line in the film is "Nice comeback, Cal ''. (Petty 's nephew Trent Owens, son of his wife Lynda 's brother Randy, is a real - life Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series crew chief.)
In the Danish edition of the movie, the King is voiced by nine - time 24 Hours of Le Mans winner Tom Kristensen. In the Finnish edition of the movie, The King is voiced by Finnish two - time Formula One World Champion Mika Häkkinen. In the German edition, he is voiced by Austrian three - time Formula One World Champion Niki Lauda.
Strip Weathers also appears in the film 's video game as an unlockable character in the Arcade. He is mentioned by Darrell Cartrip in the game 's Story Mode.
He also appears in Disney Infinity.
Lynda Weathers, also known as "Mrs. The King '', (voiced by Richard Petty 's wife Lynda Petty) is similar in design to a station wagon that brought the Petty family to "The King '' 's races during the 1970s. Like Tex, Lynda follows each race from a Dinoco VIP booth, rooting for the # 43 car. Throughout the film, she is constantly shown supporting her husband and she worries deeply when he is flipped by Chick Hicks. After the race, while Chick Hicks is booed for wrecking her husband and winning the Piston Cup, she kisses Lightning on the cheek to thank him for helping out her husband.
During the ending credits of Cars, Mrs. The King can be seen at the Doc Hudson Museum with her husband and Mater as a tour guide throughout the museum. She asks to see and meet Doc Hudson, but Mater is unsure of his whereabouts at the present time -- but assumes he is out racing, most likely with McQueen (which turns out to be true).
New Dinoco racer. Took over as Dinoco racer after his uncle Strip Weathers retired and became his crew chief. Cal Weathers is numbered 42, and is a Piston Cup Stock Car with blue rims. He often races with Lightning McQueen and Bobby Swift and constantly pull pranks with each other after a race. Unlike his uncle, he seemed to be one of the weak Dinoco racers and never won any Piston Cups (according to Tex as a joke when he talks to Cruz Ramirez on joining Dinoco), though he does win some races as shown when he beats McQueen in a close finish at Rocker Arms Speedway. He later retires when new next gen racers including Jackson Storm take over the sport. He is voiced by real life driver Kyle Petty who is Richard Petty 's son.
Tex Dinoco, voiced by Humpy Wheeler of Charlotte Motor Speedway, is a billionaire and the owner of Dinoco. Packaged as "Tex Dinoco with bullhorns '' as a diecast car, he is simply called "Tex '' in the film 's credits. He speaks with a Carolina accent and resembles a 1975 Cadillac Coupe de Ville at The Big Texan Steak Ranch in Amarillo. He is the King 's manager and sponsor. Unlike Lightning 's agent (Harv, who does n't watch the race), Tex is an avid race fan who would never miss a race. As a supportive and long - time friend of both Lynda and "The King '', he has been a loyal fan of the # 43 car for many years and boasts that The King "has made Dinoco proud ''.
After Chick Hicks wins by employing a PIT maneuver to sabotage The King in the final lap of the tiebreaker, sending the Dinoco blue # 43 car into a dangerous rollover crash, Tex (angered by Hicks ' cheating) offers the lucrative sponsorship to Lightning with the explanation that "there 's a whole lot more to racing than just winning '' this is an echo of a line that Mcqueen used at the end of the race shown at the start of the film but with an entirely different meaning. However, McQueen turns down the offer, opting to stay with Rust - Eze.
He returns for Cars 3 as the sponsor for Cal Weathers. After Cal retired, Tex sought to have newcomer Cruz Ramirez to race for him after watching her performance in the Florida 500. He also purchases Rust - eze from Sterling and allows Lightning McQueen to continue racing.
The Dinoco Transport Helicopter is based on a Bell 430. Without a speaking part, he has no voice actor and is not named in the closing credits. His name is Rotor Turbosky (in apparent reference to helicopter maker Sikorsky) in the die - cast Cars toy collection. He is seen on top of the Dinoco tent during the races. Mater gets a ride over Radiator Springs at the end of the film, a favor which Lightning had promised Mater earlier when dreaming of the big trophy and the big sponsor (Dinoco) with the fancy helicopter.
Chick Hicks (voiced by Michael Keaton) serves as Lightning McQueen 's primary rival in the first film. He is "a generic Pixar design, ' a stock 1980s American car ' '' according to Pixar publicity coordinator Amanda Sorena, and strongly resembles a GM G - body with features from both the Chevrolet Monte Carlo and the Buick Grand National. As the real - life General Motors wanted nothing to do with the character by rejecting an initial Pixar proposal to cast a Chevrolet stock car as the movie 's villain, Chick is effectively an orphan. He has spent his entire career trailing Strip "The King '' Weathers, and is bitter about this fact. His racing sponsor is Hostile Takeover Bank (HTB for short).
His pit crew are mean to Guido as they underestimate him for being tiny; his skills are later shown to be far superior to their own. Hicks ' racing number is 86, a reference to 1986, the year Pixar Animation Studios was founded; 86 itself is also a slang term for destroying or getting rid of something. Since 86 is twice the number 43 (King 's number), it could also be an allusion to his entire career in relation to King.
Determined to do whatever it takes to win, Hicks will often ram other cars or use the PIT maneuver in an attempt to cause racing incidents for his own benefit. He despises and mocks McQueen, adopting the nickname Thunder which McQueen previously used as a put - down (McQueen: "Because thunder always comes after ' lightning ' ''). Hicks is also equally antagonistic towards The King, having come 2nd place to The King his entire career. While McQueen is presumed missing, Hicks tries to take away McQueen 's fans and increase his fame.
During the final lap of the tie - breaker race, Hicks (who is then determined not to come in behind Strip Weathers again) PITs The King, sending him flying off the race track and into a roll - over wreck on the in - field. He expects a huge ovation after McQueen deliberately gives up the Piston Cup in order to help Weathers but nobody cheers him on once he wins because they 're fed up with his dirty tricks. Shortly afterward, as Hicks gets on stage to claim his trophy and celebrate his victory, an angered crowd and media snub Hicks ' victory by branding him as a cheater. He is pelted with discarded tires and booed off the stage with his trophy in humiliation. The immediate backlash is similar to backlash against Rusty Wallace after he spun out Darrell Waltrip in Turn 4 during Segment 3, Lap 9 of the Sprint All - Star Race V at Charlotte Motor Speedway, sending Waltrip spinning into the grass. In the film, a lucrative corporate sponsorship is at stake. Hicks and McQueen both share the dream of being the new face of Dinoco Oil, a firm long represented by retiring champion # 43 "The King ''. They race on the assumption that winning the championship cup will land them the big sponsor, however Dinoco owner Tex offers the sponsorship to McQueen, stating that there 's more to racing than winning.
He returns in Cars 3, where he now hosts his own talk show, Chick 's Picks. He constantly boasts about his previous Piston Cup championship and cracks jokes at McQueen 's expense as Jackson Storm takes over the sport. He also interviews him after he wins one of the races. Pixar writer Bob Peterson voices Chick in this film as Keaton was filming Spider - Man: Homecoming. Due to his voice actor change, his voice seems to be similar to other characters Bob Peterson voiced such as Mr. Ray from Finding Nemo.
Chick returns in the Cars video game, which is written by Pixar and considered a continuation to the story started in the movie, once again as McQueen 's rival and the main antagonist. In the game, he is less rude than he was in the movie. He is first seen spying on Lightning 's practice sessions with Doc Hudson. In Palm Mile Speedway, he ineffectively taunts Lightning before the first race of the season until Doc warns him off, then falls in with a gang of New York - based greaser cars in Carburetor County to challenge McQueen. The DRH gang jumps Mack on the interstate to steal McQueen 's racing gear, but finger Chick as the one who hired them when caught by the Sheriff. In the Cars Race - O-Rama video game, he seeks revenge by attempting to close down McQueen 's racing academy to start his own in Radiator Springs, although he gets defeated at the end. His catchphrase is "Ka - Chick - Ah! '', a blatant rip - off of McQueen 's catchphrase "KA - CHOW! ''.
Despite the fact he did not appear in Cars 2, he does show up in the film 's video game as a downloadable character for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 editions. He also appears in Disney Infinity.
In the Rioplatense Spanish version of Cars, Hicks is voiced by Marcos di Palma, a racecar driver also known for his brash attitude.
Besides him, there is a similar character named Ripslinger in the 2013 Cars spin - off movie Planes and its 2014 sequel, produced by DisneyToon Studios.
Jackson Storm, an arrogant blue - and - black 2017 custom built "next generation '' Piston Cup racer, is one of the newer rookies that comes into the racing sport, and the main racing rival of Lightning McQueen in the third installment in the franchise. He set records and won many races, including the final race in Los Angeles and presumably achieved the goal of winning the Piston Cup in his rookie year, which McQueen almost did in the first film.
At the Florida 500, he is overtaken by McQueen 's former trainer Cruz Ramirez. He attempts to make her lose focus by telling her that she does n't belong on a track. Cruz, however, regains her confidence and drives up next to Storm, who tries to slam her into a wall. Cruz flips over him and lands, in exactly the same fashion as Doc Hudson was shown to do in an earlier scene.
He returns in Cars 3: Driven to Win, as the main antagonist and a playable character.
Jackson Storm is voiced by Armie Hammer. In the game, he is voiced by AJ Hamilton.
These characters live in Radiator Springs with Lightning McQueen, his trainer Cruz Ramirez and their hauler, Mack.
Mater is a rusty tow truck and McQueen 's best friend, voiced by Larry the Cable Guy. He 's the main character in Cars 2 and a major character in the other films.
Sally Carrera is the town 's attorney and McQueen 's girlfriend. She is voiced by Bonnie Hunt, and she is a Porsche 911.
Doc Hudson is the town 's medical doctor and a local judge, voiced by actor Paul Newman in the first film and its video game and Corey Burton in all other related media. He is based on the Hudson Hornet. He did not appear in the second film, as it is implied that Doc died, and Newman passed away in September 2008 from lung cancer.
He won three consecutive Piston Cups in 1951, 1952, and 1953, with Smokey as his crew chief, corresponding to the first three of the real - life Hornet 's production years.
The Sheriff (voiced by Route 66 historian and author Michael Wallis) is a 1949 Mercury Eight Police Cruiser police car, bearing Carburetor County license plate 001. Sheriff is painted in the classic law enforcement black and white with a single red light dome, two sirens, and curb feelers. Sheriff was the first resident of Radiator Springs to appear in the original film and the first to meet Lightning McQueen during a police chase when McQueen was speeding through the town, attempting to locate Mack. Upon catching McQueen, who had become ensnared in wires and fencing, Sheriff paraphrases a line used by actor Joe Higgins, who played a sheriff in early 1970s Dodge commercials, as "Boy, you 're in a heap of trouble. ''
Sheriff was known to distrust McQueen; at one point when Sally gives McQueen some gasoline, Sheriff notices McQueen smiling at the road as if he is planning to escape. In reply Sheriff with a glare turns on his gumball in case. Lightning chooses to accompany Sally, rather than making an escape attempt, resulting in Sheriff switching off his emergency lighting. This marks the beginning of trust in Lightning by Sheriff. He later befriends Lightning McQueen, offering him a police escort to California and even giving a few sniffles when he thought Lightning had left after finishing fixing the road (though he denied it, claiming he was glad Lightning was gone), and joins his pit crew for the championship race. In the end credits, Sheriff arrests the Road Hazards (the same ones who separated McQueen from Mack) caught racing illegally (via speeding) to Radiator Springs and have them impounded. As punishment for their crimes, he forces them to repave the roads with Bessie.
Sheriff reappears in Cars 2, seeing Lightning and his race crew off to the World Grand Prix. When Mater goes missing, Ramone mentions that Sheriff has Scotland Yard scouring London for Mater. During the climax of the film, Sheriff arrives with the other Radiator Springs residents as new members of McQueen 's pit crew in England, and is informed by Mater of the Lemons cars ' plot to kill McQueen in order to turn all vehicles in the world against alternate energy and rely on gasoline for profit. Sheriff then has Red the Firetruck squirt water on the Lemon cars during the final battle, and arrests most of the defeated ones with help from Sarge. Then the next day Sheriff cheers Mater on when he is knighted for foiling the evil plot led by surprisingly, the race and Allinol inventor Sir Miles Axlerod.
Luigi (voiced by Tony Shalhoub, Michael Shalhoub in Disney Infinity) is a 1959 Fiat 500. He is a Scuderia Ferrari fan, and has followed racing his entire life. His license plate reads 445 - 108, which is the latitude and longitude for the main Ferrari factory in Maranello, Italy. Luigi owns a tire shop, Casa Della Tires, which is known for its "Leaning Tower of Tires, '' a tower of several tires shaped like the Leaning Tower of Pisa. His assistant is an Italian forklift truck named Guido.
Inside his shop are many framed pictures of World Sportscar Championship endurance racing Ferraris from various points in history. At first, Luigi and Guido do not respect Lightning McQueen when he comes to Radiator Springs (owing to the substantial havoc that he inflicted upon the town when he first arrived), because he is not a Ferrari ("Luigi follow only the Ferraris ''), but later on they learn to show courtesy to McQueen, fitting him with whitewall tires, since Luigi is a fan of white tires (having a pair himself). During the final race, Luigi and Guido work as part of Lightning 's pit crew, and Guido sets the Piston Cup record in changing tires, taking only 4 seconds to change all the tires, sending the other pit crew into shock. After the race, a group of Italian sports cars -- a Ferrari F430 (voiced by Michael Schumacher) and two Maserati Quattroportes -- arrive at his shop, explaining that "Lightning McQueen told me this was the best place in the world to get tires '' and requesting "three or four sets each ''. The presence of a celebrity Ferrari in their store causes both Luigi and Guido to faint from shock and happiness.
For the Italian version of the film, Luigi was voiced by comedian Marco Della Noce; one of Della Noce 's most popular characters was "Oriano Ferrari '', a parody character meant to represent the leader of Ferrari 's pit stop crew.
In Cars 2, Luigi is a part of Lightning 's pit crew, in charge of the racer 's tires. In Japan, he is naturally overjoyed to see so many Ferraris at a party prior to the first race of the World Grand Prix. He also hesitantly begins to explain to Mater what a rendezvous is, but he and Guido do not believe Mater when he believes he has a date ("Guido do n't believe you! '' "Guido still do n't believe you! '') Luigi and Guido are overjoyed to be back in their home of Italy, and rejoin their large group of family and friends. A little more is discussed of Luigi 's past with Guido: Luigi 's Uncle Topolino mentions that Luigi and Guido often fought when they worked for him (over things like which Ferrari was the best, and which one of them looked more like a Ferrari, etc.) but they always made up after their fights. Luigi joins his friends in a mêlée against Professor Zündapp 's Lemons at the film 's climax, and finally believes Mater 's claims of a girlfriend when Holley Shiftwell confirms the fact in person at Radiator Springs.
Guido (voiced by Guido Quaroni) is a forklift truck, who works at Luigi 's Casa Della Tires, and is Luigi 's best friend. The only language Guido can speak and understand fluently is Italian, though he appears to understand English, and even speaks a few phrases, including "Pit stop '' but pronounced "Peet stop! '' His dream is to perform a pit stop for a real racecar. Near the end of the movie, as a member of Lightning 's new pit crew, he performs the fastest pit stop in Piston Cup history, speed - changing all four tires in only 4 seconds, shocking Chick Hicks ' pit crew who had earlier made fun of him, and causing their moustaches / grills to fall off in the process.
In order to preserve the "language barrier '' gags between Guido and the other characters in the Italian dub, his lines (and the other cars ' lines in Italian) have been rendered with the Emiliano - Romagnolo accent spoken in the town of Modena, Italy, home of the Ferrari car manufacturer and racing team. Alex Zanardi, an Italian race driver who is a native of Bologna, the largest city in the Emilia - Romagna region (and thus presumably familiar with that dialect), voiced Guido for the Italian version. Coincidentally, or as a pun by the authors, the name "Guido '' is a perfect homonym for the Italian inflected verb meaning "I drive ''.
In Cars 2, Guido serves the same purpose he served in the first film 's climax in Lightning 's pit crew throughout the film. He also removed all tires from some of the Lemons when the malicious cars surrounded Lightning and Mater, but is unable to remove the bomb from Mater 's nose (engine). Guido does not believe Mater when he says he has a date ("Non ci credo ''), but has a jaw - dropping moment when he sees that Mater was telling the truth about his new girlfriend Holley Shiftwell (Guido believe you now! - Luigi).
Ramone (voiced by Cheech Marin) is a Chevrolet Impala Lowrider that owns the Ramone 's House of Body Art store, where he paints himself and other cars, including Lightning McQueen later in the film. His garage employs the distinctive architecture of the Tower Station (U-Drop Inn) in Shamrock, Texas. His license plate reads "L0WNSL0 '', which is a reference to his catchphrase, "Low and slow. '' He is married to Flo, whose restaurant is next door to his store. Ramone is usually depicted as purple with a yellow and orange flame job, but throughout the film, he changes his paint job every morning (green, yellow, red in the first film, blue in Mater and the Ghostlight) to keep his skills sharp, owing to a lack of customers. This situation changes after Radiator Springs becomes vibrant again. He also likes to drive slow and very low on the road, and is overjoyed when the road is asphalted, enjoying the smoothness of the road.
In a deleted scene that told the story of how Ramone and Flo fell in love, the only customer Ramone has refused to paint was his future wife Flo. When she asked him, "Whassamatta, you too good to paint me? '' he promptly and smoothly replies, "No baby, you too good for me to paint, '' and saying that he could not touch a classic like Flo, which made her heart melt. The story took place in Radiator Springs in 1974. This part was shown in the info on Ramone in Cars Mater - National Championship.
Ramone reappears in Cars 2, making a few appearances in the Radiator Springs scenes, though he joins everyone else to help McQueen in England. In the melee scene, Ramone disables one of the lemon cars by spray painting into the car 's eyes, blinding him.
In the movie Planes, when Dusty cuts off the radios power when El Chupacabra was singing the song "Love Machine '', he says Ramones catchphrase "Low and slow '' which causes Chupacabra to sing a romance version of the song.
Flo (based on Fran Hauser of Adrian 's Midpoint Café and voiced by Jenifer Lewis) is the owner of Radiator Springs only gas diner, "Flo 's V - 8 Café '', and is married to Ramone, the town 's body artist. Her license plate reads "SHOGRL '', the same as the license plates applied to many Motorama show cars and an abbreviation of the term "showgirl ''. During the cruising scene, "Motorama 1957 '' appears above her license plate. According to a deleted scene, she is a Motorama showcar who came to Radiator Springs during a national tour (although there was n't a Motorama show held in 1957). Ramone custom painted her crew all except her. She asks "What 's the matter, you too good to paint me? '' Ramone said "No baby, you 're too good for me to paint. '' They immediately fell in love. She appears to be inspired by two early - to mid-1950s show cars: the 1951 Buick XP - 300 (side trim), and the 1956 / 57 Chrysler Dart (cockpit, deck lid, and tailfins).
Flo reappears in Cars 2 to help Lightning and Mater battle the Lemons (who were sent to kill Lightning by Miles Axlerod). Later, she and Sally are seen swooning over Francesco.
In Toy Story 2, Al 's car looks a lot like her; she may be a reference to his car.
Fillmore (based on Route 66 artist Bob Waldmire -- not acknowledged in the film 's credits -- and voiced by George Carlin in Cars, Cars: The Video Game, Mater and the Ghostlight, and Cars Toons (via archives), Brian George in Cars Mater - National Championship, Mark Silverman in Cars Race - O-Rama and Lloyd Sherr in Cars 2, Cars 2: The Video Game and Cars 3) is a Volkswagen Type 2 microbus of late 1950s / early 1960s vintage as evidenced by his pointed front turn signals and small rear window. Fillmore 's license plate reads "51237 '', an easter egg which is a reference to May 12, 1937, the birthdate of George Carlin, and is also the ZIP code of George, Iowa.
He is a stereotypical hippie, as he has stickers of the peace sign and flowers with his license plate positioned to resemble a soul patch. His name is a reference to the Fillmore East, a venue that was an epicenter for rock performances throughout the 1960s and 1970s (The Allman Brothers, The Grateful Dead, and Jimi Hendrix all made notable live recordings there, to name a few). He owns an organic fuel shop (Fillmore 's Organic Fuel) which features several flavors, and believes gasoline companies are lying to the public. He is implied to smoke marijuana, as it is indirectly referenced when he speaks of his organic fuel use. In the morning, when next - door neighbor Sarge plays Reveille and raises the Flag of the United States, Fillmore interrupts Sarge 's bugle reveille with Jimi Hendrix 's rendition of "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. This is much to Sarge 's irritation, as he yells at Fillmore:
Despite this, he is friends with Sarge, and the two can be seen chatting throughout the film.
He has a sticker on his rear that says "I brake for Jackalopes ''. The jackalope is a mythical creature which features in the theatrical short Boundin ', shown with The Incredibles. Another sticker says "Save 2D Animation ''. He has appeared in every Disney Cars game so far. As voiced by George Carlin, Fillmore 's voice is similar to "Al Sleet, the hippy - dippy weatherman '', a part of Carlin 's comedy routine in the 1970s.
Fillmore reappears in Cars 2, joining McQueen 's pit crew for the World Grand Prix. He has a smaller role compared to the previous film. He is the only original character that had to be re-cast (due to George Carlin 's death), and was replaced by Lloyd Sherr (with a professional hippie voice) in this film. Fillmore initially supports Allinol as it supposedly does not use oil, even convincing McQueen it is safe after several accidents involving other cars using Allinol. However, for the final race, Sarge replaces McQueen 's Allinol with Fillmore 's organic fuel, which is what prevents Lightning from being killed in the race.
Fillmore was originally going to be named Waldmire, after a Route 66 resident, but Waldmire, a vegan, did n't want his name to be used, because Fillmore toys would be featured in Happy Meals at McDonald 's.
Sarge (voiced by Paul Dooley) is a 1941 Willys Jeep. A veteran with a military green paint job and a slightly stylized Sergeant Major (E-9) insignia on his sides, he appears to be a World War II era Willys MB. His license plate reads "41WW2 '', which indicates the date the Willys MB entered the service of the U.S. Army (1941 World War II). He runs a surplus store, named "Sarge 's Surplus Hut '', next door to Fillmore and acts as part of Lightning 's pit crew, gassing him up during the race. Near the end of the film, he operates a boot camp to train SUVs and 4x4s (some of whom had never been off - road) in rugged and dirt terrain. His recruits include T.J. Hummer, Murphy, Frank "Pinky '' Pinkerton, and Charlie Cargo.
Sarge reappears in Cars 2, using assistance from the British Army to aid in the melee against the Lemons. Prior to the final leg of the World Grand Prix, he secretly switches McQueen 's supply of Allinol (the alternative fuel developed by race founder Sir Miles Axlerod) for Fillmore 's organic fuel blend. Like Fillmore he became suspicious of the fuel after the incidents in Japan and Italy. The change saves McQueen from being destroyed as part of Axlerod 's plot to discredit alternative fuels.
Lizzie (voiced by Katherine Helmond), a 1923 Ford Model T Coupe, is the widow of Radiator Springs ' founder, Stanley, and the elderly owner of a roadside souvenir and accessory shop (Radiator Springs Curios, which uses the "HERE IT IS '' slogan and signage of the Jack Rabbit Trading Post on US 66). Her license plate, "MT23 '', is a reference to her model and year. Her name is derived from Tin Lizzie, one of the Model T 's popular nicknames. She appears to have gone somewhat senile, and has a crush on Lightning McQueen. When she is shown teasing Luigi and Guido in the film, stating that "the new road makes your place look like a dump. '' Luigi angrily says that she is a crazy, devilish old woman but despairs at the truth of her words and sets to work repainting the Casa della Tires garage to its original appearance. She appears extremely motherly.
Lizzie reappears in Cars 2 with a minor role. In the beginning she greets Lightning when he returns, but did n't even know he was gone all this time. She is n't present at the airport but is seen in the end talking to Mack about how crazy Holley Shiftwell is for keeping a dent.
She appears in the Cars Toons: Mater 's Tall Tales episode "Time Travel Mater '', where her and Stanley 's backstories are revealed.
Lizzie was originally going to be named Henry F. Ord, after Henry Ford. She also, at one point, originally resembled a Ford Model T "Center Door '' Sedan.
Red (voiced by Joe Ranft and later Jerome Ranft) is a closed - cab pumper bearing Carburetor County license plate "002. '' He is shy and emotional which explains why he cries and drives away at the same time. He spends most of his time gardening and washing things, such as the statue of Stanley in front of his fire station. It was stated by Mater that Red "hated '' Lightning McQueen, because he accidentally killed his flowers. Later, it is clear that Red had forgiven Lightning McQueen and warmed up to him, especially when he burst into tears and fled when he mistakenly thought that Lightning McQueen left without saying goodbye. In the movie, Red never spoke (not counting his sobs and gasps). Joe Ranft died in a car accident in August 2005, 11 months before the movie was released.
Red reappears in Cars 2 as a non-speaking character. He only makes a small appearance at the airport crying as he sees Team McQueen taking off for Tokyo, also in the battle against the Lemons, where he arrives just in time to blast some of the Lemons away with his fire hose.
Red appears in the Tales from Radiator Springs short film: Bugged. He is voiced by Jerome Ranft, who voiced Gamma in Up.
Stanley (voiced by John Michael Higgins) is Lizzie 's late husband who was the founder of Radiator Springs. Stanley was probably based on and named after a Stanley Steamer, a steam - powered automobile. Lizzie, reminiscing, describes him as having been "an awfully persistent li'l bugger for a two - cylinder ''. A statue of Stanley stands outside the town hall, and although it was broken off its pedestal and dragged through the streets on a wire by Lightning McQueen, it was fortunately undamaged, and another mishap placed the statue right back where it was. Although dead, Stanley continues to exert an influence on the town, particularly over Lizzie, who often talks to his statue in memory of him.
Stanley 's statue reappears in Cars 2 where he was shown to be less old and broken, possibly renovated.
In the Cars Toon, Time Travel Mater, Stanley appears alive for the first time. In the Cars Land theme park, signage commemorating "The Original Radiator Spring '' claims that "On this site in the summer of 1909 Stanley, exploring out west, overheated as his radiator water boiled away. Coasting into the shade, he happened upon a life - saving natural spring. Upon this most fortunate discovery, Stanley founded the first settlement in Ornament Valley, and in honor of the oasis, christened it Radiator Springs. '' Stanley 's Oasis is listed as the first local business in Radiator Springs, although condensers only appeared on Stanley steam cars beginning in 1915. The revised Timeline of the toon shows Lightning and Mater travelling back to 1909, meeting Stanley, and pointing Lizzie out to Stanley, prompting him to approach her to make a sale. A quick stop on their way back to the present allows Lightning and Mater to witness Stanley and Lizzie 's wedding.
Stanley makes a silent cameo in the Pixar short, Boundin '.
Bessie is a tarmac laying machine that is used to fix roads in Radiator Springs. She was often used by one of the citizens of Radiator Springs, referenced as "Big Al '', before the citizen in question left fifteen years ago. When Lightning McQueen accidentally destroys the road by dragging the statue of Stanley, Radiator Springs traffic court judge Doc Hudson sentences him to fix the road with her.
While Doc insists "this here is Bessie, finest road - paving machine ever built '', a construction trade publication 's August 2006 editorial describes her as a "tar - spewing hybrid paver / compactor '' and "an ecological disaster '' as sometimes Bessie boils over and splats tar onto the car (s) pulling her.
"If she does n't hit you with a stray spray of hot asphalt burbling in two tanks heated by open flames, the fumes emanating from every orifice would prompt an asthma attack. Aggregate jostles loose in a top hopper, and her black - smoke - extruding exhaust pipes are coated with the remains of decades of paving seasons... In fact, everything is wrong about Bessie except the product she produces when Lightning finally decides to get serious about his civic duty. ''
During the epilogue, the Delinquent Road Hazards have to fix a road with her as punishment for speeding. Bessie is a "non-living '' vehicle; she can not move by herself and she has no voice actor in the film.
Frank is a generic red combine harvester that resembles a bull, and the guardian of the tractors (which "moo '' as cows). After Lightning McQueen 's first encounter with Frank during a night of tractor tipping with Mater, Lightning starts dreaming that he, The King, and Chick Hicks (the last of whom does not survive, getting chopped up while The King and McQueen move out of the way) are beaten by Frank in the tie - breaker race. Frank wins the piston cup and gets kissed while Lightning is surrounded by the tractors who are licking him. He is last seen with the tractors at the drive - in theatre scenes behind the fence far behind Mack, watching the movie as well. He is also seen in the short Mater and the Ghostlight when Mater races past him, waking him up, but does not chase him. Frank seems to be the soothing and kind master of the tractors and the leader of the herd and also hates trespassers who step into his farm and bother the tractors. The tractors also appear in Planes and are shown to be sacred in India.
A flashback in the original film devotes a little over a minute to show Radiator Springs in a pre-freeway era when all cross-country traffic would by necessity pass through the town 's busy main street. Various old cars appear very briefly in this segment with no names and no dialogue, only to vanish when the town is bypassed.
Miles "Meattruck '' Malone was a red - cab delivery truck serving the Ornament Valley region; Dustin Mellows, a yellow delivery truck, bore the logo and initials TS for Trophy Sparkplugs. Local cars included Mildred Bylane (a light - brown car leaving Luigi 's), Percy Hanbrakes (a brown car towed to Flo 's by Mater), Edwin Kranks (a two - tone apple - green car), Hank "Halloween '' Murphy (a two - tone orange "Rumbler '' with tail fins, named as a parody of the Nash / AMC Rambler) and Milton Calypeer (a blue car on Route 66 at the town limits).
In Radiator Springs and the surrounding desert area of Carburetor County, insects are depicted as small, winged VW Bugs (or beetles). The bugs appear at least three times in the original film, hovering around fluorescent lighting at Flo 's V8 Café on Lightning 's initial arrival, swarming around the windows and the one missing fuel pump at the Wheel Well Motel before its historic restoration, and in the desert where Minny and Van are still quite clearly lost at the end of the film, after the closing credits. (One bumps on the camera lens, leaving a mark on it, and flies off eventually) One also appears in Mater and the Ghostlight, which Mater had confused for the Ghostlight (despite the yellow headlights). The bugs are alive but do not speak (Vroomaroundus Bugus merely buzz with sped - up sounds of an air - cooled VW engine) so they are not named individually and they have no voice actors.
Bob Cutlass is an announcer for the Piston Cup races and friend of Darrell Cartrip. He is voiced by Bob Costas, the NBC sportscaster and journalist and his name, like Darrell Cartrip 's, is a play on that of his voice actor. The character 's name is a reference to the Oldsmobile Cutlass. Cutlass is actually supposed to resemble a 1999 Oldsmobile Aurora, even though the Aurora was never offered in a 2 - door model. He did not return for the video game nor Cars 2 nor the video game for Cars 2. However, he did return for Cars 3. He did not return for Cars 3: Driven To Win.
Natalie Certain, a red, smarty - pants acting sports car, is an RSN statistical analyst in Cars 3 who also is a friend to Chick Hicks. She returns for Cars 3: Driven To Win. She is voiced by Kerry Washington.
Various officials and track employees are seen in the original film but not named in the movie 's credits, often because they have no named voice actor or no speaking role. Names and descriptions are assigned to these cars and trucks in the "Cars '' franchise to allow the characters to be sold as die - cast toys.
Dexter Hoover (a pickup truck atop the flagstand) waves the green flag to start the race, the checkered flag to finish the race and the yellow flag when Piston Cup officials call a caution. Charlie Checker is the official pace car at each race of the Piston Cup Series. Like the Checker taxi cab, he is bright yellow. Race Official Tom, a Piston Cup official, reviews videotape in the replay booth for the photo finish in the first race. Tow is a tow truck who removes injured contestants from the track, dragging a disabled but stubborn Chuck Armstrong away from the Dinoco 400 after a collision.
Marlon "Clutches '' McKay, security team leader at the Motor Speedway of the South, is a former armored troop carrier. Richard Clayton Kensington (a large Piston Cup security van voiced by John Cygan) chases paparazzi from the replay booth, yelling "Hey! No cameras! Get out of here! '' Marco Axelbender, a Piston Cup security guard at the Los Angeles International Speedway, refuses to admit Fred to Pit Row without a garage pass.
Brian (voiced by Bob Scott), a pickup truck briefly spotted selling souvenirs at the Motor Speedway of the South, shouts "Get your antenna balls here! '' Todd, a Pizza Planet truck, is shown in Cars, Cars 2 and Cars 3.At the end of the first movie, he is seen at the last race. At the end of the second movie, he is seen in Radiator Springs.
The Alphanumeros are a group of cars in tight formation, driving at the beginning of the tiebreaker race in position to spell "PISTON CUP '' with each letter formed from multiple, matching moving vehicles. Barney Stormin, a small propeller - driven skywriting biplane, writes "PISTON CUP '' only to have it obliterated by Marco 's formation of three twin - engine jet fighters.
The Lightyear Blimp (a parody of the Goodyear blimp and also a reference to the Toy Story character, Buzz Lightyear, voiced by Danny Mann), is named "Al Oft ''. His only line is "Oh yeah! Whoo! ''
Kori Turbowitz (voiced by DJ Sarah Clark of KLLC 's San Francisco Bay Area weekday morning Sarah and Vinny Show) is a 1997 Ford Puma. A news reporter who makes three appearances in Cars, Turbowitz is shown interviewing McQueen on - camera immediately before his original pit crew resigns en masse, is the first to report Lightning McQueen missing, and later obtains a tip from Doc Hudson revealing McQueen 's location in Radiator Springs.
Chuki is a small, light pink hatchback with a Japanese nationality, living in Tokyo. Chuki has a very small appearance in Cars - she is shown as one of the news reporters who appear in the multi-clip footage of various TV news channels reporting McQueen 's sudden disappearance while being transported to the Los Angeles International Speedway for his tie - breaker final of the Piston Cup. In Cars Toons: Mater 's Tall Tales episode "Tokyo Mater '', Chuki is seen presenting a news broadcast on one of the large TVs installed in Tokyo. In Cars 2, she is seen in the neon advertisement glowboards in Tokyo.
Chuki is based on hatchbacks designed according to Japan 's Kei car specifications and is voiced by Sonoko Konishi, a senior Pixar animator who was also part of the animation team that won Ratatouille (another Pixar film) an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Konishi is credited in the Cars 2 cast for voicing the Japanese toilet assistant that appears in the computerized automated car toilets in Tokyo.
Jay Limo, like his voice actor Jay Leno, is the talk show host of The Jay Limo Show. He resembles the latest generation of the Lincoln Town Car, with an extended front bumper to emulate Leno 's famous big chin. He remarks "I do n't know what 's going to be harder to find; Lightning McQueen or a crew chief who 'll work with him! ''
Chuck Manifold (voiced by Teddy Newton), a blue and somewhat - boxy 1980s - style car, is an anchor for Racing Sports Network (RSN) who appears briefly at the end of the last of multiple media reports of McQueen 's disappearance with the one line "They are all asking the same question: Where is McQueen? ''
Dan Sclarkenberg (voiced by Bob Bergen), a green car and one of two "braking news '' desk anchors on MPH 55 NEWS, is one of the announcers of the "McQueen Missing '' segments.
A pair of helicopters with searchlights (as the first of a large group of reporters in Radiator Springs) are not listed in the film 's credits but identified elsewhere in the franchise. The red Kathy Copter (voiced by Kathy Coates) only shouts "We have found McQueen! '' twice while the white / yellow Ron Hover does not have a speaking part.
Other press cars (not identified in the film 's credits) are Houser Boon (a yellow camera car voiced by Michael Bell exclaiming "Show us the bolt! ''), Tim Rimmer (a grey tabloid news photo car booing Chick Hicks # 86 when the Piston Cup is awarded), Hooman (a small brown camera car in Radiator Springs voiced by Hooman Khalili), Dash Boardman (a green camera car at the race), Andrea (a magenta - red reporter car voiced by Colette Whitaker holding a microphone) and Skip Ricter (a brown car who appears outside Los Angeles International Speedway as an announcer voiced by Craig Good; a play on former real - life NASCAR executive Les Richter).
Video coverage of the race itself is handled by Racing Sports Network personnel Artie (one of a pair of video control operators and a light - blue car who exclaims "Bob! Darrell! The Hudson Hornet 's back! '') and Nelson Blindspot (a light - green SUV, one of multiple Piston Cup video camera operators). Both names reference real - life staff who work with Waltrip on NASCAR on FOX broadcasts, Artie Kempner (director) and Nelson Crozier (spotter).
She interviews racers after they win and not being afraid to ask questions. Inspired and voiced by Shannon Spake.
Mia (voiced by Lindsey Collins) and Tia (voiced by Elissa Knight) are identical twin 1992 Mazda MX - 5 ("Miata '') sisters who are Lightning McQueen 's self - proclaimed biggest fans in the first film. In Lightning McQueen 's daydream about the Dinoco Sponsorship, the twins are Dinoco blue, except for the scene in the penthouse, where they are painted gold. After McQueen 's disappearance, the twins are devastated that McQueen apparently will not make it to the race. Chick Hicks then swoops in and consoles them, loading them up with his own merchandise and a free Hostile Takeover Bank - sponsored green paint job. Mia and Tia accept the offer, not because they are Chick 's fans, but because green complements their eyes. They soon return to being McQueen 's fans, turning against Hicks after he deliberately causes Strip "The King '' Weathers to wreck in the tie - breaker race.
Mia and Tia eventually move to Radiator Springs and are visible briefly as waitresses at Flo 's V8 Café during the end credits. Their characters are based on sisters Mary Lou and Christina Mendez at the Midpoint Café in Adrian, Texas, where the café 's (now semi-retired) owner Fran Houser is the basis for "Flo ''.
They also appear in the video game of Cars where they challenge Sally to a race to determine who gets a date with Lightning Mcqueen.
In a deleted scene on the Cars DVD, the twins were fans who distract Lightning during a brief stop at the Top Down Truck Stop, a venue with "all convertible waitresses '', causing Mack to inadvertently leave without him. The implicit reference to toplessness is largely removed from the final script, which has Mack driving straight through and separates the characters on I - 40. Mia and Tia appear in every episode of Cars Toons: Mater 's Tall Tales except Time Travel Mater and make a cameo appearance near the end of Cars 2 as spectators at the new Radiator Springs Grand Prix.
They do n't appear in Cars 3 for unknown reasons, as they were replaced by a little red car named Maddy McGear.
Albert Hinkey (voiced by Douglas Keever) is an RV who proclaims himself as Lightning 's "biggest '' fan ("biggest '' being a pun because he is such a large vehicle). He is seen in the background of races. He is first seen shouting encouraging words to McQueen as he makes it through the big wreck Chick Hicks caused. He is later seen in the tie - breaker race, cheering for McQueen and is shocked when he notices Doc Hudson. When McQueen chooses to forfeit the win and help Strip Weathers finish his last race, he is shown sobbing when he sees what happens, but later becomes happy when the fans give praise to McQueen for his sportsmanship. He is later seen in Cars 3, where shouts encouraging words to McQueen once again. His topside is decorated with rows of Lightning / Rust - eze flags. Hinkey also has a loud horn, which he uses while saying "Ka - Chow! '' (McQueen 's catchphrase) and the loud noise is a nuisance to fellow spectators. The Character is an obvious reference to John Hinckley, the stalker and attempted assassin of President Ronald Reagan who attempted such crimes to profess his love for actress Jodi Foster as her biggest fan.
His friend Larry Camper, voiced by Larry Benton, exclaims "Dip me in axle grease and call me Slick! It 's the Hudson Hornet! '' when Lightning 's Radiator Springs pit team arrives for the tiebreaker race. This is a joke on the old Harold Lloyd punch line, "step right up and call me speedy!, '' which originated (mostly) in his hit silent film called The Freshman Lloyd also made another film called Speedy, which may or may not have been a reference, as it was made three years after The Freshman.
Fred (voiced by Andrew Stanton) is a starstruck, very rusty old car resembling a Lada 2107. Everybody knows his name because his license plate holder and license plate read "Hello, my name is '' and "FRED '', respectively. He is the prop for the recurring gag in the film; when McQueen says his name, he shouts "He knows my name! '' twice and, in his excitement, his front bumper (which happens to be his lower jaw) falls off. Later, when he is unable to gain access to the tie - breaker race and Mario Andretti (who would be waved through the gate on sight as a celebrity) likewise reads his license plate, Fred says, "Mario Andretti knows my name! You got ta let me in now! '' He is seen in Radiator Springs at the end of the film with bumper stickers for the last three towns (Kingman, Barstow, San Bernardino) in Route 66 (song); when he stops, his front bumper falls off again. He also shows up in Mater National and Race - O-Rama.
Fred is one of the many rusty old cars at the Rust - eze sponsor tent for McQueen 's personal appearance; others (listed in the "Car Finder '' game but not named in the movie 's credits) include Jonathan Wrenchworths (the rusted green car in Rust - eze advertisements) and Donna Pits (a rusted 1970s car standing beside Fred).
A group of five transport lorries watch the race at a truck stop; two are identified in the "Car Finder '' game as Gil (a green Peterbilt) and Paul Valdez (an orange transport with a white stripe and ' PV ' on his cap).
A group of RV 's watching the tiebreaker at the speedway include Barry Diesel (a thirsty RV with a blue Dinoco visor cap, sipping two kegs of Dinoco Light), Bud (a white RV with a jackalope painted on his back), Clayton Gentlebreeze (a white RV with green stripes) and Syd VanDerKamper (a camper van).
The "more than two hundred thousand cars '' watching the tiebreaker race include Coriander Widetrack (a small purple car holding a model aeroplane), Marty Brakeburst (a grey runabout wearing a Piston Cup antenna ball), Mathew "True Blue '' McCrew (a blue car behind a fence with "the King '' flag on his antenna), Milo (a boxy green car beside McCrew), Polly Puddlejumper (a small blue car with a blue "the King '' crown on her antenna), Swift Alternetter (a green SUV surrounded by RV 's), Timothy Twostroke (a dark - red car displaying the # 95 lightning bolt on his visor and antenna) and Wilmar Flattz (a small light - purple car with "lightning '' on his antenna and "95 '' on his visor).
Lightning McQueen 's biggest fan in Cars 3.
"Junior '' # 8 is a red stock car similar to the Gen 4 cars that the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series used prior to 2007. As his name suggests, he is voiced by Dale Earnhardt Jr., and closely resembles the # 8 Budweiser Chevrolet that Earnhardt Jr. drove from his Sprint Cup début in 1999 until his departure to the team his maternal grandfather started, Hendrick Motorsports, in 2008. The car 's Budweiser stickers are replaced by Dale Earnhardt Inc. stickers. These stickers refer to the same change made in NASCAR games as well as toys to avoid advertising beer. Junior is seen during the first race (Dinoco 400) and is involved in the wreck caused by Chick Hicks. When McQueen goes missing, Junior tells the Competition Racing Sports Network "I sure hope that Lightning is okay. I would hate to see anything bad happen to him! ''. At the tie - breaker, Junior wishes The King good luck in his last race, as "you 've been an inspiration to me ''. Junior is last seen at the Radiator Springs racing museum with The King and his wife Lynda, amazed by Doc Hudson 's many season winnings during the 1950s. Junior does not appear in the video game nor the third film, due to his sponsor going out of business. (The real - life Earnhardt Jr. currently operates a second - tier NASCAR team with his mother and her brothers.)
A replica of the red livery, with the Hendrick # 88 on a Gen 6 Holden Commodore and Axalta sponsor decals, was used for Earnhardt 's final race as a full - time Cup driver in 2017.
Mario Andretti voices his eponymous character, who is a former racecar that believes every day is a great day for racing. He is based on the 1967 Holman Moody Ford Fairlane that Andretti drove to victory lane in the 1967 Daytona 500. In the Spanish edition of the movie, Andretti is voiced by Spanish Formula One champion Fernando Alonso.
A small green car seen beside Andretti at the entrance to pit lane is identified in the "Car Finder '' game as Patty, Mario 's personal assistant. She does not have a speaking role in the film.
The actual Ford Fairlane that Andretti drove was rebuilt as a Mercury Cyclone by Robert Gee (Dale Earnhardt, Jr. 's maternal grandfather), driven in 1971 by German F1 and sportscar driver Rolf Stommelen for his only NASCAR start at Talladega Superspeedway, then sold to Darrell Waltrip for use his five races in 1972 and the first half of the 1973 season. It later became a Sportsman racer for Waltrip, but was crashed in 1975 at the Permatex 300 Sportsman race (now Xfinity Series race). Abandoned by Gee, it stayed there until a few NASCAR mechanics restored the car in its 1972 configuration as a 1971 Mercury Cyclone (brown # 95) in the mid-1990s for a celebration of the 25th anniversary of Waltrip 's first Cup start. It is displayed at Waltrip 's museum in Harrisburg, North Carolina, and part of an Andretti exhibit at the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in 2013. (A replica of the car as it looked in 1966 was also part of it.)
Michael Schumacher is a 2004 Ferrari F430 sports car voiced by Schumacher himself. He is a Ferrari in reference to five of his seven Formula One championships which were achieved with Ferrari F1. He appears at Luigi 's shop at the end of the movie after being told by Lightning McQueen that "this is the best place in the world to buy tires '', and asks to order a few sets of tires for himself and a pair of Maserati Quattroportes who accompany him. After Luigi faints from the excitement of having "a real Michael Schumacher Ferrari in his store '', Schumacher speaks to Guido in Italian, and Guido subsequently faints. The Italian phrase he speaks is, "I hope that your friend recovers, I was told that you are fantastic. '' Because of licensing issues, in the Cars toyline, his name is called Ferrari F430 instead of his name himself.
Darrell Cartrip, a 1977 Chevy Monte Carlo, is a Piston Cup announcer in the first and the third film. A former Piston Cup racer, his character is based on his voice actor, 1989 Daytona 500 winner and NASCAR on Fox commentator Darrell Waltrip. An enthusiastic Cartrip uses Waltrip 's catchphrase "Boogity boogity boogity! Let 's go racing, boys! '' and insists that his oil pressure 's running through the roof and he might need to be towed out of the booth after the race.
Cartrip appears in the Cars video game as a solo announcer; he is a playable character in the Piston Cup VS. and Arcade mode. He returns in the second film as the only of three World Grand Prix announcers to believe it was Lightning McQueen 's race to lose.
A real - life 1977 Monte Carlo was driven by Waltrip with DiGard Motorsports, finishing a very close second - place finish (11 points behind Richard Petty) for the 1979 championship Cup. Waltrip raced from midway through the 1975 season until the 1980 season driving for the team. The real - life car 's original number (DiGard 's # 88) and green - and - white Gatorade livery do not appear on the character (the livery 's design is now owned by PepsiCo). The film 's credits list Darrell Waltrip Motorsports (his licensing arm) as the "# 17 Car '' (known for his Hendrick Motorsports and own efforts in winning three of NASCAR 's four majors); Waltrip 's various NASCAR entries have included a # 17 (three times -- two of those he owned, the other belonging to Hendrick Motorsports) and a # 95 (the one he drove in his 1972 debut was at one time the real - life former Mario Andretti # 11 from 1967 seen in the Cars franchise, is one such).
The most famous of the real - life 1977 DiGard Monte Carlos was the infamous "Bertha '', displayed at the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in Talladega, known for a weight - reduction scheme (devised by Gary Nelson and Buddy Parrott) where up to 100 pounds (45 kg) of buckshot is dropped on - track on parade laps to lighten the car. A subsequent NASCAR rule change to weigh cars after the race now prevents this type of ruse, is the main announcer for the Piston Cup races, along with Bob Cutlass; announcer in Cars and now, Cars 3; he is voiced by Darrell Waltrip.
Van (voiced by Richard Kind) and Minny (voiced by Edie McClurg) are husband and wife. In the first film, they are lost and pass through Radiator Springs while trying to find their way back to Interstate 40. Van refuses to ask directions, claiming not to need them due to having a GPS. Minny mentions that Van did the same when they were heading up to the "Crazy Days '' (a parody of Derby Days) in Shakopee. U.S. Route 66, taken off the map in 1985, is conspicuously absent from stored maps in automotive aftermarket GPS units -- an omission also noted by Harv, Lightning 's agent, and a minor running joke in the film.
Both are equipped with car alarms, which they arm after their encounter with Lightning McQueen when he begs them to call for help (they dismissed his plea as madness). After the final credits, Van and Minny are shown dirty and lost somewhere in the desert, having never asked for directions, with Van almost driven to insanity. Their names combine as a pun on "minivan ''. Van is a 2003 Ford Windstar and Minny appears to be a 1996 Dodge Caravan. Minny speaks with a pronounced Minnesota accent.
Van and Minny reappear near the end of the second film. While Minny is mesmerized by Mater 's spy story, Van does not believe one word of it until British agent Holley Shiftwell arrives to confirm it, which surprises Van, leaving him mesmerized by her and annoying Minny. In the final scene, when a rocket - propelled Mater rushes past Van, maps that Van was carrying are sent flying.
The Delinquent Road Hazards are a group of four modified tuner cars that intentionally cause trouble on the highway: Boost (Purple Neon / Carbon fibre covered 1994 Mitsubishi Eclipse), DJ (Blue 2004 Scion xB), Wingo (Green and purple 2000 Nissan Silvia) and Snot Rod (Orange 1970 Plymouth Barracuda). They get their group name from what Sheriff called McQueen when he ordered Mater to tow him to traffic court. They catch Mack nodding off to sleep on the way to California and amuse themselves by nudging him onto the rumble strips along the shoulder. The resulting vibration causes Mack 's trailer door to open and a sleeping McQueen to roll out of the trailer. When the chronically sniffly Snot Rod sneezes, Mack is startled awake, and accelerates away, leaving the still - sleeping McQueen behind near Radiator Springs. During the end credits, the Hazards are caught speeding on the outskirts of Radiator Springs by the Sheriff, who gives chase and places them in the impound lot. Like McQueen before them, they are sentenced to messy roadwork towing Bessie.
In the Italian dub, three of the Hazards are voiced by F1 drivers: Giancarlo Fisichella (Boost), Emanuele Pirro (Wingo) and Jarno Trulli (DJ). Boost, DJ and Wingo make a cameo appearance at the start of Tokyo Mater, drifting along the main road of Radiator Springs and shouting insults at the residents before Sheriff gives chase to them. D.J. was voiced by his inspirational actor, E.J. Holowicki. Wingo, Boost and Snot Rod were voiced by Adrian Ochoa, Jonas Rivera and Pixar actor Lou Romano.
TJ Hummer (voiced by Jan Rabson) is a vain Hummer H1 that Sarge teaches in his boot camp during the end of the movie. Unlike the other SUVs in the boot camp, TJ refuses to go off - road, fearing that he will get dirt on his rims, but Sarge forces him to do so. His name may be a play on the action character T.J. Hooker. The other three boot camp recruits (none of which have speaking parts) are Frank "Pinky '' Pinkerton (a pink SUV), Murphy (an orange SUV) and Charlie Cargo.
Sven "The Governator '' (voiced by Jess Harnell) is a Hummer. His only line is "Lightning McQueen must be found at all costs! '' The name and vehicle is a parody of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's then - current position as California governor, the first three Terminator films he starred on, and the fact that he was one of the first Hummer H1 owners.
Jerry (voiced by Joe Ranft) is a 1979 Peterbilt 352 that Lightning McQueen mistook for Mack. He has the words "Recycled Batteries '' on his side. His only line in the movie is a response to McQueen: "Mack?! I ai n't no Mack, I 'm a Peterbilt for dang sake! Turn on your lights, you moron! '' The deleted scene on the DVD has the words "Jerry 's Junk '' and his only line is shortened saying: "Turn on your lights, you moron! ''
Various cars and trucks in non-speaking roles are named in the "Car Finder '' game but have only silent cameos in the film.
Bertha Butterswagon, a small green runabout, watches Mack admiring his own reflection in a metal tanker truck. Leroy Traffik, a minivan with a mattress on his roof and a temporary spare as his right - rear wheel, passes a tired Mack just before the truck stop. He is seen with new tires from Luigi 's during the film 's epilogue.
Ben Crankleshaft, Chet Boxkaar and Oliver Lightload are sleeping trucks at the Top Down Truck Stop.
Duff Wrecks is a grey pickup truck briefly seen one lane away from the Delinquent Road Hazard gang on I - 40.
These are characters who have first or only appeared in the film Cars 2 (2011).
Finn McMissile (voiced by Michael Caine, Martin Jarvis in all video games) is a British secret agent who recruits Mater, whom he mistakes for a cleverly disguised American agent, to help in his mission. Caine depicted his character Finn based on his previous role Harry Palmer from The IPCRESS File and its sequels. He is also similar to James Bond, whom Michael Caine did not portray. He is a 1956 BMW 507.
Originally, Finn was supposed to appear in the first Cars movie. In a sequence that never went beyond the storyboarding stage, Lightning and Sally visited a drive - in theater where a James Bond - type film about a superspy car named Finn McMissile was playing. This scene was deleted. The design of Finn is inspired by several cars: the roofline and doors of the Volvo P1800 (possibly inspired by Roger Moore 's ownership of one while filming The Saint TV espionage series in the early 1960s), the grill and fenders of the BMW 507, and some major elements of the iconic James Bond Aston Martin DB5 (including its sound, as clearly heard in the intro of GoldenEye); he also resembles a 1970s Volkswagen Karmann Ghia. The look of the car has been slightly modified; Finn has a different grill that looks like a suave mustache, but like Bond, he does have plenty of gadgets. His small tailfins were inspired by a 1958 British sports car called the Peerless -- one of the few British cars with fins. Finn is fluent in many languages, most notably French and Italian. He is outfitted with a plethora of gadgets, including: two (front) bumperette grappling hooks, a right headlight spy camera, a left headlight missile launcher, side mirror digital read - outs, a deployable glass cutter, wheel hub magnetic explosives launcher; (side) side vent deployable machine guns, (rear) wheel hub deployable surveillance probes, rear bumperette grappling hooks, a rear turn signal oil dispenser, a miniature car that he can deploy (called a "skate jack ''), an undercarriage mounted quad harpoon gun, a hydrofoil for oversea travel, a roof - deployed holographic disguise emitter, and a submarine - mode for underwater escapes. Finn made a cameo in Toy Story 3 on a poster in Andy 's room. His license plate is 314 FMCM, which includes a reference to his initials. The number 314 indicates Caine 's birthday, March 14, the same day as Billy Crystal, another actor for Pixar. His belief about the World Grand Prix turns out to be true, as it was all just a setup by Miles Axlerod to make alternate fuel seem dangerous and make cars run on his own fuel with no choice.
Finn McMissile appears in Kinect Rush: A Disney - Pixar Adventure. It was revealed that Finn was a spy who was on the biggest oil platform in the world before he met Mater. None of them knew that Mater was not a spy. He just answered the question correctly. He can dispense bombs from his wing nuts. Finn is also able to magnetize his wheels in order to climb up some vertical metal surfaces. Finn 's other abilities include purposely spilling oil onto the road, using grappling hooks to swing between buildings and traverse great heights by using the hook cables as tightropes, and being able to ' breathe ' underwater.
Holley Shiftwell (voiced by Emily Mortimer) is a British spy - in - training who is Mater 's love interest / girlfriend in the film. She is a 2011 Jaguar CX75
Holley 's name is a reference to Holley Performance Products, Inc., a manufacturer of high - performance carburetors and fuel systems located in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Her design was made from a Jaguar XJR - 15. Her name is possibly also a reference to Bond Girl Holly Goodhead. Her license plate is HS1201, which includes her initials. The number 1201 is Emily Mortimer 's birthday in American date order (December 1).
Holley is equipped with gadgets including: (front) projection lamps above headlights that emit a heads - up display, headlight cameras; a (side) right wheel concealed gun and an electro - shock device, a telescoping utility arm, (undercarriage) mounted dual trackball platforms for controlling the heads - up display, and retractable wings for flight.
Holley Shiftwell appears in Kinect Rush: A Disney - Pixar Adventure. She is a playable character in the Disney Infinity series. She 's is also Mater 's best friend.
Siddeley (voiced by Jason Isaacs) is a Gulfstream V spy jet. He is 176 feet long with a 157 - foot wingspan (53 and 48 meters respectively) and is shown to possess afterburners, though no aspect of his airframe is suited to supersonic flight, In addition, he has VTOL (vertical - takeoff and landing) capabilities. His tail has A113 painted on it, a recurring gag in the Pixar films. Siddeley is also seen in the background in one scene of the Cars spinoff, ' Planes. ' His name is a reference to the British aerospace company Hawker Siddeley.
Stephenson is a spy train, who first appeared in Cars 2 working with Finn McMissile. Stephenson brings Finn, Holley, and Mater to Porto Corsa, Italy. Stephenson is a state - of - the - art bullet train, who scrambles switchboards, hops international rail lines, and can make it from Dover to Porto Corsa in five hours. He has no dining car and no spare compartment because he 's filled with the finest in high - tech, classified spy gear and probably has a few secret agents aboard. One of his carriages contains high - tech equipment that modifies and adds gadgets to cars. His only line in Cars 2 is "Finn, one hour to Porta Corsa ''. Stephenson is named after the "father of railways '', namely George Stephenson.
Leland Turbo (voiced by Jason Isaacs) was a British agent who appeared in the film 's beginning. He sends a video message to Finn McMissile about what he sees in Professor Zündapp 's oil rig. However, by the time Finn arrives at the rig, the lemons have found Leland and crushed him into a cube. He appears to be based on a Jaguar E-Type. His name is most likely based on Leyland Motors, a now defunct British vehicle manufacturer.
Rod "Torque '' Redline (voiced by Bruce Campbell) was considered by many as America 's greatest spy. He is the agent McMissile and Shiftwell were supposed to meet before he ran into Mater, which leads to the mistake of the spy cars thinking Mater is Redline.
In the beginning of the film, he is seen by McMissile (disguised as a lemon) talking to Professor Zündapp about the camera. In the bathroom, Rod takes off his disguise so Finn and Holley can recognize him. Unfortunately, lemons Grem and Acer come into the bathroom and his plan backfires when they recognize him before Holley can meet him. Rod tried to fight them off but, the two lemons dodge his tactics and severely damage him. Cornered by the villains, he turns his information over to a rusty American tow truck named Mater when no one noticed before being captured. He is later filled with Allinol at the lemons ' hideout. Rod thanks them due to the fact that Allinol is good for cars but, Professor Zundapp revealed to the agent that Allinol explodes when it reacts with a magnetic pulse. As it turned out, the Lemons were going to torture him until he told them who the information was passed to. Despite the torture, Rod refused to spill the beans. But the lemons realized that he passed the info to Mater before killing him.
Tomber (voiced by Michel Michelis) is Finn McMissile 's underground informant. Having been saved from a long sentence in a Moroccan impound lot (20 years to life) by McMissile, Tomber has since become an auto - parts dealer. He specializes in rare parts, such as the ones needed to keep a certain Rover V8 going. Mater and Tomber get along from their first meeting, both respecting the other 's knowledge of cars and specific parts. Tomber (French for "to tumble '') is a Reliant Regal threewheeler, a car notorious for its poor handling and tendency to roll over in even gentle turns. His license plate reads "PCS NO1R ''. He may be based on Del Boy from Only Fools & Horses
Crabby the Boat (voiced by Sig Hansen) is a fishing vessel that is based on the F / V Northwestern, a boat captained by Hansen and featured in the American reality TV series Deadliest Catch. Crabby is painted and designed like the Northwestern. He is seen in the beginning of the film with Finn McMissile aboard him. Finn has paid Crabby to bring him to a certain location in the ocean so he can look for a car, a request that greatly puzzles Crabby. Once they reach the spot, Tony Trihull (see below) intercepts Crabby and threatens him with a missile launcher, forcing him to turn back. Crabby apologizes to Finn as he heads home, not knowing that Finn has already slipped off board and hitched onto Tony to continue his mission.
Sir Miles Axlerod (voiced by Eddie Izzard) is a former oil baron who has sold off his fortune after he supposedly converted himself into an electric vehicle. He was the first car to circumnavigate the globe without any GPS which is similar to explorer, Ferdinand Magellan who circulated the globe. Axlerod created the World Grand Prix to promote his new wonder - fuel, Allinol. Axlerod later reveals that he owns the largest untapped oil reserves in the world. His "alternative fuel '' is actually ordinary gasoline engineered to ignite if hit with electromagnetic pulses from weapons disguised as television cameras. Axlerod 's plans to use oil for world domination are eventually exposed. Axlerod plans to use Professor Zündapp and the Lemon Cars to kill McQueen in the final race, but the EMP weapon fails to finish him off because Sarge switched McQueen 's Allinol for Filmore 's organic fuel. As a backup, Axlerod has Zündapp and the lemon cars implant a bomb on Mater 's air filter which was not seen in the climax. Mater confronts Axlerod about the conspiracy and forces him to deactivate the bomb with a voice command, proving that he was the one who set it. Axlerod 's engine turns out to be the Rover V8 in the photo obtained by McMissile and Shiftwell after Mater opened his front hood (described by Mater and Tomber as "the worst engine / motor ever made ''), and he is exposed as a fraud and a liar and is arrested by the British police, wondering how Mater figured out Axlerod was behind the whole scheme.
Professor Zündapp (voiced by Thomas Kretschmann), often referred to as "Professor Z '' (by his henchmen), is an internationally wanted weapons designer who is modelled after a Zündapp Janus 250 with a broken roof rack that evokes the look of a comb over. Though at first Professor Zündapp appears to be the main villain, he is eventually exposed as a subordinate to Miles Axlerod. According to Lego.com, it is revealed that his full name is Wolfgang Otto Zundapp. Zündapp also appears in Kinect Rush: A Disney - Pixar Adventure.
Grem (voiced by Joe Mantegna) is a dented, rusty orange AMC Gremlin. Acer (voiced by Peter Jacobson) is a beat - up green AMC Pacer. Both of these "lemon '' cars are henchmen for Professor Zündapp, Grem and Acer mistake Mater for an American agent with top - secret information, chasing him around the globe. Even though they do n't have all the spy weapons and gadgets they are still tough and will do anything and everything to stop secret agents.
Tony Trihull (voiced by Lloyd Sherr) is a combat ship (modelled after USS Independence (LCS - 2)) who works for Professor Zündapp. He first appears in the beginning when he notices Crabby and Finn in the oil reserve, ordering Crabby to leave. When Crabby refuses, Tony threatens him with a missile battery (based on the RIM - 116 Rolling Airframe Missile). As a result, Crabby leaves but Finn hitches a ride on the back of Tony without him knowing. He later appears again near the end of the film in London when Professor Z tries to escape from being caught by Finn McMissile, yelling for the Professor to hurry and get aboard him. When Finn McMissile stops the Professor, Tony uses a magnetic device to pull the Professor towards him. McMissile shoots several mine - bombs out of his wheels which cling to Tony 's big magnet, resulting in a huge explosion killing Tony.
Victor Hugo (voiced by Stanley Townsend) is the head lemon of the Hugo family, being referred to as "the boss '' by fellow Hugos. He and his Hugos work with Professor Zündapp. During the film, Victor uses Ivan, a blue tow truck (which Mater masquerades as to infiltrate the lemons ' meeting), as his own personal transportation that tows him place to place instead of having to drive on his own.
Alexander Hugo (voiced by Velibor Topic) is part of the Hugo family that works for Professor Z and Miles Axlerod. He is the only black bodyguard lemon in the entire movie to talk, making him and Victor the only Hugo family members that talk. Despite his young age, he does dirty work (like Victor and Ivan) and attends the lemon meeting. He also is one of the lemons attempting to round up Mater so that the bomb would explode, killing both Mater and Lightning. Near the end of the film, Alexander is arrested in London with his fellow lemons.
Ivan (voiced by Stanley Townsend) is a blue tow truck who serves as Victor Hugo 's mode of transportation, towing him around. He resembles Mater greatly, in fact, Mater disguises as Ivan in order to infiltrate a lemon crime meeting. The real Ivan was previously tazed by Holley. He later awoke and captured Holley and even intercepted Mater before he can warn Lightning McQueen about the truth of Allinol. In the end, he is defeated by Mater and arrested alongside the other lemons. His name is pronounced ee - van instead of eye - van.
Tubbs Pacer (voiced by Brad Lewis) is the head lemon of the Pacer family. He and his Pacers work with Professor Zündapp. During the film, Tubbs and the other main heads of the three lemon families (Gremlin, Trunkov, Hugo) attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa to discuss their evil plans about discrediting the Allinol by using the radiation disguised camera to crash out the racers in the World Grand Prix that use the gas, and ensure that all cars keep using conventional fuel to secure the profits of their "lemon '' organization who managed to secure the largest unexplored oil resources in the world. Tubbs is seen smiling at the idea and can not wait.
Petey Pacer is a blue AMC Pacer member of the lemon organization. He can be recognized as one of the cars equipped with flamethrowers who attack Finn McMissile on the oil rigs ' helipad.
Fred Pacer is a light yellow AMC Pacer. He is the only Pacer car who does not speak in the film.
Vladimir Trunkov (voiced by Stanley Townsend) is the head lemon of the Trunkov family. He and his Trunkovs work with Professor Zündapp. During the film, Vladimir and the other main heads of the three lemon families (Gremlin, Pacer, Hugo) attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa.
Tolga is a black Trunkov that helps Vladimir Trunkov by protecting him, but it does not know who he is in the movie because there are several other black Trunkovs.
Petrov Trunkov is a light green Trunkov who is not actually seen in the movie.
J. Curby Gremlin (voiced by John Mainieri) is the head lemon of the Gremlin family. He originates from Detroit, as he states it when he introduces himself to the other lemons. He and his Gremlins work with Professor Zündapp. J. Curby, along with the other main heads of the three lemon families (Pacer, Trunkov, Hugo), attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa.
Tyler Gremlin is a red / dark red AMC Gremlin.
88 Racers.
Francesco Bernoulli serves as Lightning McQueen 's primary rival in the second film. Also a Formula 1 car. He is voiced by John Turturro in Cars 2 and Cars 2: The Video Game and by Carlos Alazraqui in Disney Infinity.
Jeff Gorvette, a 2011 Corvette C6. R, is a now retired racer; he appeared in Cars 2 at the World Grand Prix; is Lightning McQueen 's good friend; now an announcer for the Piston Cup races in Cars 3; he is voiced by Jeff Gordon.
Daisu Tsashimi, played by Daisuke "Dice '' Tsutsumi, is the name of the forklift sushi chef who serves Mater wasabi, when Mater mistook it for delicious pistachio ice cream. Tsashimi is a play on sashimi, and his given name could be a play on the Japanese auto marque Daihatsu, as well as his full name being a play on "diced sashimi ''.
Mama Topolino (voiced by Vanessa Redgrave) is Luigi 's aunt. She resembles a 1950s Renault (or maybe Alfa Romeo) Dauphine.
Uncle Topolino (voiced by Franco Nero) is Luigi 's uncle. He is a Fiat 500 "Topolino '' from 1948 or earlier ("Topolino '', which translates as "Little mouse '', is Mickey Mouse 's Italian name). The cover on his top resembles a hair style, similar to Luigi 's.
Queen Elizabeth II (voiced by Vanessa Redgrave) is a classic Rolls Royce Phantom car watching the race from Buckingham Palace. She knights Mater for his bravery in foiling Axlerod 's plot. Her roof racks are made to look like a crown.
Prince Wheeliam, the grandson of the Queen of the United Kingdom, is based on Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. He is a Bentley Continental GT and a fan of Britain 's Lewis Hamilton and Nigel Gearsley.
Signora Bernoulli is Francesco 's mother. She is seen at the Porto Corsa race cheering her son on. She is a 1960s era Ferrari 312 Formula One race car and, as evidenced by her number, his biggest fan other than himself.
Mel Dorado (voiced by Patrick Walker) is the host of the "Mel Dorado Show '' where he interviews Miles Axlerod and Francesco Bernoulli. Mater calls the show and eventually gets McQueen into the World Grand Prix. As his name indicates he is a Cadillac Eldorado. As evidenced by his glasses and smile, he is loosely based on Larry King.
The Popemobile is only seen at the Italian World Grand Prix Race -- he is seen inside a bulletproof "popemobile '' for his personal protection. He is among the many fans in the stands. The Popemobile is referred to earlier in the film when Mater asks, "Is the Popemobile Catholic? '' He has no lines in the film. Black - hatted priests can be seen next to the Popemobile while he sits in the stands at Porta Corsa for the second race in the World Grand Prix. Small Isetta forklifts, similar to the Guido character, are seen in white cassocks and red hats waving incense into the air.
Brent Mustangburger, a 1965 Ford Mustang in traditional racing blue, is based on ESPN / ABC sportscaster Brent Musburger, who provides the character 's voice. He re-appears in the spin - off film Planes.
David Hobbscap, a British racing green 1963 Jaguar Coombs Lightweight E-Type, is a former champion from 24 Heures du Mans turned television sportscaster. His character is based on the real life former British racing driver and current NBC Sports commentator David Hobbs, who provides the character 's voice. Jacques Villeneuve voices the character in the French and Quebec versions of Cars 2. He joins Mustangburger and Darrell Cartrip.
These are characters who have first or only appeared in the film Cars 3 (2017).
Smokey, an older orange Hudson pickup truck, is Doc Hudson 's old mechanic and crew chief who also helps McQueen, with his other participates (old timers River Scott, Louise Nash and Junior Moon) at the abandoned Thomasville Speedway. He explains to McQueen that while Doc was devastated by no longer racing, he found greater happiness in training him.
At the Florida 500, Smokey acts as McQueen 's crew chief. He helps McQueen coach Cruz when she enters and race. Smokey is then seen at Willy 's Butte for an exhibition race between McQueen and Cruz.
He is voiced by Chris Cooper. The character is based off on Daytona Beach garage owner Henry "Smokey '' Yunick, whose innovations were well known in motorsport, as he entered the No. 13 Chevelle for Johnny Rutherford that won the 1963 Daytona 500 qualifying race and also fielded a car in the 1964 Indianapolis 500 for Bobby Johns, but failed to qualify.
Mike Joyride is a Citroën 2CV, voiced by current Fox NASCAR announcer Mike Joy. He announces the unconfirmed status of McQueen 's racing career after his crash and assumes the end of his racing days.
Miss Fritter is a demolition derby - inspired monster school bus, an undefeated Crazy - 8 champion in the movie. She appears at a demolition derby at Thunder Hollow Speedway. She nearly saws Cruz with her Stop sign saw blades until Lightning McQueen, disguised as Chester Whipplefilter stops her only to get his tire shredded because the saw was lodged between his rear fender and tire. Cruz Ramirez ends up winning the race.
Miss Fritter is then seen cheering for McQueen and Cruz, watching the Florida 500 on TV.
She is voiced by Lea Delaria.
Sweet Tea is a forklift and Louise Nash 's former pitty, voiced by American singer and songwriter Andra Day. Sweet Tea knows all about fighting hard to prove that women deserve their fair shake in the racing world. When Louise retired, she discovered she had a singing voice as smooth as freshly laid asphalt. She now spends her time belting out country classics at the Cotter Pin.
"Chad '' was a retired steamroller which was scrapped from the storyline around 2002. In the original story, Lightning McQueen is invited to race in the first ever Radiator Springs Grand Prix. He refused, choosing instead standard community service. When he wakes up the next morning, his V8 alcohol motor was taken out of his body and stolen by Mater and put inside of Chad. Lightning 's voice was inside of Chad 's steamroller body and he fixed the road. Mater, meanwhile borrows McQueen 's body and goes to the next Piston Cup race. However, Lightning wakes up again, finding himself in his regular body, revealing that the everything was just a dream. He sees the steamroller body on the side, though. Still freaked out, he decided to change his mind and do the race instead.
Mr. Windshield was a character which was scrapped from the storyline around 2003. Based on concept art, he was going to be a yellow Packard Clipper, although a 2000 concept sketch by Dave Deal shows him as a Packard Super Eight rather than a Clipper. As his name implies, he was going to be an optometrist / windshield salesman, and while the character was scrapped, his shop still made it into the final film. The design was reused for Ramone 's House of Body Art.
Zil was originally going to be the main antagonist in Cars 2, but was ultimately dropped in favour of Professor Z and Miles Axlerod. His design was based on the 1958 ZIL - 111, but with one adjustment: the ZIL logo is on his front bumper.
Giulia was an original character in the beginnings of Cars 2. She was intended to be the double agent that met up with Mater. Giulia was left out of the completed movie, and replaced by Holley Shiftwell. She is modelled as an Alfa Romeo, resembling an Alfa Romeo Giulia Spider.
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what song did elvis write for his mom | That 's Someone You Never Forget - wikipedia
"That 's Someone You Never Forget '' is a song written by Elvis Presley in 1961 and published by Elvis Presley Music, which appeared as the closing track on his 1962 album Pot Luck and was released as a single in 1967.
The song was written by Elvis Presley with his bodyguard Red West and based upon an idea and title by Presley himself. Red West recalled the songwriting collaboration with Elvis: "' That 's Someone You Never Forget ' was a title that came from Elvis. He said, ' How about coming up with a song with the title of "That 's Someone You Never Forget ''? ' '' West agreed to give Elvis a co-writing credit to the song because of Elvis ' contributions to the creation of the song. It is believed that Elvis wrote the song about his mother Gladys Love Presley, who had died in 1958. Elvis Presley gave his recording a gospel - influenced arrangement, which added to the spiritual mood of the song.
Elvis also co-wrote the song "You 'll Be Gone '' with Red West and Charlie Hodge in 1961. These two songs were Elvis ' rare song compositions. At the time, Elvis was trying his hand at songwriting. His input was mostly in providing ideas about creating new songs and choosing how they should sound. In his landmark, best - selling biography of Elvis, Elvis: A Biography (1971), Jerry Hopkins discussed this songwriting period in Elvis ' career.
The song was recorded on June 25, 1961 at RCA Studios in Nashville and was released as the B - Side to the 1967 single, "Long Legged Girl (With the Short Dress On) '' on April 28, issued as RCA 47 - 9115, reaching number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100. The single was also released in the UK, Canada, Australia, Germany, France, and Italy. The song has appeared on several of Elvis Presley 's compilations including the Artist of the Century career retrospective collection in 1999. The song is notable because it was co-written by Elvis Presley.
The single was re-released as a red label 45 as part of the RCA Gold Standard Series as 447 - 0660 on July 15, 1969.
Review of the RCA CD reissue of the expanded Pot Luck album in 1999:
"The 1999 remastering benefits from superior sound and a 17 - song lineup, reaching back to March 1961 for its songs, including... the haunting, gospel - like "That 's Someone You Never Forget, '' which was co-authored by Presley and is one of his best non-hit songs of this era ". -- - Bruce Eder & Neal Umphred for Allmusic.
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ct is produced by which cells of the thyroid gland | Thyroid - wikipedia
The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid, is an endocrine gland in the neck, consisting of two lobes connected by an isthmus. It is found at the front of the neck, below the Adam 's apple. The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which primarily influence the metabolic rate and protein synthesis. The hormones also have many other effects including those on development. The thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T) and thyroxine (T) are created from iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also produces the hormone calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.
Hormonal output from the thyroid is regulated by thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted from the anterior pituitary gland, which itself is regulated by thyrotropin - releasing hormone (TRH) produced by the hypothalamus.
The thyroid may be affected by several diseases. Hyperthyroidism occurs when the gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones, the most common cause being Graves ' disease, an autoimmune disorder. In contrast, hypothyroidism is a state of insufficient thyroid hormone production. Worldwide, the most common cause is iodine deficiency. Thyroid hormones are important for development, and hypothyroidism secondary to iodine deficiency remains the leading cause of preventable intellectual disability. In iodine - sufficient regions, the most common cause of hypothyroidism is Hashimoto 's thyroiditis, also an autoimmune disorder. In addition, the thyroid gland may also develop several types of nodules and cancer.
The thyroid gland is a butterfly - shaped organ that sits at the front of the neck. It is composed of two lobes, left and right, connected by a narrow isthmus. The thyroid weighs 25 grams in adults, with each lobe being about 5 cm long, 3 cm wide and 2 cm thick, and the isthmus about 1.25 cm in height and width. The gland is usually larger in women, and increases in size in pregnancy.
The thyroid sits near the front of the neck, lying against and around the front of the larynx and trachea. The thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage lie just above the gland, below the Adam 's apple. The isthmus extends from the second to third rings of the trachea, with the uppermost part of the lobes extending to the thyroid cartilage, and the lowermost around the fourth to sixth tracheal rings. The thyroid gland is covered by a thin fibrous capsule, which has an inner and an outer layer. The outer layer is continuous with the pretracheal fascia, attaching the gland to the cricoid and thyroid cartilages, via a thickening of the fascia to form the posterior suspensory ligament of thyroid gland also known as Berry 's ligament. This causes the thyroid to move up and down with swallowing. The inner layer extrudes into the gland and forms the septae that divides the thyroid tissue into microscopic lobules. Typically four parathyroid glands, two on each side, lie on each side between the two layers of the capsule, at the back of the thyroid lobes.
The infrahyoid muscles lie in front of the gland and the sternocleidomastoid muscle to the side. Behind the outer wings of the thyroid lie the two carotid arteries. The trachea, larynx, lower pharynx and esophagus all lie behind the thyroid. In this region, the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the inferior thyroid artery pass next to or in the ligament.
The thyroid is supplied with arterial blood from the superior thyroid artery, a branch of the external carotid artery, and the inferior thyroid artery, a branch of the thyrocervical trunk, and sometimes by an anatomical variant the thyroid ima artery, which has a variable origin. The superior thyroid artery splits into anterior and posterior branches supplying the thyroid, and the inferior thyroid artery splits into superior and inferior branches. The superior and inferior thyroid arteries join together behind the outer part of the thyroid lobes. The venous blood is drained via superior and middle thyroid veins, which drain to the internal jugular vein, and via the inferior thyroid veins. The inferior thyroid veins originate in a network of veins and drain into the left and right brachiocephalic veins. Both arteries and veins form a plexus between the two layers of the capsule of the thyroid gland.
Lymphatic drainage frequently passes the prelaryngeal lymph nodes (located just above the isthmus), and the pretracheal and paratracheal lymph nodes. The gland receives sympathetic nerve supply from the superior, middle and inferior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk. The gland receives parasympathetic nerve supply from the superior laryngeal nerve and the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
There are many variants in the size and shape of the thyroid gland, and in the position of the embedded parathyroid glands.
Sometimes there is a third lobe present called the pyramidal lobe. When present, this lobe often stretches up the hyoid bone from the thyroid isthmus and may be one to several divided lobes. The presence of this lobe ranges in reported studies from 18.3 % to 44.6 %. It was shown to more often arise from the left side and occasionally separated. The pyramidal lobe is also known as Lalouette 's pyramid. The pyramidal lobe is a remnant of the thyroglossal duct which usually wastes away during the thyroid gland 's descent. Small accessory thyroid glands may in fact occur anywhere along the thyroglossal duct, from the foramen cecum of the tongue to the position of the thyroid in the adult. A small horn at the back of the thyroid lobes, usually close to the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the inferior thyroid artery, is called Zuckerkandl 's tubercle.
Other variants include a levator muscle of thyroid gland, connecting the isthmus to the body of the hyoid bone, and the presence of the small thyroid ima artery.
At the microscopic level, there are three primary features of the thyroid -- follicles, follicular cells, and parafollicular cells, first discovered by Geoffery Websterson in 1664.
Thyroid follicles are small spherical groupings of cells 0.02 -- 0.9 mm in diameter that play the main role in thyroid function. They consist of a rim that has a rich blood supply, nerve and lymphatic presence, that surrounds a core of colloid that consists mostly of thyroid hormone precursor proteins called thyroglobulin, an iodinated glycoprotein.
The core of a follicle is surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells. When stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), these secrete the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. They do this by transporting and metabolising the thyroglobulin contained in the colloid. Follicular cells vary in shape from flat to cuboid to columnar, depending on how active they are.
Scattered among follicular cells and in spaces between the spherical follicles are another type of thyroid cell, parafollicular cells. These cells secrete calcitonin and so are also called C cells.
In the development of the embryo, at 3 -- 4 weeks gestational age, the thyroid gland appears as an epithelial proliferation in the floor of the pharynx at the base of the tongue between the tuberculum impar and the copula linguae. The copula soon becomes covered over by the hypopharyngeal eminence at a point later indicated by the foramen cecum. The thyroid then descends in front of the pharyngeal gut as a bilobed diverticulum through the thyroglossal duct. Over the next few weeks, it migrates to the base of the neck, passing in front of the hyoid bone. During migration, the thyroid remains connected to the tongue by a narrow canal, the thyroglossal duct. At the end of the fifth week the thyroglossal duct degenerates and the detached thyroid continues on to its final position over the following two weeks.
The fetal hypothalamus and pituitary start to secrete thyrotropin - releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH is first measurable at 11 weeks. By 18 -- 20 weeks, the production of thyroxine (T) reaches a clinically significant and self - sufficient level. Fetal triiodothyronine (T) remains low, less than 15 ng / dL until 30 weeks, and increases to 50 ng / dL at full - term. The fetus needs to be self - sufficient in thyroid hormones in order to guard against neurodevelopmental disorders that would arise from maternal hypothyroidism. The presence of sufficient iodine is essential for healthy neurodevelopment.
The neuroendocrine parafollicular cells, also known as C cells, responsible for the production of calcitonin, are derived from neural crest cells, which migrate to the pharyngeal arches. This part of the thyroid then first forms as the ultimopharyngeal body, which begins in the ventral fourth pharyngeal pouch and joins the primordial thyroid gland during its descent to its final location.
Aberrations in prenatal development can result in various forms of thyroid dysgenesis which can cause congenital hypothyroidism, and if untreated this can lead to cretinism.
The primary function of the thyroid is the production of the iodine - containing thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T) and thyroxine (T) and the peptide hormone calcitonin. T is so named because it contains three atoms of iodine per molecule and T contains four atoms of iodine per molecule. The thyroid hormones have a wide range of effects on the human body. These include:
After secretion, only a very small proportion of the thyroid hormones travel freely in the blood. Most are bound to thyroxine - binding globulin (about 70 %), transthyretin (10 %), and albumin (15 %). Only the 0.03 % of T and 0.3 % of T traveling freely have hormonal activity. In addition, up to 85 % of the T in blood is produced following conversion from T by iodothyronine deiodinases in organs around the body.
Thyroid hormones act by crossing the cell membrane and binding to intracellular nuclear thyroid hormone receptors TR - α, TR - α, TR - β and TR - β, which bind with hormone response elements and transcription factors to modulate DNA transcription. In addition to these actions on DNA, the thyroid hormones also act within the cell membrane or within cytoplasm via reactions with enzymes, including calcium ATPase, adenylyl cyclase, and glucose transporters.
The thyroid hormones are created from thyroglobulin. This is a protein within the follicular space that is originally created within the rough endoplasmic reticulum of follicular cells and then transported into the follicular space. Thyroglobulin contains 123 units of tyrosine, which reacts with iodine within the follicular space.
Iodine is essential for the production of the thyroid hormones. Iodine (I) travels in the blood as iodide (I), which is taken up into the follicular cells by a sodium - iodide symporter. This is an ion channel on the cell membrane which in the same action transports two sodium ions and an iodide ion into the cell. Iodide then travels from within the cell into the follicular space, through the action of pendrin, an iodide - chloride antiporter. In the follicular space, the iodide is then oxidized to iodine. This makes it more reactive, and the iodine is attached to the active tyrosine units in thyroglobulin by the enzyme thyroid peroxidase. This forms the precursors of thyroid hormones monoiodotyrosine (MIT), and diiodotyrosine (DIT).
When the follicular cells are stimulated by thyroid - stimulating hormone, the follicular cells reabsorb thyroglobulin from the follicular space. The iodinated tyrosines are cleaved, forming the thyroid hormones T, T, DIT, MIT, and traces of reverse triiodothyronine. T and T are released into the blood. The hormones secreted from the gland are about 80 -- 90 % T and about 10 -- 20 % T. Deiodinase enzymes in peripheral tissues remove the iodine from MIT and DIT and convert T to T and RT This is a major source of both RT (95 %) and T (87 %) in peripheral tissues.
The production of thyroxine and triiodothyronine is primarily regulated by thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH), released by the anterior pituitary gland. TSH release in turn is stimulated by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), released in a pulsatile manner from the hypothalamus. The thyroid hormones provide negative feedback to the thyrotropes TSH and TRH: when the thyroid hormones are high, TSH production is suppressed. This negative feedback also occurs when levels of TSH are high, causing TRH production to be suppressed.
TRH is secreted at an increased rate in situations such as cold exposure in order to stimulate thermogenesis. In addition to being suppressed by the presence of thyroid hormones, TSH production is blunted by dopamine, somatostatin, and glucocorticoids.
The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which helps regulate blood calcium levels. Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin in response to high blood calcium. Calcitonin decreases the release of calcium from bone, by decreasing the activity of osteoclasts, cells which break down bone. Bone is constantly reabsorbed by osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts, so calcitonin effectively stimulates movement of calcium into bone. The effects of calcitonin are opposite those of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) produced in the parathyroid glands. However, calcitonin seems far less essential than PTH, as calcium metabolism remains clinically normal after removal of the thyroid (thyroidectomy), but not the parathyroid glands.
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal thyroid. Some 250 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the thyroid with about 20 genes being highly thyroid specific. The corresponding specific proteins are mainly involved in thyroid hormone synthesis, such as thyroglobulin, TPO and IYD, and expressed in follicular cells. Other proteins elevated in the thyroid are calcitonin related proteins such as CALCA and CALCB, expressed in the parafollicular c - cells.
Excessive production of the thyroid hormones is called hyperthyroidism, which is most commonly a result of Graves ' disease, a toxic multinodular goitre, a solitary thyroid adenoma, or inflammation. Other causes include drug - induced excess of iodine, particularly from amiodarone, an antiarrhythmic medication; an excess caused by the preferential uptake of iodine by the thyroid following iodinated contrast imaging; or from pituitary adenomas which may cause an overproduction of thyroid stimulating hormone. Hyperthyroidism often causes a variety of non-specific symptoms including weight loss, increased appetite, insomnia, decreased tolerance of heat, tremor, palpitations, anxiety and nervousness. In some cases it can cause chest pain, diarrhoea, hair loss and muscle weakness. Such symptoms may be managed temporarily with drugs such as beta blockers.
Long - term management of hyperthyroidism may include drugs that suppress thyroid function such as propylthiouracil, carbimazole and methimazole. Radioactive iodine - 131 can be used to destroy thyroid tissue. Radioactive iodine is selectively taken up by the thyroid, which over time destroys the cells involved in its uptake. The chosen first - line treatment will depend on the individual and on the country where being treated. Surgery to remove the thyroid can sometimes be performed as a transoral thyroidectomy, a minimally - invasive procedure. Surgery does however carry a risk of damage to the parathyroid glands and the nerves controlling the vocal cords. If the entire thyroid gland is removed, hypothyroidism will naturally result, and thyroid hormone substitutes will be needed.
An underactive thyroid gland results in hypothyroidism. Typical symptoms are abnormal weight gain, tiredness, constipation, heavy menstrual bleeding, hair loss, cold intolerance, and a slow heart rate. Iodine deficiency is the most common cause of hypothyroidism worldwide, and the autoimmune disease Hashimoto 's thyroiditis is the most common cause in the developed world. Other causes include congenital abnormalities, diseases causing transient inflammation, surgical removal or radioablation of the thyroid, the drugs amiodarone and lithium, amyloidosis, and sarcoidosis. Some forms of hypothyroidism can result in myxedema and severe cases can result in myxedema coma.
Hypothyroidism is managed with replacement of the hormone thyroxine. This is usually given daily as an oral supplement, and may take a few weeks to become effective. Some causes of hypothyroidism, such as Postpartum thyroiditis and Subacute thyroiditis may be transient and pass over time, and other causes such as iodine deficiency may be able to be rectified with dietary supplementation.
Thyroid nodules are often found on the gland, with a prevalence of 4 -- 7 %. The majority of nodules do not cause any symptoms and are non-cancerous. Non-cancerous cases include simple cysts, colloid nodules, and thyroid adenomas. Malignant nodules, which only occur in about 5 % of nodules, include follicular, papillary, medullary carcinomas and metastases from other sites Nodules are more likely in females, those who are exposed to radiation, and in those who are iodine deficient.
When a nodule is present, thyroid function tests are performed and reveal whether a person has a normal amount of thyroid hormones ("euthyroid '') or an excess of hormones, usually secreted by the nodule, causing hyperthyroidism. When the thyroid function tests are normal, an ultrasound is often used to investigate the nodule, and provide information such as whether the nodule is fluid - filled or a solid mass, and whether the appearance is suggestive of a benign or malignant cancer. A needle aspiration biopsy may then be performed, and the sample undergoes cytology, in which the appearance of cells is viewed to determine whether they resemble normal or cancerous cells.
There can be many nodules, which is termed a multinodular goitre, and this can sometimes be a toxic multinodular goitre.
An enlarged thyroid gland is called a goitre. Goitres are present in some form in about 5 % of people, and are the result of a large number of causes, including iodine deficiency, autoimmune disease (both Grave 's disease and Hashimoto 's thyroiditis), infection, inflammation, and infltrative disease such as sarcoidosis and amyloidosis. Sometimes no cause can be found, a state called "simple goitre ''.
Some forms of goitre are associated with pain, whereas many do not cause any symptoms. Enlarged goitres may extend beyond the normal position of the thyroid gland to below the sternum, around the airway or esophagus. Goitres may be associated with hyperthyoidism or hypothyroidism, relating to the underlying cause of the goitre. Thyroid function tests may be done to investigate the cause and effects of the goitre. The underlying cause of the goitre may be treated, however many goitres with no associated symptoms are simply monitored.
Disorders of the thyroid are functional -- caused by dysfunction in the production of hormones, and nodes and tumors either benign or malignant. Functional disorders can cause inflammation as can some other forms of thyroiditis. Functional disorders can result in the overproduction or underproduction of hormones. Any of the functional thyroid disorders can result in the gland 's enlargement and cause a swollen neck termed a goitre.
Inflammation of the thyroid is called thyroiditis. Inflamed thyroids may cause symptoms of hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism. Two types thyroiditis initially present with hyperthyroidism and are sometimes followed by a period of hypothyroidism -- Hashimoto 's thyroiditis and postpartum thyroiditis. There are other disorders that cause inflammation of the thyroid, and these include subacute thyroiditis, acute thyroiditis, silent thyroiditis, Riedel 's thyroiditis and traumatic injury, including palpation thyroiditis.
Hashimoto 's thyroiditis is an autoimmune disorder in which the thyroid gland is infltrated by the lymphocytes B - cell and T - cells. These progressively destroy the thyroid gland. In this way, Hasimoto 's thyroiditis may have occurred insidiously, and only be noticed when thyroid hormone production decreases, causing symptoms of hypothyroidism. Hashimoto 's is more common in females than males, much more common after the age of 60, and has known genetic risk factors. Also more common in individuals with Hashimoto 's thyroiditis are type 1 diabetes, pernicious anaemia, Addison 's disease vitiligo.
Postpartum thyroiditis occurs in some females following childbirth. After delivery, the gland becomes inflamed and the condition initially presents with a period of hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism and, usually, a return to normal function. The course of the illness takes place over several months, and is characterised by a painless goitre. Antibodies against thyroid peroxidase can be found on testing. The inflammation usually resolves without treatment, although thyroid hormone replacement may be needed during the period of hypothyroidism.
The most common neoplasm affecting the thyroid gland is a benign adenoma, usually presenting as a painless mass in the neck. Malignant thyroid cancers are most often carcinomas, although cancer can occur in any tissue that the thyroid consists of, including cancer of C - cells and lymphomas. Cancers from other sites also rarely lodge in the thyroid. Radiation of the head and neck presents a risk factor for thyroid cancer, and cancer is more common in women than men, occurring at a rate of about 2: 1.
In most cases, thyroid cancer presents as a painless mass in the neck. It is very unusual for thyroid cancers to present with other symptoms, although in some cases cancer may cause hyperthyroidism. Most malignant thyroid cancers are papillary, followed by follicular, medullary, and thyroid lymphoma. Because of the prominence of the thyroid gland, cancer is often detected earlier in the course of disease as the cause of a nodule, which may undergo fine needle aspiration. Thyroid function tests will help reveal whether the nodule produces excess thyroid hormones. A radioactive iodine uptake test can help reveal the activity and location of the cancer and metastases.
Thyroid cancers are treated by removing the whole or part of thyroid gland. Radioactive Iodine 131 may be given to radioablate the thyroid. Thyroxine is given to replace the hormones lost and to suppress TSH production, as TSH may stimulate recurrence. With the exception of the rare anaplastic thyroid cancer, which carries a very poor prognosis, most thyroid cancers carry an excellent prognosis and can even be considered curable.
A persistent thyroglossal duct is the most common clinically significant congenital disorder of the thyroid gland. A persistent sinus tract may remain as a vestigial remnant of the tubular development of the thyroid gland. Parts of this tube may be obliterated, leaving small segments to form thyroglossal cysts. Preterm neonates are at risk of hypothyroidism as their thyroid glands are insufficiently developed to meet their postnatal needs. In order to detect hypothyroidism in newborn babies, to prevent growth and development abnormalities in later life, many countries have newborn screening programs at birth.
Infants with thyroid hormone deficiency (congenital hypothyroidism) can manifest problems of physical growth and development as well as brain development, termed cretinism. Children with congenital hypothyroidism are treated supplementally with levothyroxine, which facilitates normal growth and development.
Mucinous, clear secretions may collect within these cysts to form either spherical masses or fusiform swellings, rarely larger than 2 to 3 cm in diameter. These are present in the midline of the neck anterior to the trachea. Segments of the duct and cysts that occur high in the neck are lined by stratified squamous epithelium, which is essentially identical to that covering the posterior portion of the tongue in the region of the foramen cecum. The disorders that occur in the lower neck more proximal to the thyroid gland are lined by epithelium resembling the thyroidal acinar epithelium. Characteristically, next to the lining epithelium, there is an intense lymphocytic infiltrate. Superimposed infection may convert these lesions into abscess cavities, and rarely, give rise to cancers.
Another disorder is that of thyroid dysgenesis which can result in various presentations of one or more misplaced accessory thyroid glands. These can be asymptomatic.
Iodine deficiency, most common in inland and mountainous areas, can predispose to goitre -- if widespread, known as endemic goitre. Pregnant women deficient of iodine can give birth to infants with thyroid hormone deficiency. The use of iodised salt used to add iodine to the diet has eliminated endemic cretinism in most developed countries, and over 120 countries have made the iodination of salt mandatory.
Because the thyroid concentrates iodine, it also concentrates the various radioactive isotopes of iodine produced by nuclear fission. In the event of large accidental releases of such material into the environment, the uptake of radioactive iodine isotopes by the thyroid can, in theory, be blocked by saturating the uptake mechanism with a large surplus of non-radioactive iodine, taken in the form of potassium iodide tablets. One consequence of the Chernobyl disaster was an increase in thyroid cancers in children in the years following the accident.
As with most substances, either too much or too little can cause problems. Recent studies on some populations are showing that excess iodine intake could cause an increased prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease, resulting in permanent hypothyroidism.
Graves ' disease is an autoimmune disorder that is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. In Graves ' disease, for an unknown reason autoantibodies develop against the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor. These antibodies activate the receptor, leading to development of a goitre and symptoms of hyperthyroidism, such as heat intolerance, weight loss, diarrhoea and palpitations. Occasionally such antibodies block but do not activate the receptor, leading to symptoms associated with hypothyroidism. In addition, gradual protrusion of the eyes may occur, called Graves ' ophthalmopathy, as may swelling of the front of the shins. Graves ' disease can be diagnosed by the presence of pathomnomonic features such as involvement of the eyes and shins, or isolation of autoantibodies, or by results of a radiolabelled uptake scan. Graves ' disease is treated with anti-thyroid drugs such as propylthiouracil, which decrease the production of thyroid hormones, but hold a high rate of relapse. If there is no involvement of the eyes, then use of radioactive isotopes to ablate the gland may be considered. Surgical removal of the gland with subsequent thyroid hormone replacement may be considered, however this will not control symptoms associated with the eye or skin.
Physicians who specialise in the treatment of thyroid disorders are known generally as endocrinologists, thyroid specialists or thyroidologists. Thyroid surgeon or otolaryngologistss may play a role in the surgical management of thyroid disease and general practitioners and family physicians may play a role in monitoring for and identifying symptoms related to thyroid disease.
The thyroid itself is examined by observation of the gland and surrounding neck for swelling or enlargement. It is then felt, usually from behind, and a person is often asked to swallow to better feel the gland against the fingers of the examiner. The gland moves up and down with swallowing because of its attachments to the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. In a healthy person the gland is not visible yet is palpable as a soft mass. Examination of the thyroid gland includes the search for abnormal masses and the assessment of overall thyroid size. The character of the thyroid, swellings, nodules, and their consistency may all be able to be felt. If a goitre is present, an examiner may also feel down the neck consider tapping the upper part of the chest to check for extension. Further tests may include raising the arms (Pemberton 's sign), listening to the gland with a stethoscope for bruits, testing of reflexes, and palpation of the lymph nodes in the head and neck. A medical examination of the thyroid will also include observation of the person as a whole, to look for systemic signs such as weight gain or loss, hair loss, and signs in other locations -- such as protrusion of the eyes or swelling of the calves in Grave 's disease.
A number of tests that can be used to test the function of the thyroid, for the presence of diseases, and for the success or failure of treatment. Blood tests in general aim to measure thyroid function or determine the cause of thyroid dysfunction. Thyroid function tests include a battery of blood tests including the measurement of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4, as well as the measurement of TSH. They may reveal hyperthyroidism (high T3 and T4), hypothyroidism (low T3, T4), or subclinical hyperthyroidism (normal T3 and T4 with a low TSH).
TSH levels are considered the most sensitive marker of thyroid dysfunction. They are however not always accurate, particularly if the cause of hypothyroidism is thought to be related to insufficient TRH secretion, in which case it may be low or falsely normal. In such a case a TRH stimulation test, in which TRH is given and TSH levels are measured at 30 and 60 - minutes after, may be conducted.
T3 and T4 can be measured directly. However, as the two thyroid hormones travel bound to other molecules, and it is the "free '' component that is biologically active, free T3 and free T4 levels can be measured. T4 is preferred, because in hypothyroidism T3 levels may be normal. The ratio of bound to unbound thyroid hormones is known as the thyroid hormone binding ratio (THBR). It is also possible to measure directly the main carriers of the thyroid hormones, thryoglobulin and throxine - binding globulin. Thyroglobulin will also be measurable in a healthy thyroid, and will increase with inflammation, and may also be used to measure the success of thyroid removal or ablation. If successful, thyroglobulin should be undetectable. Lastly, antibodies against components of the thyroid, particularly anti-TPO and anti-thyroglobulin, can be measured. These may be present in normal individuals but are highly sensitive for autoimmune - related disease.
Ultrasound of the thyroid may be used to reveal whether structures are solid or filled with fluid, helping to differentiate between nodules and goitres and cysts. It may also help differentiate between malignant and benign lesions. A fine needle aspiration biopsy may be taken concurrently of thyroid tissue to determine the nature of a lesion. These biopsies are then sent for histopathology and cytology. When further imaging is required, a radiolabelled iodine - 123 or technetium - 99 uptake scan may take place. This can determine the size and shape of lesions, reveal whether nodules or goitres are metabolically active, and reveal and monitor sites of thyroid disease or cancer deposits outside the thyroid.
The presence and diseases of the thyroid have been noted and treated for thousands of years, although the gland itself has only been described and named since the renaissance. The first recorded mention of the thyroid is in terms of goitre in Chinese texts circa 2700 BCE, of which there is general agreement. In 1600 BCE burnt sponge and seaweed were used within China for the treatment of goitres, a practice which has developed in many parts of the world. In Ayurvedic medicine, the book Sushruta Samhita written about 1400 BCE describes hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism and goitre. Aristotle and Xenophon in the fifth century BCE describe cases of Grave 's disease, which receives its name over two millennia later owing to descriptions provided by Robert James Graves in 1834, Hippocrates and Plato in the fourth century BCE provided some of the first descriptions of the gland itself, proposing its function as a salivary gland. Pliny the Elder in the first century BCE referred to epidemics of goitre in the Alps and proposed treatment with burnt seaweed, a practice also referred to by Galen in the second century, referred to burnt sponge for the treatment of goitre.
In 1500 polymath Leonardo da Vinci provides the first illustration of the thyroid. In 1543 Anatomist Andreas Vesalius gave the first anatomic description and illustration of the gland. In 1656 the thyroid received its name, by the anatomist Thomas Wharton. The gland was named thyroid, meaning shield, as its shape resembled the shields commonly used in Ancient Greece. The English name thyroid gland is derived from the medical Latin used by Wharton -- glandula thyreoidea. Glandula means gland in Latin, and thyreoidea can be traced back to the Ancient Greek word θυρεοειδής, meaning shield - like / shield - shaped.
French chemist Bernard Courtois discovered Iodine in 1811, and in 1896 Eugen Baumann documented it as the central ingredient in the thryoid gland. He did this by boiling the thyroid glands of a thousand sheep, and named the precipitate, a combination of the thyroid hormones, ' iodothyrin '. David Marine in 1907 provided iodine is necessary for thyroid function. Thyroxine itself was first isolated in 1914 and synthesized in 1927, and trirodothyroxine in 1952. The conversion of T4 to T3 was discovered in 1970. The process of discovering TSH took place over the early to mid twentieth century. TRH was discovered by Polish endocrinologist Andrew Schally in 1970, contributing in part to his Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1977.
Either Aetius in the sixth century CE or Persian Ali ibn Abbas al - Magusi in 990 CE conducted the first recorded thyroidectomy as a treatment for goitre. Operations remained risky and generally were not successful until the 19th century, when descriptions emerged from a number of authors including Prussian surgeon Theodor Billroth, Swiss surgeon and physiologist Theodor Kocher, American physician Charles Mayo, William Halsted and George Crile. These descriptions provided the basis for modern thyroid surgery. Theodor Kocher went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1909 "for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland ''.
Numerous authors described cretinism, myxoedema their relationship with the thyroid in the nineteenth century. Charles Mayo coined the term hyperthyroidism in 1910, Hakaru Hashimoto documented a case of Hashimoto 's thyroiditis in 1912, and autoantibodies were demonstrated in 1956. Knowledge of the thyroid and its conditions developed throughout the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with many modern treatments and investigative modalities evolving throughout the mid twentieth century, including the use of radioactive iodine, thiouracil and fine needle aspiration.
The thyroid gland is found in all vertebrates. In fish, it is usually located below the gills and is not always divided into distinct lobes. However, in some teleosts, patches of thyroid tissue are found elsewhere in the body, associated with the kidneys, spleen, heart, or eyes.
In tetrapods, the thyroid is always found somewhere in the neck region. In most tetrapod species, there are two paired thyroid glands -- that is, the right and left lobes are not joined together. However, there is only ever a single thyroid gland in most mammals, and the shape found in humans is common to many other species.
In larval lampreys, the thyroid originates as an exocrine gland, secreting its hormones into the gut, and associated with the larva 's filter - feeding apparatus. In the adult lamprey, the gland separates from the gut, and becomes endocrine, but this path of development may reflect the evolutionary origin of the thyroid. For instance, the closest living relatives of vertebrates, the tunicates and Amphioxus, have a structure very similar to that of larval lampreys (the endostyle), and this also secretes iodine - containing compounds (albeit not thyroxine).
Thyroxine is critical to the regulation of metabolism and growth throughout the animal kingdom. For example, Iodine and T4 trigger the change from a plant - eating water - dwelling tadpole into a meat - eating land - dwelling frog, with better neurological, visuospatial, smell and cognitive abilities for hunting, as seen in other predatory animals. A similar phenomenon happens in the neotenic amphibian salamanders, which, without introducing iodine, do n't transform into land - dwelling adults, and live and reproduce in the larval form of aquatic axolotl. Among amphibians, administering a thyroid - blocking agent such as propylthiouracil (PTU) can prevent tadpoles from metamorphosing into frogs; in contrast, administering thyroxine will trigger metamorphosis. In amphibian metamorphosis, thyroxine and iodine also exert a well - studied experimental model of apoptosis on the cells of gills, tail, and fins of tadpoles. Iodine, via iodolipids, has favored the evolution of terrestrial animal species and has likely played a crucial role in the evolution of the human brain.
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all of these nations controlled territory in africa except | Scramble for Africa - wikipedia
The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present - day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent. There were multiple motivations including the quest for national prestige, tensions between pairs of European powers, religious missionary zeal and internal African native politics.
The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the ultimate point of the scramble for Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning, or splitting up of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa. The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism '' (hegemony), by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule, bringing about colonial imperialism.
By 1840 European powers had established small trading posts along the coast, but seldom moved inland. In the middle decades of the 19th century, European explorers had mapped areas of East Africa and Central Africa.
Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coast. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control.
Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steamships, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.
Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism '', was also attractive to Europe 's ruling elites for economic, political and social reasons. During a time when Britain 's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873 -- 96), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.
Surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials, especially copper, cotton, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India. However, in Africa -- excluding the area which became the Union of South Africa in 1910 -- the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes 's De Beers Mining Company. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself; Léopold II of Belgium later, and with considerable brutality, exploited the Congo Free State.
These events might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbyists such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets. John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism '' period. William Easterly, however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state - led development rather than "corporate '' development. He has stated that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism / imperialism and state - led approaches to development. ''
The rivalry between Britain, France, Germany, and the other European powers accounts for a large part of the colonization.
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond - rich southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to secure lucrative markets against encroaching rivals in China and its eastern colonies, most notably India, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it was crucial to secure the key waterway between East and West -- the Suez Canal. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during the 1880 onwards, out of geostrategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal), has been challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).
The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defense bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.
Colonies were also seen as assets in "balance of power '' negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would do so again in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness '' became linked with the sense of duty underlying many nations ' strategies.
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kingdom of Kongo for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German - Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
Germany was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, but would eagerly participate in this race. Fragmented in various states, Germany was only unified under Prussia 's rule after the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz and the 1870 Franco - Prussian War. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s. After isolating France by the Dual Alliance with Austria - Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference, which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Weltpolitik (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, with the aim of transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.
Some Germans, claiming themselves of Friedrich List 's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and Timor; others proposed to set themselves up in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. At the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe - Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent overseas policy ''. Pan-Germanism was thus linked to the young nation 's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Generally, Bismarck was opposed to widespread German colonialism, but he had to resign at the insistence of the new German Emperor Wilhelm II on 18 March 1890. Wilhelm II instead adopted a very aggressive policy of colonisation and colonial expansion.
Germany 's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second - largest naval force in the world (roughly three - fifths the size of the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, implying that imperialism was supported by the rising middle classes.
Germany became the third - largest colonial power in Africa. Nearly all of its overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometres and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914 was found in its African possessions of Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the British Empire, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France 's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and Britain, this succession of international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I.
Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo -- Ethiopian War (1895 -- 1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889 -- 90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). In 1919 Enrico Corradini -- who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF) -- developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimise Italy 's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:
We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject... to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.
The Second Italo - Abyssinian War (1935 -- 36), ordered by the Fascist Benito Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonise a foreign country, as opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia -- which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia.
David Livingstone 's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, excited imaginations with Stanley 's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association (the Congo Society). From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and used it as a source of ivory and rubber.
While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco - Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today 's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society 's access to the Atlantic.
By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River, sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous) through Matabeleland, and starting a colony in Mashonaland.
To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area, and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves -- and rumors of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson, who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. First, the Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well - armed Stairs Expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri 's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a "barbaric lesson '' to the people. The Bia Expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence '' in Katanga. Thus, the half million square kilometers of Katanga came into Leopold 's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonised people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II 's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo.
The brutality of King Leopold II of Belgium in his former colony of the Congo Free State, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908. According to the former British diplomat Roger Casement, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war '', starvation, reduction of births and diseases. Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.
Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement 's report set it at three million. William Rubinstein wrote: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible. '' See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims.
A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo. Most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50 percent of the indigenous population. The French government appointed a commission, headed by de Brazza, in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical '' report was neither acted upon nor released to the public. In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory.
French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854 -- 56, to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under its Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt 's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate, and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik 's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his own Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi Revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain 's administration of Egypt. A joint British - Egyptian military force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain (rather than Egypt) seized effective control of Sudan.
The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.
Britain 's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal) in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo - Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880 -- 81). British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self - government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a huge desert covering most of present - day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin.
The Sudan (which in those days included most of present - day Uganda) was the key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line '' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner, the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo '' empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral - rich Southern part of the continent by rail. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.
If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes 's dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.
A French force under Jean - Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899, the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.
Although the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the British Empire on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which countered the influence of the European powers of the Triple Alliance. As a result, the new German Empire decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield.
Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France 's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser 's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation - minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up until the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria - Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, the US, Russia, Italy and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.
However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain 's naval supremacy -- the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther 's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France 's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France 's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).
France and Spain subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (30 March 1912), ending what remained of the country 's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo - German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.
Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate and the Gobroon Dynasty.
The Dervish State was a state established by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who gathered Muslim soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and the European powers. The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognised as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.
After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain 's use of aircraft.
Between 1904 and 1908, Germany 's colonies in German South - West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large - scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South - West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji - Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare. German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South - West Africa then resulted in a genocide of the population.
In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80 % of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 % of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island Concentration Camp between 1904 and 1908. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population 's wells whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert.
In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as Gladstone, opposed colonisation in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism '' (John A. Hobson). In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonisation was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges '' mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace - Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry 's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonised people, as they may be considered as "citizens '' of the nation state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonising countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1899) -- published around the same time as Kipling 's The White Man 's Burden -- or in Louis - Ferdinand Céline 's Journey to the End of the Night (1932).
Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market 's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun '' for so - called "proletarian nations '', bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.
However, by the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural '' populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos '' could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin 's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.
Geoffroy de Saint - Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles '', presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions '' were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation. "Negro villages '' would be presented in Paris ' 1878 and 1879 World 's Fair; the 1900 World 's Fair presented the famous diorama "living '' in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. Nomadic "Senegalese villages '' were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.
In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link '' in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale ''.
From the beginning of the 20th century onward, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to peace, famine relief, medicine, and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade. Africa 's population has grown from 120 million in 1900 to over 1 billion today.
The continuing anti-slavery movement in Europe became a reason and an excuse for the conquest and colonization of the Africa. It was the central theme of the Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889 - 90. During the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus of all colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. In French West Africa, following conquest and abolition by the French, over a million slaves fled from their masters to earlier homes between 1906 and 1911. In Madagascar, the French abolished slavery in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed. Slavery was abolished in the French controlled Sahel by 1911. Independent nations attempting to westernize or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression. In response to European pressure, the Sokoto Caliphate abolished slavery in 1900 and Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932. Colonial powers were mostly successful in abolishing slavery, though slavery remained active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a wage economy. Slavery was never fully eradicated in Africa.
During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km) -- one - fifth of the land area of the globe -- to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe 's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el - Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30 % of Africa 's population under its control; 15 % for France, 11 % for Portugal, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for Italy. Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long - standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa '', reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.
The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies '' bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimise the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I. Austria - Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilise to assist allied Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria - Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realise the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade and quickly knock France out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria - Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become World War I. Moreover, using the Anglo - Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in the Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino - Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually World War II.
After the First World War, Germany 's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).
Later, during the Interwar period, with the Second Italo - Ethiopian War Italy would annex Ethiopia, which formed together with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana '', also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).
The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape - Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.
Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organisation established in order to relocate freed African - American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1821. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa 's oldest democratic republic, and the second - oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti).
Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa. With the exception of the occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini 's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa 's oldest independent nation.
The new scramble for Africa began with the emergence of the Afro - Neo-Liberal capitalist movement in Post-Colonial Africa. When African nations began to gain independence during the Post World War II Era, their post colonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation 's economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. The decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally - dependent economic relations. Structural adjustment programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market. The economic decline in the 1990s fostered democratization by the World Bank intervening in the political and economic affairs of Africa once again. All of these factors led to Africa 's forced development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.
In the era of globalization, many African countries have emerged as petro - states (for example Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil - rich African nations. Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space (is) central to imperial expansion and control ''; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neo-imperialism. Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa 's highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40 % of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, Sudan exports 50 -- 60 % of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7 % of China 's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.
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who plays antman in antman and the wasp | Ant - Man and the Wasp - wikipedia
Ant - Man and the Wasp is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics characters Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the sequel to 2015 's Ant - Man, and the twentieth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Peyton Reed and written by the writing teams of Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, and Paul Rudd, Andrew Barrer, and Gabriel Ferrari. It stars Rudd as Lang and Evangeline Lilly as Van Dyne, alongside Michael Peña, Walton Goggins, Bobby Cannavale, Judy Greer, Tip "T.I. '' Harris, David Dastmalchian, Hannah John - Kamen, Abby Ryder Fortson, Randall Park, Michelle Pfeiffer, Laurence Fishburne, and Michael Douglas. In Ant - Man and the Wasp, the titular pair work with Hank Pym to retrieve Janet van Dyne from the quantum realm.
Talks for a sequel to Ant - Man began shortly after that film was released. Ant - Man and the Wasp was officially announced in October 2015, with Rudd and Lilly returning to reprise their roles. A month later, Ant - Man director Reed was officially set to return; he was excited to develop the film from the beginning after joining the first film later in the process, and also to introduce Hope van Dyne as the Wasp in this film, insisting that she and Lang are equals. Filming took place from August to November 2017, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, as well as Metro Atlanta, San Francisco, Savannah, Georgia, and Hawaii.
Ant - Man and the Wasp had its world premiere in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released on July 6, 2018 in the United States in IMAX and 3D. It has grossed over $448 million worldwide, making it the tenth - highest - grossing film of 2018. The film received praise for its levity, humor, and performances, particularly those of Rudd and Lilly.
In 1987, Janet van Dyne / Wasp shrinks between the molecules of a Soviet nuclear missile, disabling it but becoming trapped in the sub-atomic quantum realm. Hank Pym / Ant - Man raises their daughter Hope believing that Janet is dead. Years later, former criminal Scott Lang takes up the mantle of Ant - Man and discovers a way to both enter and return from the quantum realm. Pym and Hope begin work on repeating this feat, believing they may find Janet alive. Lang and Hope also start a romantic relationship and begin training to fight together as Ant - Man and the Wasp, until Lang secretly helps Captain America during a skirmish between the Avengers in violation of the Sokovia Accords. Lang is placed under house arrest, while Pym and Hope go into hiding and cut ties with Lang.
Two years later, Pym and Hope briefly manage to open a tunnel to the quantum realm. Lang receives an apparent message from Janet with whom he is quantumly entangled. Despite having only days left of house arrest, Lang decides to call Pym. Hope kidnaps Lang, leaving a decoy so as not to arouse suspicion from FBI agent Jimmy Woo. Seeing the message as confirmation that Janet is alive, Pym and Hope work to create a stable tunnel so they can take a vehicle to the quantum realm and retrieve Janet. Hope arranges to buy a part needed for the tunnel from black market dealer Sonny Burch, but Burch has realized the potential profit that can be earned from Pym and Hope 's research and double - crosses them. Hope fights Burch and his men off, until she is attacked by a quantumly unstable masked woman. Lang tries to help fight off this "ghost '', but she escapes with Pym 's portable lab.
Pym reluctantly visits his estranged former partner Bill Foster who helps them locate the lab. The ghost restrains Lang, Hope, and Pym when they arrive, and reveals herself to be Ava Starr. Her father Elihas, another former partner of Pym 's, accidentally killed himself and his wife during a quantum experiment that caused Ava 's unstable state. Foster reveals that he has been helping Ava, who they plan to cure using Janet 's quantum energy. Believing that this will kill Janet, Pym refuses to help them and the trio manage to escape.
Opening a stable version of the tunnel this time, Pym and Hope are able to contact Janet, who gives them a precise location to find her, but warns that they only have two hours before the unstable nature of the realm separates them for a century. Burch learns their location from Lang 's business partners Luis, Dave, and Kurt, and informs a contact at the FBI. Luis warns Lang, who rushes home before Woo can see him breaking his house arrest. This leaves Pym and Hope to be arrested, and for their lab to be taken by Ava.
Lang is soon able to help Pym and Hope escape custody, and they find the lab. Lang and Hope distract Ava while Pym enters the quantum realm to retrieve Janet, but the pair end up fighting Burch and his men, which allows Ava to begin taking Janet 's energy. Luis, Dave, and Kurt help apprehend Burch, so Lang and Hope can stop Ava. Pym and Janet arrive safely from the quantum realm, and Janet voluntarily gifts some of her energy to Ava to temporarily stabilize her.
Lang returns home once again, in time for a now suspicious Woo to release him at the end of his house arrest. Ava and Foster go into hiding. In a mid-credits scene, Pym, Lang, Hope, and Janet plan to harvest quantum energy from the quantum realm to continue helping Ava. While Lang is doing this, Pym, Hope, and Janet all disintegrate, leaving Lang drifting in the quantum realm.
Additionally Stan Lee, co-creator of the titular heroes, has a cameo in the film as a man whose car gets shrunk by accident. Michael Cerveris appears as Ava 's father Elihas Starr while Riann Steele plays his wife Catherine. Tim Heidecker and Brian Huskey appear in cameos as a whale boat captain named Daniel Gooobler and a teacher at Cassie 's school, respectively. Sonny Burch 's team of men includes Divian Ladwa as Uzman, Goran Kostić as Anitolov, and Rob Archer as Knox, while Sean Kleier portrays Stoltz, Burch 's FBI inside man and Jimmy Woo 's subordinate. Tom Scharpling and Jon Wurster of The Best Show make brief appearances as Burch 's SUV drivers.
-- Director Peyton Reed on the Wasp 's inclusion in the film
In June 2015, Ant - Man director Peyton Reed expressed interest in returning for a sequel or prequel to that film, saying that he had "really fallen in love with these characters '' and felt "there 's a lot of story to tell with Hank Pym ''. A month later, Pym actor Michael Douglas said he was not signed for any additional films, but "would look forward to more if it comes my way '', and expressed the desire to have his wife Catherine Zeta - Jones cast as Janet van Dyne for a potential follow - up. Evangeline Lilly -- who played the daughter of Pym and Van Dyne, Hope van Dyne -- wanted to see Michelle Pfeiffer in the role. Producer Kevin Feige revealed that the studio had a "supercool idea '' for the next Ant - Man film, and "if audiences want it, we 'll find a place to do it. '' Reed also mentioned that there had been talks of making a standalone adventure with Hank Pym as Ant - Man, possibly including the original opening to Ant - Man featuring Jordi Mollà which was cut from the final film. Eric Eisenberg of Cinema Blend opined that a standalone adventure with Pym and the cut sequence would be a good candidate to revive the Marvel One - Shots short film series. By the end of July, David Dastmalchian expressed interest in returning for a sequel as Kurt.
In October 2015, Marvel Studios confirmed the sequel, titled Ant - Man and the Wasp, with a scheduled release date of July 6, 2018. Reed was in negotiations to direct the sequel by the end of the month, and announced his return in November, along with the confirmation of Paul Rudd and Lilly returning as Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp, respectively. One of the things that appealed to Reed about returning was being able to build the film "from the ground up '', as he joined the first film late in the process, after the original writer and director Edgar Wright had departed. He also wanted to explore elements that he had set up in the first film. Reed first began work on an outline for the sequel, which he thought could be "weird, unique and different '' now that the characters ' origins had been established. On including the Wasp in the film 's title (the first MCU film to have a female character in the title), Reed called it "organic '' for both characters, and noted the Wasp 's final line in Ant - Man -- ' It 's about damn time ' -- as "very much about her specific character and arc in that movie, but it is absolutely about a larger thing. It 's about damn time: We 're going to have a fully realized, very very complicated hero in the next movie who happens to be a woman. '' Reed would also push to ensure the Wasp received equal publicity and merchandise for the film, and even though Janet van Dyne had yet to be cast, he had a desire to explore her backstory in the film and "definite ideas '' of who should portray her. That month, Adam McKay, one of the writers of Ant - Man, expressed interest in returning to write the film, and Douglas confirmed that he was in talks to return as well.
Reed stated in early December that the film may "call back '' to the heist film genre and tone of Ant - Man, but that Ant - Man and the Wasp would "have an entirely different genre template ''. He hoped to incorporate additional flashback sequences in the film, as well as explore Pym 's various identities from the comics and his psychology. Reed also said he was "excited '' about exploring and discovering the film version of the Ant - Man and Wasp relationship that is "a romantic partnership and a heroic partnership '' in the comics, a "different dynamic than we 've seen in the rest of the (MCU), an actual partnership. '' Additionally, Reed mentioned that pre-production would "probably '' start in October 2016, with filming scheduled for early 2017. Production writers for the first film, Gabriel Ferrari and Andrew Barrer, signed on to write the script along with Rudd, with writing starting "in earnest '' in January 2016. The next month, McKay stated that he would be involved with the film in some capacity. By April, the four writers and Reed had been "holed up in a room... brainstorming the story '', with Reed promising that it would have "stuff in it that you 've never ever seen in a movie before ''. Feige added that they wanted to "stay true to what made (Ant - Man) so unique and different '', and teased the potential of seeing the Giant - Man version of Lang that had been introduced in Captain America: Civil War.
In June 2016, Reed said that for inspiration from the comics he had been looking at "early Avengers stuff and all the way up to the Nick Spencer stuff now '', and was focusing on iconic images that could be replicated in the film over story beats from the comics. He added that there was "definitely a chance '' for Michael Peña, Tip "T.I. '' Harris, and Dastmalchian to reprise their respective roles as Luis, Dave, and Kurt from the first film. At San Diego Comic - Con 2016, Feige stated that Reed and Rudd were still working on the script, and that filming was now expected to begin in June 2017. Rudd elaborated that they had "turned in a treatment, but it 's so preliminary. We 'll see. We have an idea of what it might look like, but it could change a lot from where we 're at now. '' The next month, Peña was confirmed to be returning as Luis, while filming was revealed to be taking place in Atlanta, Georgia. In early October, an initial script had been completed for the film that was awaiting approval from Marvel. Reed noted that early drafts of the script included a cameo appearance from Captain America, appearing during Luis ' flashback sequences as he was recapping Lang 's involvement in the airport battle in Captain America: Civil War. It was not included in the final script since the events of Civil War were already referenced frequently, and this instance "did n't feel organic to the story. ''
At the start of November 2016, Reed said that the film 's production would transition from "the writing phase '' to "official prep '' that month, beginning with visual development. Reed reiterated his excitement for introducing the Wasp and "really designing her look, the way she moves, the power set, and figuring out, sort of, who Hope van Dyne is as a hero ''. He also talked about sharing characters with other MCU films, stating his disappointment in the Giant - Man introduction happening in Civil War, rather than an Ant - Man film. Reed added that he spends "a lot of time '' talking with the other writers and directors of MCU films, and that he and the writers on this film wished to maintain "our little Ant - Man corner of the universe. Because it 's a whole different vibe tonally ''.
In February 2017, Douglas confirmed that he would reprise his role as Hank Pym in the film. During the Hollywood premiere of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 in April, Dastmalchian confirmed his return as Kurt, and a month later, Harris confirmed his return as Dave as well. Through that May, Marvel was meeting with several actresses for a "key role '' in the sequel, with Hannah John - Kamen cast in the part at the beginning of June. The following month, Randall Park joined the cast as Jimmy Woo, and Walton Goggins was cast in an undisclosed role. At San Diego Comic - Con 2017, Park 's casting was confirmed; John - Kamen and Goggins ' roles were revealed to be Ghost and Sonny Burch, respectively; and the casting of Pfeiffer as Janet van Dyne and Laurence Fishburne as Bill Foster was announced. Judy Greer was confirmed to be reprising her role as Maggie from the previous film the following week.
Reed was inspired by the films After Hours, Midnight Run and What 's Up, Doc? for the look and feel of Ant - Man and the Wasp. While the first film was more of a heist film, Reed described this as part action film, part romantic comedy, and wanted this one "to be a little more of like an Elmore Leonard vibe where we have villains, but we also have antagonists, and we have these roadblocks to our heroes getting to where they need to be, and getting what they need for this mission. '' Regarding the opportunity for character development, Reed used the actions of Lang in Civil War to fuel potential tension between him, Pym, and Van Dyne since Pym is "very clear in the first movie about how he feels about Stark and how he feels about The Avengers and being very protective of this technology that he has. ''
The Russo brothers, directors of Avengers: Infinity War and its untitled sequel, which were filming while Ant - Man and the Wasp was preparing to film, were in constant discussion with Reed in order to ensure story elements would line up between the films. Joe Russo added that Ant - Man and the Wasp would have "some (plot) elements that stitch in '' closely with Avengers: Infinity War, more so than some of the other films leading up to the Avengers films. Reed knew Ant - Man and the Wasp would be "a fairly stand - alone movie but... could not ignore the events of Infinity War '', with the biggest connection occurring in the film 's mid-credit scene. Since the events of Ant - Man and the Wasp occur over 48 hours, the timeline in relation to Infinity War was "left purposefully ambiguous '' with Reed noting there had been discussions of placing "little Easter eggs along the way, to start to reveal to the audience where the movie takes place in the timeline, (but t) hat felt not very fun to us and kind of obvious. '' Reed also like the fact the film ends with closure and on a positive note "and then to BANG -- give the audience a gut punch right after the main credits '', with the sequence showing Hank Pym, Janet van Dyne, and Hope van Dyne fading away due to the events of Avengers: Infinity War. The film also has a post-credit scene that shows the ant who doubled for Lang while under house arrest performing a drum solo.
Principal photography began on August 1, 2017, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, under the working title Cherry Blue; Dante Spinotti served as director of photography, shooting on Arri Alexa 65 cameras, with some sequences being shot with a Frazier lens. At the start of filming, Marvel revealed that Bobby Cannavale and Abby Ryder Fortson would also reprise their roles from the first film, respectively as Paxton and Cassie. They also announced that the writing team of Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers had contributed to the screenplay.
Filming also took place in Metro Atlanta, with filming locations including the Atlanta International School, the Midtown and Buckhead districts of Atlanta, and the Samuel M. Inman Middle School in the city 's Virginia - Highland neighborhood; as well as Emory University and the Atlanta Motor Speedway in Hampton, Georgia. Additional filming took place in San Francisco in September 2017, in Savannah, Georgia in late October, and in Hawaii. Production wrapped on November 19, 2017.
In late November, Lilly said that the characters would try to enter the Quantum Realm in the film, and their potential success would "open a whole entire new multi-verse to enter into and play around in '' for the MCU.
Visual effects for the film were created by DNEG, Scanline VFX, Method Studios, Luma Pictures, Lola VFX, Industrial Light & Magic, Cinesite, Rise FX, Rodeo FX, Crafty Apes, Perception NYC, Digital Domain, and The Third Floor.
DNEG worked on over 500 shots including the effects for Ghost, which were shared with the other vendors, the third act chase sequence, and the final Ghost fight as Hank and Janet are coming back from the Quantum Realm. While DNEG had worked on the "macro-photography '' sequences in Ant - Man, they did not take the same approach on this film for similar sequences. One issue DNEG faced was getting a camera to seem small enough to capture the small actions. Though some of the film was shot with a Frazier lens that provides extra depth of field, DNEG would still need to "re-project the road higher and "raise the floor level '' to simulate a tiny sized camera ". As the third act chase sequence was mainly shot in Atlanta, while being set in San Francisco, DNEG VFX Supervisor Alessandro Ongaro noted "extensive environment work '' with background elements in some of shots not being able to be salvaged at all.
Lola once again worked on the de-aging sequences with Douglas, Pfeiffer, and Fishburne. The flashback sequences featuring a younger Hank Pym were set around the same time as the flashback sequences of Ant - Man, so Lola were able to use a similar process, referencing Douglas ' appearance in Wall Street (1987) and having the actor on set in a different wardrobe and wig. Lola VFX Supervisor Trent Claus felt Pfeiffer 's was less complicated, since "she has aged incredibly well '' and still has big hair and a big smile. Pfeiffer 's work from Ladyhawke (1985) and other films around that time was referenced. For Fishburne, his son served as his younger double, and helped inform Lola how the older Fishburne 's skin would have looked in certain lighting situations. The films Lola looked to for Fishburne 's younger self included Boyz n the Hood (1991) and Deep Cover (1992). Lola also made Fishburne thinner, and all actors had their posture adjusted.
Luma worked on the scenes where Ant - Man and the Wasp infiltrate Ghost 's hideout, where they had to recreate the entire environment with CGI. They also created the first quantum tunnel sequence where Ghost receives her powers, and the flashback missile launch, which had to be replicated exactly from how it appeared in Ant - Man so it would look and feel similar. The new version of the Quantum Realm, designed by Reed and production VFX supervisor Stephane Ceretti, was designed by Method. On their design, Method Studios VFX Supervisor Andrew Hellen, explained, "We did a lot of research into macro and cellular level photography, and played with different ways to visualize quantum mechanics. It has a very magical quality, with a scientific edge. We also used glitching effects and macro lensing to ground the footage, and keep it from feeling too terrestrial. '' Method also worked on the sequence when Lang is the size of a preschooler at the school, and created the digital doubles for Ant - Man and Wasp. For the digital doubles, Method generally kept the same level of detail on the suits, regardless of what scale they were.
In June 2017, Reed confirmed that Christophe Beck, who composed the score for Ant - Man, would return for Ant - Man and the Wasp. Hollywood Records and Marvel Music released the soundtrack album digitally on July 6, 2018.
Ant - Man and the Wasp had its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released in the United States on July 6, 2018, where it opened in 4,206 theaters, of which 3,000 were in 3D, 403 were in IMAX, over 660 were in premium large format, and over 220 were in D - Box and 4D.
The film was scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on June 29, 2018, but was rescheduled in November 2017 to August 3, 2018, in order to avoid competition with the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Charles Gant of The Guardian and Screen International noted, "The worry for film distributors is that audiences will be caught up in the tournament. So it 's easier to play safe and not date your film at this time, especially during the group stage, when all the qualifying nations are competing. '' Tom Butler of Yahoo! Movies UK added that, unlike the first film, which was one of the lowest - grossing MCU films in the UK, anticipation levels for the film "are at an all - time high following the events of Infinity War '' and "UK audiences will probably have found out what happens in the film well before it opens in UK cinemas, and this could have a negative impact on its box office potential. '' Butler and Huw Fullerton of Radio Times both opined the delay could also be in part because of Disney also delaying the United Kingdom release of Incredibles 2 to July 13, 2018 (a month after its United States release), and not wanting to compete with itself with the two films. This in turn led fans in the country to start a Change.org petition to have Disney move the release date up several weeks, similarly to how Avengers: Infinity War 's United States release was moved up a week the previous May.
Concept art and "pre-CGI video '' was shown at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con. In January 2018, Hyundai Motor America announced that the 2019 Hyundai Veloster would play a significant role in the film, with other Hyundai vehicles scheduled to make an appearance. The first trailer for the film was released on January 30, 2018 on Good Morning America, and used the guitar riff from Adam and the Ants ' "Ants Invasion ''. David Betancourt of The Washington Post called the release, the day after Black Panther 's premiere was widely praised on social media, a "smart move ''; with Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War also releasing in 2018, "it can be easy (to) forget that hey, there is an Ant - Man sequel coming this year... So Marvel Studios giving us a quick reminder with this trailer release is logical ''. Tracy Brown, writing for the Los Angeles Times, praised how the trailer prominently featured Lilly 's Van Dyne "(showing) off how she was always meant to be a superhero ''. A second trailer was released on May 1, 2018. Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter felt the trailer made the film feel "very much like an intentional antidote for, or at least alternative to, the grimness of Infinity War 's downbeat ending '', calling it "a smart move '' since it could be considered "a palate cleanser and proof that Marvel has more to offer... before audiences dive back into the core narrative with next year 's Captain Marvel. '' In June 2018, Feige presented several scenes from the film at CineEurope. Promotional partners for the film included Dell, Synchrony Financial, and Sprint. In total, Disney spent about $154 million worldwide on promoting the film.
As of August 12, 2018, Ant - Man and the Wasp has grossed $203.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $245.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $448.9 million. Following its global debut of $161 million, Deadline Hollywood estimated the film would turn a net profit of around $100 million.
Ant - Man and the Wasp earned $33.8 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $11.5 million from Thursday night previews), for an opening weekend total of $75.8 million; this was a 33 % improvement over the first film 's debut of $57.2 million. Its opening included $6 million from IMAX screens. In its second weekend, the film earned $28.8 million, coming in second behind Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation, and in its third weekend grossed $16.1 million, coming in fourth. The film placed sixth in its fourth weekend. BoxOffice Magazine projected a final domestic gross of $225 million.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film earned $85 million from 41 markets, where it opened number one in all except New Zealand. Its South Korea opening was $20.9 million (which included previews). The $15.5 million opening from the market without previews was the second - best opening of 2018 behind Avengers: Infinity War. In its second weekend, playing in 44 markets, it remained number one in Australia, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Singapore. The film opened in France in its third weekend, earning $4.1 million, and opened in Germany in its fourth, where it was number one and earned $2.8 million, including previews. As of July 30, 2018, the film 's largest markets were South Korea ($42.1 million), Mexico ($14.5 million), and Australia ($13.3 million).
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 88 % based on 294 reviews, and an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "A lighter, brighter superhero movie powered by the effortless charisma of Paul Rudd and Evangeline Lilly, Ant - Man and The Wasp offers a much - needed MCU palate cleanser. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a normalized score of 70 out of 100, based on 54 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, down from the "A '' earned by the first film.
Peter Travers, writing for Rolling Stone, gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and praised Rudd and Lilly, saying, "The secret of Ant - Man and the Wasp is that it works best when it does n't try so hard, when it lets charm trump excess and proves that less can be more even in the Marvel universe. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times praised the lightweight tone as a treat and a breath following the "dramatically heavy conclusion '' of Avengers: Infinity War. He also praised the cast, especially Rudd and Fortson, as well as the visual effects and inventive use of shrinking and growing in the action scenes. Manohla Dargis at The New York Times felt the film 's "fast, bright and breezy '' tone was a vast improvement over the first film, praising Reed 's direction. She also praised Rudd, felt Lilly found "her groove '' in the film, and wrote that the supporting cast all had "scene - steal (ing) '' sequences. Simon Abrams of RogerEbert.com said the film was "good enough '', a "messy, but satisfying '' sequel that he felt managed to juggle its many subplots while giving Rudd 's Lang some decent character development.
Variety 's Owen Gleiberman called the film "faster, funnier, and more cunningly confident than the original, '' and felt Reed was able to give the film enough personality to overcome its two - hour runtime and effects - heavy climax. He did caution that this was "not quite the same thing as humanity. But it 's enough to qualify as the miniature version. '' At The Washington Post, Ann Hornaday called the film "instantly forgettable '' and criticized its plot, which she felt included some "filler '' subplots, but found the film to be "no less enjoyable '' because of this. She particularly praised Rudd along with the action and effects. Writing for the Boston Globe, Ty Burr called the film the perfect "summer air - conditioning movie '', finding it fun, funny, superficial and an improvement over the first. He also wrote that the film had too many subplots and not enough of Pfeiffer, but was pleased with the lack of connection that the overall story had to the rest of the MCU, and with the focus on "pop trash '' comedy. Stephanie Zachareck, writing for Time, said it was "hard to actively dislike '' the film, which she thought had reasonably fun action and stand - out moments between Rudd and Fortson; but she was not as impressed with the larger, effects - heavy action sequences and felt the focus on Lilly as a better hero than Rudd was "just checking off boxes in the name of gender equality. ''
Ahead of the film 's release, Reed noted that he and Marvel were "hopeful '' about a third film, having discussed potential story points. Michael Douglas also expressed interest in playing a younger version of his character Hank Pym in a prequel, something which Reed already teased back in 2015.
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when did puerto rico become a state of the united states | Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 18 ° 12 ′ N 66 ° 30 ′ W / 18.2 ° N 66.5 ° W / 18.2; - 66.5
Puerto Rico (Spanish for "Rich Port ''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit. "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico '') and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea, approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida.
An archipelago among the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones, such as Mona, Culebra, and Vieques. The capital and most populous city is San Juan. Its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The island 's population is approximately 3.4 million. Puerto Rico 's history, tropical climate, natural scenery, traditional cuisine, and tax incentives make it a destination for travelers from around the world.
Originally populated by the indigenous Taíno people, the island was claimed in 1493 by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage. Later it endured invasion attempts from the French, Dutch, and British. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government influenced the island 's cultural landscapes with waves of African slaves, Canarian, and Andalusian settlers. In the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico played a secondary, but strategic role when compared to wealthier colonies like Peru and the mainland parts of New Spain. Spain 's distant administrative control continued up to the end of the 19th century, helping to produce a distinctive creole Hispanic culture and language that combined elements from the Native Americans, Africans, and Iberians. In 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, the United States acquired Puerto Rico under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. The treaty took effect on April 11, 1899.
Puerto Ricans are by law citizens of the United States and may move freely between the island and the mainland. As it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. However, Puerto Rico does have one non-voting member of the House called a Resident Commissioner. As residents of a U.S. territory, American citizens in Puerto Rico are disenfranchised at the national level and do not vote for president and vice president of the United States, and do not pay federal income tax on Puerto Rican income. Like other territories and the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico does not have U.S. senators. Congress approved a local constitution in 1952, allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of those who voted) disagreed with "the present form of territorial status ''. A second question asking about a new model, had full statehood the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status, although a significant number of people did not answer the second question of the referendum. A fifth referendum was held on June 11, 2017, with "Statehood '' and "Independence / Free Association '' initially as the only available choices. At the recommendation of the Department of Justice, an option for the "current territorial status '' was added. The referendum showed an overwhelming support for statehood, with 97.18 % voting for it, although the voter turnout had a historically low figure of only 22.99 % of the registered voters casting their ballots.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt had climbed to $70 billion at a time with 12.4 % unemployment. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. This was the second major financial crisis to affect the island after the Great Depression when the U.S. government, in 1935, provided relief efforts through the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico 's financial oversight board in the U.S. District Court for Puerto Rico filed the debt restructuring petition which was made under Title III of PROMESA. By early August 2017, the debt was $72 billion with a 45 % poverty rate.
In late September 2017, Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico, causing devastating damage. The island 's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history. Recovery efforts were somewhat slow in the first few months, and over 200,000 residents had moved to the mainland State of Florida alone by late November 2017.
Puerto Rico means "rich port '' in Spanish. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquén -- a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, which means "Land of the Valiant Lord ''. The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la isla del encanto, meaning "the island of enchantment ''.
Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ("Rich Port City ''). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading / shipping port and the capital city.
The island 's name was changed to "Porto Rico '' by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898. The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931.
The official name of the entity in Spanish is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico ("free associated state of Puerto Rico ''), while its official English name is Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
The ancient history of the archipelago which is now Puerto Rico is not well known. Unlike other indigenous cultures in the New World (Aztec, Maya and Inca) which left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, scant artifacts and evidence remain of the Puerto Rico 's indigenous population. Scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts from the colonial era constitute all that is known about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, nearly three centuries after the first Spaniards landed on the island.
The first known settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland. Some scholars suggest their settlement dates back about 4,000 years. An archeological dig in 1990 on the island of Vieques found the remains of a man, designated as the "Puerto Ferro Man '', which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
The Igneri tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400 AD from the region of the Orinoco river in northern South America. The Arcaico and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries.
Between the 7th and 11th centuries, the Taíno culture developed on the island. By approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, meaning "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages, each led by a cacique. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, done generally by men, as well as by the women 's gathering and processing of indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.
When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taíno. They called it Borikén (Borinquen in Spanish transliteration). Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of St John the Baptist. Having reported the findings of his first travel, Columbus brought with him this time a letter from King Ferdinand empowered by a papal bull that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the Spanish Empire and the Christian faith. Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement, Caparra, on August 8, 1508. He later served as the first governor of the island. Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, and San Juan became the name of the main trading / shipping port.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish people began to colonize the island. Despite the Laws of Burgos of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population, some Taíno Indians were forced into an encomienda system of forced labor in the early years of colonization. The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European infectious diseases.
In 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. By that time, the Taíno people were few in number. Enslaved Africans had already begun to be imported to compensate for the native labor loss, but their numbers were proportionate to the diminished commercial interest Spain soon began to demonstrate for the island colony. Other nearby islands, like Cuba, Saint - Domingue, and Guadeloupe, attracted more of the slave trade than Puerto Rico, probably because of greater agricultural interests in those islands, on which colonists had developed large sugar plantations and had the capital to invest in the Atlantic slave trade.
From the beginning of the country, the colonial administration relied heavily on the industry of enslaved Africans and creole blacks for public works and defenses, primarily in coastal ports and cities, where the tiny colonial population had hunkered down. With no significant industries or large - scale agricultural production as yet, enslaved and free communities lodged around the few littoral settlements, particularly around San Juan, also forming lasting Afro - creole communities. Meanwhile, in the island 's interior, there developed a mixed and independent peasantry that relied on a subsistence economy. This mostly unsupervised population supplied villages and settlements with foodstuffs and, in relative isolation, set the pattern for what later would be known as the Puerto Rican Jíbaro culture. By the end of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire was diminishing and, in the face of increasing raids from European competitors, the colonial administration throughout the Americas fell into a "bunker mentality ''. Imperial strategists and urban planners redesigned port settlements into military posts with the objective of protecting Spanish territorial claims and ensuring the safe passing of the king 's silver - laden Atlantic Fleet to the Iberian Peninsula. San Juan served as an important port - of - call for ships driven across the Atlantic by its powerful trade winds. West Indies convoys linked Spain to the island, sailing between Cádiz and the Spanish West Indies. The colony 's seat of government was on the forested Islet of San Juan and for a time became one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the Spanish Caribbean earning the name of the "Walled City ''. The islet is still dotted with the various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, Castillo San Felipe del Morro, and Castillo San Cristóbal, designed to protect the population and the strategic Port of San Juan from the raids of the Spanish European competitors.
In 1625, in the Battle of San Juan, the Dutch commander Boudewijn Hendricksz tested the defenses ' limits like no one else before. Learning from Francis Drake 's previous failures here, he circumvented the cannons of the castle of San Felipe del Morro and quickly brought his 17 ships into the San Juan Bay. He then occupied the port and attacked the city while the population hurried for shelter behind the Morro 's moat and high battlements. Historians consider this event the worst attack on San Juan. Though the Dutch set the village on fire, they failed to conquer the Morro, and its batteries pounded their troops and ships until Hendricksz deemed the cause lost. Hendricksz 's expedition eventually helped propel a fortification frenzy. Constructions of defenses for the San Cristóbal Hill were soon ordered so as to prevent the landing of invaders out of reach of the Morro 's artillery. Urban planning responded to the needs of keeping the colony in Spanish hands.
During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. With the advent of the lively Bourbon Dynasty in Spain in the 1700s, the island of Puerto Rico began a gradual shift to more imperial attention. More roads began connecting previously isolated inland settlements to coastal cities, and coastal settlements like Arecibo, Mayaguez, and Ponce began acquiring importance of their own, separate from San Juan. By the end of the 18th century, merchant ships from an array of nationalities threatened the tight regulations of the Mercantilist system, which turned each colony solely toward the European metropole and limited contact with other nations. U.S. ships came to surpass Spanish trade and with this also came the exploitation of the island 's natural resources. Slavers, which had made but few stops on the island before, began selling more enslaved Africans to growing sugar and coffee plantations. The increasing number of Atlantic wars in which the Caribbean islands played major roles, like the War of Jenkins ' Ear, the Seven Years ' War and the Atlantic Revolutions, ensured Puerto Rico 's growing esteem in Madrid 's eyes. On April 17, 1797, Sir Ralph Abercromby 's fleet invaded the island with a force of 6,000 -- 13,000 men, which included German soldiers and Royal Marines and 60 to 64 ships. Fierce fighting continued for the next days with Spanish troops. Both sides suffered heavy losses. On Sunday April 30 the British ceased their attack and began their retreat from San Juan. By the time independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success, new waves of loyal creole immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico, helping to tilt the island 's political balance toward the Crown.
In 1809, to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain. This gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament (Cádiz Cortes), with equal representation to mainland Iberian, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands).
Ramón Power y Giralt, the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, died after serving a three - year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms were in force from 1810 to 1814, and again from 1820 to 1823. They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by Ferdinand VII. Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island 's ethnic European population and economy and expanded the Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island.
Minor slave revolts had occurred on the island throughout the years, with the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821 being the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico spawned an independence movement that, due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, convened in the island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar in establishing a United Provinces of New Granada and Venezuela, that included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé and María de las Mercedes Barbudo. The movement was discovered, and Governor Miguel de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled.
With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 as a result of which 450,000 immigrants, mainly Spaniards, settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest. Printed in three languages -- Spanish, English, and French -- it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of non Spanish families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Scotland, also immigrated to the island.
Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands, on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. The offer was very successful, and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico still receives Spanish and European immigration.
Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as Grito de Lares. It began in the rural town of Lares, but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián.
Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father '' of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873, "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship ''.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '' went into exile in New York City. Many joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising, which became known as the Intentona de Yauco. They raised what they called the Puerto Rican flag, which was adopted as the national flag. The local conservative political factions opposed independence. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self - government to the island by royal decree in the Autonomic Charter, including a bicameral legislature. In 1898, Puerto Rico 's first, but short - lived, quasi-autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province '' of Spain. This bilaterally agreed - upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the King of Spain -- who held the power to annul any legislative decision -- and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor - General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter. General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on July 17, 1898.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, published a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean, which would serve as coaling and naval stations. They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama, to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, had also stressed the importance of building a canal in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama. He suggested that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The U.S. Senate did not approve his annexation proposal, and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of 160 million dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Since 1894, the United States Naval War College had been developing contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896, the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Except for one 1895 plan, which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud), a recommendation dropped in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain 's forces in and around Cuba. Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station, and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar -- a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked, before the development of the sugar beet industry in the United States.
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris, which went into effect on April 11, 1899. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not cede it to the U.S.
The United States and Puerto Rico began a long - standing metropolis - colony relationship. In the early 20th century, Puerto Rico was ruled by the military, with officials including the governor appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives. The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States.
Its judicial system was constructed to follow the American legal system; a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court for the territory were established. It was authorized a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner '', who was appointed. In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable '' to Puerto Rico, specifying, in particular, exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.
The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable '', including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature. During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.
In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional '', and in violation of the 1900 Foraker Act.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones -- Shafroth Act (popularly known as the Jones Act), which granted Puerto Ricans born on or after April 25, 1898, U.S. citizenship. Opponents, including all of the Puerto Rican House of Delegates (who voted unanimously against it), claimed that the U.S. imposed citizenship in order to draft Puerto Rican men into the army as American entry into World War I grew likely.
The same Act provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, as well as a bill of rights. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four - year term.
Natural disasters, including a major earthquake and tsunami in 1918 and several hurricanes, as well as the Great Depression, impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule. Some political leaders, such as Pedro Albizu Campos, who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded a change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the University of Puerto Rico in 1935, in which four were killed by police.
In 1936, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico, but it was opposed by Luis Muñoz Marín of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico. (Tydings had co-sponsored the Tydings -- McDuffie Act, which provided independence to the Philippines following a 10 - year transition period of limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican political parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not achieve passage of the bill.
In 1937, Albizu Campos ' party organized a protest in which numerous people were killed by police in Ponce. The Insular Police, similar to the National Guard, opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike. The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by the U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio and confirmed by a report from the Hays Commission, which investigated the events, led by Arthur Garfield Hays, counsel to the American Civil Liberties Union.
Nineteen people were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many in shot in the back while running away. The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action, and it has since become known as the Ponce massacre. In the aftermath, on April 2, 1943, Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.
During the latter years of the Roosevelt -- Truman administrations, the internal governance of the island was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican - born governor, Jesús T. Piñero.
Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico, born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican -- born parent, or be an American citizen with at least one year of residence in Puerto Rico.
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor. In 1948, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico.
A bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín. The bill, also known as the Gag Law (Spanish: Ley de la Mordaza), was approved by the legislature on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a pro-independence tune, to talk of independence, or to campaign for independence.
The bill, which resembled the Smith Act passed in the United States, was signed and made into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, and became known as "Law 53 '' (Spanish: Ley 53).
In accordance with this law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison, be fined $10,000 (U.S.), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The law was repealed in 1957.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes '' or "no '', on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth '' that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico 's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known.
On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth, meaning a "politically organized community '' or "state '', which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in its constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado '' (ELA).
In 1967 Puerto Rico 's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by a plurality of votes (48.6 % versus 46.3 % for statehood), while the "none of the above '' option, which was the Popular Democratic Party - sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3 % of the votes (versus 46.5 % for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above ''.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81 - 600), which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution. This Act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact ''. It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner:
On October 30, 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a three - day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico, in what is known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the Puerto Rican governor declared martial law, and attacked the insurgents in Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers under control of the Puerto Rican commander. The Utuado uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo, attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman at his temporary residence of Blair House. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President Jimmy Carter commuted his sentence to times served and he was released in 1979.
Pedro Albizu Campos served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.
The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, and 82 % of the voters in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. This was the anniversary of July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish -- American War, until then celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday.
Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico ''), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic. "The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, the currency, the postal service, foreign policy, military defense, communications, labor relations, the environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others. ''
During the 1950s and 1960s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap ''), an offshoot of FDR 's New Deal. It was intended to transform Puerto Rico 's economy from agriculture - based to manufacturing - based to provide more jobs. Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.
Four referendums have been held since the late 20th century to resolve the political status. The 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of the voters) in favor of a change in status, with full statehood the preferred option of those who wanted a change. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The first three plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association, and independence. The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 in June 2017 was going to offer only two options: Statehood and Independence / Free Association. However, a letter from the Donald Trump administration recommended adding the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. The Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option. While 97 percent voted in favor of statehood, the turnout was low; only some 23 percent voted. After the ballots were counted the Justice Department was non-committal. The Justice Department had asked for the 2017 plebiscite to be postponed but the Rosselló government chose not to do so. After the outcome was announced, the department told the Associated Press that it had "not reviewed or approved the ballot 's language ''.
Former Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá (2005 -- 2009) is convinced that statehood is not the solution for either the U.S. or for Puerto Rico "for economic, identity and cultural reasons ''. He pointed out that voter turnout for the 2017 referendum was extremely low, and suggests that a different type of mutually - beneficial relationship should be found.
If the federal government agrees to discuss an association agreement, the conditions would be negotiated between the two entities. The agreement might cover topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the U.S. currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
The three current Free Associated States (Marshall Islands, Micronesia and Palau) use the American dollar, receive some financial support and the promise of military defense if they refuse military access to any other country. Their citizens are allowed to work in the U.S. and serve in its military.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with the financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. According to the Government Development Bank, this might be the only solution to the debt crisis. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding, the right to vote in Presidential elections and the higher (federal) minimum wage.
Subsequent to the 2017 referendum, Puerto Rico 's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. In spite of the outcome of the referendum, and the so - called Tennessee Plan (above), action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence '' or "decolonization ''. In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship '' existed between the U.S. and Puerto Rico.
The UN 's Special Committee on Decolonization has often referred to Puerto Rico as a "nation '' in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self - determination and independence... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ".
On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico 's classification as a non-self - governing territory. The General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self - governing status of Puerto Rico.
According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory 's consent. It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
In 1993 the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated, "Puerto Rico 's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self - government under Resolution 1541 '' (the three established forms of full self - government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated colony and does not have the status of ' free association ' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice '', that the establishment of local self - government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose. The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases.
In 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2011 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed resolutions calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence '', and to release all Puerto Rican political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to clean up, decontaminate and return the lands in the islands of Vieques and Culebra to the people of Puerto Rico, to perform a probe into U.S. human rights violations on the island and a probe into the killing by the FBI of pro-independence leader Filiberto Ojeda Rios.
On July 15, 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self - determination and independence.
On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223 -- 169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico 's self - determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth, or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans voted to continue as a commonwealth, the Government of Puerto Rico was authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite were certified; if Puerto Ricans voted to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its present form of commonwealth (sometimes referred to as "the status quo '') political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite.
Immediately following U.S. House passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate, where it was given two formal readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. On December 22, 2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R. 2499, killing the bill.
The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggested a two - plebiscite process, including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonwealth. ''
On June 14, 2011, President Barack Obama "promised to support ' a clear decision ' by the people of Puerto Rico on statehood ''. That same month, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text introduced by Cuba 's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence ''.
On November 6, 2012, a two - question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections. The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. The second question posed three alternate status options if the first question was approved: statehood, independence or free association. For the first question, 54 percent voted against the current Commonwealth status. For the second question, 61.16 % voted for statehood, 33.34 % for a sovereign free associated state, and 5.49 % for independence.
There were also 515,348 blank and invalidated ballots, which are not reflected in the final tally, as they are not considered cast votes under Puerto Rico law. On December 11, 2012, Puerto Rico 's Legislature passed a concurrent resolution to request to the President and the U.S. Congress action on November 6, 2012 plebiscite results. But on April 10, 2013, with the issue still being widely debated, the White House announced that it will seek $2.5 million to hold another referendum, this next one being the first Puerto Rican status referendum to be financed by the U.S. Federal government.
In December 2015, the U.S. Government submitted a brief as Amicus Curiae to the U.S. Supreme Court related to the case Commonwealth of Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle. The U.S. Government official position is that the U.S. Constitution does not contemplate "sovereign territories ''. That the Court has consistently recognized that "there is no sovereignty in a Territory of the United States but that of the United States itself ''. and a U.S. territory has "no independent sovereignty comparable to that of a state. That is because "the Government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States ''. Congress 's plenary authority over federal territories includes the authority to permit self - government, whereby local officials administer a territory 's internal affairs.
On June 9, 2016, in Commonwealth of Puerto Rico vs Sanchez Valle, a 6 -- 2 majority of the Supreme Court of the United States determined that Puerto Rico is a territory and lacks Sovereignty.
On June 30, 2016, the President of the United States of America signed a new law approved by U.S. Congress, H.R. 5278: PROMESA, establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rico Government. This board will have a significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government 's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations '' regarding U.S. territories; The President would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico 's legislature, governor, and other public authorities.
The latest referendum on statehood, independence, or an associated republic was held on November 6, 2012. The people of Puerto Rico made history by requesting, for the first time ever, the conclusion of the island 's current territorial status. Almost 78 % of registered voters participated in a plebiscite held to resolve Puerto Rico 's status, and a slim but clear majority (54 %) disagreed with Puerto Rico maintaining its present territorial status. Furthermore, among the possible alternatives, sixty - one percent (61 %) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank.
On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. The initiative has not made Puerto Rico into a state.
In late September 2017, Hurricane Maria hit the island as a Category 4 storm causing severe damage to homes, other buildings and infrastructure. The recovery as of late November was slow but progress had been made. Electricity was restored to two - thirds of the island, although there was some doubt as to the number of residents getting reliable power. In January 2018, it was reported that close to 40 percent of the island 's customers still did not have electricity. The vast majority had access to water but were still required to boil it. The number still living in shelters had dropped to 982 with thousands of others living with relatives. The official death toll at the time was 58 but some sources indicated that the actual number is much higher. A dam on the island was close to failure and officials were concerned about additional flooding from this source.
Thousands had left Puerto Rico, with close to 200,000 having arrived in Florida alone. Those who were then living on the mainland experienced difficulty in getting health care benefits. A The New York Times report on November 27 said it was understandable that Puerto Ricans wanted to leave the island. "Basic essentials are hard to find and electricity and other utilities are unreliable or entirely inaccessible. Much of the population has been unable to return to jobs or to school and access to health care has been severely limited. '' The Center for Puerto Rican Studies at New York 's Hunter College estimated that some half million people, about 14 % of the population, may permanently leave by 2019.
The total damage on the island was estimated as up to $95 billion. By the end of November, FEMA had received over a million applications for aid and had approved about a quarter of those. The US government had agreed in October to provide funding to rebuild and up to $4.9 billion in loans to help the island 's government. FEMA had $464 million earmarked to help local governments rebuild public buildings and infrastructure. Bills for other funding were being considered in Washington but little progress had been made on those.
A November 28, 2017 report by the Sierra Club included this comment: "It will take years to rebuild Puerto Rico, not just from the worst hurricane to make landfall since 1932, but to sustainably overcome environmental injustices which made Maria 's devastation even more catastrophic ''.
In May 2017, the Natural Resources Defense Council reported that Puerto Rico 's water system was the worst as measured by the Clean Water Act. 70 % of the population drank water that violated U.S. law.
A tourism web site report in March 2018 indicated that all airports were operating, although Luis Munoz Marin Airport would not be back to handling the full number of flights until July 2018. Some 90 % of the island was receiving electricity, although the power structure would require another $17.6 billion for full rebuilding, according to the United States Department of Energy. Nearly all residents had access to telecommunications service and running water. All hospitals were operating. Some 83 % of hotel rooms were available for use and the cruise ship port was receiving ships; 58 arrived in San Juan in February. The island was encouraging operators to increase the number of tourists.
Reports in April 2018 stated that Puerto Rico will receive $18.5 billion from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development to help rebuild homes and infrastructure. This was substantially less than the $46 billion requested by the governor. However, the island was expecting to receive approximately $50 billion for disaster relief over the subsequent six years mostly via the Federal Emergency Management Agency. At that time, nearly 2800 families were living in FEMA - sponsored short - term housing across 34 states and Puerto Rico. Nearly half of the schools are operating at only 60 % classroom capacity. Over 280 public schools would not reopen in the fall; 827 were expected to be operational. Almost 40,000 students left the island 's schools since May 2017; some of these were in schools in the mainland U.S. (Before the hurricanes, Puerto Rico had planned to close 179 schools due to inadequate numbers of students.)
The official number of Hurricane Maria - related deaths as reported by the government of Puerto Rico is 64. The Commonwealth has commissioned George Washington University to assess the death toll and is awaiting that report. An academic study based on household surveys and reported in the New England Journal of Medicine estimated that the number of hurricane - related deaths during the period September 20, 2017 to December 31, 2017 was around 4,600 (range 793 - 8,498) On August 28, Governor Rosselló acknowledged the results of the George Washington University study and revised the island 's official death toll to 2,975 people. Rosselló described the effects of the hurricane as "unprecedented devastation ''.
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year - round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are many other even smaller islets, like Monito, which is near to Mona, Isla de Cabras and La Isleta de San Juan, both located on the San Juan Bay. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra, and connected to the main island by bridges.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,790 square kilometers (5,320 sq mi), of which 8,870 km (3,420 sq mi) is land and 4,921 km (1,900 sq mi) is water. Puerto Rico is larger than two U.S. states, Delaware and Rhode Island. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi), and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi). Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80 % of the size of Jamaica, just over 18 % of the size of Hispaniola and 8 % of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.
The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central '' (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,338 meters (4,390 ft), is located in this range.
Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m (3,494 ft).
Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man - made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.
The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla, several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a tsunami. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.
The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 280 km (170 mi) long. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 8,400 m (27,600 ft) deep.
The climate of Puerto Rico in the Köppen climate classification is tropical rainforest. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 ° F (29 ° C) in lower elevations and 70 ° F (21 ° C) in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November. The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation.
The island has an average temperature of 82.4 ° F (28 ° C) throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 66.9 ° F (19 ° C) and maximum of 85.4 ° F (30 ° C). Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than those on the rest of the island.
Between the dry and wet season, there is a temperature change of around 6 ° F (3.3 ° C). This is mainly due to the warm waters of the tropical Atlantic Ocean, which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal waters temperatures around the years are about 75 ° F (24 ° C) in February to 85 ° F (29 ° C) in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was 99 ° F (37 ° C) at Arecibo, while the lowest temperature ever recorded was 40 ° F (4 ° C) in the mountains at Adjuntas, Aibonito, and Corozal. The average yearly precipitation is 1,687 mm (66 in).
Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season, similar to the remainder of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic oceans. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño. A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane.
In the busy 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 Hurricane Irma on September 8, 2017, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50 % of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators. The Category 4 Hurricane Jose, as expected, veered away from Puerto Rico. A short time later, the devastating Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 4 hurricane, with sustained 155 mph (249 km / h) winds, powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction, including the electrical grid, which could remain out for 4 -- 6 months. With such widespread destruction and a great need for supplies -- everything from drinking water, food, medicine and personal care items to fuel for generators and construction materials for rebuilding the island -- Gov. Rossello and several Congressmen called on the federal government to waive the WWI - era Jones Act (protectionist provisions: ships made and owned in U.S., and with U.S. crews), which essentially double Puerto Rico 's cost for shipped goods relative to neighboring islands. On September 28, U.S. President Donald Trump waived the Act for ten days.
Species endemic to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians / reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon.
Across the island in the southwest, the 40 km (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic migration, and Puerto Rico 's status as unincorporated territory of the United States.
The estimated population of Puerto Rico as of July 1, 2015, was 3,474,182, a 6.75 % decrease since the 2010 United States Census. From 2000 to 2010, the population decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico. It went from the 3,808,610 residents registered in the 2000 Census to 3,725,789 in the 2010 Census.
A declining and aging population presents additional problems for the society. The U.S. Census Bureau 's estimate for July 1, 2016 was 3,411,307 people, down substantially from the 2010 data which had indicated 3,725,789 people.
Continuous European immigration and high natural increase helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800, to almost a million by the close of the 19th century.
A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858, gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were Free colored; 300,430 identified as Whites; and 41,736 were slaves.
During the 19th century hundreds of families arrived in Puerto Rico, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia, but also from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia and the Balearic Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain 's former colonies in South America. Settlers from outside Spain also arrived in the islands, including from Corsica, France, Lebanon, China, Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, Germany and Italy. This immigration from non-Hispanic countries was the result of the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 ''), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church.
Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The 2000 United States Census included a racial self - identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans identified as White and Hispanic; few identified as Black or some other race.
A recent population genetics study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that between 52.6 % and 84 % of the population possess some degree of Amerindian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in their maternal ancestry, usually in a combination with other ancestries such as aboriginal Guanche North - West African ancestry brought by Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands.
In addition, these DNA studies show Amerindian ancestry in addition to the Taíno.
One genetic study on the racial makeup of Puerto Ricans (including all races) found them to be roughly around 61 % West Eurasian / North African (overwhelmingly of Spanish provenance), 27 % Sub-Saharan African and 11 % Native American. Another genetic study from 2007, claimed that "the average genomewide individual (ie. Puerto Rican) ancestry proportions have been estimated as 66 %, 18 %, and 16 %, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively. '' Other study estimates 63.7 % European, 21.2 % (Sub-Saharan) African, and 15.2 % Native American; European ancestry is more prevalent in the West and in Central Puerto Rico, African in Eastern Puerto Rico, and Native American in Northern Puerto Rico.
A Pew Research survey indicated a literacy rate of 90.4 % (adult population) in 2012 based on data from the United Nations and a life expectancy of 79.3 years.
Puerto Rico has recently become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents. The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Other sources sending in significant numbers of recent immigrants include Cuba, Mexico, Colombia, Panama, Jamaica, Venezuela, Spain, and Nigeria. Also, there are many non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens settling in Puerto Rico, from the mainland United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as Nuyoricans (stateside Puerto Ricans) coming back to Puerto Rico. Most recent immigrants settle in and around San Juan.
Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to the Northeastern states, and Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico 's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration '', with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1 % in 2012 and an additional 1 % (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.
According to the 2010 Census, the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States outside of Puerto Rico far exceeds those living in Puerto Rico. Emigration exceeds immigration. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those that remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico 's economy.
Based on the July 1, 2016 estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the Commonwealth had declined by 314,482 people since the 2010 Census data had been tabulated.
The most populous city is the capital, San Juan, with approximately 371,400 people based on a 2015 estimate by the Census Bureau. Other major cities include Bayamón, Carolina, Ponce, and Caguas. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered San Juan 's metropolitan area, while the other two are located in the south (Ponce) and west (Mayagüez) of the island.
The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English - only language law. However, all official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is the primary language of less than 10 % of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by nearly 95 % of the population.
The U.S. Census Bureau 's 2016 update provides the following facts: 94.3 % of adults speak only Spanish at home, which compares to 5.5 % who speak English, 0.2 % who speak French, and 0.1 % who speak another language at home.
In Puerto Rico, public school instruction is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are American Sign Language and its local variant, Puerto Rican Sign Language.
The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. As a product of Puerto Rican history, the island possesses a unique Spanish dialect. Puerto Rican Spanish utilizes many Taíno words, as well as English words. The largest influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico is that of the Canary Islands. Taíno loanwords are most often used in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena, and native musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music, and dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans.
Religious affiliation in Puerto Rico (2014)
The Roman Catholic Church was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas, including that of Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511. One Pope, John Paul II, visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center, or plaza. African slaves brought and maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santería and / or Ifá, and the Kongo - derived Palo Mayombe. Some aspects were absorbed into syncretic Christianity.
Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, has slightly reemerged under United States rule, making contemporary Puerto Rico more interconfessional than in previous centuries, although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad, was established in Ponce by the Anglican Diocese of Antigua in 1872. It was the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas.
Pollster Pablo Ramos stated in 1998 that the population was 38 % Roman Catholic, 28 % Pentecostal, and 18 % were members of independent churches, which would give a Protestant percentage of 46 % if the last two populations are combined. Protestants collectively added up to almost two million people. Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants:
Puerto Rico, by virtue of its long political association with the United States, is the most Protestant of Latin American countries, with a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are Pentecostal. David Stoll calculates that if we extrapolate the growth rates of evangelical churches from 1960 -- 1985 for another twenty - five years Puerto Rico will become 75 percent evangelical. (Ana Adams: "Brincando el Charco... '' in Power, Politics and Pentecostals in Latin America, Edward Cleary, ed., 1997. p. 164).
The data provided for 2014 by Pew Research Center, is summarized in the chart to the right. An Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of whom identify themselves as Catholic '' but provided no source for this information.
The CIA World Factbook reports that 85 % of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15 % identify as Protestant and Other. Neither a date or a source for that information is provided and may not be recent. A 2013 Pew Research survey found that only about 45 % of Puerto Rican adults identified themselves as Catholic, 29 % as Protestant and 20 % as unaffiliated with a religion. The people surveyed by Pew consisted of Puerto Ricans living in the 50 states and DC and may not be indicative of those living in the Commonwealth.
By 2014, a Pew Research report, with the sub-title Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region, indicated that only 56 % of Puerto Ricans were Catholic and that 33 % were Protestant; this survey was completed between October 2013 and February 2014.
An Eastern Orthodox community, the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos / St. Spyridon 's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community. This affiliation accounted for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. In 1940, Juanita García Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin. Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered / reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have been kept by some adherents. In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island 's first synagogue; this religion accounts for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. The synagogue, called Sha'are Zedeck, hired its first rabbi in 1954. Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3000 people (date not stated), and is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements all are represented. In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13 % of the population. Eight mosques are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Río Piedras and Caguas, most of these Muslims are of Palestinian and Jordanian descent. There is also a Bahá'í community on the island. In 2015, the 25,832 Jehovah 's Witnesses represented about 0.70 % of the population, with 324 congregations. The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, as well as Nichiren Buddhism have branches in Puerto Rico. There are several atheist activist and educational organizations, and an atheistic parody religion called the Pastafarian Church of Puerto Rico.
Roman Catholic Cathedral of San Juan Bautista.
Anglican Iglesia Santísima Trinidad in Ponce
Islamic Center at Ponce
Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan
Puerto Rico has 8 senatorial districts, 40 representative districts and 78 municipalities. It has a republican form of government with separation of powers subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States. Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico 's head of state is the President of the United States.
The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The executive branch is headed by the governor, currently Ricky Rosselló. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral legislature called the Legislative Assembly, made up of a Senate as its upper chamber and a House of Representatives as its lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, currently Thomas Rivera Schatz, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House, currently Johnny Méndez. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years with the last election held in November 2016.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, currently Maite Oronoz Rodríguez. Members of the judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, the Resident Commissioner, currently Jenniffer González. Current congressional rules have removed the Commissioner 's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but the Commissioner can vote in committee.
Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans can not vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections.
Puerto Rico hosts consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe, with most located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first - order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez.
Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four - year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town ''), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.
Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD in Spanish), the New Progressive Party (PNP in Spanish) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks to maintain the island 's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, while the PNP, on the other hand, seeks to make Puerto Rico a state of the United States. The PIP, in contrast, seeks a complete separation from the United States by seeking to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation. In terms of party strength, the PPD and PNP usually hold about 47 % of the vote each while the PIP holds only about 5 %.
After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR in Spanish) was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands ' problems from a status - neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in the 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the Movimiento Unión Soberanista (MUS; English: Sovereign Union Movement) and the Partido del Pueblo Trabajador (PPT; English: Working People 's Party) but none obtained more than 1 % of the vote.
Other non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, and the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
The insular legal system is a blend of civil law and the common law systems.
Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. possession whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than American English: namely, Spanish. Because the U.S. federal government operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in U.S. federal courts, and litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts.
Title 48 of the United States Code outlines the role of the United States Code to United States territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in California. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from statutory law to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the California Penal Code.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. There is also a Federal District Court for Puerto Rico. Someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, unlike a state court, since Puerto Rico as a territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does. Such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy.
The nature of Puerto Rico 's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country.
Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress under the territorial clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution. Laws enacted at the federal level in the United States apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Like the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation '', for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations '', which is held by the U.S. federal government. The Supreme Court of the United States has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is ''.
Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens '' in 1917 as a result of the Jones - Shafroth Act. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico can not vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the United States Constitution does not fully enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
Only fundamental rights under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S. Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft whensoever it has been in effect.
Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay many kinds of U.S. federal taxes, not including the federal personal income tax for Puerto Rico - sourced income, but only under certain circumstances. In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the U.S. Treasury. Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives a smaller fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state. Also, Medicare providers receive less - than - full state - like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.
While a state may try an individual for the same crime he / she was tried in federal court, this is not the case in Puerto Rico. Being a U.S. territory, Puerto Rico 's authority to enact a criminal code derives from Congress and not from local sovereignty as with the states. Thus, such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.
In 1992, President George H.W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations.
Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S. federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Sonia Sotomayor, a New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent, serves as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high - level federal positions, including serving as United States Ambassadors to other nations.
Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the Constitution of the United States and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, regardless, it has established several trade agreements with other nations, particularly with Hispanic American countries such as Colombia and Panamá.
It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries, all Spanish - speaking, and within the United States itself, which now include Spain, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Washington, D.C., New York City and Florida, and has included in the past offices in Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Such agreements require permission from the U.S. Department of State; most, are simply allowed by existing laws or trade treaties between the United States and other nations which supersede trade agreements pursued by Puerto Rico and different U.S. states.
At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that the international relations which states and territories are allowed to engage must be handled by the Department of State of Puerto Rico, an executive department, headed by the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico, who also serves as the territory 's lieutenant governor. It is also charged to liaise with general consuls and honorary consuls based in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, along with the Office of the Resident Commissioner, manage all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the United States (including the federal government of the United States, local and state governments of the United States, and public or private entities in the United States).
Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C. - based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico 's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and others. The current Secretary of State is Víctor Suárez Meléndez from the Popular Democratic Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States, while the current Director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration is Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral also from the Popular Democratic and member of the Democratic Party.
The Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, the delegate elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the U.S. Congress, sits in the United States House of Representatives, serves and votes on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor, also engages in foreign affairs to the same extent as other members of Congress. The current Resident Commissioner is Pedro Pierluisi from the New Progressive Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States.
Many Puerto Ricans have served as United States ambassadors to different nations and international organizations, such as the Organization of American States, mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, a Puerto Rican and now an Acting Assistant Secretary of State, previously served as U.S. ambassador to El Salvador.
As it is a territory of the United States of America, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris with the President of the United States as its commander - in - chief. Puerto Rico has its own Puerto Rico National Guard, and its own state defense force, the Puerto Rico State Guard, which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard.
The commander - in - chief of both local forces is the governor of Puerto Rico who delegates his authority to the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, currently Brigadier General Isabelo Rivera. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole.
U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the U.S. Atlantic Command (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all U.S. military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM 's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as United States Joint Forces Command. Puerto Rico is currently under the responsibility of United States Northern Command.
Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all U.S. Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all U.S. military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the U.S. Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the U.S. Army at Ft Buchanan, the Puerto Rican Army and Air National Guards, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of the naval base. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in local income of $300 million.
A branch of the U.S. Army National Guard is stationed in Puerto Rico -- known as the Puerto Rico Army National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of the different states of the United States, including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the U.S. Air National Guard -- known as the Puerto Rico Air National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of each one of the U.S. states.
At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico, some very small ones, as well as large installations. The largest of these installations were the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station in Ceiba, the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on Vieques, the National Guard training facility at Camp Santiago in Salinas, Fort Allen in Juana Diaz, the Army 's Fort Buchanan in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard at Muñiz Air Force base in San Juan.
The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than U.S. Coast Guard and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico: the U.S. Army 's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG (Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C - 130 Fleet). In recent years, the U.S. Congress has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico -- such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there.
Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved. For example, they participated in the American Revolution, when volunteers from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Mexico fought the British in 1779 under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez (1746 -- 1786), and have continued to participate up to the present - day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.
A significant number of Puerto Ricans participate as members and work for the U.S. Armed Services, largely as National Guard members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military - related community in Puerto Rico is estimated to be 100,000 individuals. This includes retired personnel. Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces. Puerto Rican soldiers have served in every U.S. military conflict from World War I to the current military engagement known by the United States and its allies as the War against Terrorism.
The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers '' from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen), is a Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. The regiment 's motto is Honor et Fidelitas, Latin for Honor and Fidelity. The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the War on Terror and in 2014 was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, presented by President Barack Obama, for its heroism during the Korean War.
There are no counties, as there are in 48 of the 50 United States. There are 78 municipalities. Municipalities are subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected to four - year terms.
The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and as the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum but Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103 % of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion. According to World Bank, gross national income per capita of Puerto Rico in 2013 is $23,830 (PPP, International Dollars), ranked as 63rd among all sovereign and dependent territories entities in the world. Its economy is mainly driven by manufacturing (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by the service industry (primarily finance, insurance, real estate and tourism). In recent years, the territory has also become a popular destination for MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions), with a modern convention centre district overlooking the Port of San Juan.
The geography of Puerto Rico and its political status are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; its lack of natural resources used to produce raw materials, and, consequently, its dependence on imports; as well as its territorial status with the United States, which controls its foreign policy while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in its shipping industry.
Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by 4 quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the U.S. Internal Revenue Code had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico, and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a purchasing power parity per capita higher than 80 % of the rest of the world.
Academically, most of Puerto Rico 's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self - sufficient and self - sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 68 % of its gross domestic product throughout time.
In comparison to the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico is poorer than Mississippi (the poorest state of the U.S.) with 41 % of its population below the poverty line. When compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico 's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico 's agricultural sector represents less than 1 % of GNP.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the Governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. An internal survey conducted by the Puerto Rican Economists Association revealed that the majority of Puerto Rican economists reject the policy recommendations of the Board and the Rosselló government, with more than 80 % of economists arguing in favor of auditing the debt.
In early August 2017, the island 's financial oversight board (created by PROMESA) planned to institute two days off without pay per month for government employees, down from the original plan of four days per month; the latter had been expected to achieve $218 million in savings. Governor Rossello rejected this plan as unjustified and unnecessary. Pension reforms were also discussed including a proposal for a 10 % reduction in benefits to begin addressing the $50 billion in unfunded pension liabilities.
Puerto Rico has an operating budget of about U.S. $9.8 billion with expenses at about $10.4 billion, creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9 % of the budget). The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for 18 consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover these projected deficits rather than making structural adjustments. This practice increased Puerto Rico 's cumulative debt, as the government had already been issuing bonds to balance its actual budget for four decades since 1973.
Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued a public debt of $71 B or about 70 % of Puerto Rico 's gross domestic product. This sparked an ongoing government - debt crisis after Puerto Rico 's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status '') by three credit rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6 % -- or about $1.5 billion -- of Puerto Rico 's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service. Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the following years.
For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget '' which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico, and the "consolidated budget '' which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by Puerto Rico 's government - owned corporations, by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the federal government of the United States, and by other funds.
Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29 B and $9.0 B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government - owned corporations compose more than 31 % of the consolidated budget.
The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7 % of the consolidated budget -- a ratio that increased annually due to the government 's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government - owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt, as none is self - sufficient. For example, in FY2011 the government - owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3 B with the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409 M, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272 M, while the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112 M.
Losses by government - owned corporations have been defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40 % of Puerto Rico 's entire public debt today. Holistically, from FY2000 -- FY2010 Puerto Rico 's debt grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9 % while GDP remained stagnant. This has not always provided a long - term solution. In early July 2017 for example, the PREPA power authority was effectively bankrupt after defaulting in a plan to restructure $9 billion in bond debt; the agency planned to seek Court protection.
In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget (OGP in Spanish), formulates the budget he believes is required to operate all government branches for the ensuing fiscal year. He then submits this formulation as a budget request to the Puerto Rican legislature before July 1, the date established by law as the beginning of Puerto Rico 's fiscal year. While the constitution establishes that the request must be submitted "at the beginning of each regular session '', the request is typically submitted during the first week of May as the regular sessions of the legislature begin in January and it would be impractical to submit a request so far in advance. Once submitted, the budget is then approved by the legislature, typically with amendments, through a joint resolution and is referred back to the governor for his approval. The governor then either approves it or vetoes it. If vetoed the legislature can then either refer it back with amendments for the governor 's approval, or approve it without the governor 's consent by two - thirds of the bodies of each chamber.
Once the budget is approved, the Department of Treasury disburses funds to the Office of Management and Budget which in turn disburses the funds to the respective agencies, while the Puerto Rico Government Development Bank (the government 's intergovernmental bank) manages all related banking affairs including those related to the government - owned corporations.
The cost of living in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade. San Juan 's in particular is higher than Atlanta, Dallas, and Seattle but lower than Boston, Chicago, and New York City. One factor is housing prices which are comparable to Miami and Los Angeles, although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States.
Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24 ¢ to 30 ¢ range per kilowatt / hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States ''. While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories.
The household median income is stated as $19,350 and the mean income as $30,463 in the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update. The report also indicates that 45.5 % of individuals are below the poverty level. The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from U.S. $100,000 to U.S. $214,000, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.
One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act, which prevents foreign - flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as cabotage. Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa can not stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico - bound goods, load mainland - bound Puerto Rico - manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico - bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S. - flagged ships.
The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success. The most recent measure has been taken by the 17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico through R. Conc. del S. 21. These measures have always received support from all the major local political parties.
In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs '' and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S. - flag competition could lower costs ''. However, the same GAO report also found that "(shippers) doing business in Puerto Rico that GAO contacted reported that the freight rates are often -- although not always -- lower for foreign carriers going to and from Puerto Rico and foreign locations than the rates shippers pay to ship similar cargo to and from the United States, despite longer distances. Data were not available to allow us to validate the examples given or verify the extent to which this difference occurred. '' Ultimately, the report concluded that "(the) effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain '' for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the United States.
A 2018 study by economists at Boston - based Reeve & Associates and Puerto Rico - based Estudios Tecnicos has concluded that the Jones Act has no impact on either retail prices or the cost of livings on Puerto Rico. The study found that Puerto Rico received very similar or lower shipping freight rates when compared to neighboring islands, and that the transportation costs have no impact on retail prices on the island. The study was based in part on actual comparison of consumer goods at retail stores in San Juan, PR and Jacksonville, FL, finding: no significant difference in the prices of either grocery items or durable goods between the two locations.
The first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de Gramática (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels -- Primary (elementary school grades 1 -- 6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7 -- 12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1 %; by gender, it was 93.9 % for males and 94.4 % for females. According to the 2000 Census, 60.0 % of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3 % has a bachelor 's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. As of 2010, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.
The largest and oldest university system is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este. Other private universities include the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA - approved Law Schools.
As of 2015, medical care in Puerto Rico had been heavily impacted by emigration of doctors to the mainland and underfunding of the Medicare and Medicaid programs which serve 60 % of the island 's population. Since Puerto Ricans pay no income tax, they are not eligible for health insurance subsidies under the Affordable Care Act.
The city of San Juan has a system of triage, hospital, and preventive care health services. The municipal government sponsors regular health fairs in different areas of the city focusing on health care for the elderly and the disabled.
In 2017, there were 69 hospitals in Puerto Rico. There are twenty hospitals in San Juan, half of which are operated by the government. The largest hospital is the Centro Médico de Río Piedras (the Río Piedras Medical Center). Founded in 1956, it is operated by the Medical Services Administration of the Department of Health of Puerto Rico, and is actually a network of eight hospitals:
The city of San Juan operates nine other hospitals. Of these, eight are Diagnostic and Treatment Centers located in communities throughout San Juan. These nine hospitals are:
There are also ten private hospitals in San Juan. These are:
The city of Ponce is served by several clinics and hospitals. There are four comprehensive care hospitals: Hospital Dr. Pila, Hospital San Cristobal, Hospital San Lucas, and Hospital de Damas. In addition, Hospital Oncológico Andrés Grillasca specializes in the treatment of cancer, and Hospital Siquiátrico specializes in mental disorders. There is also a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Outpatient Clinic that provides health services to U.S. veterans. The U.S. Veterans Administration will build a new hospital in the city to satisfy regional needs. Hospital de Damas is listed in the U.S. News & World Report as one of the best hospitals under the U.S. flag. Ponce has the highest concentration of medical infrastructure per inhabitant of any municipality in Puerto Rico.
On the island of Culebra, there is a small hospital in the island called Hospital de Culebra. It also offers pharmacy services to residents and visitors. For emergencies, patients are transported by plane to Fajardo on the main island.
The town of Caguas has three hospitals: Hospital Hima San Pablo, Menonita Caguas Regional Hospital, and the San Juan Bautista Medical Center.
The town of Cayey is served by the Hospital Menonita de Cayey, and the Hospital Municipal de Cayey.
Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Health Reform) -- locally referred to as La Reforma (The Reform) -- is a government - run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and impoverished, by means of contracting private health insurance companies, rather than employing government - owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.
The overall rate of crime is low in Puerto Rico. The territory has a high firearm homicide rate. The homicide rate of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants was significantly higher than any U.S. state in 2014. Most homicide victims are gang members and drug traffickers with about 80 % of homicides in Puerto Rico being drug related.
Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including European (predominantly Spanish, Italian, French, German and Irish), African, and, more recently, some North American and lots of South Americans. A large number of Cubans and Dominicans have relocated to the island in the past few decades.
From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English - language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12, 1903, the University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial '', a smaller organization that was founded in Fajardo three years before.
Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences which have reached Puerto Rico.
The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the reinita mora or Puerto Rican spindalis (a type of bird), the flor de maga (a type of flower), and the ceiba or kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the jíbaro (the "countryman ''), and the carite.
The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. Spanish colonial architecture, Ibero - Islamic, art deco, post-modern, and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions.
Old San Juan is one of the two barrios, in addition to Santurce, that made up the municipality of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of Río Piedras was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree - shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including San José Church and the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista, which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865.
The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable forts, such as the emblematic Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal, and El Palacio de Santa Catalina, also known as La Fortaleza, acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. La Fortaleza continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the Governor of Puerto Rico. Many of the historic fortifications are part of San Juan National Historic Site.
During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small Manhattan ''. Strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the Hotel El Convento in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly Havana, Lima and Cartagena de Indias.
Ponce Creole is an architectural style created in Ponce, Puerto Rico, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in Ponce that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of the French, the Spaniards, and the Caribbean to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico 's Caribbean Sea coast. It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from Classical revival and Spanish Revival to Victorian.
Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of folk art, called santos evolved from the Catholic Church 's use of sculptures to convert indigenous Puerto Ricans to Christianity. Santos depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple, they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. Santos vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household altars, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection.
Also popular, caretas or vejigantes are masks worn during carnivals. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed Christians into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins Puerto Rican caretas always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of papier - mâché, coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for caretas but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns.
Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of oral story telling to its present - day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island were allowed to write.
Diego de Torres Vargas was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition for three reasons: he was a priest, he came from a prosperous Spanish family, and his father was a Sergeant Major in the Spanish Army, who died while defending Puerto Rico from an invasion by the Dutch armada. In 1647, Torres Vargas wrote Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico ''). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.
The book described all the fruits and commercial establishments of the time, mostly centered in the towns of San Juan and Ponce. The book also listed and described every mine, church, and hospital in the island at the time. The book contained notices on the State and Capital, plus an extensive and erudite bibliography. Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico was the first successful attempt at writing a comprehensive history of Puerto Rico.
Some of Puerto Rico 's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of Rafael Cordero. Among these was Dr. Manuel A. Alonso, the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published El Gíbaro, a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán in 1863, which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.
In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish -- American War and the island was ceded to the Americans as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition to the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.
Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste was another Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work The Indo - Antillano Vocabulary is valuable in understanding the way the Taínos lived. Dr. Manuel Zeno Gandía in 1894 wrote La Charca and told about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Dr. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion.
With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the Nuyorican Movement. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish and many Puerto Ricans have since distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, screenwriters, essayists and have also stood out in other literary fields. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include Ed Vega, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, and Miguel Piñero. Esmeralda Santiago has written an autobiographical trilogy about growing up in modern Puerto Rico as well as an historical novel, Conquistadora, about life on a sugar plantation during the mid-19th century.
The media in Puerto Rico includes local radio stations, television stations and newspapers, the majority of which are conducted in Spanish. There are also three stations of the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. Newspapers with daily distribution are El Nuevo Dia, El Vocero and Indice, Metro, and Primera Hora. El Vocero is distributed free of charge as well as Indice and Metro.
Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include Claridad, La Perla del Sur, La Opinion, Vision, and La Estrella del Norte, among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include WIPR - TV, Telemundo, Univision Puerto Rico, WAPA - TV, and WKAQ - TV.
The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from indigenous genres like bomba, plena, aguinaldo, danza and salsa to recent hybrids like reggaeton.
Puerto Rico has some national instruments, like the cuatro (Spanish for "four ''). The cuatro is a local instrument that was made by the "Jibaro '' or people from the mountains. Originally, the Cuatro consisted of four steel strings, hence its name, but currently the Cuatro consists of five double steel strings. It is easily confused with a guitar, even by locals. When held upright, from right to left, the strings are G, D, A, E, B.
In the realm of classical music, the island hosts two main orchestras, the Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The Casals Festival takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world.
With respect to opera, the legendary Puerto Rican tenor Antonio Paoli was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for Pope Pius X and the Czar Nicholas II of Russia. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera -- when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan, Italy.
Over the past fifty years, Puerto Rican artists such as Jorge Emmanuelli, Yomo Toro, Ramito, Jose Feliciano, Bobby Capo, Rafael Cortijo, Ismael Rivera, Chayanne, Tito Puente, Eddie Palmieri, Ray Barreto, Dave Valentin, Omar Rodríguez - López, Hector Lavoe, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony and Luis Fonsi have gained fame internationally.
Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the native Taínos. In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the United States in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island, and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago. Basic ingredients include grains and legumes, herbs and spices, starchy tropical tubers, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include mofongo, arroz con gandules, pasteles, alcapurrias and pig roast (or lechón). Beverages include maví and piña colada. Desserts include flan, arroz con dulce (sweet rice pudding), piraguas, brazo gitanos, tembleque, polvorones, and dulce de leche.
Locals call their cuisine cocina criolla. The traditional Puerto Rican cuisine was well established by the end of the 19th century. By 1848 the first restaurant, La Mallorquina, opened in Old San Juan. El Cocinero Puertorriqueño, the island 's first cookbook was published in 1849.
From the diet of the Taíno people come many tropical roots and tubers like yautía (taro) and especially Yuca (cassava), from which thin cracker - like casabe bread is made. Ajicito or cachucha pepper, a slightly hot habanero pepper, recao / culantro (spiny leaf), achiote (annatto), peppers, ají caballero (the hottest pepper native to Puerto Rico), peanuts, guavas, pineapples, jicacos (cocoplum), quenepas (mamoncillo), lerenes (Guinea arrowroot), calabazas (tropical pumpkins), and guanabanas (soursops) are all Taíno foods. The Taínos also grew varieties of beans and some maize / corn, but maize was not as dominant in their cooking as it was for the peoples living on the mainland of Mesoamerica. This is due to the frequent hurricanes that Puerto Rico experiences, which destroy crops of maize, leaving more safeguarded plants like conucos (hills of yuca grown together).
Spanish / European influence is also seen in Puerto Rican cuisine. Wheat, chickpeas (garbanzos), capers, olives, olive oil, black pepper, onions, garlic, cilantrillo (cilantro), oregano, basil, sugarcane, citrus fruit, eggplant, ham, lard, chicken, beef, pork, and cheese all came to Borikén (Puerto Rico 's native Taino name) from Spain. The tradition of cooking complex stews and rice dishes in pots such as rice and beans are also thought to be originally European (much like Italians, Spaniards, and the British). Early Dutch, French, Italian, and Chinese immigrants influenced not only the culture but Puerto Rican cooking as well. This great variety of traditions came together to form La Cocina Criolla.
Coconuts, coffee (brought by the Arabs and Corsos to Yauco from Kafa, Ethiopia), okra, yams, sesame seeds, gandules (pigeon peas in English) sweet bananas, plantains, other root vegetables and Guinea hen, all come to Puerto Rico from Africa.
Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps and four personalities have been featured. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring ' La Fortaleza ', the Spanish Governor 's Palace. The first free election for governor of the U.S. colony of Puerto Rico was honored on April 27, 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. ' Inauguration ' on the 3 - cent stamp refers to the election of Luis Munoz Marin, the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8 - cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued September 12, 1971, featuring a sentry box from Castillo San Felipe del Morro. In the "Flags of our nation series '' 2008 -- 2012, of the fifty - five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the Puerto Rico Flag illustrated by a bird issued 2011.
Four Puerto Rican personalities have been featured on U.S. postage stamps. These include Roberto Clemente in 1984 as an individual and in the Legends of Baseball series issued in 2000. Luis Muñoz Marín in the Great Americans series, on February 18, 1990, Julia de Burgos in the Literary Arts series, issued 2010, and José Ferrer in the Distinguished American series, issued 2012.
Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals.
The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the Caribbean Series (winning fourteen times) and the World Baseball Classic. On March 2006, San Juan 's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. Puerto Rican baseball players include Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente, Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.
Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gómez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others.
The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92 -- 73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top - level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930.
Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008, the archipelago 's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established.
Other sports include professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World 's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars '' team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.
Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball '' competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1 's Mixtape Tour Team. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato '' Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, in 1995 became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rico hosted the Pan Am Games in 1979 (officially in San Juan), and The Central American and Caribbean Games were hosted in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in Mayagüez.
Puerto Rican athletes have won nine medals in Olympic competition (one gold, two silver, six bronze), the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. Monica Puig won the first gold medal for Puerto Rico in the Olympic Games by winning the Women 's Tennis singles title in Rio 2016.
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department. The island 's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico 's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (private mini buses).
Puerto Rico has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.
Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty - foot containers (TEUs) per year.
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) -- Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE) -- is an electric power company and the government - owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power transmission, and power distribution in Puerto Rico. PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. The Authority is ruled by a Governing Board appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico, and is run by an Executive Director.
Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). As of 2007, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island.
Geography
United States government
United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico
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who built the twin towers in new york | World Trade Center (1973 -- 2001) - wikipedia
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
The original World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It featured the landmark Twin Towers, which opened on April 4, 1973 and were destroyed in 2001 during the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers -- the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet (417 m); and 2 World Trade Center, at 1,362 feet (415.1 m) -- were the tallest buildings in the world. Other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. The complex was located in New York City 's Financial District and contained 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m) of office space.
The core of the complex was built between 1975 and 1985, with a cost of $400 million (equivalent to $2.27 billion in 2018). The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13, 1975, a bombing on February 26, 1993, and a bank robbery on January 14, 1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a private company to manage, and awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001.
On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al - Qaeda - affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of each other; two hours later, both towers collapsed. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft. Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the buildings in the complex and caused catastrophic damage to ten other large structures in the surrounding area.
The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which the remains of the other buildings were demolished. The World Trade Center complex was rebuilt over more than a decade. The site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers, while a memorial to those killed in the attacks and a new rapid transit hub have both opened. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the United States, is the lead building for the new complex, reaching more than 100 stories upon completion in November 2014.
The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River, with the shoreline in the vicinity of Greenwich Street. It was on this shoreline close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block 's ship, the Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding Block and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended starting in 1797, and were discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second ship from the eighteenth century were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers used to stand, about 20 feet below the surface.
Later, the area became Radio Row. New York City 's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966, was a warehouse district on the Lower West Side in the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., ARC - 5 radios), junk, and parts often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business.
The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan.
Plans for the use of eminent domain to remove the shops in Radio Row bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets began in 1961 when the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was deciding to build the world 's first world trade center. They had two choices: the east side of Lower Manhattan, near the South Street Seaport; and the west side, near the H&M station, Hudson Terminal. Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center. As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a $335 million project. Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate.
At the time, ridership on New Jersey 's Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958 after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River. In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad. The Port Authority also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH. With the new location and Port Authority acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project. As part of the deal, the Port Authority renamed the H&M "Port Authority Trans - Hudson '', or PATH for short.
In compensation for Radio Row business owners ' displacement, the PANYNJ gave each business $3,000 each, without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous the business was. After the area had been purchased for the World Trade Center in March 1964, Radio Row was demolished starting in March 1965. It was completely demolished by 1966.
Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached that the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants. In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased.
On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects. Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers; Yamasaki 's original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall, but to meet the Port Authority 's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.
Yamasaki 's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side. The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18 inches (46 cm) wide, which reflected Yamasaki 's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure. Yamasaki 's design included building facades sheathed in aluminum - alloy. The World Trade Center was one of the most - striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier, and it was the seminal expression of Yamasaki 's gothic modernist tendencies.
A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service the building, requiring more space - consuming elevator banks. Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies '' -- floors where people could switch from a large - capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local - express train operation that New York City 's subway system used, allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts. Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators.
The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki 's design, developing the tube - frame structural system used in the twin towers. The Port Authority 's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority 's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project. As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including building codes. Nonetheless, the structural engineers of the World Trade Center ended up following draft versions of the new 1968 building codes.
The tube - frame design, earlier introduced by Fazlur Khan, was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. The World Trade Center towers used high - strength, load - bearing perimeter steel columns called Vierendeel trusses that were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns. The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates. The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off - site at the fabrication shop. Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically, so that the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor.
The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column - free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of 4 inches (10 cm) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors. The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants.
Hat trusses (or "outrigger truss '') located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building. Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an antenna fitted; it was added in 1978. The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.
The tube frame design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed - on fire resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the Empire State Building that have thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements. During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces. Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate; however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects. One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sway. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level.
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site. Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for construction of the World Trade Center. Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966.
The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below. To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a "bathtub '' with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out. The slurry method selected by Port Authority 's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a "slurry '' mixture composed of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the "slurry '' out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed. It was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin. The 1,200,000 cubic yards (920,000 m) of material excavated were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City.
In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers. Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968, and construction on the South Tower was under way by January 1969. The original Hudson Tubes, which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service during the construction process until 1971, when a new station opened. The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, while 2 WTC 's ceremony (South Tower) occurred later on July 19, 1971. The first tenants moved into the North Tower on December 15, 1970, while the South Tower started accepting tenants in January 1972. When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on April 4, 1973.
In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low - rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47 - story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16 - acre (65,000 m) superblock.
Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. The site for the World Trade Center was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation. A group of affected small businesses sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority 's power of eminent domain. The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; the Court refused to accept the case.
Private real estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much "subsidized '' office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector when there was already a glut of vacancies. The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979 and then only due to the fact that the complex 's subsidy by the Port Authority made rents charged for its office space relatively cheaper than that of comparable office space in other buildings. Others questioned whether the Port Authority should have taken on a project described by some as a "mistaken social priority ''.
The World Trade Center design brought criticism of its aesthetics from the American Institute of Architects and other groups. Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project and described it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass - and - metal filing cabinets ''. The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in ''. The twin towers ' narrow office windows, only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots, were disliked by many. Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs also criticized plans for the WTC 's construction, arguing that the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy.
The trade center 's "superblock '', replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, was regarded by some critics as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an "example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city ''.
In 1982, the immense plaza between the twin towers was renamed after the Port Authority 's late chairman, Austin J. Tobin. During the summer, the Port Authority installed a portable stage within Tobin Plaza for performers. For many years, the Austin J. Tobin Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers. In fact, some gusts were so high that pedestrian travel had to be aided by ropes. In 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million renovations, which involved replacing marble pavers with gray and pink granite stones, adding new benches, planters, new restaurants, food kiosks and outdoor dining areas.
On a typical weekday 50,000 people worked in the towers with another 200,000 passing through as visitors. The complex was so large that it had its own zip code: 10048. The towers offered expansive views from the observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant on top of the North Tower. The Twin Towers became known worldwide, appearing in numerous movies and television shows as well as on postcards and other merchandise, and became seen as a New York icon, in the same league as the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building and the Statue of Liberty. The World Trade Center was compared to Rockefeller Center, which David Rockefeller 's brother Nelson had developed in midtown Manhattan.
One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly the Twin Towers, the idea of which was brought up by Minoru Yamasaki, were designed as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls. They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center. The North Tower (One World Trade Center), the tallest building in the world at 1,368 feet (417 m) by the time of its completion, began construction in 1966 with the South Tower (2 World Trade Center); extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process, and the first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970, while it was still under construction. When completed in 1973, the South Tower, Two World Trade Center (the South Tower) became the second tallest building in the world at 1,362 feet (415 m); the South Tower 's rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high. Each tower stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (4,000 m) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m) of the site 's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110 - story buildings? Why not one 220 - story building? '' His tongue - in - cheek response was: "I did n't want to lose the human scale. ''
When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after a 40 - year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall and featured a telecommunications antenna or mast that was added at the top of the roof in 1978 and stood 362 feet (110 m) tall. With the 362 - foot (110 m) - tall antenna / mast, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,730 feet (530 m). Chicago 's Sears Tower, finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop. Throughout their existence, the WTC towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building. This number was not surpassed until the advent of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Each tower had a total mass of around 500,000 tons.
Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off - limits to the public, the South Tower featured two public viewing areas called Top of the World Trade Center Observatories: an indoor one on the 107th floor and an outdoor one on the roof. Visitors would pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, then were sent to the 107th - floor indoor observatory at a height of 1,310 feet (400 m). The exterior columns on each side of the floor were narrowed to allow 28 inches of window width between them. The Port Authority renovated the observatory in 1995, then leased it to Ogden Entertainment to operate. Attractions added to the observation deck included a simulated helicopter ride around the city. The 107th - floor food court was designed with a subway car theme and featured Sbarro and Nathan 's Famous Hot Dogs. Weather permitting, visitors could ride two short escalators up from the 107th - floor viewing area to an outdoor platform at a height of 1,377 ft (420 m). On a clear day, visitors could see up to 50 miles (80 km). An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing and leaving the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building.
The North Tower had a restaurant on its 106th and 107th floors called Windows on the World, which opened in April 1976. The restaurant was developed by Joe Baum at a cost of more than $17 million. Aside from the main restaurant, two offshoots were located at the top of the North Tower: "Hors d'Oeuvrerie '' (offered a Danish smorgasbord during the day and sushi in the evening) and "Cellar in the Sky '' (a small wine bar). Windows on the World also had a wine school program run by Kevin Zraly, who published a book on the course.
Windows on the World was closed following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Upon reopening in 1996, Hors d'Oeuvrerie and Cellar in the Sky were replaced with the "Greatest Bar on Earth '' and "Wild Blue ''. In 2000, its last full year of operation, Windows on the World reported revenues of $37 million, making it the highest - grossing restaurant in the United States. The Sky Dive Restaurant, on the 44th floor of the North Tower, was also operated by Windows on the World.
In its last iteration, Windows on the World received mixed reviews. Ruth Reichl, a New York Times food critic, said in December 1996 that "nobody will ever go to Windows on the World just to eat, but even the fussiest food person can now be content dining at one of New York 's favorite tourist destinations. '' She gave the restaurant two out of four stars, signifying a "very good '' quality rather than "excellent '' (three stars) or "extraordinary '' (four stars). In his 2009 book Appetite, William Grimes wrote that "At Windows, New York was the main course. '' In 2014, Ryan Sutton of Eater.com compared the now - destroyed restaurant 's cuisine to that of its replacement, One World Observatory. He stated, "Windows helped usher in a new era of captive audience dining in that the restaurant was a destination in itself, rather than a lazy byproduct of the vital institution it resided in. ''
Five smaller buildings stood around the 16 acres (65,000 m) block. One was the 22 - floor hotel, which opened at the southwest corner of the site in 1981 as the Vista Hotel; in 1995, it became the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC). Three low - rise buildings (4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC) in the same hollow tube design as the towers also stood around the plaza. 6 World Trade Center, at the northwest corner, housed the United States Customs Service and the U.S. Commodities Exchange. 5 World Trade Center was located at the northeast corner above the PATH station and 4 World Trade Center was at the southeast corner. In 1987, construction was completed on a 47 - floor office building, 7 World Trade Center, located to the north of the superblock. Beneath the World Trade Center complex was an underground shopping mall, which in turn had connections to various mass transit facilities, including the New York City Subway system and the Port Authority 's PATH trains.
One of the world 's largest gold depositories was stored underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault. Seven weeks after the September 11 attacks, $230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC, which included 3,800 100 - Troy - ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000 - ounce silver bars.
On February 13, 1975, a three - alarm fire broke out on the 11th floor of the North Tower. Fire spread through the tower to the 9th and 14th floors by igniting the insulation of telephone cables in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors. Areas at the furthest extent of the fire were extinguished almost immediately and the original fire was put out in a few hours. Most of the damage was concentrated on the 11th floor, fueled by cabinets filled with paper, alcohol - based fluid for office machines, and other office equipment. Fireproofing protected the steel and there was no structural damage to the tower. In addition to damage caused by the fire on the 9th -- 14th floors, water from the extinguishing of the fires damaged a few floors below. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems.
The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12: 17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with 1,500 pounds (680 kg) of explosives, planted by Ramzi Yousef, detonated in the underground garage of the North Tower. The blast opened a 100 - foot (30 m) hole through five sublevels with the greatest damage occurring on levels B1 and B2 and significant structural damage on level B3. Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured during escape attempts complicated by smoke infiltration from the base of the building up to the 93rd floor of both towers. Many people inside the North Tower were forced to walk down darkened stairwells that contained no emergency lighting, some taking two hours or more to reach safety.
Yousef fled to Pakistan after the bombing but was arrested in Islamabad in February 1995, and was extradited back to the United States to face trial. Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman was convicted in 1996 for involvement in the bombing and other plots. Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were convicted in November 1997 for their carrying out the bombing. Four others had been convicted in May 1994 for their involvement in the 1993 bombing. According to a presiding judge, the conspirators ' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the north tower and send it crashing into the south tower, toppling both landmarks.
Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns. The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and loss of the floor slabs that provided lateral support against pressure from Hudson River water on the other side. The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5, which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged. After the bombing, the Port Authority installed photoluminescent markings in the stairwells. The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced because critical wiring and signaling in the original system was destroyed. As a memorial to the victims of the bombing of the tower, a reflecting pool was installed with the names of those who had been killed in the blast. However, the memorial was destroyed following the September 11 attacks. Names of the victims of the 1993 bombing are included in the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.
In January 1998, Mafia member Ralph Guarino, who had gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center, arranged a three - man crew for a heist that netted over $2 million from a Brinks delivery to the eleventh floor of the World Trade Center.
In 1981, an Aerolineas Argentinas airliner was guided away by air traffic controllers following radar signals that indicated it was on a collision course with the North Tower (1 WTC). The aircraft was flying at a much lower altitude than regulations recommended, while scheduled to land at nearby Kennedy International Airport.
In 1983, on Memorial Day, high - rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower (1 WTC). His stunt was meant to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers.
The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower.
In 1998, the Port Authority approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center. In 2001, the Port Authority sought to lease the World Trade Center to a private entity. Bids for the lease came from Vornado Realty Trust, a joint bid between Brookfield Properties Corporation and Boston Properties, and a joint bid by Silverstein Properties and The Westfield Group. By privatizing the World Trade Center, it would be added to the city 's tax rolls and provide funds for other Port Authority projects. On February 15, 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the lease for the World Trade Center, paying $3.25 billion for the 99 - year lease. Vornado outbid Silverstein by $600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to $3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39 - year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable. Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein 's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on April 26, 2001, and closed on July 24, 2001.
On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the northern façade of the North Tower at 8: 46: 40 a.m., the aircraft striking between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9: 03: 11 a.m., a second group crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors. The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people. Flight 175 had a much more off - centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to pass through it successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number, fewer than 700, were killed instantly or trapped.
At 9: 59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10: 28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes. At 5: 20 p.m. on September 11, 2001, 7 World Trade Center started to collapse with the crumble of the east penthouse, and it collapsed completely at 5: 21 p.m. owing to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure.
The Marriott World Trade Center, a hotel, was destroyed during the collapse of the two towers. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and later were demolished. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months. The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned owing to the uninhabitable toxic conditions inside; it was deconstructed, with work completed in early 2011. The Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned owing to extensive damage, and it was demolished and completely rebuilt.
In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could be inside the World Trade Center, although the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that approximately 17,400 occupants were in the towers at the time of the attacks. Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9 / 11 attacks in New York City, including one filed for Felicia Dunn - Jones, who was added to the official death toll in May 2007; Dunn - Jones died five months later from a lung condition linked to exposure to dust during the collapse of the World Trade Center. Three other victims were then added to the official death toll by the city medical examiner 's office: Dr. Sneha Anne Philip, who was last seen the day before the attacks; Leon Heyward, a man who developed lymphoma and subsequently died in 2008 as a result of dust ingestion during the events following the attacks to the Twin Towers; and Jerry Borg, who died in December 2010 of pulmonary sarcoidosis determined in June 2011 to be the result of dust from the attacks. 2,192 civilians died in and around the World Trade Center, including 658 employees of Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the 101st -- 105th floors of One World Trade Center), 295 employees of Marsh & McLennan Companies (which was located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 -- 101, the location of Flight 11 's impact), and 175 employees of Aon Corporation. In addition to the civilian deaths, 343 New York City Fire Department (FDNY) firefighters were killed in the attacks, as well as 71 law enforcement officers, including 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) and 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Ten years after the attacks, remains of only 1,629 victims had been identified. Of all the people who were still in the towers when they collapsed, only 20 were pulled out alive.
Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process, organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design. Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan; however, substantial changes were made to the design.
The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened in May 2006. The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011, and the museum opened in May 2014. 1 WTC opened on November 3, 2014; 4 WTC opened on November 13, 2013; and 3 WTC opened on June 11, 2018.
As of November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC will not be built to its full height until sufficient leasing is established to make the building financially viable. In Summer 2015, Silverstein Properties revealed plans for a redesigned Tower 2 with News Corp as the core tenant; the Bjarke Ingels - designed structure was expected to be finished by 2020. 5 WTC will be developed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, but above - ground construction was suspended in November 2013 due to a lack of tenants as well as disputes between the Port Authority and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation.
The original World Trade Center created a superblock that cut through the area 's street grid, isolating the complex from the rest of the community. The Port Authority had demolished several streets to make way for the towers within the World Trade Center. The project involved combining the twelve - block area bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets on the north, east, south, and west, respectively. 7 World Trade Center, built on the superblock 's north side in the late 1980s, was built over another block of Greenwich Street. The building acted as a physical barrier separating Tribeca to the north and the Financial District to the south. The underground mall at the World Trade Center also drew shoppers away from surrounding streets.
The project was seen as being monolithic and overambitious, while not involving public input. By contrast, the rebuilding plans had significant public input, and the public supported rebuilding a street grid through the World Trade Center site. One of the rebuilding proposals included building an enclosed shopping street along the path of Cortlandt Street, one of the streets demolished to make room for the original World Trade Center. However, it was ultimately decided to build Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, which had been destroyed during the original World Trade Center 's construction.
Prior to 2001, the World Trade Center was an icon of New York City, and the Twin Towers were the centerpiece that represented the entire complex. The Twin Towers were used as "establishing shots '', standing for New York City as a whole. In 1999, one writer noted: "Nearly every guidebook in New York City lists the Twin Towers among the city 's top ten attractions. '' Consequently, several high - profile events that occurred at the World Trade Center. The most notable one occurred in 1974, French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the towers on a tightrope, as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008) and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015). Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable. In 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower (2 WTC). He later said, "It looked unscalable; I thought I 'd like to try it. ''
The complex was featured in numerous works of popular culture; one estimate in 2006 noted that the World Trade Center has appeared in some form in 472 films. Several iconic meanings were attributed to the World Trade Center. The film critic David Sterritt, who lived near the complex, stated that the World Trade Center 's appearance in the 1978 film Superman "summarized a certain kind of American grandeur (...) the grandeur, I would say, of sheer American powerfulness. '' Remarking on the towers ' destruction in the 1996 film Independence Day, Sterritt said, "The Twin Towers have been destroyed in various disaster movies that were made before 9 / 11. That became something that you could n't do even retroactively after 9 / 11. '' Other motifs included romance, depicted in the 1988 film Working Girl, and corporate avarice, depicted in Wall Street (1987) and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1987). Comic books, animated cartoons, television shows, video games, and music videos also used the complex as a setting.
After the September 11 attacks, some movies and TV shows deleted scenes or episodes set within the World Trade Center. For example, the Simpsons episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson '', which first aired in 1997, was removed from syndication after the attacks because a scene showed the World Trade Center. Songs that mentioned the World Trade Center were no longer allowed to be aired on the radio, and the release dates of some films, such as Sidewalks of New York, were delayed so producers could remove scenes that included the World Trade Center.
Other episodes and films mentioned the attacks directly, or depicted the World Trade Center in alternate contexts. The production of some family - oriented films was also sped up due to a large demand for that genre following the attacks, while demand for horror and action films decreased. Within a short time, however, demand for horror and action films returned to normal. By the first anniversary of the attacks, over sixty "memorial films '' had been created. Filmmakers were criticized for removing scenes related to the World Trade Center. Rita Kempley of the Washington Post stated that "if we erase the towers from our art, we erase it (sic) from our memories. '' Author Donald Langmead compared the phenomenon to the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty - Four, where historic mentions of events are retroactively "rectified ''. Oliver Stone 's film World Trade Center -- the first movie that specifically examined the effects of the attacks on the World Trade Center, as opposed to the effects elsewhere -- was released in 2006.
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how many live on the big island of hawaii | Hawaii (island) - wikipedia
Hawaii
Hawaiʻi (English: / həˈwaɪ. i, - ji, - ʔi / (listen) hə - WY - (y) ee; Hawaiian: (həˈvɐjʔi)) is the largest island located in the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is the largest and the southeasternmost of the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of volcanic islands in the North Pacific Ocean. With an area of 4,028 square miles (10,430 km), it has 63 % of the Hawaiian archipelago 's combined landmass, and is the largest island in the United States. However, it has only 13 % of Hawaiʻi 's people. The island of Hawaiʻi is the third largest island in Polynesia, behind the two main islands of New Zealand.
The island is often referred to as the Island of Hawaiʻi, the Big Island, the Big I, or Hawaiʻi Island to distinguish it from the state. Administratively, the whole island encompasses Hawaiʻi County.
As of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079. The county seat and largest city is Hilo. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County (see List of counties in Hawaii).
Hawaiʻi is said to have been named after Hawaiʻiloa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. Other accounts attribute the name to the legendary realm of Hawaiki, a place from which some Polynesian people are said to have originated, the place where they transition to in the afterlife, or the realm of the gods and goddesses. Captain James Cook, the English explorer and navigator who was captain of the first European expedition that discovered the Hawaiian Islands, called them the "Sandwich Islands '' after his patron, the Earl of Sandwich. Cook was killed on the Big Island at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779, in a mêlée which followed the theft of a ship 's boat.
Hawaiʻi was the home island of Paiʻea Kamehameha, later known as Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha united most of the Hawaiian islands under his rule in 1795, after several years of war, and gave the kingdom and the island chain the name of his native island.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 5,086 square miles (13,170 km), of which 4,028 square miles (10,430 km) is land and 1,058 square miles (2,740 km) (20.8 %) is water. The county 's land area comprises 62.7 percent of the state 's land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States.
At its greatest dimension, the island is 93 miles (150 km) across. It has a land area of 4,028 square miles (10,430 km) comprising 62 % of the Hawaiian Islands ' land area. Measured from its sea floor base to its highest peak, Mauna Kea is the world 's tallest mountain, taller than even Mount Everest, since the base of Mount Everest is above sea level.
The island of Hawaiʻi is built from five separate shield volcanoes that erupted somewhat sequentially, one overlapping the other. These are (from oldest to youngest):
Geological evidence from exposures of old surfaces on the south and west flanks of Mauna Loa led to the proposal that two ancient volcanic shields (named Ninole and Kulani) were all but buried by the younger Mauna Loa. Geologists now consider these "outcrops '' to be part of the earlier building of Mauna Loa.
Because Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are active volcanoes, the island of Hawaii is still growing. Between January 1983 and September 2002, lava flows added 543 acres (220 ha) to the island. Lava flowing from Kīlauea has destroyed several towns, including Kapoho in 1960, and Kalapana and Kaimū in 1990. In 1987 lava filled in "Queen 's Bath '', a large, L - shaped, freshwater pool in the Kalapana area.
Ka Lae, the southernmost point in the 50 states of the United States, is on Hawaii. The nearest landfall to the south is in the Line Islands. To the northwest of the island of Hawaii is the island of Maui, whose Haleakalā volcano is visible from Hawaii across the Alenuihaha Channel.
Some geologists count seven volcanoes as building the island, which include the submarine volcanoes Māhukona and Lōʻihi as parts of the base of the island. Māhukona off the northwest corner of the island has already disappeared below the surface of the ocean. Approximately 22 miles (35 km) southeast of Hawaii lies the undersea volcano known as Lōʻihi. It is an erupting seamount that now reaches approximately 3,200 feet (980 m) below the surface of the ocean. Continued activity at current rates from Lōʻihi will likely cause it to break the surface of the ocean sometime between 10,000 and 100,000 years from now.
The Great Crack is an eight - mile - long (13,000 m), 60 - foot - wide (18 m) and 60 - foot - deep (18 m) fissure in the island, in the district of Kau. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Great Crack is the result of crustal dilation from magmatic intrusions into the southwest rift zone of Kilauea. While neither the earthquake of 1868 nor that of 1975 caused a measurable change in the Great Crack, lava welled out of the lower 6 miles (10 km) of the Great Crack in 1823.
Visitors can find trails, rock walls, and archaeological sites from as old as the 12th century around the Great Crack. Approximately 1,951 acres (790 ha) of private land were purchased during the presidency of Bill Clinton, specifically to protect various artifacts in this area, as well as the habitat of local wildlife.
The Hilina Slump is a 4,760 - cubic - mile (19,800 km) chunk of the south slope of the Kīlauea volcano which is slipping away from the island. Between 1990 and 1993, Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements showed a southward displacement of about 4 inches (10 cm) per year. Undersea measurements show that a "bench '' has formed a buttress and that this buttress may tend to reduce the likelihood of future catastrophic detachment.
On April 2, 1868, an earthquake with a magnitude estimated between 7.25 and 7.9 on the Richter scale rocked the southeast coast of Hawaii. This was the most destructive earthquake in the recorded history of Hawaii. It triggered a landslide on Mauna Loa, 5 miles (8 km) north of Pahala, killing 31 people. A tsunami claimed 46 more lives. The villages of Punaluʻu, Nīnole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. The tsunami reportedly rolled over the tops of the coconut trees up to 60 feet (18 m) high, and it reached inland a distance of a quarter of a mile (400 meters) in some places.
On 29 November 1975, a 37 - mile - wide (60 km) section of the Hilina Slump dropped 11.5 feet (3.5 m) and slid 26 feet (7.9 m) toward the ocean. This movement caused a 7.2 magnitude earthquake and a 48 - foot - high (15 m) tsunami. Oceanfront property was washed off its foundations in Punaluu. Two deaths were reported at Halape, and 19 other people were injured.
The island suffered tsunami damage from earthquakes in Alaska on 1 April 1946, and in Chile on 23 May 1960. Downtown Hilo was severely damaged by both tsunamis, with many lives lost. Just north of Hilo, Laupāhoehoe lost 16 schoolchildren and five teachers in the tsunami of 1946.
In March 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake off the east coast of Japan again created a tsunami that caused minor damage in Hawaii. The estimated damage to public buildings alone was about US $3 million. In the Kona area this tsunami washed a house into Kealakekua Bay, destroyed a yacht club and tour boat offices in Keauhou Bay, caused extensive damage in Kailua Kona, flooded the ground floor of the King Kamehameha Hotel, and permanently closed the Kona Village Resort.
In early May 2018, hundreds of small earthquakes were detected on Kīlauea 's East rift zone, leading officials to issue evacuation warnings. On May 3, 2018, the volcano erupted in Puna after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, causing evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions. A seemingly related 5.3 magnitude quake and a subsequent 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on May 4.
Vog (volcanic fog) can envelop the island. The gas plumes of the Kīlauea Volcano create a blanket of vog which the dominant trade winds mostly deflect toward the Kona coast on the west side of the island of Hawaiʻi. Vog contains chemicals that can damage the environment and the health of plants, humans, and other animals. Most of the aerosols are acidic and of a size where they can remain in the lungs to damage them and impair function. Flu - like symptoms and general lethargy are reported, and are especially pronounced in people with respiratory conditions.
As of the census of 2010, the island had a resident population of 185,079. There were 64,382 households in the county. The population density was 17.7 / km (45.9 / mi). There were 82,324 housing units at an average density of 8 / km (20 / mi). The racial makeup of the county was 34.5 % White, 0.7 % African American, 22.6 % Asian, 12.4 % Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 29.2 % from two or more races; 11.8 % of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race.
There were 64,382 households out of which 32.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.6 % were married couples living together, 13.2 % had a woman whose husband did not live with her, and 30.4 % were non-families. 23.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.24.
The age distribution was 26.1 % under 18, 8.2 % from 18 to 24, 26.2 % from 25 to 44, 26.0 % from 45 to 64, and 13.5 % who were 65 or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 100 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98 males.
41.3 % of the people on Hawai ` i island are religious, meaning they affiliate with a religion. 18.4 % are Catholic; 3.7 % are of another Christian faith; 5.1 % are LDS; 0.1 % in Hawaii, Hawaii are Jewish; 5.0 % are of an eastern faith; 0.1 % are Muslim.
Downtown Kona
Downtown Hilo
Hawaii County encompasses the entire island of Hawaii. Executive authority is vested in the mayor of Hawaii County, who is elected for a four - year term. Since 2004, the election by the voters has been on a non-partisan basis. In 2008, Billy Kenoi was elected mayor, succeeding Harry Kim who had served a two - term limit. Legislative authority is vested in a nine - member county council. Each member represents a geographical region of the island, which closely correlates to one of the nine tax map districts of Hawaiʻi County. Members of the county council are elected on a non-partisan basis to two - year terms, with elections occurring in November of even - numbered years.
Administrative districts were originally based on the traditional land divisions called Moku of ancient Hawaii. Some of the more heavily populated districts have since been split into North and South districts to make them more comparable on a population basis.
The number following each district is the Tax Map Key (TMK) number, used to locate state property information. They are assigned in a counter-clockwise order, beginning on the eastern side of the island.
County council districts do not directly match the property tax districts because of the variation in the population density of voters in urban areas to rural areas; Hilo and Kailua (Kailua - Kona) towns are densely populated areas, while other districts such as Kaʻū, Puna, Hāmakua, and North & South Kohala are more sparsely populated.
Several government functions are administered at the county level that are at the state or municipal level in other states. For example, the county has its own office of liquor control.
The Hawaii Department of Public Safety previously operated the Kulani Correctional Facility on the island of Hawaii. In 2009, the Hawaii Department of Public Safety announced that the facility would close.
Sugarcane was the backbone of the island of Hawaiʻi 's economy for more than a century. In the mid-20th century, sugarcane plantations began to downsize, and in 1996 the last plantation closed.
Most of the island 's economy is based on tourism, centered primarily in resort areas on the western coast of the island in the North Kona and South Kohala districts. More recently, Hawaiʻi Island has become a focus for sustainable tourism.
Diversified agriculture is a growing sector of the economy. Major crops include macadamia nuts, papaya, flowers, tropical and temperate vegetables, and coffee beans. Only coffee grown in the Kona District of this island may be branded Kona coffee. The island 's orchid agriculture is the largest in the state, and resulted in the unofficial nickname "The Orchid Isle ''. The island is home to one of the United States ' largest cattle ranches: Parker Ranch, on 175,000 acres (708 km) in Waimea. The island is also known for astronomy, with numerous telescopes operated on the summit of Mauna Kea, where atmospheric clarity is excellent and there is little light pollution.
NELHA (Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority), a 675 - acre (273 ha) state developed site, is a green economic development ocean science and technology park on the west side of the island. It provides resources and facilities for energy and ocean - related research, education, and commercial activities in an environmentally sound and culturally sensitive manner. Business tenants on this coastal site include microalgae farms, aquaculture, solar technology and marine biotech. Tenants have access to three sets of pipelines delivering deep - sea water from a depth of up to 3,000 feet (910 m), as well as pristine sea surface water and almost constant sunshine. A 2012 study by the University of Hawaii Economic Research Organization (UHERO) found the total economic impact of activities at NELHA was $87.7 million and created 583 jobs.
According to the county 's 2010 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the county are:
Three routes connect the two major towns, Hilo on the east coast and Kailua - Kona on the west coast of the island:
There are also State highways 270 (Kawaihae -- Hawi) and 180 (the "Kona coffee road '', from Honalo to State highway 190), South Point Road (Highway 11 to South Point), etc.
There are presently three Hawaii Scenic Byways on the island of Hawaii:
Rental car offices are at the international airports. Taxi service is also available. Island - wide bus service is provided by the "Hele - On Bus ''.
Two commercial airports serve Hawaiʻi Island:
There is also:
Major commercial ports are Hilo on the east side and Kawaihae on the west side of the island. Cruise ships often stop at Kailua - Kona (90 times in 2017) and Hilo (108 times in 2017).
National parks, mountains and cities on the island
Topographic map of the island of Hawaii (interactive 3D model for Chrome or Firefox)
The island was traditionally divided into districts called moku. The names of the districts are (counter-clockwise, from the southeast): Puna, Hilo, Hāmākua, Kohala, Kona, and Kaʻū. The county government subdivides some of these to form elective districts of the county council. There are no incorporated municipalities on the island.
Coordinates: 19 ° 34 ′ N 155 ° 30 ′ W / 19.567 ° N 155.500 ° W / 19.567; - 155.500
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who played obi wan kenobi in star wars episode 3 | Obi - Wan Kenobi - wikipedia
Obi - Wan "Ben '' Kenobi is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. Within the original trilogy he is portrayed by Alec Guinness, while in the prequel trilogy a younger version of the character is portrayed by Ewan McGregor. In the original trilogy, he is a mentor to Luke Skywalker, to whom he introduces the ways of the Jedi. In the prequel trilogy, he is a master and friend to Anakin Skywalker. He is frequently featured as a main character in various other Star Wars media.
Guinness 's portrayal of Obi - Wan in the original Star Wars (1977) remains the only time an actor has received an Academy Award nomination (Best Supporting Actor) for acting in a Star Wars film.
Obi - Wan Kenobi is introduced in the original Star Wars living as a hermit by the name of Ben Kenobi on the planet Tatooine. When Luke Skywalker and the droid C - 3PO wander off in search of the lost droid R2 - D2, Obi - Wan rescues them from a band of native and hostile Tusken Raiders. At Obi - Wan 's home, R2 - D2 plays a recording of Princess Leia saying that R2 - D2 contains the plans for the Death Star, the Galactic Empire 's superweapon. Leia asks him to deliver the droid and the plans safely to the planet Alderaan in order to help the Rebel Alliance. Obi - Wan reveals his true identity and explains that he is a Jedi, a member of an ancient group of warriors that were hunted down and exterminated by the Empire with help from his former apprentice Darth Vader, the apparent killer of Luke 's father. He gives Luke his father 's lightsaber and asks him to accompany him to Alderaan and take up Jedi training. Luke declines, but after finding that his uncle Owen and aunt Beru have been killed by Imperial stormtroopers, he agrees to go with Obi - Wan to Alderaan and to train as a Jedi.
In the spaceport city Mos Eisley, Obi - Wan uses the Force to trick Imperial troops into letting them through a military checkpoint. They enter a local cantina and make a deal with two smugglers, Han Solo and Chewbacca, to fly them to Alderaan aboard their ship, the Millennium Falcon. During the journey, Obi - Wan begins instructing Luke in lightsaber combat. He suddenly becomes weak and tells Luke of "a great disturbance in the Force ''. Emerging from hyperspace, the party finds that the planet Alderaan has been destroyed by the Empire, and the Falcon is attacked by an Imperial TIE Fighter. The trio chases the TIE fighter to the Death Star, and subsequently get caught in the space station 's tractor beam. On board the Death Star, Obi - Wan shuts down the tractor beam, but Darth Vader confronts him and they engage in a lightsaber duel. Obi - Wan uses the duel to distract Vader as Luke, Leia, Han and Chewbacca escape to the Falcon. Although Vader strikes Obi - Wan down, his body mysteriously vanishes the moment he dies. At the climax of the film during the Rebel attack on the Death Star, Obi - Wan speaks to Luke through the Force to help him destroy the Imperial station.
In The Empire Strikes Back, Obi - Wan Kenobi appears several times as a spirit through the Force. On the planet Hoth, he appears to instruct Luke to go to the planet Dagobah to find the exiled Jedi Master Yoda. Despite Yoda 's skepticism, Obi - Wan convinces his old master to continue Luke 's training. He appears later to beseech Luke not to leave Dagobah to try to rescue his friends on Cloud City, although Luke ignores this advice.
In Return of the Jedi, Obi - Wan again appears to Luke after Yoda 's death on Dagobah. Obi - Wan acknowledges that Darth Vader is indeed Luke 's father, revealed by Vader himself in the previous film and confirmed by Yoda on his deathbed, and also reveals that Leia is Luke 's twin sister. After the Rebels destroy the second Death Star and defeat the Empire, Obi - Wan appears at the celebration on Endor, alongside the spirits of Yoda and the redeemed Anakin Skywalker (Vader 's former Jedi self).
In Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, set 32 years before A New Hope, a 25 - year - old Obi - Wan Kenobi appears as the Jedi Padawan (or student) of Jedi Master Qui - Gon Jinn. He accompanies his master in negotiations with the corrupt Trade Federation, which is blockading the planet Naboo with a fleet of spaceships. After they are attacked by battle droids and forced to retreat to Naboo, Obi - Wan and Qui - Gon rescue Naboo 's Queen Padmé Amidala through the help of native Gungan Jar Jar Binks and escape in a spaceship toward Coruscant, the Republic capital. Their ship is damaged in the escape, however, and they are forced to land on Tatooine, where they discover the nine - year - old slave Anakin Skywalker. Qui - Gon believes the boy is the "chosen one '' prophesied to bring balance to the Force, and brings him to Coruscant to begin Jedi training, although Obi - Wan expresses concerns. While leaving Tatooine, they are attacked by Darth Maul, a member of the Sith, a dark side - using cult thought long extinct.
When Qui - Gon and Obi - Wan return to Naboo to defeat the Trade Federation, they are met again by Maul, who engages them both in lightsaber combat. When Maul mortally wounds Qui - Gon, Obi - Wan rushes to fight Maul, who nearly kills him. However, Obi - Wan manages to turn the tables and defeat Maul, slicing him in half and sending him plunging down a vast reactor shaft. He promises to fulfill Qui - Gon 's dying wish of training Anakin in the ways of the Jedi, with or without the Council 's blessing. Yoda proclaims Obi - Wan a Jedi Knight and reluctantly allows him to take Anakin on as his own Padawan.
In Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, set 10 years later, Obi - Wan Kenobi is now a respected Jedi Master and the mentor of Anakin Skywalker. Over the years, Anakin has grown powerful but arrogant, and believes Obi - Wan is "holding him back ''. After they save Padmé, now a senator, from an assassination attempt, Obi - Wan goes on a solo mission to trace the bounty hunters involved to the planet Kamino, where he learns of a massive clone army that the planet 's inhabitants are building for the Republic. He is introduced to bounty hunter Jango Fett, the clones ' template, and the two fight after Obi - Wan deduces that Fett must be behind the attempted assassination. Fett escapes to the planet Geonosis with his clone son Boba while Obi - Wan is in pursuit.
On Geonosis, Obi - Wan discovers that a conspiracy of star systems bent on secession from the Republic is led by Jedi - turned - Sith Lord Count Dooku, Qui - Gon 's old master. After sending a message to Anakin, Obi - Wan is captured, interrogated, and sentenced to death by Dooku. Anakin and Padmé arrive with a cadre of Jedi and the clone army, just in time to prevent the executions. Obi - Wan and Anakin confront Dooku during the ensuing battle, but the Sith lord defeats them in a lightsaber duel. Yoda intervenes and saves their lives, at the cost of Dooku 's escape.
In Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, set three years later, Obi - Wan Kenobi is a member of the Jedi Council and a General in the Army of the Republic. Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker remains Obi - Wan 's partner, and the two have become war heroes and best friends. The film opens with the two on a rescue mission to save the kidnapped Supreme Chancellor Palpatine from Separatist commander General Grievous onboard his starship. Count Dooku discovers the attempt and fights the Jedi, knocking Obi - Wan unconscious; while Obi - Wan is out cold, Anakin defeats Dooku and executes him on Palpatine 's orders. Soon after returning to Coruscant, Obi - Wan is called away to the planet Utapau to track down the escaped Grievous.
After finding the Separatist encampment, Obi - Wan fights Grievous and eventually kills the cyborg using his enemy 's own blaster. When Palpatine -- who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious, the mastermind of the war -- issues Order 66 to have the clone troopers turn on the Jedi, Obi - Wan survives the attempt on his life and escapes, rendezvousing with Yoda and Senator Bail Organa of Alderaan aboard Organa 's ship Tantive IV. Returning to Coruscant, he and Yoda discover that every Jedi in the Jedi Temple has been murdered. After sending a beacon to all surviving Jedi to scatter across the galaxy and remain in hiding, a heartbroken Obi - Wan watches security footage revealing that it was Anakin -- who is now Sidious ' Sith apprentice Darth Vader -- who led the slaughter. Yoda says he will confront Sidious, and charges Obi - Wan with fighting Vader. Obi - Wan is loath to fight his best friend, but reluctantly accepts.
Obi - Wan visits Padmé to learn of Vader 's whereabouts, and realizes that Vader is the father of her unborn child. When Padmé sets out to the volcanic planet Mustafar to confront her husband herself, Obi - Wan secretly stows away in the ship. After they arrive on Mustafar, Obi - Wan reveals himself and confronts Vader, who accuses Padmé and Obi - Wan of conspiring against him and uses the dark side to choke Padmé into unconsciousness. After a long and ferocious lightsaber duel, Obi - Wan defeats Vader by severing his legs and left arm; as Vader catches fire beside a lava river, Obi - Wan takes his former friend 's lightsaber and leaves him to die. Unknown to Obi - Wan, Vader is rescued by Sidious and reconstructed into the cyborg first seen in the original trilogy.
Obi - Wan takes Padmé to a remote asteroid belt, where she dies after giving birth to twins Luke and Leia. Afterwards, Yoda instructs Obi - Wan to give Luke to his uncle Owen and aunt Beru on Tatooine, and reveals that Qui - Gon 's spirit has returned from the Force to continue Obi - Wan 's training. Obi - Wan hands Luke off to his family and goes into exile on Tatooine.
In Star Wars: The Force Awakens, set 30 years after Return of the Jedi, the protagonist Rey hears Obi - Wan 's voice when she touches the lightsaber that previously belonged to Luke. Obi - Wan calls out to Rey, before saying the words of encouragement he gave to Luke during his training on the Millennium Falcon: "These are your first steps ''. James Arnold Taylor actually recorded the lines for this scene, but his recordings were then dropped in favor of Ewan McGregor 's voice acting.
In Star Wars: The Last Jedi, Luke mentions Obi - Wan while talking with Rey.
Obi - Wan was mentioned in the 2016 film Rogue One. In the scene where right after the Rogue One ship is taken off to Scarif, Mon Mothma has a conversation with Senator Bail Organa. In that conversation, they discussed about a Jedi Knight who is in hiding, after the events in Revenge of the Sith, which leads to the introduction of Obi - Wan in A New Hope.
Obi - Wan Kenobi is a main character in the animated micro-series Star Wars: Clone Wars and the CGI animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars, voiced by James Arnold Taylor. In both series, Obi - Wan is a general in the Clone Wars, and he and Anakin have many adventures fighting the Separatists. The latter series highlights his numerous confrontations with General Grievous, his adversarial relationship with Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress, his romance with Duchess Satine Kryze, and the return of his old enemy Darth Maul.
In Star Wars Rebels, set five years before A New Hope, Obi - Wan appears as a hologram in the pilot episode "Spark of Rebellion ''. In the Season 3 episode "Visions and Voices '', protagonist Ezra Bridger discovers that Obi - Wan is alive on Tatooine; Obi - Wan 's old nemesis Darth Maul finds him as well. In the episode "Twin Suns '', Obi - Wan mortally wounds Maul during one final lightsaber duel; with his dying breath, Maul asks Obi - Wan if he is protecting the "Chosen One '', and Obi - Wan replies that he is. After Maul 's death, Obi - Wan is seen watching over Luke Skywalker from a distance.
In Rebels, Obi - Wan was voiced by Stephen Stanton, who replaced James Arnold Taylor. Rebels creator Dave Filoni, who worked with the character during the full duration of Star Wars: The Clone Wars, said he considered asking McGregor to reprise and voice the role.
Obi - Wan Kenobi appears briefly in the novel Dark Disciple, based on unfinished episodes from The Clone Wars.
In the novelization of The Last Jedi written by Jason Fry, Obi - Wan tells to a dying Luke to "let go '' from the Netherworld of the Force.
The Marvel Comics five issue mini-series Obi - Wan and Anakin focuses on the title characters between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. In the Star Wars main comic series, Luke Skywalker goes to Obi - Wan 's abandoned house on Tatooine, and finds his diary.
In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the original 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded by Lucasfilm as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise.
Obi - Wan Kenobi appears extensively in the Star Wars expanded universe of comic books and novels.
Obi - Wan 's life prior to The Phantom Menace is portrayed mostly in Jude Watson 's Jedi Apprentice and Jedi Quest series. The Jedi Apprentice books follow his adventures as Qui - Gon 's Padawan. Notable events in the series include battling the Dark Jedi Xanatos and going on his first independent mission. The Jedi Quest books detail his adventures with Anakin in the years leading up to Attack of the Clones.
His heroism just before and during the Clone Wars is portrayed in novels such as Outbound Flight, The Approaching Storm, and The Cestus Deception.
Obi - Wan 's life between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope is portrayed mostly in Jude Watson 's The Last of the Jedi series. Set roughly a year after the fall of the Republic, the series follows Obi - Wan as he seeks out possible survivors of the Great Jedi Purge, most notably Anakin 's former rival, Ferus Olin. The books also portray Obi - Wan adjusting to life as a hermit on Tatooine and quietly watching over Luke. He also discovers that Vader is still alive after seeing him on the Holonet, the galaxy 's official news source.
Obi - Wan appears in the final chapter of Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader, set just after the events in Revenge of the Sith. He is also the protagonist in John Jackson Miller 's novel Star Wars: Kenobi, which takes place during his exile on Tatooine.
Obi - Wan appears in spirit form in many novels set after Return of the Jedi. In The Truce at Bakura, he appears to Luke to warn him about the threat presented by the Ssi - ruuk; in The Lost City of the Jedi, he guides Luke to the titular city on Yavin IV; in Heir to the Empire, meanwhile, he bids farewell to Luke, explaining that he must abandon his spiritual form to "move on '' to a new, higher plane of consciousness. Before parting, Luke says that Obi - Wan was like a father to him, and Obi - Wan replies that he loved Luke like a son.
Obi - Wan Kenobi appears in several video games. He is a playable character in all four Lego Star Wars video games, as well as Battlefront II and Renegade Squadron. He is also the lead character in Star Wars: Obi - Wan. The older version is only playable in Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy and Star Wars: The Complete Saga, and Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith multiplayer mode and Death Star bonus mission Star Wars: Renegade Squadron, and Star Wars: The Force Unleashed in multiplayer mode and the droid PROXY disguises as him. He also appears in Star Wars: The Clone Wars -- Jedi Alliance, Star Wars: Jedi Power Battles and Star Wars: The Clone Wars -- Lightsaber Duels as a playable character. He is also playable in the strategy game Star Wars: Empire at War. He is a playable character in Disney Infinity 3.0. Kenobi has also been confirmed to be a playable character as part of a scheduled Clone Wars season for Star Wars Battlefront II.
In the comic book series Star Wars: Republic, Obi - Wan Kenobi faces many grave threats while fighting against the Separatists. Among other notable storylines, he is kidnapped and tortured by Asajj Ventress before being rescued by Anakin ("Hate & Fear ''), and apprehends corrupted Jedi Master Quinlan Vos ("The Dreadnaughts of Rendili ''). Throughout the series, he grows increasingly wary of Palpatine 's designs on the Republic and his influence on Anakin.
In the non-canon story "Old Wounds '', set a few years after the events of Revenge of the Sith, Obi - Wan confronts Darth Maul on Tatooine to protect Luke. The duel ends when Owen Lars shoots and kills Maul; he then warns Obi - Wan to stay away from his nephew. Through the Force, Obi - Wan reassures Luke that he will be there for him when needed.
On August 17, 2017, it was reported that there are plans for a stand - alone Star Wars movie about Obi - Wan Kenobi. No casting or script decisions have been made yet. It is currently unclear what part of Obi - Wan 's life will be portrayed, though many speculate the film would be a small - scale adventure including Obi - Wan 's exile on Tatooine between the events of episodes III and IV, though it 's unsure where Rogue One would fit in this story (Obi - Wan was spoken about in Rogue One). In August 2017, Stephen Daldry was reported to be directing the film. While no casting decisions have been made, Ewan McGregor has said he would be open to reprising the role of Obi - Wan. In December 2017, it was reported that an Obi - Wan Kenobi anthology film was eying a potential January 2019 production - start date. On May 17, 2018, it was reported that the title of the next Star Wars anthology film is titled Obi - Wan: A Star Wars Story under the working title "Joshua Tree '', and the rumored director is Stephen Daldry.
The character is loosely inspired by General Makabe Rokurōta, a character from Akira Kurosawa 's film The Hidden Fortress, played by Toshiro Mifune (whom series creator George Lucas also considered casting as Obi - Wan). Mad magazine parodied the original film under the title Star Roars and included a character named ' Oldie Von Moldie ', a grizzled 97 - year - old whose lightsaber runs on an extension cord. The Shanghai nightclub shown in the beginning of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom is called "Club Obi Wan '' (Lucas wrote both the Star Wars and Indiana Jones series). A real bar / club by this name existed in the Xihai district of Beijing, China but closed in the summer of 2010. The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! episode "Star Koopa '' (a spoof of Star Wars) also had its own parody of Obi - Wan called ' Obi - Wan Toadi ', and the live - action segment "Zenned Out Mario '' featured a parody called "Obi - Wan Cannoli ''. The 1998 Animaniacs episode "Star Warners '' (which spoofed Star Wars) featured Slappy Squirrel portraying a parody of Obi - Wan as ' Slappy Wanna Nappy '. In the Family Guy episode "Blue Harvest '', Obi - Wan Kenobi is parodied by the character Herbert. In the short film Thumb Wars, Obi - Wan is parodied as the character "Oobedoob Benubi ''. In the film, his full name is ' Oobedoob Scooby - Doobi Benubi, the silliest name in the galaxy. ' In the 1977 Star Wars parody Hardware Wars, Obi - Wan is parodied by the character "Augie Ben Doggie ''.
The TV Tropes website uses Obi - Wan 's name for the archetype mentor figure.
Guinness received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination for his portrayal of Obi - Wan Kenobi.
In the parody song "The Saga Begins '', released approximately one month after the release of Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, "Weird Al '' Yankovic sings a humorous summary of the plot of that film from Obi - Wan 's perspective, to the tune of the song "American Pie. ''
In 2003, the American Film Institute selected Obi - Wan Kenobi as the 37th greatest movie hero of all time. He was also listed as IGN 's third greatest Star Wars character, as well as one of UGO Networks 's favorite heroes of all time.
In 2004, the Council of the Commune Lubicz in Poland passed a resolution giving the name "Obi - Wan Kenobi '' to one of the streets in Grabowiec, a small village near Toruń. The street was named in 2005. The spelling of the street name, Obi - Wana Kenobiego is the genitive form of the noun in the Polish language: (the street) of Obi - Wan Kenobi.
Guardian cartoonist Steve Bell portrayed Jeremy Corbyn, current leader of the British Labour Party, as Obi - Wan Kenobi.
Since the announcement of the sequel trilogy, Ewan McGregor has also expressed interest in returning to the role, albeit for an Obi - Wan spin - off film, should he be approached; wanting to tell a story between Episode III and IV. A fan - trailer for an Obi - Wan film, with footage from McGregor 's film Last Days in the Desert, has been widely praised by fans. Lucasfilm and McGregor have denied the development of such film, despite fans ' continued interest, and rumors. Despite being nothing but rumors, the film was voted as the most wanted anthology film in a pool by The Hollywood Reporter. Days before the Star Wars Rebels episode "Twin Suns '' aired, McGregor said he would like to do it, if Lucasfilm wanted him to.
On May 17, 2018, entertainment website TMZ.com reported that the next standalone movie in the Star Wars franchise would be an Obi - Wan film, titled Obi - Wan: A Star Wars Story. TMZ also reported that movie had a working title called "Joshua Tree '', similar to the code name used by George Lucas for Return of the Jedi, which was "Blue Harvest ''. Stephen Daldry was reported to be the director of the Obi - Wan film, with Ewan McGregor ready to reprise the role. According to TMZ, this movie would not be an origin story, but would instead take place a few years after the fall of the Republic shown in Episode III, focusing on Obi - Wan while in exile on Tatooine, as he watches over a young Luke Skywalker. Marauding Tusken Raiders, and an evil warlord, bring Obi - Wan out of hiding to protect Luke and some farmers, according to TMZ.
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where is the college softball world series played | Women 's College World Series - wikipedia
The Women 's College World Series (WCWS) is the final portion of the NCAA Division I Softball Championship for college softball in the United States. The tournament format consists of two four - team double - elimination brackets. The winners of each bracket then compete in a best - of - three series to determine the Division I WCWS National Champion. The WCWS takes place at ASA Hall of Fame Stadium in Oklahoma City. From 1969 to 1981, the women 's collegiate softball championship was also known as the Women 's College World Series and was promoted as such. During 1969 -- 1979, the series was played in Omaha, and in 1980 -- 1982 in Norman, Oklahoma. The NCAA held its first six Division I tournaments in Omaha in 1982 -- 1987, followed by Sunnyvale, California in 1988 -- 1989. The event has been held in Oklahoma City every year since then, except for 1996 in Columbus, Georgia.
Softball was one of twelve women 's sports added to the NCAA championship program for the 1981 -- 82 school year, as the NCAA engaged in battle with the AIAW for sole governance of women 's collegiate sports. The AIAW continued to conduct its established championship program in the same twelve (and other) sports. The 1982 softball championship tournaments of both the AIAW and the NCAA were called "Women 's College World Series. '' However, after a year of dual women 's championships, the NCAA conquered the AIAW and usurped its authority and membership.
* Nebraska 's runner - up finish in 1985 was vacated by the NCAA.
* * The 1995 title by UCLA and any related records have been vacated by the NCAA due to scholarship violations. Criticism also centered on UCLA player Tanya Harding who was recruited from Queensland, Australia midway through the 1995 season. After UCLA captured the NCAA National Championship, Harding, the MVP of the tournament, returned to her homeland without taking final exams or earning a single college credit. Despite not violating any formal rules in recruiting Harding, the incident generated heated criticism that some foreign athletes were little more than hired guns.
* * * Beginning in 2005, a best - of - three series determines the national championship.
From 1969 -- 1972, the DGWS (forerunner organization of the AIAW) recognized the WCWS, organized by the Amateur Softball Association, as the collegiate championship tournament. The AIAW assumed responsibilities from DGWS in 1973.
From 1969 -- 1972, the DGWS (forerunner organization of the AIAW) recognized the WCWS, organized by the Amateur Softball Association, as the collegiate championship tournament. The AIAW assumed responsibilities from DGWS in 1973.
UCLA 's 1995 NCAA championship and Nebraska 's 1985 runner - up finish were vacated by the NCAA and are not counted
This listing excludes results of the pre-NCAA Women 's College World Series of 1969 through 1982 (both Division I tournaments in 1982 -- AIAW and NCAA -- were called "Women 's College World Series '').
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jupiter in lagna and saturn in 7th house | Raja yoga (Hindu astrology) - wikipedia
Raja yogas are Shubha (' auspicious ') yogas that give success and a grand rise in career or business, and a greater degree of financial prosperity particularly during the dasha of the planets that give rise to Raja yogas. However, these results get adversely modified by the presence of other Ashubha (' inauspicious ') Arista yogas. Basically, the Yoga or Raja yoga - causing planets during the course of their respective dashas confer their most auspicious results if they happen to own the lagna - bhava (the Ascendant) or the Suta - bhava (the 5th house) or the Bhagyasthana (the 9th house); the person remains healthy, wealthy, happy and successful enjoying yoga and Raja yoga results in case the lagna, the 3rd, the 6th, the 8th, the 9th and the 12th houses counted from the lagna are also not occupied by any planet, and the kendras (quadrants) are occupied only by benefic planets.
The term "Raja yoga '' is not defined in the texts dealing with Hindu Predictive astrology. All such planetary situations and combinations that indicate good fortune, wealth, comforts, exercise of ruling power and political influence gained, either by way of inheritance or acquired through self - effort, are termed as Raja yogas. There are many varieties of Raja yogas but their formation generally involves the 9th, the 10th, the 2nd, the 11th house and the lagna (' Ascendant '), their respective house - lords and their exaltation signs and exaltation lords, which house - lords combining and giving rise to Raja yogas invariably tend to enhance the affairs of the house they occupy, aspect and rule. In doing so they combine the influence of two types of houses - a) those governing personal initiatives and b) those that show good fortune. Therefore, Raja yogas are generally found in the horoscopes of leaders and famous people and reveal their birth to be out of the ordinary.
The results of the yoga or Raja yoga formed owing to a lord of a kendra (' quadrant ') (the lord of the 1st, the 4th, the 7th or the 10th counted from the Lagna (' Birth Ascendant ') or Natal Moon) and a lord of a trikona (' trine ') (the lord of the 1st, 5th or the 9th house) establishing mutual relationship become more pronounced if the lord of another trikona joins them or if their dispositor, preferably the lord of the Ascendant, finds its exaltation in a kendra or a trikona. For any yoga or Raja yoga to produce more effective results the yoga - causing planets possessing requisite six kinds of strength (Shadbala), must form an immediate relationship with the Lagna (' Ascendant '), which is possible by any one of them occupying or aspecting the lagna or by directly associating with the lord of the lagna but without any one of them being afflicted by either natural or functional malefics, or by a lord of a trikasthana (the lord of the 6th, the 8th or the 12th house). Varaha Mihira states that the results of powerless planets are enjoyed in dreams and thoughts only. Moreover, if any planet occupying a particular sign as part of a yoga formation happens to be aspected by the lord of that sign and both occupy auspicious houses then alone a Raja yoga is formed. If the lord of the 9th or the lord of the 10th respectively own the 8th and the 11th, their association will not give rise to an effective yoga or Raja yoga or if they do not conjoin either in the 9th or 10th house. According to Parasara, the most powerful Raja yoga arises when the strong lord of the lagna is in the 5th house and the strong lord of the 5th house occupies the lagna - kendra or if the Atmakaraka (' the planet most advanced in the sign ') and the Putrakaraka (chara karaka) are jointly or severally in the lagna or in the 5th house or occupy their exaltation or own sign or navamsa in aspect to a benefic planet and adds that one will be a king if benefic planets occupy the kendras from the Karakamsa (' the navamsa occupied by the Atmakaraka ') or if the Arudha lagna and the Darapada are in mutual kendras or trikonas or in the 3rd and the 11th from each other or if the lord of the 10th house placed in its own or exaltation sign aspects the lagna or if the lagna is aspected by the debilitated lord of the 6th, the 8th or the 12th house. If the dispositor of Gulika (Māndi) is in a kendra or a trikona vested with requisite strength in own or exaltation or friendly sign then one possesses a pleasing personality, is popular and famous and enjoys the benefits of Raja yoga, he becomes a powerful ruler.
Certain unique placements of planets / house - lords give rise to excellent and exceptional Raja yogas. B. Suryanarain Rao writes that peculiar powers seem to characterise the angular positions of the planets which enable persons born under such combinations to become kings (i.e. acquire ruling powers). In all such cases the strength and the placement of the lord of the Lagna (' Ascendant ') is of paramount importance, if it happens to be weak in strength or ill - placed or otherwise afflicted, then auspicious results of good yogas are not experienced. If the lord of the Lagna vested with requisite strength is situated either in a kendra or in the 9th house in its Vargottama navamsa and the lord of the 9th is also either exalted or situated in its own sign attaining vargottama, then a powerful, wealthy and learned ruler is born; this yoga is also known as the Lakshmi Yoga. Other few examples that can be cited under this category are a) the Adhi yoga that arises if benefic planets are situated in the 6th, in the 7th and in the 8th house from the Moon, b) the Mahabhagya yoga which is caused if a male born during day - time has the Sun, the Moon and the Lagna, all three in odd signs or if a night - born female has these three in even signs, C) as Phaladeepika states -- when a benefic sign is on the 10th house and the 10th house is occupied by a benefic planet and is aspected by a benefic or benefics and the lord of 10th not being combust occupies a benefic bhava in its own sign or exaltation sign the very favourable Khyati yoga arises making one adept, wealthy and achieve wide and lasting fame, who like a king will protect his subordinates and d) as Jataka Parijata states -- if from the bhava occupied by the lord of the lagna the lord of the 4th, the planet occupying the 4th house, the lord of the 9th and the planet occupying the 9th house are all in Shubhvargas, strong and associated with the lagna the person will certainly become a long - lived, mighty and wealthy ruler. This last mentioned yoga is a very rare Raja yoga which will not arise in case the planets causing it are not directly connected with the lagna. Parashara states that if there be a malefic in the 10th house in Sayana - avastha or Bhojana - avastha the person will face many miseries on account of his own deeds but if the Moon is in the 10th in Kautaka - avastha or Prakasana - avastha there will undoubtedly be a Raja yoga.
All planets occupying the kendras gain exceptional strength. Mars and Saturn are natural malefic but both situated in the kendras can confer advancement in life though tending to prove evil towards the end. Saturn in Cancer (when it becomes a temporary friend of Jupiter) and Mars in Capricorn produce prominent persons but not vice versa. Saturn in Libra in a kendra from the Lagna or the Chandra - lagna causing Sasa yoga, a Panch Mahapurusha yoga, gives wealth, status, fame and also ruling power but does not give a happy life because of its square aspect on Cancer and being in the 8th from Pisces the exaltation sign for its dispositor.
The directional strength gained by planets is a vital factor for it is seen that planets possessing Digbala giving rise to yogas and Raja yogas are more effective even if they do not combine well e.g. when Saturn is with the Sun and Mars in the 10th house and Venus is in the 4th there arises a significant Raja yoga.
The trikonas are as sensitive as the kendras if not more; planets in mutual trikonas become effective co-workers. The antra - dasha of the planet situated in a kendra or in a trikona from the dasha - lord generally confers auspicious results. The Sun in the 4th, a retrograde Venus in the 5th with Jupiter situated in the lagna, or Saturn in the 9th, Mars exalted, and Mercury, Venus and Jupiter combining in the 5th house give rise to powerful Raja yogas which yogas illustrate the importance and effectiveness of the trinal aspects of planets more particularly that of Jupiter. If the benefic sign rising in the lagna is occupied by a benefic planet and the lord of the lagna, also a natural benefic, occupies a benefic sign in the 9th house then they invariably make one fortunate, long - lived and enjoy Raja yoga. But the kendras dominated by cruel malefic planets usually prove counter-productive, they prevent effective operation of yogas and Raja yogas, which situation becomes worse with the lord of the lagna and the lord of the 9th afflicted and ill - placed, and not favourably influencing their own bhavas.
Simhasana yoga arises if at the time of birth only the 2nd, the 6th, the 8th and the 12th houses counted from the lagna are occupied by planets; Hansa yoga arises if at that particular moment only the lagna, the 5th, the 9th and the 7th houses are occupied by planets or if planets are situated only in Aries, Aquarius, Sagittarius, Libra and Scorpio (or Leo) signs; planets similarly occupying Cancer, Pisces, Gemini, Virgo and Sagittarius signs give rise to Danda yoga; these are all Raja yogas. However, Simhasana yoga is most effective for persons born in Aries, Libra or Capricorn lagna; Hansa yoga is most effective for those born in Capricorn, Cancer, Aquarius or Gemini lagna, in which eventuality these stated yogas gain the more exalted status of Chilhipuchccha yoga, also known as Yogadhiyoga, and become powerful twice - over.
For a Shuklapaksha (' bright fortnight ') day - time birth the exalted lord of the navamsa occupied by the Moon at the time of birth makes one a great orator, invincible, very powerful and highly influential, and enjoy Raja yoga, but if the lords of the navamsas, occupied by the lords of the 2nd, the 5th, the 9th and the 11th house, are all in their respective signs of exaltation then in addition to the enjoyment of Raja yoga one also gains world - wide fame as a great scholar.
There are some Raja yogas described by texts which simply can not occur, e.g. Varahamihira states that if exalted Mercury occupies lagna, Venus occupies the 10th, the Moon and Jupiter join in the 7th and Saturn and Mars occupy the 5th, the person becomes a ruler, this yoga can not occur because Mercury can not be in a kendra from Venus, certainly not 77 degrees apart for this yoga to arise, or if the Moon, Saturn and Jupiter are in the 10th, 11th and lagna respectively, Mercury and Mars in the 2nd and Venus and the Sun in the 4th, which event can not take place because Mercury can never be in the 3rd house counted from the Sun.
Sreenatha yoga is caused when at the time of birth the lord of the 7th house is exalted and the lord of the 10th is with the lord of the 9th house. This is an important Raja yoga. If at birth Mercury and the Sun conjoin in the 10th house and Mars is with Rahu in the 6th house, the person becomes chief among men, and if Venus is with Mars in the 2nd house, Jupiter is in Pisces and both Saturn and the Moon are in their respective signs of debilitation a Raja yoga is caused but the person will not be wealthy. The most powerful Raja yoga is produced when, free from the adverse influences of the trika -- lords, the lords of the 9th and the 10th or the lords of the 4th and the 5th conjoin in an auspicious sign and bhava. Vide Bhavartha Ratnakara if at the time of birth Mercury, Venus and the Moon are in the 11th house, Jupiter is in Cancer lagna and the Sun occupies the 10th house, one becomes a ruler who is able, brave and famous. Ramanuja calls this the Maharaja yoga which yoga is also found described in Brihat Jataka but along with the mention of Saturn 's and Mars ' placement.
The lord of the 10th house counted from the stronger of the two, the Lagna or the Chandra - lagna, occupying a kendra or a trikona or the 2nd house vested with required strength by itself gives rise to Raja yoga (Mansagari IV Raja yoga 4). If at the time of birth the Moon is in an Upachayasthana, all benefic planets occupy their own signs and navamsas and all malefic planets are weak in strength the person will rise to be a ruler equal to Indra (Mansagari IV Raja yoga 16). Venus and Mars combining in the 2nd house with Jupiter situated in Pisces, Mercury and Saturn in Libra and the Moon occupying its debilitation sign give rise to Raja yoga, in which event the person will be generous, wealthy, proud and famous ruling a vast territory (Mansagari IV Raja yoga 33). If the Moon combines with the Sun in the first half of Sagittarius sign, Saturn vested with strength is in the lagna and Mars is exalted a mighty much venerated ruler is born (Mansagari IV Raja yoga 65 -- 66).
The conjunction of Jupiter with either Mars or the Moon giving rise to auspicious yogas also pave the ground for Raja yoga - formation, however, Ramanuja states that in these two events the person will be fortunate and prosperous in the dashas of Mars and the Moon but Jupiter 's dasha will be ordinary. Saraswati yoga occurring for Gemini lagna involves the conjunction of the lord of the lagna and of the 4th house with the lords of the 5th, the 7th and the 10th occurring in a trikona from the lagna - kendra is a Raja yoga.
Janardan Harji tells us that a famous and generous king is born if at birth Venus and Mars occupy the 2nd house, Jupiter is in Pisces, Mercury in Aquarius and the Sun in Scorpio sign is joined by the Moon or if Venus is in Pisces, the Sun is in the lagna, Mercury is in the 12th house, the Moon is in the 2nd and Rahu is in the 3rd house. A person gains a kingdom or power to rule if at the time of birth Jupiter, Venus and the Moon happen to combine in Pisces sign.
In most Raja yoga formations planets are seen to associate with each other i.e. they form a mutual relationship. Parashara states that a Raja yoga is certainly caused if the lords of the lagna, the 5th and the 9th combine or associate with the lords of the 4th and the 10th house or if the Moon and Venus aspect each other, or if Jupiter situated in its own sign in the 9th is conjoins Venus and is aspected by the Sun as the lord of the 5th house which yoga is possible for an Aries - born only. A person becomes a leader, gains great political power and mass following if Mercury situated in a kendra or a trikona happens to be aspected by the lord of the 9th house, and the person born with Saturn situated in an Aquarius has four planets occupying their exaltation sign becomes a powerful ruler. If the lord of the 4th house is in the 10th and the lord of the 10th is in the 4th house then a powerful but rare Raja yoga is caused. A very powerful Raja yoga is caused if the Moon, Saturn and Jupiter are in the 10th, 11th and 1st respectively, Mercury and Mars in the 2nd and Venus joins the Sun situated in the 4th house in which event the Full Moon in the 10th will be aspected by Mars and be in mutual aspectual relationship with Venus and the Sun. A powerful Raja yoga also arises if all major planets favourably disposed are in mutual kendras. Thus, irrespective of the sign rising in the lagna if Saturn and Mars conjoin in the lagna, the Moon is un the 4th, Jupiter in the 7th and the Sun in the 10th a person born in a royal family will certainly ascend the throne, if not so born will be very wealthy Saravali. Even though Venus and Jupiter are not mutual friends and Venus is not happily placed in a Martian sign Ramanuja states that Venus confers Raja yoga in its dasha if it is in conjunction with Jupiter in Scorpio.
Parasara calls the kendras the Vishnusthanas and the trikonas, the Lakshmisthanas; their lords in mutual association become yogakarakas and Rajayogakarakas as in the case of Dharma Karmadhipati yoga and Sankha yoga. These lords attaining Parijatadi awastha (' status ') make one a ruler who takes care of and protects his subjects; attaining Uttamadi awastha they make one a wealthy ruler; attaining Gopuradi awastha they make one a ruler who is held in high esteem and venerated, and attaining Simhasanadi awastha they make one an all - conquering mighty ruler. Those born under the influence such strong kendra and trikona lords and the lord of the 2nd house, have emerged as great rulers; those blessed with these lords attaining Simhasanasha and Gopuransha have emerged as rulers and Chakravarti Samrats like Raja Harishchandra and Vaivasvata Manu. Yudhishthira was blessed with similarly strong lords as also Shalivahana. Person born with all these seven lords attaining Devaloka awasthas will be the Avatar of Lord Vishnu.
If Jupiter, the Moon and the Lagna are aspected by Saturn, and if Jupiter is in the 9th house, the person born would be a Raja who would write on shastras or sciences (Brihat Jataka XV. 4). Bhattotpala records that Kanada, Buddha, Panchashikha, Varahamihira and Brahmagupta were blessed with this yoga. Mandavya states that if there is a Raja yoga along with this yoga, then the person will not be a king but only a scientist, if there are two Raja yogas then he will be a ruling king and also a great writer on sciences like Jina, Kasiraja, Sphujidhvaja and Janaka were.
The number of Rashmis collectively gained by all planets at the time of birth indicate the future course of one 's life, in which regard Janardan Harji in his Mansagari states that the person (blessed with Raja yoga and) who has gained more than thirty - eight Rashmis will certainly become a ruler, the more number of Rashmis one has gained the more powerful and great. According to Parasara the person gaining 31 to 40 Rashmis will be a samanta (' vassal ') or a senior / chief executive or a magistrate or a judge; gaining 41 to 50 Rashmis he will certainly become a ruler of a state and command an army, and beyond 50 Rashmis an all - powerful chief or an emperor; the person blessed with more than 40 Rashmis if born a Kshatriya in a royal family will be a mighty king, in a Vashiya family, a ruler; in a Sudra family, a wealthy person; and in a Brahmin family, a highly regarded and respected scholar - priest. He states that without the knowledge of Rashmis gained correct prediction is not possible and adds that planets having gained more Rashmis and Sthanabala will also make the person an able administrator and renowned; more Rashmis and Digbala, proud and very successful; more Rashmis and Chestabala, an able politician; more Rashmis and Kalabala, very adept and enterprising; more Rashmis and Ayanabala, a family chief; more Rashmis and Uchhabala, a great ruler and earn much renown, and more Rashmis and Naisargabala will make him prosper in his traditional activities. This is a unique method now seldom employed.
Raja yogas described in the various texts are numerous, but among those thousands are some that are very special and some that are very rare in occurrence, such as: -
There are very many Raja yogas but it is essential to know as to when those Raja yogas would yield their assigned results. The benefits of Raja yoga accrue during the course of the dasha of the Raja yoga causing planets occupying the 10th house from the Lagna or the Chandra - lagna, failing which during the dasha of the strongest planet amongst the planets giving rise to the Raja yoga provided Bhagya (' good luck ') also sides the native. The actual exercise of ruling power is not in the destiny of all persons / politicians blessed with powerful Raja yogas who mostly land up serving those actually exercising ruling power. Varahamihira in his Brihat Jataka XI. 19, to ascertain when one may get ruling power or lose it or try to overcome the misfortune, states that the person acquires royal power in the sub-period of the most powerful planet or of the planet who is in the 10th or in the Lagna; he loses power in the sub-period of an unfriendly or debilitated planet in which event he must seek protection from a powerful ruler.
Birth at the time of (exact) mid-day (Local Mean Time) or at the time of (exact) mid-night (Local Mean Time) by itself gives rise to Raja yoga. Krishna, who was a historical reality, was born at mid-night (Mathura Local Mean Time) of 18 (19) July 3228 BCE.
Mahabhagya yoga, equivalent to Raja yoga, arises if the Lagna, the Sun and the Moon are in odd signs for a male born during day - time or if these three are in even signs for a female born during night - time. Nero born at 7.28 A.M. on 15 December 37 CE was blessed with this yoga; though not born heir he was adopted by Claudius in 50 CE which adoption made him ascend the throne on 13 October 54 CE. Indira Gandhi born on 19 November 1917 at Allahabad was also blessed with this yoga and reaped benefits.
Raja yogas do confer a degree of power and influence but there are certain standard planetary situations that ensure a greater degree of success as a politician. The conjunction of Mars and the Moon or their situation in mutual kendras or trikonas but devoid of benefic influences can make one rich, immoral, untrustworthy, criminal - minded successful businessman or a politician. Mercury aspected by the lord of the 9th house and occupying a kendra or a trikona from the lagna makes one a highly influential politician. Mercury aspected by the lord of the lagna and the lord of the 5th house can make a person a minister. Mars and / or the lord of the 3rd house conjoining with Jupiter aspected by either the lord of the 4th or the 10th house makes one a successful politician. Thiruvalluvar has said - There is nothing more powerful than fate or destiny, what is destined will certainly happen (Thirukkural St. 380). Sanketanidhi (Chapter III. 48) highlights the importance of Vargottama lagna, of benefic influences on the Moon and of strong planets occupying the kendras in the case of Raja yoga formations, it states that a Raja yoga is caused if Vargottama lagna rises at the time of birth, a benefic planet is in the 2nd house from the Moon and strong planets are in the kendras from the lagna.
N. Sundarajan states that the astrological factors required for success in politics are the strong lagna, the 5th house, the 10th house and the 4th house and their respective lords; a combination or association or aspect between these four factors (as was in the case of Jawaharlal Nehru), and failure results only when they are weak and mutually unconnected but occupy the evil trika - bhavas or associate with the trika - lords in the Rasi - chart or Navamsa - chart (as was in the case of Morarji Desai). Citing Kumarswamiam he states that the person will be a ruler if the lords of lagna and the 5th aspect the lord of the sign occupied by Mercury or if the lord of the 4th and the 10th or 4th and the 11th exchange signs and Jupiter as the lord of lagna is in the 9th house.
There are certain planetary situations or yogas which can arise and cause Rajayogabhanga so as to nullify the auspicious effects of any one or all Raja yogas that may be present at the time of one 's birth. For instance, there will be Rajayogabhanga if there be along with Raja yoga - formation the simultaneous presence of a planet / planets (other than those involved in the Raja yoga - formation) in debilitation signs or debilitation navamsas, or of planets defeated in planetary war (Grahayuddha) or occupying inimical signs or in bhava - sandhi or planets that are weak, combust or retrograde, or if any one of those planets happens to be in conjunction with Rahu or with the lord of the 6th or the 8th or the 12th, or with the lord of a kendra, a functional malefic. (Source: Uttara Kalamrita) Also, if the Lagna (Ascendant) is neither in vargottama nor aspected by a benefic, and if Trishanku Nakshatra is rising and Saturn is in lagna then too Raja yogas will get nullified. (Source: Saravali) In any Raja yoga formation if the lord of the 10th house happens to occupy the 6th house counted from the 10th the impact of that yoga wiil be slight or for a short period only, there will be no permanent yoga.
If the Raja yogas are loosely knit their results collapse at the prime of life, as was in the case of Napoleon Bonaparte who born in Libra lagna had Saturn, the Raja yogakaraka, conjoining with Mercury, the lord of the 12th house, in the 10th house but ten degrees apart, which afflicted Saturn and destroyed Raja yogas. In the case of Tipu Sultan born in Sagittarius lagna it was the Sun, Mercury, Saturn and Rahu conjunction in the 12th house.
The presence of the Sakata yoga, the Kemadruma yoga, the Kalasarpa yoga, the Daridra yoga, to name a few ava - yogas, either stalls the operation of Raja yogas or completely destroys the Raja yogas. The lord of the 10th situated in the 6th house from the 10th, or either the lord of the 8th or the lord of the 11th associating with the Raja yoga formation or the Sun in its deep debilitation or Venus occupying the 5th house, the 12th or the 2nd house and the lord of the bhava of its occupation weak and afflicted or when all papagrahas occupy the kendras in their inimical or debilitation signs and are aspected by a benefic from a trikasthana (' cadent house '), are a few of the many factors that indicate Rajayogabhanga.
According to the Jaimini system of prognostication, when Janma Lagna, Hora Lagna and Ghatika Lagna are simultaneously aspected by a planet, the person becomes a ruler or one equal to him (Sutra I. 3.24). A powerful Raja yoga is caused if at the time of birth, Chandra lagna, Navamsa lagna and Drekkana lagna and the 7th house from these three are aspected by one planet (Sutra I. 3.25). Jaimini states that if out of the six lagnas, viz., Lagna, Ghatika lagna, Hora lagna, Chandra lagna, Navamsa lagna and Drekkana lagna -- one planet sees five and not all the six, the person will enjoy Raja yoga (Sutra I. 3.26); B. Suryanarain Rao in his commentary on this sutra tells us that if an exalted planet occupies the Arudha lagna or the Moon, Jupiter and Venus occupy the Arudha lagna and there are no obstructive argalas but only beneficial ones, the person will attain to royal position. If the 2nd, 4th and 5th become equal (in strength etc.) to the Karaka, the person becomes a Raja or equal to him or when the 3rd and the 6th bhavas from Atmakaraka (the planet most advanced in a sign) are equal in strength or if they are joined by malefic, or if from the lords of lagna and the 7th house benefic planets occupy the 2nd, 4th, 5th and 8th house. If to the lord of the lagna or to the lord of 7th, the 5th house is occupied by Jupiter, Venus or the Moon, the person becomes a high Government official and wields political power. If the lord of the lagna aspects the lagna and if the lord of the Karaka lagna aspects that lagna, the person will have very good Raja yogas. The Sun and Jupiter are the karakas (' significators ') of the 10th house, any kind of sambandha (' mutual association ') established by these two makes one adept and shine in his / her chosen field of creative / scientific / religious / philosophical activity, become a high - ranking official or advisor and famous. Jupiter situated in the Karakamsa i.e. in conjunction with the Atmakaraka in the Navamsa - chart makes one master the Vedas or become a philosopher or a religious leader; Venus likewise situated makes one a great political figure. However, BV Raman states that Raja yogas given by Jaimini have not been tested as his method has not been in vogue.
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what's the average size of a kidney stone | Kidney stone disease - wikipedia
Kidney stone disease, also known as urolithiasis, is when a solid piece of material (kidney stone) occurs in the urinary tract. Kidney stones typically form in the kidney and leave the body in the urine stream. A small stone may pass without causing symptoms. If a stone grows to more than 5 millimeters (0.2 in) it can cause blockage of the ureter resulting in severe pain in the lower back or abdomen. A stone may also result in blood in the urine, vomiting, or painful urination. About half of people will have another stone within ten years.
Most stones form due to a combination of genetics and environmental factors. Risk factors include high urine calcium levels, obesity, certain foods, some medications, calcium supplements, hyperparathyroidism, gout and not drinking enough fluids. Stones form in the kidney when minerals in urine are at high concentration. The diagnosis is usually based on symptoms, urine testing, and medical imaging. Blood tests may also be useful. Stones are typically classified by their location: nephrolithiasis (in the kidney), ureterolithiasis (in the ureter), cystolithiasis (in the bladder), or by what they are made of (calcium oxalate, uric acid, struvite, cystine).
In those who have had stones, prevention is by drinking fluids such that more than two liters of urine are produced per day. If this is not effective enough, thiazide diuretic, citrate, or allopurinol may be taken. It is recommended that soft drinks containing phosphoric acid (typically colas) be avoided. When a stone causes no symptoms, no treatment is needed. Otherwise pain control is usually the first measure, using medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or opioids. Larger stones may be helped to pass with the medication tamsulosin or may require procedures such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, or percutaneous nephrolithotomy.
Between 1 % and 15 % of people globally are affected by kidney stones at some point in their life. In 2015, 22.1 million cases occurred, resulting in about 16,100 deaths. They have become more common in the Western world since the 1970s. Generally, more men are affected than women. Kidney stones have affected humans throughout history with descriptions of surgery to remove them dating from as early as 600 BC.
The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating, intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh. This pain, known as renal colic, is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known. Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by urinary urgency, restlessness, hematuria, sweating, nausea, and vomiting. It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by peristaltic contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone.
The embryological link between the urinary tract, the genital system, and the gastrointestinal tract is the basis of the radiation of pain to the gonads, as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in urolithiasis. Postrenal azotemia and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters.
Pain in the lower left quadrant can sometimes be confused with diverticulitis because the sigmoid colon overlaps the ureter and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the close proximity of these two structures.
Dehydration from low fluid intake is a major factor in stone formation. Obesity is a leading risk factor as well.
High dietary intake of animal protein, sodium, refined sugars, fructose and high fructose corn syrup, oxalate, grapefruit juice, and apple juice may increase the risk of kidney stone formation.
Kidney stones can result from an underlying metabolic condition, such as distal renal tubular acidosis, Dent 's disease, hyperparathyroidism, primary hyperoxaluria, or medullary sponge kidney. 3 -- 20 % of people who form kidney stones have medullary sponge kidney.
Kidney stones are more common in people with Crohn 's disease; Crohn 's disease is associated with hyperoxaluria and malabsorption of magnesium.
A person with recurrent kidney stones may be screened for such disorders. This is typically done with a 24 - hour urine collection. The urine is analyzed for features that promote stone formation.
Calcium is one component of the most common type of human kidney stones, calcium oxalate. Some studies suggest people who take calcium or vitamin D as a dietary supplement have a higher risk of developing kidney stones. In the United States, kidney stone formation was used as an indicator of excess calcium intake by the Reference Daily Intake committee for calcium in adults.
In the early 1990s, a study conducted for the Women 's Health Initiative in the US found that postmenopausal women who consumed 1000 mg of supplemental calcium and 400 international units of vitamin D per day for seven years had a 17 % higher risk of developing kidney stones than subjects taking a placebo. The Nurses ' Health Study also showed an association between supplemental calcium intake and kidney stone formation.
Unlike supplemental calcium, high intakes of dietary calcium do not appear to cause kidney stones and may actually protect against their development. This is perhaps related to the role of calcium in binding ingested oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract. As the amount of calcium intake decreases, the amount of oxalate available for absorption into the bloodstream increases; this oxalate is then excreted in greater amounts into the urine by the kidneys. In the urine, oxalate is a very strong promoter of calcium oxalate precipitation -- about 15 times stronger than calcium.
A 2004 study found that diets low in calcium are associated with a higher overall risk for kidney stone formation. For most individuals, other risk factors for kidney stones, such as high intakes of dietary oxalates and low fluid intake, play a greater role than calcium intake.
Calcium is not the only electrolyte that influences the formation of kidney stones. For example, by increasing urinary calcium excretion, high dietary sodium may increase the risk of stone formation.
Drinking fluoridated tap water may increase the risk of kidney stone formation by a similar mechanism, though further epidemiologic studies are warranted to determine whether fluoride in drinking water is associated with an increased incidence of kidney stones. High dietary intake of potassium appears to reduce the risk of stone formation because potassium promotes the urinary excretion of citrate, an inhibitor of calcium crystal formation.
Kidney stones are more likely to develop, and to grow larger, if a person has low dietary magnesium. Magnesium inhibits stone formation.
Diets in Western nations typically contain a large proportion of animal protein. Consumption of animal protein creates an acid load that increases urinary excretion of calcium and uric acid and reduced citrate. Urinary excretion of excess sulfurous amino acids (e.g., cysteine and methionine), uric acid, and other acidic metabolites from animal protein acidifies the urine, which promotes the formation of kidney stones. Low urinary citrate excretion is also commonly found in those with a high dietary intake of animal protein, whereas vegetarians tend to have higher levels of citrate excretion. Low urinary citrate, too, promotes stone formation.
The evidence linking vitamin C supplements with an increased rate of kidney stones is inconclusive. The excess dietary intake of vitamin C might increase the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation, in practice this is rarely encountered. The link between vitamin D intake and kidney stones is also tenuous. Excessive vitamin D supplementation may increase the risk of stone formation by increasing the intestinal absorption of calcium; correction of a deficiency does not.
There are no conclusive data demonstrating a cause - and - effect relationship between alcoholic beverage consumption and kidney stones. However, some have theorized that certain behaviors associated with frequent and binge drinking can lead to dehydration, which can, in turn, lead to the development of kidney stones.
The American Urological Association has projected that global warming will lead to an increased incidence of kidney stones in the United States by expanding the "kidney stone belt '' of the southern United States.
People with lymphoproliferative / myeloproliferative disorders who were treated with chemotherapy developed symptomatic kidney stones 1.8 % of the time in one study.
Hypocitraturia or low urinary citrate excretion (defined as lower than 320 mg / day) can cause kidney stones in up to 2 / 3 of cases. The protective role of citrate is linked to several mechanisms; in fact, citrate reduces urinary supersaturation of calcium salts by forming soluble complexes with calcium ions and by inhibiting crystal growth and aggregation. The therapy with potassium citrate, or magnesium potassium citrate, is commonly prescribed in clinical practice in order to increase urinary citrate and to reduce stone formation rates.
When the urine becomes supersaturated (when the urine solvent contains more solutes than it can hold in solution) with one or more calculogenic (crystal - forming) substances, a seed crystal may form through the process of nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation (where there is a solid surface present on which a crystal can grow) proceeds more rapidly than homogeneous nucleation (where a crystal must grow in a liquid medium with no such surface), because it requires less energy. Adhering to cells on the surface of a renal papilla, a seed crystal can grow and aggregate into an organized mass. Depending on the chemical composition of the crystal, the stone - forming process may proceed more rapidly when the urine pH is unusually high or low.
Supersaturation of the urine with respect to a calculogenic compound is pH - dependent. For example, at a pH of 7.0, the solubility of uric acid in urine is 158 mg / 100 ml. Reducing the pH to 5.0 decreases the solubility of uric acid to less than 8 mg / 100 ml. The formation of uric acid stones requires a combination of hyperuricosuria (high urine uric acid levels) and low urine pH; hyperuricosuria alone is not associated with uric acid stone formation if the urine pH is alkaline. Supersaturation of the urine is a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for the development of any urinary calculus. Supersaturation is likely the underlying cause of uric acid and cystine stones, but calcium - based stones (especially calcium oxalate stones) may have a more complex cause.
Normal urine contains chelating agents, such as citrate, that inhibit the nucleation, growth, and aggregation of calcium - containing crystals. Other endogenous inhibitors include calgranulin (an S - 100 calcium binding protein), Tamm -- Horsfall protein, glycosaminoglycans, uropontin (a form of osteopontin), nephrocalcin (an acidic glycoprotein), pro thrombin F1 peptide, and bikunin (uronic acid - rich protein). The biochemical mechanisms of action of these substances have not yet been thoroughly elucidated. However, when these substances fall below their normal proportions, stones can form from an aggregation of crystals.
Sufficient dietary intake of magnesium and citrate inhibits the formation of calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones; in addition, magnesium and citrate operate synergistically to inhibit kidney stones. Magnesium 's efficacy in subduing stone formation and growth is dose - dependent.
Diagnosis of kidney stones is made on the basis of information obtained from the history, physical examination, urinalysis, and radiographic studies. Clinical diagnosis is usually made on the basis of the location and severity of the pain, which is typically colicky in nature (comes and goes in spasmodic waves). Pain in the back occurs when calculi produce an obstruction in the kidney. Physical examination may reveal fever and tenderness at the costovertebral angle on the affected side.
In people with a history of stones, those who are less than 50 years of age and are presenting with the symptoms of stones without any concerning signs do not require helical CT scan imaging. A CT scan is also not typically recommended in children.
Otherwise a noncontrast helical CT scan with 5 millimeters (0.2 in) sections is the diagnostic modality of choice in the radiographic evaluation of suspected nephrolithiasis. All stones are detectable on CT scans except very rare stones composed of certain drug residues in the urine, such as from indinavir. Calcium - containing stones are relatively radiodense, and they can often be detected by a traditional radiograph of the abdomen that includes the kidneys, ureters, and bladder (KUB film). Some 60 % of all renal stones are radiopaque. In general, calcium phosphate stones have the greatest density, followed by calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate stones. Cystine calculi are only faintly radiodense, while uric acid stones are usually entirely radiolucent.
Where a CT scan is unavailable, an intravenous pyelogram may be performed to help confirm the diagnosis of urolithiasis. This involves intravenous injection of a contrast agent followed by a KUB film. Uroliths present in the kidneys, ureters or bladder may be better defined by the use of this contrast agent. Stones can also be detected by a retrograde pyelogram, where a similar contrast agent is injected directly into the distal ostium of the ureter (where the ureter terminates as it enters the bladder).
Ultrasound imaging of the kidneys can sometimes be useful, as it gives details about the presence of hydronephrosis, suggesting the stone is blocking the outflow of urine. Radiolucent stones, which do not appear on KUB, may show up on ultrasound imaging studies. Other advantages of renal ultrasonography include its low cost and absence of radiation exposure. Ultrasound imaging is useful for detecting stones in situations where X-rays or CT scans are discouraged, such as in children or pregnant women. Despite these advantages, renal ultrasonography in 2009 was not considered a substitute for noncontrast helical CT scan in the initial diagnostic evaluation of urolithiasis. The main reason for this is that compared with CT, renal ultrasonography more often fails to detect small stones (especially ureteral stones), as well as other serious disorders that could be causing the symptoms. A 2014 study confirmed that ultrasonography rather than CT as an initial diagnostic test results in less radiation exposure and did not find any significant complications.
Laboratory investigations typically carried out include:
By far, the most common type of kidney stones worldwide contains calcium. For example, calcium - containing stones represent about 80 % of all cases in the United States; these typically contain calcium oxalate either alone or in combination with calcium phosphate in the form of apatite or brushite. Factors that promote the precipitation of oxalate crystals in the urine, such as primary hyperoxaluria, are associated with the development of calcium oxalate stones. The formation of calcium phosphate stones is associated with conditions such as hyperparathyroidism and renal tubular acidosis.
Oxaluria is increased in patients with certain gastrointestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn disease or patients who have undergone resection of the small bowel or small bowel bypass procedures. Oxaluria is also increased in patients who consume increased amounts of oxalate (found in vegetables and nuts). Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare autosomal recessive condition which usually presents in childhood.
Calcium oxalate crystals in urine appear as ' envelopes ' microscopically. They may also form ' dumbbells. '
About 10 -- 15 % of urinary calculi are composed of struvite (ammonium magnesium phosphate, NH MgPO 6H O). Struvite stones (also known as "infection stones '', urease or triple - phosphate stones), form most often in the presence of infection by urea - splitting bacteria. Using the enzyme urease, these organisms metabolize urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. This alkalinizes the urine, resulting in favorable conditions for the formation of struvite stones. Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, and Morganella morganii are the most common organisms isolated; less common organisms include Ureaplasma urealyticum, and some species of Providencia, Klebsiella, Serratia, and Enterobacter. These infection stones are commonly observed in people who have factors that predispose them to urinary tract infections, such as those with spinal cord injury and other forms of neurogenic bladder, ileal conduit urinary diversion, vesicoureteral reflux, and obstructive uropathies. They are also commonly seen in people with underlying metabolic disorders, such as idiopathic hypercalciuria, hyperparathyroidism, and gout. Infection stones can grow rapidly, forming large calyceal staghorn (antler - shaped) calculi requiring invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment.
Struvite stones (triple phosphate / magnesium ammonium phosphate) have a ' coffin lid ' morphology by microscopy.
About 5 -- 10 % of all stones are formed from uric acid. People with certain metabolic abnormalities, including obesity, may produce uric acid stones. They also may form in association with conditions that cause hyperuricosuria (an excessive amount of uric acid in the urine) with or without hyperuricemia (an excessive amount of uric acid in the serum). They may also form in association with disorders of acid / base metabolism where the urine is excessively acidic (low pH), resulting in precipitation of uric acid crystals. A diagnosis of uric acid urolithiasis is supported by the presence of a radiolucent stone in the face of persistent urine acidity, in conjunction with the finding of uric acid crystals in fresh urine samples.
As noted above (section on calcium oxalate stones), people with inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn 's disease, ulcerative colitis) tend to have hyperoxaluria and form oxalate stones. They also have a tendency to form urate stones. Urate stones are especially common after colon resection.
Uric acid stones appear as pleomorphic crystals, usually diamond - shaped. They may also look like squares or rods which are polarizable.
Patients with hyperuricosuria can be treated with allopurinol which will reduce urate formation. Urine alkalinization may also be helpful in this setting.
People with certain rare inborn errors of metabolism have a propensity to accumulate crystal - forming substances in their urine. For example, those with cystinuria, cystinosis, and Fanconi syndrome may form stones composed of cystine. Cystine stone formation can be treated with urine alkalinization and dietary protein restriction. People afflicted with xanthinuria often produce stones composed of xanthine. People afflicted with adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency may produce 2, 8 - dihydroxyadenine stones, alkaptonurics produce homogentisic acid stones, and iminoglycinurics produce stones of glycine, proline and hydroxyproline. Urolithiasis has also been noted to occur in the setting of therapeutic drug use, with crystals of drug forming within the renal tract in some people currently being treated with agents such as indinavir, sulfadiazine and triamterene.
Urolithiasis refers to stones originating anywhere in the urinary system, including the kidneys and bladder. Nephrolithiasis refers to the presence of such stones in the kidneys. Calyceal calculi are aggregations in either the minor or major calyx, parts of the kidney that pass urine into the ureter (the tube connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder). The condition is called ureterolithiasis when a calculus is located in the ureter. Stones may also form or pass into the bladder, a condition referred to as bladder stones.
Stones less than 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter pass spontaneously in up to 98 % of cases, while those measuring 5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) in diameter pass spontaneously in less than 53 % of cases.
Stones that are large enough to fill out the renal calyces are called staghorn stones, and are composed of struvite in a vast majority of cases, which only forms in the presence of urease - forming bacteria. Other forms that can possibly grow to become staghorn stones are those composed of cystine, calcium oxalate monohydrate, and uric acid.
Preventative measures depend on the type of stones. In those with calcium stones, drinking lots of fluids, thiazide diuretics and citrate are effective as is allopurinol in those with high uric acid levels in the blood or urine.
Specific therapy should be tailored to the type of stones involved. Diet can have a profound influence on the development of kidney stones. Preventive strategies include some combination of dietary modifications and medications with the goal of reducing the excretory load of calculogenic compounds on the kidneys. Current dietary recommendations to minimize the formation of kidney stones include:
Maintenance of dilute urine by means of vigorous fluid therapy is beneficial in all forms of nephrolithiasis, so increasing urine volume is a key principle for the prevention of kidney stones. Fluid intake should be sufficient to maintain a urine output of at least 2 litres (68 US fl oz) per day. A high fluid intake has been associated with a 40 % reduction in recurrence risk. The quality of the evidence for this, however, is not very good.
Calcium binds with available oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby preventing its absorption into the bloodstream, and reducing oxalate absorption decreases kidney stone risk in susceptible people. Because of this, some nephrologists and urologists recommend chewing calcium tablets during meals containing oxalate foods. Calcium citrate supplements can be taken with meals if dietary calcium can not be increased by other means. The preferred calcium supplement for people at risk of stone formation is calcium citrate because it helps to increase urinary citrate excretion.
Aside from vigorous oral hydration and consumption of more dietary calcium, other prevention strategies include avoidance of large doses of supplemental vitamin C and restriction of oxalate - rich foods such as leaf vegetables, rhubarb, soy products and chocolate. However, no randomized, controlled trial of oxalate restriction has yet been performed to test the hypothesis that oxalate restriction reduces the incidence of stone formation. Some evidence indicates magnesium intake decreases the risk of symptomatic nephrolithiasis.
The mainstay for medical management of uric acid stones is alkalinization (increasing the pH) of the urine. Uric acid stones are among the few types amenable to dissolution therapy, referred to as chemolysis. Chemolysis is usually achieved through the use of oral medications, although in some cases, intravenous agents or even instillation of certain irrigating agents directly onto the stone can be performed, using antegrade nephrostomy or retrograde ureteral catheters. Acetazolamide (Diamox) is a medication that alkalinizes the urine. In addition to acetazolamide or as an alternative, certain dietary supplements are available that produce a similar alkalinization of the urine. These include sodium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, magnesium citrate, and Bicitra (a combination of citric acid monohydrate and sodium citrate dihydrate). Aside from alkalinization of the urine, these supplements have the added advantage of increasing the urinary citrate level, which helps to reduce the aggregation of calcium oxalate stones.
Increasing the urine pH to around 6.5 provides optimal conditions for dissolution of uric acid stones. Increasing the urine pH to a value higher than 7.0 increases the risk of calcium phosphate stone formation. Testing the urine periodically with nitrazine paper can help to ensure the urine pH remains in this optimal range. Using this approach, stone dissolution rate can be expected to be around 10 mm (0.4 in) of stone radius per month.
One of the recognized medical therapies for prevention of stones is the thiazide and thiazide - like diuretics, such as chlorthalidone or indapamide. These drugs inhibit the formation of calcium - containing stones by reducing urinary calcium excretion. Sodium restriction is necessary for clinical effect of thiazides, as sodium excess promotes calcium excretion. Thiazides work best for renal leak hypercalciuria (high urine calcium levels), a condition in which high urinary calcium levels are caused by a primary kidney defect. Thiazides are useful for treating absorptive hypercalciuria, a condition in which high urinary calcium is a result of excess absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.
For people with hyperuricosuria and calcium stones, allopurinol is one of the few treatments that have been shown to reduce kidney stone recurrences. Allopurinol interferes with the production of uric acid in the liver. The drug is also used in people with gout or hyperuricemia (high serum uric acid levels). Dosage is adjusted to maintain a reduced urinary excretion of uric acid. Serum uric acid level at or below 6 mg / 100 ml) is often a therapeutic goal. Hyperuricemia is not necessary for the formation of uric acid stones; hyperuricosuria can occur in the presence of normal or even low serum uric acid. Some practitioners advocate adding allopurinol only in people in whom hyperuricosuria and hyperuricemia persist, despite the use of a urine - alkalinizing agent such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium citrate.
Stone size influences the rate of spontaneous stone passage. For example, up to 98 % of small stones (less than 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter) may pass spontaneously through urination within four weeks of the onset of symptoms, but for larger stones (5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) in diameter), the rate of spontaneous passage decreases to less than 53 %. Initial stone location also influences the likelihood of spontaneous stone passage. Rates increase from 48 % for stones located in the proximal ureter to 79 % for stones located at the vesicoureteric junction, regardless of stone size. Assuming no high - grade obstruction or associated infection is found in the urinary tract, and symptoms are relatively mild, various nonsurgical measures can be used to encourage the passage of a stone. Repeat stone formers benefit from more intense management, including proper fluid intake and use of certain medications. In addition, careful surveillance is clearly required to maximize the clinical course for people who are stone formers.
Management of pain often requires intravenous administration of NSAIDs or opioids. Orally administered medications are often effective for less severe discomfort. The use of antispasmodics do not have further benefit.
The use of medications to speed the spontaneous passage of stones in the ureter is referred to as medical expulsive therapy. Several agents, including alpha adrenergic blockers (such as tamsulosin) and calcium channel blockers (such as nifedipine), have been found to be effective. Alpha blockers appear to lead to both higher and faster stone clearance rates. Alpha blockers; however, only appear to be effective for stones over 4 mm but less than 10 mm in size. A combination of tamsulosin and a corticosteroid may be better than tamsulosin alone. These treatments also appear to be a useful in addition to lithotripsy.
Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) is a noninvasive technique for the removal of kidney stones. Most ESWL is carried out when the stone is present near the renal pelvis. ESWL involves the use of a lithotriptor machine to deliver externally applied, focused, high - intensity pulses of ultrasonic energy to cause fragmentation of a stone over a period of around 30 -- 60 minutes. Following its introduction in the United States in February 1984, ESWL was rapidly and widely accepted as a treatment alternative for renal and ureteral stones. It is currently used in the treatment of uncomplicated stones located in the kidney and upper ureter, provided the aggregate stone burden (stone size and number) is less than 20 mm (0.8 in) and the anatomy of the involved kidney is normal. For a stone greater than 10 mm (0.4 in), ESWL may not help break the stone in one treatment; instead, two or three treatments may be needed. Some 80 to 85 % of simple renal calculi can be effectively treated with ESWL. A number of factors can influence its efficacy, including chemical composition of the stone, presence of anomalous renal anatomy and the specific location of the stone within the kidney, presence of hydronephrosis, body mass index, and distance of the stone from the surface of the skin. Common adverse effects of ESWL include acute trauma, such as bruising at the site of shock administration, and damage to blood vessels of the kidney. In fact, the vast majority of people who are treated with a typical dose of shock waves using currently accepted treatment settings are likely to experience some degree of acute kidney injury. ESWL - induced acute kidney injury is dose - dependent (increases with the total number of shock waves administered and with the power setting of the lithotriptor) and can be severe, including internal bleeding and subcapsular hematomas. On rare occasions, such cases may require blood transfusion and even lead to acute renal failure. Hematoma rates may be related to the type of lithotriptor used; hematoma rates of less than 1 % and up to 13 % have been reported for different lithotriptor machines. Recent studies show reduced acute tissue injury when the treatment protocol includes a brief pause following the initiation of treatment, and both improved stone breakage and a reduction in injury when ESWL is carried out at slow shock wave rate.
In addition to the aforementioned potential for acute kidney injury, animal studies suggest these acute injuries may progress to scar formation, resulting in loss of functional renal volume. Recent prospective studies also indicate elderly people are at increased risk of developing new - onset hypertension following ESWL. In addition, a retrospective case - control study published by researchers from the Mayo Clinic in 2006 has found an increased risk of developing diabetes mellitus and hypertension in people who had undergone ESWL, compared with age and gender - matched people who had undergone nonsurgical treatment. Whether or not acute trauma progresses to long - term effects probably depends on multiple factors that include the shock wave dose (i.e., the number of shock waves delivered, rate of delivery, power setting, acoustic characteristics of the particular lithotriptor, and frequency of retreatment), as well as certain intrinsic predisposing pathophysiologic risk factors.
To address these concerns, the American Urological Association established the Shock Wave Lithotripsy Task Force to provide an expert opinion on the safety and risk - benefit ratio of ESWL. The task force published a white paper outlining their conclusions in 2009. They concluded the risk - benefit ratio remains favorable for many people. The advantages of ESWL include its noninvasive nature, the fact that it is technically easy to treat most upper urinary tract calculi, and that, at least acutely, it is a well - tolerated, low - morbidity treatment for the vast majority of people. However, they recommended slowing the shock wave firing rate from 120 pulses per minute to 60 pulses per minute to reduce the risk of renal injury and increase the degree of stone fragmentation.
Most stones under 5 mm (0.2 in) pass spontaneously. Prompt surgery may, nonetheless, be required in persons with only one working kidney, bilateral obstructing stones, a urinary tract infection and thus, it is presumed, an infected kidney, or intractable pain. Beginning in the mid-1980s, less invasive treatments such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy began to replace open surgery as the modalities of choice for the surgical management of urolithiasis. More recently, flexible ureteroscopy has been adapted to facilitate retrograde nephrostomy creation for percutaneous nephrolithotomy. This approach is still under investigation, though early results are favorable. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy or, rarely, anatrophic nephrolithotomy, is the treatment of choice for large or complicated stones (such as calyceal staghorn calculi) or stones that can not be extracted using less invasive procedures.
Ureteroscopy has become increasingly popular as flexible and rigid fiberoptic ureteroscopes have become smaller. One ureteroscopic technique involves the placement of a ureteral stent (a small tube extending from the bladder, up the ureter and into the kidney) to provide immediate relief of an obstructed kidney. Stent placement can be useful for saving a kidney at risk for postrenal acute renal failure due to the increased hydrostatic pressure, swelling and infection (pyelonephritis and pyonephrosis) caused by an obstructing stone. Ureteral stents vary in length from 24 to 30 cm (9.4 to 11.8 in) and most have a shape commonly referred to as a "double - J '' or "double pigtail '', because of the curl at both ends. They are designed to allow urine to flow past an obstruction in the ureter. They may be retained in the ureter for days to weeks as infections resolve and as stones are dissolved or fragmented by ESWL or by some other treatment. The stents dilate the ureters, which can facilitate instrumentation, and they also provide a clear landmark to aid in the visualization of the ureters and any associated stones on radiographic examinations. The presence of indwelling ureteral stents may cause minimal to moderate discomfort, frequency or urgency incontinence, and infection, which in general resolves on removal. Most ureteral stents can be removed cystoscopically during an office visit under topical anesthesia after resolution of urolithiasis.
More definitive ureteroscopic techniques for stone extraction (rather than simply bypassing the obstruction) include basket extraction and ultrasound ureterolithotripsy. Laser lithotripsy is another technique, which involves the use of a holmium: yttrium aluminium garnet (Ho: YAG) laser to fragment stones in the bladder, ureters, and kidneys.
Ureteroscopic techniques are generally more effective than ESWL for treating stones located in the lower ureter, with success rates of 93 -- 100 % using Ho: YAG laser lithotripsy. Although ESWL has been traditionally preferred by many practitioners for treating stones located in the upper ureter, more recent experience suggests ureteroscopic techniques offer distinct advantages in the treatment of upper ureteral stones. Specifically, the overall success rate is higher, fewer repeat interventions and postoperative visits are needed, and treatment costs are lower after ureteroscopic treatment when compared with ESWL. These advantages are especially apparent with stones greater than 10 mm (0.4 in) in diameter. However, because ureteroscopy of the upper ureter is much more challenging than ESWL, many urologists still prefer to use ESWL as a first - line treatment for stones of less than 10 mm, and ureteroscopy for those greater than 10 mm in diameter. Ureteroscopy is the preferred treatment in pregnant and morbidly obese people, as well as those with bleeding disorders.
Kidney stones affect all geographical, cultural, and racial groups. The lifetime risk is about 10 to 15 % in the developed world, but can be as high as 20 to 25 % in the Middle East. The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates, coupled with a diet 50 % lower in calcium and 250 % higher in oxalates compared to Western diets, accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East. In the Middle East, uric acid stones are more common than calcium - containing stones. The number of deaths due to kidney stones is estimated at 19,000 per year being fairly consistent between 1990 and 2010.
In North America and Europe, the annual number of new cases per year of kidney stones is roughly 0.5 %. In the United States, the frequency in the population of urolithiasis has increased from 3.2 % to 5.2 % from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. In the United States, about 9 % of the population has had a kidney stone.
The total cost for treating urolithiasis was US $2 billion in 2003. About 65 -- 80 % of those with kidney stones are men; most stones in women are due to either metabolic defects (such as cystinuria) or infection. (p. 1057) Men most commonly experience their first episode between 30 and 40 years of age, whereas for women, the age at first presentation is somewhat later. The age of onset shows a bimodal distribution in women, with episodes peaking at 35 and 55 years. Recurrence rates are estimated at 50 % over a 10 - year and 75 % over 20 - year period, with some people experiencing ten or more episodes over the course of a lifetime.
A 2010 review concluded that rates of disease are increasing.
The existence of kidney stones was first recorded thousands of years ago, and lithotomy for the removal of stones is one of the earliest known surgical procedures. In 1901, a stone discovered in the pelvis of an ancient Egyptian mummy was dated to 4,800 BC. Medical texts from ancient Mesopotamia, India, China, Persia, Greece, and Rome all mentioned calculous disease. Part of the Hippocratic Oath suggests there were practicing surgeons in ancient Greece to whom physicians were to defer for lithotomies. The Roman medical treatise De Medicina by Aulus Cornelius Celsus contained a description of lithotomy, and this work served as the basis for this procedure until the 18th century.
Famous people who were kidney stone formers include Napoleon I, Epicurus, Napoleon III, Peter the Great, Louis XIV, George IV, Oliver Cromwell, Lyndon B. Johnson, Benjamin Franklin, Michel de Montaigne, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, Samuel Pepys, William Harvey, Herman Boerhaave, and Antonio Scarpa.
New techniques in lithotomy began to emerge starting in 1520, but the operation remained risky. After Henry Jacob Bigelow popularized the technique of litholapaxy in 1878, the mortality rate dropped from about 24 % to 2.4 %. However, other treatment techniques continued to produce a high level of mortality, especially among inexperienced urologists. In 1980, Dornier MedTech introduced extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for breaking up stones via acoustical pulses, and this technique has since come into widespread use.
Renal calculus is from the Latin rēnēs meaning "kidneys, '' and calculus meaning "pebble ''. Lithiasis (stone formation) in the kidneys is called nephrolithiasis (/ ˌnɛfroʊlɪˈθaɪəsɪs /), from nephro - meaning kidney + - lith meaning stone and - iasis meaning disorder.
Crystallization of calcium oxalate appears to be inhibited by certain substances in the urine that retard the formation, growth, aggregation, and adherence of crystals to renal cells. By purifying urine using salt precipitation, isoelectric focusing, and size - exclusion chromatography, some researchers have found that calgranulin, a protein formed in the kidney, is a potent inhibitor of the in vivo formation of calcium oxalate crystals. Considering its extremely high levels of inhibition of growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals, calgranulin might be an important intrinsic factor in the prevention of nephrolithiasis.
Although kidney stones do not often occur in children, the incidence is increasing. These stones are in the kidney in two thirds of reported cases, and in the ureter in the remaining cases. Older children are at greater risk independent of sex.
As with adults, most pediatric kidney stones are predominantly composed of calcium oxalate; struvite and calcium phosphate stones are less common. Calcium oxalate stones in children are associated with high amounts of calcium, oxalate, and magnesium in acidic urine.
Among ruminants, uroliths more commonly cause problems in males than in females; the sigmoid flexure of the ruminant male urinary tract is more likely to obstruct passage. Early - castrated males are at greater risk, because of lesser urethral diameter.
Low Ca:P intake ratio is conducive to phosphatic (e.g. struvite) urolith formation. Incidence among wether lambs can be minimized by maintaining a dietary Ca:P intake ratio of 2: 1.
Alkaline pH favors formation of carbonate and phosphate calculi. For domestic ruminants, dietary cation: anion balance is sometimes adjusted to assure a slightly acidic urine pH, for prevention of calculus formation
Differing generalizations regarding effects of pH on formation of silicate uroliths may be found. In this connection, it may be noted that under some circumstances, calcium carbonate accompanies silica in siliceous uroliths.
Pelleted feeds may be conducive to formation of phosphate uroliths, because of increased urinary phosphorus excretion. This is attributable to lower saliva production where pelleted rations containing finely ground constituents are fed. With less blood phosphate partitioned into saliva, more tends to be excreted in urine. (Most saliva phosphate is fecally excreted.)
Oxalate uroliths can occur in ruminants, although such problems from oxalate ingestion may be relatively uncommon. Ruminant urolithiasis associated with oxalate ingestion has been reported. However, no renal tubular damage or visible deposition of calcium oxalate crystals in kidneys was found in yearling wether sheep fed diets containing soluble oxalate at 6.5 percent of dietary dry matter for about 100 days.
Conditions limiting water intake can result in stone formation.
Various surgical interventions, e.g. amputation of the urethral process at its base near the glans penis in male ruminants, perineal urethrostomy, or tube cystostomy may be considered for relief of obstructive urolithiasis.
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baby baby where did our love go j geils band | Where Did Our Love Go - wikipedia
"Where Did Our Love Go '' is a 1964 song recorded by American music group the Supremes for the Motown label.
Written and produced by Motown 's main production team Holland -- Dozier -- Holland, "Where Did Our Love Go '' was the first single by the Supremes to go to the number - one position on the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart in the United States, a position it held for two weeks, from August 16 to August 29, 1964. It was also the first of five Supremes songs in a row to reach number one (the others being "Baby Love '', "Come See About Me '', "Stop! In the Name of Love '', and "Back in My Arms Again ''). The song also reached number one on the Cash Box R&B singles chart.
The Supremes ' version is ranked # 475 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry in 2016 due to its "cultural, historic, or artistic significance. '' Billboard named the song # 4 on their list of 100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time.
According to Brian Holland, "Where Did Our Love Go '' was written with The Supremes in mind. Though Supremes member Mary Wilson would later write that the song had been originally given to The Marvelettes, Holland would deny this claim, as would the Marvelettes themselves. Marvelettes member Katherine Anderson - Schnaffer later said that the song did n't quite fit her group 's repertoire, as the song was produced under a slower beat and their music was more uptempo. When the Supremes were eventually given the song, the group members were n't pleased with the record, with member Florence Ballard later stating that they had wanted a stronger single similar to the Marvelettes ' "Please Mr. Postman ''. Although the group felt the song did n't have the hook to make it successful, they decided that they really did n't have a choice and prepared to record the song.
Initially, the producers argued over who should sing the song, as the song had been cut in the same key as Mary Wilson 's voice but since Berry Gordy had assigned the lead singer role to Diana Ross, the producers eventually gave the song to Ross, who sang it in her usual high register in the recording studio on April 8. As a result, Ross was told to sing the song in a lower register and begrudgingly complied with Holland / Dozier / Holland 's "to the letter '' formula. Mary Wilson and Florence Ballard 's vocal contribution was significant in bringing a fresh yet hypnotic sexiness to the overall sound of the song while remaining true to the backup arrangements that Lamont Dozier had set down.
Upon hearing the song 's playback, an excited Ross rushed to Gordy 's office and told him to come to the studio to listen to the song. Upon hearing playback, a satisfied Gordy nodded saying to the producers and the group that the song had potential to be a top ten hit.
"Where Did Our Love Go '' was released as a single on June 17, 1964, and entered the Hot 100 at number seventy - seven. Six weeks later, while the Supremes were on tour as part of Dick Clark 's "American Bandstand Caravan of Stars '', the song made it to number one for two weeks, spending a total of 9 weeks in the Billboard Top Ten. The girls began the tour at the bottom of the bill; by the conclusion of the tour, they were at the top. They performed the song on the NBC variety program, Hullabaloo! on Tuesday, January 26, 1965.
The song became the focal point and title track of the group 's second album, Where Did Our Love Go, released later that year. A German language version of the song was recorded by the Supremes for German - speaking markets overseas.
The song seemed to strike a chord in the United States, with a group which would become the most successful chart - topping American popular music group of the 1960s. The first of their American chart toppers, the song peaked just weeks after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, critically remarked as capturing the spirit of an America reeling from the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, racial tension, increased United States involvement in Vietnam, and foreseeing the end of the early optimism of the 1960s.
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when was the qutub minar granted the world heritage site status | Qutb Minar - wikipedia
The Qutub Minar, also spelled as Qutab Minar, or Qutb Minar, is the tallest minaret in the world made up of bricks. The minaret forms a part of the Qutab complex, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mehrauli area of Delhi, India. Qutub Minar is a 73 - metre (239.5 feet) tall tapering tower of five storeys, with a 14.3 metres (47 feet) base diameter, reducing to 2.7 metres (9 feet) at the top of the peak. It contains a spiral staircase of 379 steps. Its design is thought to have been based on the Minaret of Jam, in western Afghanistan.
Qutab - Ud - Din - Aibak, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, started construction of the Qutub Minar 's first storey around 1192. In 1220, Aibak 's successor and son - in - law Iltutmish completed a further three storeys. In 1369, a lightning strike destroyed the top storey. Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the damaged storey, and added one more. Sher Shah Suri also added an entrance to this tower while he was ruling and Humayun was in exile.
The Minar is surrounded by several historically significant monuments of the Qutab complex, including Quwat - ul - Islam Mosque, which was built at the same time as the Minar, and the much older Iron Pillar of Delhi. The nearby pillared Cupola known as "Smith 's Folly '' is a remnant of the tower 's 19th century restoration, which included an ill - advised attempt to add a sixth storey.
Qutab Minar was established along with Quwwat - ul - Islam Mosque around 1192 by Qutab - ud - din Aibak, first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. The mosque complex is one of the earliest that survives in the Indian subcontinent. The minaret is named after Qutab - ud - din Aibak, or Qutabuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, a Sufi saint. Its ground storey was built over the ruins of the Lal Kot, the citadel of Dhillika. Aibak 's successor Iltutmish added three more storeys. The minar 's topmost storey was damaged by lightning in 1369 and was rebuilt by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, who added another storey. In 1505, an earthquake damaged Qutub Minar; it was repaired by Sikander Lodi. On 1 September 1803, a major earthquake caused serious damage. Major Robert Smith of the British Indian Army renovated the tower in 1828 and installed a pillared cupola over the fifth story, thus creating a sixth. The cupola was taken down in 1848, under instructions from The Viscount Hardinge, then Governor General of India. It was reinstalled at ground level to the east of Qutab Minar, where it remains. It is known as "Smith 's Folly ''.
The tower 's style is patterned on Afghanistan 's Minaret of Jam, and adapted to local artistic conventions by the incorporation of "looped bells and garlands and lotus borders into the carving ''. Numerous inscriptions in Parso - Arabic and Nagari characters in different sections of the Qutab Minar reveal the history of its construction, and the later restorations and repairs by Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351 -- 89) and Sikandar Lodi (1489 -- 1517).
The tower has five superposed, tapering storeys. The lowest three comprise fluted cylindrical shafts or columns of pale red sandstone, separated by flanges and by storeyed balconies, carried on Muqarnas corbels. The fourth column is of marble, and is relatively plain. The fifth is of marble and sandstone. The flanges are a darker red sandstone throughout, and are engraved with Quranic texts and decorative elements. The whole tower contains a spiral staircase of 379 steps. At the foot of the tower is the Quwat ul Islam Mosque. The minar tilts just over 65 cm from the vertical, which is considered to be within safe limits, although experts have stated that monitoring is needed in case rainwater seepage further weakens the foundation.
Before 1974, the general public was allowed access to the top of the minaret, via the internal staircase. On 4 December 1981, the staircase lighting failed. Between 300 and 400 visitors stampeded towards the exit, and 47 were killed in the crush and some were injured. Most of these were school children. Since then, the tower has been closed to the public.
Letitia Elizabeth Landon 's poem The Cootub Minah, Delhi is a reflection on an engraving in Fisher 's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1833.
Bollywood actor and director Dev Anand wanted to shoot the song "Dil Ka Bhanwar Kare Pukar '' from his film Tere Ghar Ke Samne inside the Minar. However, the cameras in that era were too big to fit inside the tower 's narrow passage, and therefore the song was shot inside a replica of the Qutub Minar The site served as the pit stop of the second leg of the second series of The Amazing race Australia.
A picture of the minaret is featured on the travel cards issued by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. A recently launched start - up in collaboration with the Archaeological survey of India has made a 360 walkthrough of Qutab Minar available.
The Minar in context: Alai Darwaza (left), Imam Zamin 's tomb (right), Qutb Minar (back)
Entrance to Minar
Calligraphy on upper - base section
Decorative motifs on upper levels
Close - up of balcony
Minar in dark views
Smith 's cupola (foreground, right), with the Tomb of Imam Zamin, Alai Darwaza, and Qutb Minar in background
Plaque at Minar
Media related to Qutb Minar at Wikimedia Commons
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if i cannot raise heaven i'll raise hell | List of Latin phrases (F.) - wikipedia
This page lists English translations of notable Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. Some of the phrases are themselves translations of Greek phrases, as Greek rhetoric and literature reached its peak centuries before the rise of ancient Rome.
Additional sources
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who was the strategic thinker and naval war college professor who developed the theory of sea power | Julian Corbett - wikipedia
Sir Julian Stafford Corbett (12 November 1854 at Walcot House, Kennington Road, Lambeth -- 21 September 1922 at Manor Farm, Stopham, Pulborough, Sussex) was a prominent British naval historian and geostrategist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, whose works helped shape the Royal Navy 's reforms of that era. One of his most famous works is Some Principles of Maritime Strategy, which remains a classic among students of naval warfare. Corbett was a good friend and ally of naval reformer Admiral John "Jacky '' Fisher, the First Sea Lord. He was chosen to write the official history of British Naval operations during World War I.
The son of a London architect and property developer, Charles Joseph Corbett, who owned among other properties Imber Court at Weston Green, Thames Ditton, where he made the family home, Julian Corbett was educated at Marlborough College (1869 -- 73) and at Trinity College, Cambridge (1873 -- 76), where he took a first class honours degree in law. Corbett became a barrister at Middle Temple in 1877 and practised until 1882 when he turned to writing as a career. Fascinated by the Elizabethan period, he first wrote historical novels on this period. He became a correspondent for the Pall Mall Gazette, and reported on the Dongola Expedition in 1896. Corbett came to naval history in mid-life and from a civilian background. He was a man of independent means who traveled extensively.
Julian Corbett had three brothers, Herbert E. (1876 --??), Edward M. (1899 --??) and Frank E. (1881 --??). In 1899 he Married Edith Alexander, daughter of George Alexander. They had one son and one daughter.
In 1896 Corbett accepted John Knox Laughton 's request to edit a volume of documents on the Spanish war, 1585 -- 87 which served as the start of his career as a naval historian. He soon became known as one of the Royal Navy 's leading intellectuals, and from 1901 to 1922 was writing regularly on naval history and strategy. In 1902 he began lecturing at the Royal Naval College, founded in 1900. In 1903 he gave the Ford Lectures in English History at Oxford University. In 1905 he became the Admiralty 's chief unofficial strategic adviser and served as secretary of the Cabinet Historical Office. Appointed a knight in 1917, he was awarded the Chesney Gold Medal in 1914.
Like his American contemporary, Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan of the U.S. Navy, Corbett saw naval warfare as part of a nation 's larger policies. In this respect, Prussian military thinker Carl von Clausewitz was an important influence on his work. Another major influence was John Knox Laughton, arguably the first naval historian, and of whom Corbett has been described as his ' protégé '. Corbett differed from Mahan, however, in placing less emphasis on fleet battle. This stance angered many officers in the Royal Navy, who believed such a view lacked the heroic aspect of Lord Nelson 's strategy in the Napoleonic Wars.
Corbett 's primary objective was to fill the void in British naval doctrine by formalizing the theories and principles of naval warfare. The strategies of naval warfare by Corbett focused on the art of naval warfare and defined the differences between land warfare and naval warfare. He set the initial focus towards the employment of manoeuvre type doctrine. Corbett 's principles of sea control, focus on the enemy, and manoeuvre for tactical advantage form the foundation of today 's naval manoeuvre warfare.
Corbett was working from within the naval community and trying to influence the naval establishment. He believed in studying and developing the theory of war for educational purposes, which he felt established a "common vehicle of expression and a common plane of thought... for the sake of mental solidarity between a chief and his subordinates ''. Through his lectures at the Naval War College, Corbett was trying to convey to the attending flag officers his ideas of limited war and strategic defence which were very different from the accepted norms of naval theory and strategy of the time. Through his publication of Some Principles of Maritime Strategy (1911), Corbett was trying to expand the audience for his strategies and teachings to include the general public.
At the turn of the century Corbett emerged as one of the first authors in the development of modern naval doctrine. Drawing from the influences of Baron de Jomini and Carl von Clausewitz, he was instrumental in attempting to apply the existing theories of land warfare for war at sea. Clausewitz 's On War was an invaluable basis and stimulus for Corbett 's theoretical work, however, it was not his blueprint. For example, Corbett did not hesitate to take issue with Clausewitz, Jomini, or other continental strategists on the importance of the search for the decisive battle and the principle of concentration. The fact that Corbett believed these factors to be far less relevant at sea was a daring departure from the accepted wisdom of his time. In developing his theory of limited war, Corbett again used On War as his point of departure but ended up with his own, unique method of waging a limited war in a maritime environment.
Corbett offered no general theory of warfare at sea. Instead, he focused his thoughts on the nature of maritime strategy and what naval warfare meant to the power of a nation. While many theorists of naval warfare tried to mechanically adapt land warfare concepts to the maritime environment, Corbett countered that the interests and requirements of naval warfare differed in fundamental ways from those of land warfare.
Corbett felt that protecting lines of communication was much more difficult to enforce at sea than on land. This difficulty was the physical geographical differences of the sea and land. Because of these physical differences, Corbett analysed naval warfare in its own terms, having its own unique characteristics. Corbett stated that you can not conquer the sea because it is not susceptible to ownership. This led to Corbett 's most important contribution to the early theories of naval warfare. What mattered most was not Mahan 's concept of physical destruction of the enemy, but the act of passage on the sea. To Corbett, command of the sea was a relative and not an absolute which could be categorised as general or local, temporary or permanent. Corbett defined the two fundamental methods of obtaining control of the lines of communication as the actual physical destruction or capture of enemy warships and merchants, and or a naval blockade. Today, this concept is defined as sea control.
Corbett was not infatuated with the search for the decisive battle or with the need for the strategic offensive. In general, he favoured the strategic defensive, with an emphasis on the offensive at the operational level. Corbett 's strategic defence advocated such measures as an intense local offensive, the projection of land forces, various types of blockades, and raids on enemy trade routes. Moreover, Corbett recognised that once the enemy has been sufficiently weakened on sea and on land, the shift to the strategic offensive should not be delayed.
Corbett did not believe that the concentration of naval forces at sea was the highest and simplest law of strategy. On the contrary, he observed that the principle of concentration had become "a kind of shibboleth '' that had done more harm than good. The principle of concentration is "a truism -- no one would dispute it. As a canon of practical strategy, it is untrue ''. Corbett felt that superior concentration thus not only deterred the weaker opponent from seeking battle but presented him with an opportunity to attack his enemy 's exposed national lines of communication. Corbett felt that superior concentration of naval forces created yet another serious problem. The greater the concentration of a fleet, the more difficult it was to conceal its whereabouts and movements.
In the process of adapting Clausewitz 's theory to the unique circumstances of naval warfare, Corbett developed his own innovative theory of limited war in maritime strategy. The first of his two main points was that in wartime conditions on the continent, as opposed to those in the maritime and imperial environment, wars were fought mostly between adjacent states. Corbett 's second point was that in wars between contiguous continental states "there will be no strategical obstacle to his (the enemy 's) being able to use his whole force ''. In other words, the nature of continental war makes it difficult to limit political aims, because one or both states are able to use all of the means at their disposal to protect the inevitably threatened vital interests. As Corbett demonstrated, this means that the conditions for the ideal limited war exist only in maritime warfare and can only be exploited by the preponderant naval power: "Limited war is only permanently possible to island Powers or between Powers which are separated by sea, and then only when the Power desiring limited war is able to command the sea to such a degree as to be able not only to isolate the distant object, but also to render impossible the invasion of his home territory. ''
Like Clausewitz, Corbett shared a belief in the primacy of politics in war and in devising an appropriate strategy to protect the national interests. However, Corbett was interested in the diplomatic alliance systems and coalitions formed before and during a war, and he was concerned with the economic and financial dimensions of waging war as well as with the technological and material aspects of war, which were of no interest to Clausewitz.
Corbett 's value for today 's military professional lies in four of his concepts:
However, his concept of limited war on isolated countries or nation states most likely would be very difficult to achieve with today 's political and economic intricacies between nations in conjunction with current technologies on a symmetric battlefield. However, they could still be applied on an asymmetric battlefield with success.
Beyond the University of London 's annual award of the Julian Corbett Prize in Naval History, the importance of Corbett 's contribution to British naval history was largely overlooked until Professor D.M. Schurman published his pioneering work on The Education of a Navy: the development of British Naval Strategic Thought, 1867 -- 1914 (1965). In 1981, Schurman went on to write a full - length biography of Corbett. Further work on Corbett appeared with John Hattendorf 's essay "Sir Julian Corbett on the Significance of Naval History '' (1971, reprinted 2000) and Goldrick and Hattendorf 's Conference Proceedings, Mahan is Not Enough (1993), followed by the revised biography on Corbett in The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004).
These works were complemented by Eric J. Grove 's definitive, annotated edition of Corbett 's Some Principles of Maritime Strategy (Classics of Sea Power series, U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1988), which included Corbett 's previously unpublished ' Green Pamphlet ' on strategical terms. In addition, D.M. Schurman and John Hattendorf edited and wrote an introduction to Corbett 's previously unpublished official study Maritime Operations in the Russo - Japanese War, 1904 -- 1905 (U.S. Naval Institute, 1994).
Novels:
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what type of economic system does mexico have | Economy of Mexico - Wikipedia
$1.5 trillion (nominal; 2016)
$8,700 (2016) (nominal)
The economy of Mexico is the 13th largest in the world in nominal terms and the 11th largest by purchasing power parity, according to the International Monetary Fund. Since the 1994 crisis, administrations have improved the country 's macroeconomic fundamentals. Mexico was not significantly influenced by the 2002 South American crisis, and maintained positive, although low, rates of growth after a brief period of stagnation in 2001. However, Mexico was one of the Latin American nations most affected by the 2008 recession with its Gross Domestic Product contracting by more than 6 % in that year.
The Mexican economy has had an unprecedented macroeconomic stability, which has reduced inflation and interest rates to record lows and has increased per capita income. In spite of this, enormous gaps remain between the urban and the rural population, the northern and southern states, and the rich and the poor. Some of the unresolved issues include the upgrade of infrastructure, the modernization of the tax system and labor laws, and the reduction of income inequality. Tax revenues, all together 19.6 percent of GDP in 2013, are the lowest among the 34 OECD countries.
The economy contains rapidly developing modern industrial and service sectors, with increasing private ownership. Recent administrations have expanded competition in ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution and airports, with the aim of upgrading infrastructure. As an export - oriented economy, more than 90 % of Mexican trade is under free trade agreements (FTAs) with more than 40 countries, including the European Union, Japan, Israel, and much of Central and South America. The most influential FTA is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect in 1994, and was signed in 1992 by the governments of the United States, Canada and Mexico. In 2006, trade with Mexico 's two northern partners accounted for almost 90 % of its exports and 55 % of its imports. Recently, the Congress of the Union approved important tax, pension and judicial reforms, and reform to the oil industry is currently being debated. Mexico had 15 companies in the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world 's largest companies in 2016.
Mexico 's labor force is 52.8 million as of 2015. The OECD and WTO both rank Mexican workers as the hardest - working in the world in terms of the amount of hours worked yearly, although profitability per man - hour remains low.
Mexican president Porfirio Díaz brought unprecedented economic growth during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. This growth was accompanied by foreign investment and European immigration, the development of an efficient railroad network and the exploitation of the country 's natural resources. Annual economic growth between 1876 and 1910 averaged 3.3 %.
Political repression and fraud, as well as huge income inequalities exacerbated by the land distribution system based on latifundios, in which large haciendas were owned by a few but worked by millions of underpaid peasants living in precarious conditions, led to the Mexican Revolution (1910 -- 1920), an armed conflict that drastically transformed Mexico 's political, social, cultural, and economical structure during the twentieth century under a premise of social democracy. The war itself left a harsh toll on the economy and population, which decreased over the 11 - year period between 1910 and 1921. The reconstruction of the country was to take place in the following decades.
The period from 1930 to 1970 was dubbed by economic historians as the Mexican Miracle, a period of economic growth that followed the end of the Mexican Revolution and the resumption of capital accumulation during peacetime. During this period the nation adopted the economic model of import substitution industrialization (ISI) which protected and promoted the development of national industries. Mexico experienced an economic boom through which industries rapidly expanded their production. Important changes in the economic structure included free land distribution to peasants under the concept of ejido, the nationalization of the oil and railroad companies, the introduction of social rights into the constitution, the birth of large and influential labor unions, and the upgrading of infrastructure. While population doubled from 1940 to 1970, GDP increased sixfold during the same period.
Growth while under the ISI model had reached its peak in the late 1960s. During the 1970s, the presidential administrations of Echeverría (1970 -- 76) and López Portillo (1976 -- 82), tried to include social development in their policies, an effort that entailed more public spending. With the discovery of vast oil fields in a time in which oil prices were surging and international interest rates were low - and even negative - the government decided to borrow from international capital markets to invest in the state - owned oil company, which in turn seemed to provide a long - run income source to promote social welfare. This method produced a remarkable growth in public expenditure, and president López Portillo announced that the time had come to "manage prosperity '' as Mexico multiplied its oil production to become the world 's fourth largest exporter.
In the period of 1981 -- 1982 the international panorama changed abruptly: oil prices plunged and interest rates rose. In 1982, President López Portillo, (1976 -- 82) just before ending his administration, suspended payments of foreign debt, devalued the peso and nationalized the banking system, along with many other industries that were severely affected by the crisis, among them the steel industry. While import substitution had been in use during an era of industrialization, by the 1980s it was evident that the protracted protection had produced an uncompetitive industrial sector with low productivity gains.
President de la Madrid (1982 -- 88) was the first of a series of presidents that began to implement neoliberal reforms. After the crisis of 1982, lenders were unwilling to return to Mexico and, in order to keep the current account in balance, the government resorted to currency devaluations, which in turn sparked unprecedented inflation, which reached a historic high in 1987 at 139.7 %.
The first step toward the liberalization of trade was Mexico 's signature of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986 under President de la Madrid. During the Salinas administration (1988 -- 94) many state - owned companies were privatized. The telephone company Telmex, a government monopoly, became a private monopoly, sold to Carlos Slim. Also not opened to private investors were the government oil company Pemex or the energy sector. Furthermore, the banking system that had been nationalized in the waning hours of the López Portillo administration in 1982 were privatized, but with the exclusion of foreign banks. Salinas pushed for Mexico 's inclusion in the North American Free Trade Agreement, expanding it from a U.S. - Canada agreement. The expanded NAFTA was signed in 1992, after the signature of two additional supplements on environments and labor standards, it came into effect on January 1, 1994.
Salinas also introduced strict price controls and negotiated smaller minimum wage increments with the labor union movement under the aging Fidel Velázquez with the aim of curbing inflation. While his strategy was successful in reducing inflation, growth averaged only 2.8 percent a year. By fixing the exchange rate, the peso became rapidly overvalued while consumer spending increased, causing the current account deficit to reach 7 % of GDP in 1994. The deficit was financed through tesobonos a type of public debt instrument that reassured payment in dollars.
The January 1994 Chiapas uprising, and the assassinations of the ruling party 's presidential candidate in March 1994, Luis Donaldo Colosio and the Secretary - General of the party and brother of the Assistant - Attorney General José Francisco Ruiz Massieu in 1994, sent a disquieting message to investors. Public debt holders rapidly sold their tesobonos, depleting the Central Bank 's reserves, while portfolio investments, which had made up 90 % of total investment flows, left the country as fast as they had come in.
This unsustainable situation eventually forced the entrant Zedillo administration to abandon the fixed exchange rate. The peso sharply devalued and the country entered into an economic crisis in December 1994. The boom in exports, as well as an international rescue package crafted by U.S. president Bill Clinton (1993 - 2001), helped cushion the crisis. In less than 18 months, the economy was growing again, and annual rate growth averaged 5.1 percent between 1995 and 2000. More critical interpretations argue that the crisis and subsequent public bailout "preserved, renewed, and intensified the structurally unequal social relations of power and class characteristic of finance - led neoliberal capitalism '' in forms institutionally specific to Mexican society.
President Zedillo (1994 -- 2000) and President Fox (2000 -- 06), of the National Action Party (Mexico), the first opposition party candidate to win a presidential election since the founding of the precursor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929, continued with trade liberalization. During Fox 's administrations several FTAs were signed with Latin American and European countries, Japan and Israel, and both strove to maintain macroeconomic stability. Thus, Mexico became one of the most open countries in the world to trade, and the economy base shifted accordingly. Total trade with the United States and Canada tripled, and total exports and imports almost quadrupled between 1991 and 2003. The nature of foreign investment also changed with a greater share of foreign - direct investment (FDI) over portfolio investment.
Mexico 's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) was estimated at US $2,143.499 billion in 2014, and $1,261.642 billion in nominal exchange rates. It is the fifth largest of emerging markets, behind China, Brazil, Russia, and India, and is the leader of the MINT group. As such, its standard of living, as measured in GDP in PPP per capita was US $16,900. The World Bank reported in 2009 that Mexico 's Gross National Income in market exchange rates was the second highest in Latin America, after Brazil at US $1,830.392 billion, which lead to the highest income per capita in the region at $14,400. As such, Mexico is now firmly established as an upper middle - income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recovered and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006, even though it is considered to be well below Mexico 's potential growth.
The Mexican peso is the currency (ISO 4217: MXN; symbol: $). One peso is divided into 100 centavos (cents). MXN replaced MXP in 1993 at a rate of 1000 MXP per 1 MXN. The exchanged rate remained stable between 1998 and 2006, oscillating between 10.20 and 11 = 3.50 MXN per US $, recently the Mexican peso parity took a hit under president Enrique Peña Nieto, lost in a single year 19.87 % of its value and is currently at $20.37 (2017). Interest rates in 2007 were situated at around 7 percent, having reached a historic low in 2002 below 5 percent. Inflation rates are also at historic lows; the inflation rate in Mexico in 2006 was 4.1 percent, and 3 percent by the end of 2007. Compared against the US Dollar, Mexican Peso has devalued over % 7,500 since 1910.
Unemployment rates are the lowest of all OECD member countries at 3.2 percent. However, underemployment is estimated at 25 percent. Mexico 's Human development index was reported at 0.829, (comprising a life expectancy index of 0.84, an education index of 0.86 and a GDP index of 0.77), ranking 52 in the world within the group of high - development.
Poverty in Mexico is measured under parameters such as nutrition, clean water, shelter, education, health care, social security, quality and basic services in the household, income and social cohesion as defined by social development laws in the country. It is divided in two categories: Moderate poverty and Extreme poverty.
While less than 2 % of Mexico 's population lives below the international poverty line set by the World Bank, as of 2013, Mexico 's government estimates that 33 % of Mexico 's population lives in moderate poverty and 9 % lives in extreme poverty, which leads to 42 % of Mexico 's total population living below the national poverty line. The huge gap might be explained by the government 's adopting the multidimensional poverty method as a way to measure poverty, so a person who has an income higher than the "international poverty line '' or "well being income line '' set by the Mexican government might fall in the "moderate poverty '' category if he or she has one or more deficiencies related to social rights such as education (did not complete studies), nutrition (malnutrition or obesity), or living standards (including elemental, such as water or electricity, and secondary domestic assets, such as refrigerators). Extreme poverty is defined by the Mexican government as persons who have deficiencies in both social rights and an income lower than the "well being income line ''. Additional figures from SEDESOL (Mexico 's social development agency) estimates that 6 % (7.4 millions of people) live in extreme poverty and suffer from food insecurity.
Recently, extensive changes in government economic policy and attempts at reducing government interference through privatization of several sectors, for better or worse, allowed Mexico to remain the biggest economy in Latin America, until 2005 when it became the second - largest; and a so - called "trillion dollar club '' member. Despite these changes, Mexico continues to suffer great social inequality and lack of opportunities. The current administration has made an attempt at reducing poverty in the country, to provide more opportunities to its citizens such as jobs, education, and the installation of universal healthcare.
A single person in Mexico has a net worth equal to six percent of GDP: Carlos Slim. Additionally, only ten percent of Mexicans represent 25 % of Mexican GDP. A smaller group, 3.5 %, represent 12.5 % of Mexican GDP.
According to the OECD, Mexico is the country with the second highest degree of economic disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile -- although this gap has been diminishing over the last decade. The bottom ten percent on the income rung disposes of 1.36 % of the country 's resources, whereas the upper 10 % dispose of almost 36 %. OECD also notes that Mexico 's budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social development is only about a third of the OECD average -- both in absolute and relative numbers. According to the World Bank, in 2004, 17.6 % of Mexico 's population lived in extreme poverty, while 21 % lived in moderated poverty.
Remittances, or contributions sent by Mexicans living abroad, mostly in the United States, to their families at home in Mexico comprised $22.4 billion in 2012. In 2004, they were the tenth largest source of foreign income after oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, and banking & financial services but Mexico 's economy is no longer based on oil export which represented only 2 % of the GDP in 2014. Remittances represented 1.8 percent of the nation 's Gross Domestic Product in 2015.
The growth of remittances have more than doubled since 1997. Recorded remittance transactions exceeded 41 million in 2003, of which 86 percent were made by electronic transfer.
The Mexican government, cognizant of the needs of migrant workers, began issuing an upgraded version of the Matrícula Consular de Alta Seguridad (MACS, High Security Consular Identification), an identity document issued at Mexican consulates abroad. This document is now accepted as a valid identity card in 32 US states, as well as thousands of police agencies, hundreds of cities and counties, as well as banking institutions.
The main states receiving remittances in 2014 were Michoacán, Guanajuato, Jalisco, the State of Mexico and Puebla, which jointly captured 45 % of total remittances in that year. Several state governments, with the support of the federal government, have implemented programs to use part of the remittances to finance public works. This program, called Dos por Uno (Two for every one) is designed in a way that for each peso contributed by migrants from their remittances, the state and the federal governments will invest two pesos in building infrastructure at their home communities.
Regional disparities and income inequality are a feature of the Mexican economy. While all constituent states of the federation have a Human Development Index (HDI) higher than 0.70 (medium to high development), the northern and central states have higher levels of HDI than the southern states. Nuevo León, Jalisco and the Federal District have HDI levels similar to European countries, whereas that of Oaxaca and Chiapas is similar to that of China or Vietnam.
At the municipal level, economic disparities are even greater: Delegacion Benito Juarez in Mexico City has an HDI similar to that of Germany or New Zealand, whereas, Metlatonoc in Guerrero, would have an HDI similar to that of Malawi. The majority of the federal entities with high development (higher than 0.80) are located in the northern region (with the exception of Colima, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, the Federal District, Querétaro, as well as the southeastern states of Quintana Roo and Campeche). The less developed states (with medium development in terms of HDI, higher than 0.70) are located along the southern Pacific coast.
In terms of share of the GDP by economic sector (in 2004), the largest contributors in agriculture are Jalisco (9.7 %), Sinaloa (7.7 %) and Veracruz (7.6 %); the greatest contributors in industrial production are the Federal District (15.8 %), State of México (11.8 %) and Nuevo León (7.9 %); the greatest contributors in the service sector are also the Federal District (25.3 %), State of México (8.9 %) and Nuevo León (7.5 %).
Since the 1980s, the economy has slowly become less centralized; the annual rate of GDP growth of the Federal District from 2003 to 2004 was the smallest of all federal entities at 0.2 %, with drastic drops in the agriculture and industrial sectors. Nonetheless, it still accounts for 21.8 % of the nation 's GDP. The states with the highest GDP growth rates are Quintana Roo (9.0 %), Baja California (8.9 %), and San Luis Potosí (8.2 %). In 2000, the federal entities with the highest GDP per capita in Mexico were the Federal District (US $26,320), Campeche (US $18,900) and Nuevo León (US $30,250); the states with the lowest GDP per capita were Chiapas (US $3,302), Oaxaca (US $4,100) and Guerrero (US $6,800).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2006 was estimated at US $1.134 trillion, and GDP per capita in PPP at US $10,600. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 70.5 %, followed by the industrial sector at 25.7 % (2006 est.). Agriculture represents only 3.9 % of GDP (2006 est.). Mexican labor force is estimated at 38 million of which 18 % is occupied in agriculture, 24 % in the industry sector and 58 % in the service sector (2003 est.).
Agriculture as a percentage of total GDP has been steadily declining, and now resembles that of developed nations in that it plays a smaller role in the economy. In 2006, agriculture accounted for 3.9 % of GDP, down from 7 % in 1990, and 25 % in 1970. Given the historic structure of ejidos, it employs a considerably high percentage of the work force: 18 % in 2003, mostly of which grows basic crops for subsistence, compared to 2 -- 5 % in developed nations in which production is highly mechanized.
After the Mexican Revolution Mexico began an agrarian reform, based on the 27th article of the Mexican Constitution than included transfer of land and / or free land distribution to peasants and small farmers under the concept of the ejido. This program was further extended during President Cárdenas ' administration during the 1930s and continued into the 1960s at varying rates. The cooperative agrarian reform, which guaranteed small farmers a means of subsistence livelihood, also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment, since commonly held land could not be used as collateral. In an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards, this constitutional article was amended in 1992 to allow for the transfer of property rights of the communal lands to farmers cultivating it. With the ability to rent or sell it, a way was open for the creation of larger farms and the advantages of economies of scale. Large mechanized farms are now operating in some northwestern states (mainly in Sinaloa). However, privatization of ejidos continues to be very slow in the central and southern states where the great majority of peasants produce only for subsistence.
Up until the 1980s, the government encouraged the production of basic crops (mainly corn and beans) by maintaining support prices and controlling imports through the National Company for Popular Subsistence (CONASUPO). With trade liberalization, however, CONASUPO was to be gradually dismantled and two new mechanisms were implemented: Alianza and Procampo. Alianza provides income payments and incentives for mechanization and advanced irrigation systems. Procampo is an income transfer subsidy to farmers. This support program provides 3.5 million farmers who produce basic commodities (mostly corn), and which represent 64 % of all farmers, with a fixed income transfer payment per unit of area of cropland. This subsidy increased substantially during president Fox 's administration, mainly to white corn producers in order to reduce the amount of imports from the United States. This program has been successful, and in 2004, roughly only 15 % of corn imports are white corn -- the one used for human consumption and the type that is mostly grown in Mexico -- as opposed to 85 % of yellow and crashed corn -- the one use for feeding livestock, and which is barely produced in Mexico.
In spite of being a staple in the Mexican diet, Mexico 's comparative advantage in agriculture is not in corn, but in horticulture, tropical fruits, and vegetables. Negotiators of NAFTA expected that through liberalization and mechanization of agriculture two - thirds of Mexican corn producers would naturally shift from corn production to horticultural and other labor - intensive crops such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, coffee and sugar cane. While horticultural trade has drastically increased due to NAFTA, it has not absorbed displaced workers from corn production (estimated at around 600,000). Corn production has remained stable (at 20 million metric tons), arguably, as a result of income support to farmers, or a reluctance to abandon a millenarian tradition in Mexico: not only have peasants grown corn for millennia, corn originated in Mexico. Mexico is the seventh largest corn producer in the world.
The area dedicated to potatoes has changed little since 1980 and average yields have almost tripled since 1961. Production reached a record 1.7 million tonnes in 2003. Per capita consumption of potato in Mexico stands at 17 kg a year, very low compared to its maize intake of 400 kg. On average, potato farms in Mexico are larger than those devoted to more basic food crops. Potato production in Mexico is mostly for commercial purposes; the production for household consumption is very small.
Approximately 160,000 medium - sized farmers grow sugar cane in 15 Mexican states; currently there are 54 sugar mills around the country that produced 4.96 million tons of sugar in the 2010 crop, compared to 5.8 million tons in 2001. Mexico 's sugar industry is characterized by high production costs and lack of investment. Mexico produces more sugar than it consumes. Sugar cane is grown on 700,000 farms in Mexico with a yield of 72 metric tons per farm.
The industrial sector as a whole has benefited from trade liberalization; in 2000 it accounted for almost 50 % of all export earnings.
Among the most important industrial manufacturers in Mexico is the automotive industry, whose standards of quality are internationally recognized. The automobile sector in Mexico differs from that in other Latin American countries and developing nations in that it does not function as a mere assembly manufacturer. The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research and development activities, an example of that is the new Volkswagen Jetta model with up to 70 % of parts designed in Mexico.
The "Big Three '' (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their plants in the 1960s. Later, Toyota, Honda, BMW, and Mercedes - Benz joined in. Given the high requirements of North American components in the industry, many European and Asian parts suppliers have also moved to Mexico: in Puebla alone, 70 industrial part - makers cluster around Volkswagen.
The relatively small domestic car industry is represented by DINA Camiones S.A. de C.V., a manufacturer of trucks, busses and military vehicles, which through domestic production and purchases of foreign bus manufacturers has become the largest bus manufacturer in the world; Vehizero that builds hybrid trucks and the new car companies Mastretta design that builds the Mastretta MXT sports car and Autobuses King that plans to build 10000 microbuses by 2015, nevertheless new car companies are emerging among them CIMEX that has developed a sport utility truck, the Conin, and it is to be released in September 2010 in Mexico 's national auto show, And the new electric car maker Grupo Electrico Motorizado. Some large industries of Mexico include Cemex, the world 's largest construction company and the third largest cement producer the alcohol beverage industries, including world - renowned players like Grupo Modelo; conglomerates like FEMSA, which apart from being the largest single producer of alcoholic beverages and owning multiple commercial interests such OXXO convenience store chain, is also the second - largest Coca - Cola bottler in the world; Gruma, the largest producer of corn flour and tortillas in the world; and Grupo Bimbo, Telmex, Televisa, among many others. In 2005, according to the World Bank, high - tech industrial production represented 19.6 % of total exports.
Maquiladoras (manufacturing plants that take in imported raw materials and produce goods for domestic consumption and export on behalf of foreign companies) have become the landmark of trade in Mexico. This sector has benefited from NAFTA, in that real income in the maquiladora sector has increased 15.5 % since 1994, though from the non-maquiladora sector has grown much faster. Contrary to popular belief, this should be no surprise since maquiladora 's products could enter the US duty - free since the 1960s industry agreement. Other sectors now benefit from the free trade agreement, and the share of exports from non-border states has increased in the last 5 years while the share of exports from maquiladora - border states has decreased.
Currently Mexico is focusing in developing an aerospace industry and the assembly of helicopter and regional jet aircraft fuselages is taking place. Foreign firms such as MD Helicopters, Bell, Cessna and Bombardier build helicopter, aircraft and regional jets fuselages in Mexico. Although the Mexican aircraft industry is mostly foreign, as is its car industry, Mexican firms have been founded such as Aeromarmi, which builds light propeller airplanes, and Hydra Technologies, which builds Unmanned Aerial Vehicles such as the S4 Ehécatl, other important companies are Frisa Aerospace that manufactures jet engine parts for the new Mitsubishi Regional jet and supplies Prat&whittney and rolls Royce jet engine manufacturers of casings for jet engines and Kuo Aerospace that builds parts for aircraft landing gear and Supplies bombardier plant in Querétaro.
As compared with the United States or countries in Western Europe a larger sector of Mexico 's industrial economy is food manufacturing which includes several world class companies but the regional industry is undeveloped. There are national brands that have become international and local Mom and Pop producers but little manufacturing in between.
The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixth largest electronics industry in the world after China, United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Mexico is the second largest exporter of electronics to the United States where it exported $71.4 billion worth of electronics in 2011. The Mexican electronics industry is dominated by the manufacture and OEM design of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, circuit boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, communications equipment and LCD modules. The Mexican electronics industry grew 20 % between 2010 and 2011, up from its constant growth rate of 17 % between 2003 and 2009. Currently electronics represent 30 % of Mexico 's exports.
The design and manufacture of flat panel plasma, LCD and LED televisions is the single largest sector of the Mexican electronics industry, representing 25 % of Mexico 's electronics export revenue. In 2009 Mexico surpassed South Korea and China as the largest manufacturer of televisions, with Sony, Toshiba, Samsung, Sharp (through Semex), Zenith LG, Lanix, TCL, RCA, Phillips, Elcoteq, Tatung, Panasonic, and Vizio manufacturing CRT, LCD, LED and Plasma televisions in Mexico. Due to Mexico 's position as the largest manufacturer of television it is known as the television capital of the world in the electronics industry.
Mexico is the third largest manufacturers of computers in the world with both domestic companies such as Lanix, Texa, Meebox, Spaceit, Kyoto and foreign companies such as Dell, Sony, HP, Acer Compaq, Samsung and Lenovo manufacturing various types of computers across the country. Most of the computers manufactured in Mexico are from foreign companies. Mexico is Latin America 's largest producer of electronics and appliances made by domestic companies.
Mexico is also home to a large number of OEM and ODM manufactures both foreign and domestic. Among them include Foxconn, Celestica, Sanmina - SCI, Jabil, Elcoteq, Falco, Kimball International, Compal, Benchmark Electronics, Plexus, Lanix and Flextronics. These companies assemble finished electronics or design and manufacture electronic components on behalf of larger companies such as Sony or Microsoft using locally sourced components, for example the ODM, Flextronics manufactures Xbox video games systems in Guadalajara, Mexico for Microsoft using components such as power systems and printed circuit boards from a local company, Falco Electronics which acts as the OEM.
The success and rapid growth of the Mexican electronics sector is driven primarily by the relatively low cost of manufacturing and design in Mexico; its strategic position as a major consumer electronics market coupled with its proximity to both the large North American and South American markets whom Mexico shares free trade agreements with; government support in the form of low business taxes, simplified access to loans and capital for both foreign multinational and domestic startup tech - based firms; and a very large pool of highly skilled, educated labor across all sectors of the tech industry. For example, German multinational engineering and electronics conglomerate Siemens has a significant Mexican base, which also serves as its business and strategy hub for Central American countries and the Caribbean region.
There are almost half a million (451,000) students enrolled in electronics engineering programs with an additional 114,000 electronics engineers entering the Mexican workforce each year and Mexico had over half a million (580,000) certified electronic engineering professionals employed in 2007. From the late 1990s, the Mexican electronics industry began to shift away from simple line assembly to more advanced work such as research, design, and the manufacture of advanced electronics systems such as LCD panels, semiconductors, printed circuit boards, microelectronics, microprocessors, chipsets and heavy electronic industrial equipment and in 2006 the number of certified engineers being graduated annually in Mexico surpassed that of the United States. Many Korean, Japanese and American appliances sold in the US are actually of Mexican design and origin but sold under the OEM 's client names. In 2008 one out of every four consumer appliances sold in the United States was of Mexican design.
While many foreign companies like Phillips, Vizio and LG simply install wholly owned factories in Mexico a number of foreign companies have set up semi-independent joint venture companies with Mexican businesses to manufacture and design components in Mexico. These companies are independently operated from their foreign parent companies and are registered in Mexico. These local companies function under Mexican law and retain a sizable portion of the revenue. These companies typically function dually as in - company OEM development and design facilities and manufacturing centers and usually produce most components needed to manufacture the finished products. An example would by Sharp which has formed Semex.
Semex was founded as a joint venture between Sharp and Mexican investors which acts as an autonomous independent company which Sharp only maintains partial control over. The company manufactures whole products such televisions and designs individual components on behalf of Sharp such as LCD modules and in return Semex is granted access to Sharp capital, technology, research capacity and branding. Notable foreign companies which have set up joint venture entities in Mexico include Samsung which formed Samex, a local designer and manufacturer of finished televisions, white goods and individual electronic components like printed circuit boards, LCD panels and semiconductors, Toshiba, who formed Toshiba de México, S.A. de C.V., an administratively autonomous subsidiary which produces electronics parts, televisions and heavy industrial equipment.
Some of these subsidiaries have grown to expand into multiple branches effectively becoming autonomous conglomerates within their own parent companies. Sony for example started operations in Mexico in 1976 with a group of Mexican investors, and founded the joint venture, Sony de Mexico which produces LED panels, LCD modules, automotive electronics, appliances and printed circuit boards amongst other products for its Japanese parent company, Sony KG. Sony de Mexico has research facilities in Monterrey and Mexico City, designs many of the Sony products manufactured in Mexico and has now expanded to create its own finance, music and entertainment subsidiaries which are Mexican registered and independent of their Japanese parent corporation.
Although much of Mexico 's electronics industry is driven by foreign companies, Mexico also has a sizeable domestic electronics industry and a number of electronics companies including Mabe, a major appliance manufacturer and OEM which has been functioning since the nineteen fifties and has expanded into the global market, Meebox, a designer and manufacturer desktop and tablet computers, solar power panels and electronics components, Texa, which manufactures computers laptops and servers, Falco, a major international manufacturer of electronic components such as printed circuitboards, power systems, semiconductors, gate drives and which has production facilities in Mexico, India and China, and Lanix, Mexico 's largest electronics company which manufactures products such as computers, laptops, smartphones, LED and LCDs, flash memory, tablets, servers, hard drives, RAM, optical disk drives, and printed circuitboards and employs over 11,000 people in Mexico and Chile and distributes its products throughout Latin America. Another area being currently developed in Mexico is Robotics, Mexico 's new Mexone robot has been designed with the idea that in future years develop a commercial application for such advanced robots
Mineral resources are the "nation 's property '' (i.e. public property) by constitution. As such, the energy sector is administered by the government with varying degrees of private investment. Mexico is the sixth - largest oil producer in the world, with 3,700,000 barrels per day (590,000 m / d). Pemex, the public company in charge of administering research, exploration and sales of oil, is the largest company (oil or otherwise) in Mexico, and the second largest in Latin America after Brazil 's Petrobras. Pemex is heavily taxed of almost 62 per cent of the company 's sales, a significant source of revenue for the government.
Without enough money to continue investing in finding new sources or upgrading infrastructure, and being protected constitutionally from private and foreign investment, some have predicted the company may face institutional collapse. While the oil industry is still relevant for the government 's budget, its importance in GDP and exports has steadily fallen since the 1980s. In 1980 oil exports accounted for 61.6 % of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3 %.
Mexico 's installed electricity capacity in 2008 was 58 GW. Of the installed capacity, 75 % is thermal, 19 % hydro, 2 % nuclear and 3 % renewable other than hydro. The general trend in thermal generation is a decline in petroleum - based fuels and a growth in natural gas and coal. Since Mexico is a net importer of natural gas, higher levels of natural gas consumption (i.e. for power generation) will likely depend upon higher imports from either the United States or via liquefied natural gas (LNG).
The automotive sector accounts for 17.6 % of Mexico 's manufacturing sector. General Motors, Chrysler, Ford Motor Company, Nissan, Fiat, Renault, Honda, Toyota, and Volkswagen produce 2.8 million vehicles annually at 20 plants across the country, mostly in Puebla. Mexico manufactures more automobiles of any North American nation. The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in research and development.
The "Big Three '' (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their plants in the 1960s. In Puebla 70 industrial part - makers cluster around Volkswagen. In the 2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 more than $10 billion in investment was committed in the first few months of the year. Kia Motors in August 2014 announced plans for a $1 billion factory in Nuevo León. At the time Mercedes - Benz and Nissan were already building a $1.4 billion plant near Puebla, while BMW was planning a $1 - billion assembly plant in San Luis Potosí. Additionally, Audi began building a $1.3 billion factory at San José Chiapa near Puebla in 2013.
Mexico has a MXN 4.027 billion retail sector (2013, about 300m USD at the 2013 exchange rate) including an estimated $12 billion USD (2015) in e-commerce. The largest retailer is WalMart, while the largest Mexico - based retailers are Soriana super / hypermarkets, FEMSA incl. its OXXO convenience stores, Coppel (department store), Liverpool department stores, Chedraui super / hypermarkets, and Comercial Mexicana super / hypermarkets.
In 2013 the tertiary sector was estimated to account for 59.8 % of Mexico 's GDP. In 2011 services employed 61.9 % of the working population. This section includes transportation, commerce, warehousing, restaurant and hotels, arts and entertainment, health, education, financial and banking services, telecommunications as well as public administration and defense. Mexico 's service sector is strong, and in 2001 replaced Brazil 's as the largest service sector in Latin America in dollar terms.
Tourism is one of the most important industries in Mexico. It is the fourth largest source of foreign exchange for the country. Mexico is the eighth most visited country in the world (with over 20 million tourists a year).
According to the IMF the Mexican banking system is strong, in which private banks are profitable and well - capitalized. The financial and banking sector is increasingly dominated by foreign companies or mergers of foreign and Mexican companies with the notable exception of Banorte. The acquisition of Banamex, one of the oldest surviving financial institutions in Mexico, by Citigroup was the largest US - Mexico corporate merger, at US $12.5 billion. In spite of that, the largest financial institution in Mexico is Bancomer associated to the Spanish BBVA.
The process of institution building in the financial sector in Mexico has evolved hand in hand with the efforts of financial liberalization and of inserting the economy more fully into world markets. Over the recent years, there has been a wave of acquisitions by foreign institutions such as US - based Citigroup, Spain 's BBVA and the UK 's HSBC. Their presence, along with a better regulatory framework, has allowed Mexico 's banking system to recover from the 1994 -- 95 peso devaluation. Lending to the public and private sector is increasing and so is activity in the areas of insurance, leasing and mortgages. However, bank credit accounts for only 22 % of GDP, which is significantly low compared to 70 % in Chile. Credit to the Agricultural sector has fallen 45.5 % in six years (2001 to 2007), and now represents about 1 % of total bank loans. Other important institutions include savings and loans, credit unions (known as "cajas populares ''), government development banks, "non-bank banks '', bonded warehouses, bonding companies and foreign - exchange firms.
A wave of acquisitions has left Mexico 's financial sector in foreign hands. Their foreign - run affiliates compete with independent financial firms operating as commercial banks, brokerage and securities houses, insurance companies, retirement - fund administrators, mutual funds, and leasing companies.
Mexico has a single securities market, the Mexican Stock Exchange (Bolsa Mexicana de Valores, known as the Bolsa). The market has grown steadily, with its main indices increasing by more than 600 % in the last decade. It is Latin America 's second largest exchange, after Brazil 's. The total value of the domestic market capitalization of the BMV was calculated at US $ 409 billion at the end of 2011, and raised to US $ 451 billion by the end of February this year.
The Indice de Precios y Cotizaciones (IPC, the general equities index) is the benchmark stock index on the Bolsa. In 2005 the IPC surged 37.8 %, to 17,802.71 from 12,917.88, backed by a stronger Mexican economy and lower interest rates. It continued its steep rise through the beginning of 2006, reaching 19,272.63 points at end - March 2006. The stockmarket also posted a record low vacancy rate, according to the central bank. Local stockmarket capitalisation totalled US $236 bn at end - 2005, up from US $170 bn at end - 2004. As of March 2006 there were 135 listed companies, down from 153 a year earlier. Only a handful of the listed companies are foreign. Most are from Mexico City or Monterrey; companies from these two cities compose 67 % of the total listed companies.
The IPC consists of a sample of 35 shares weighted according to their market capitalisation. Heavy hitters are America Telecom, the holding company that manages Latin America 's largest mobile company, América Móvil; Telefonos de Mexico, Mexico 's largest telephone company; Grupo Bimbo, world 's biggest baker; and Wal - Mart de México, a subsidiary of the US retail giant. The makeup of the IPC is adjusted every six months, with selection aimed at including the most liquid shares in terms of value, volume and number of trades.
Mexico 's stockmarket is closely linked to developments in the US. Thus, volatility in the New York and Nasdaq stock exchanges, as well as interest - rate changes and economic expectations in the US, can steer the performance of Mexican equities. This is both because of Mexico 's economic dependence on the US and the high volume of trading in Mexican equities through American Depositary Receipts (ADRs). Currently, the decline in the value of the dollar is making non-US markets, including Mexico 's, more attractive.
Despite the recent gains, investors remain wary of making placements in second - tier initial public offerings (IPOs). Purchasers of new issues were disappointed after prices fell in numerous medium - sized companies that made offerings in 1996 and 1997. IPO activity in Mexico remains tepid and the market for second - tier IPOs is barely visible. There were three IPOs in 2005.
Banco de México is Mexico 's central bank, an internally autonomous public institution whose governor is appointed by the president and approved by the legislature to which it is fully responsible. Banco de México 's functions are outlined in the 28th article of the constitution and further expanded in the Monetary Law of the United Mexican States. Banco de México 's main objective is to achieve stability in the purchasing power of the national currency. It is also the lender of last resort.
Mexico has a floating exchange rate regime.
The floating exchange originated with reforms initiated after the December 1994 peso crash which had followed an unsustainable adherence to a short band. Under the new system, Banco de México now makes no commitment to the level of the peso exchange rate, although it does employ an automatic mechanism to accumulate foreign reserves. It also possesses tools aimed at smoothing out volatility. The Exchange Rate Commission sets policy; it is made up of six members -- three each from the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Publico -- SHCP) and the central bank, with the SHCP holding the deciding vote.
In August 1996, Banco de México initiated a mechanism to acquire foreign reserves when the peso is strong, without giving the market signals about a target range for the exchange rate. The resulting high levels of reserves, mostly from petroleum revenues, have helped to improve the terms and conditions on debt Mexico places on foreign markets. However, there is concern that the government relies too heavily on oil income in order to build a healthy base of reserves. According to the central bank, international reserves stood at US $75.8 billion in 2007. In May 2003, Banco de México launched a program that sells U.S. dollars via a monthly auction, with the goal of maintaining a stable, but moderate, level of reserves.
From April 1, 1998, through April 1, 2008, the Peso traded around a range varying from $8.46 MXN per US $1.00 on April 21, 1998, to $11.69 MXN per US $1.00 on May 11, 2004, a 10 - year peak depreciation of 38.18 % between the two reference date extremes before recovering.
After the onset of the US credit crisis that accelerated in October 2008, the Peso had an exchange rate during October 1, 2008, through April 1, 2009 fluctuating from lowest to highest between $10.96 MXN per US $1.00 on October 1, 2008, to $15.42 MXN per US $1.00 on March 9, 2009, a peak depreciation ytd of 28.92 % during those six months between the two reference date extremes before recovering.
From the $11.69 rate during 2004 's low to the $15.42 rate during 2009 's low, the peso depreciated 31.91 % in that span covering the US recession coinciding Iraq War of 2003 and 2004 to the US & Global Credit Crisis of 2008.
Some experts including analysts at Goldman Sachs who coined the term BRIC in reference to the growing economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China for marketing purposes believe that Mexico is going to be the 5th or 6th biggest economy in the world by the year 2050, behind China, United States, India, Brazil, and possibly Russia.
Mexico 's monetary policy was revised following the 1994 -- 95 financial crisis, when officials decided that maintaining general price stability was the best way to contribute to the sustained growth of employment and economic activity. As a result, Banco de México has as its primary objective maintaining stability in the purchasing power of the peso. It sets an inflation target, which requires it to establish corresponding quantitative targets for the growth of the monetary base and for the expansion of net domestic credit.
The central bank also monitors the evolution of several economic indicators, such as the exchange rate, differences between observed and projected inflation, the results of surveys on the public and specialists ' inflation expectations, revisions on collective employment contracts, producer prices, and the balances of the current and capital accounts.
A debate continues over whether Mexico should switch to a US - style interest rate - targeting system. Government officials in favor of a change say that the new system would give them more control over interest rates, which are becoming more important as consumer credit levels rise.
Until 2008, Mexico used a unique system, amongst the OECD countries, to control inflation in a mechanism known as the corto (lit. "shortage '') a mechanism that allowed the central bank to influence market interest rates by leaving the banking system short of its daily demand for money by a predetermined amount. If the central bank wanted to push interest rates higher, it increased the corto. If it wished to lower interest rates, it decreased the corto. Source: BANXICO: in April 2004, the Central Bank began setting a referential overnight interest rate as its monetary policy.
Petty corruption based on exercise of administrative discretion in matters of zoning and business permits is endemic in Mexico adding about 10 % to the cost of consumer goods and services. An April 2012 article in The New York Times reporting payment of bribes to officials throughout Mexico in order to obtain construction permits, information, and other favors resulted in investigations in both the United States and Mexico.
Using relatively recent night light data and electricity consumption in comparison with Gross County Product, the informal sector of the local economy in Veracruz state is shown to have grown during the period of the Fox Administration though the regional government remained PRI. The assumption that the informal economy of Mexico is a constant 30 % of total economic activity is not supported at the local level. The small amount of local spatial autocorrelation that was found suggests a few clusters of high and low literacy rates amongst municipios in Veracruz but not enough to warrant including an I - statistic as a regressor. Global spatial autocorrelation is found especially literacy at the macro-regional level which is an area for further research beyond this study.
Improved literacy bolsters both the informal and formal economies in Veracruz indicating policies designed to further literacy are vital for growing the regional economy. While indigenous people are relatively poor, little evidence was found that the informal economy is a higher percentage of total economic activity in a municipio with a high share of indigenous people. While the formal economy might have been expanding relative to the informal economy in 2000, by 2006 this process had been reversed with growing informality. While rural municipios have smaller economies, they are not different than urban municipios in the share of the economy that is informal. Programs in the past that might move economic activity from the informal to the formal sector have not succeeded, suggesting public finance issues such as tax evasion will continue to plague the state with low government revenues.
Mexico is an export - oriented economy. It is an important trade power as measured by the value of merchandise traded, and the country with the greatest number of free trade agreements. In 2005, Mexico was the world 's fifteenth largest merchandise exporter and twelfth largest merchandise importer with a 12 % annual percentage increase in overall trade. From 1991 to 2005 Mexican trade increased fivefold. Mexico is the biggest exporter and importer in Latin America; in 2005, Mexico alone exported US $213.7 billion, roughly equivalent to the sum of the exports of Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Uruguay, and Paraguay.
By 2009 Mexico ranked once again number 15 on World 's leading exporters with US $230 billion (And amongst the top ten excluding Intra-EU countries). Mexican trade is fully integrated with that of its North American partners: close to 90 % of Mexican exports and 50 % of its imports are traded with the United States and Canada. Nonetheless, NAFTA has not produced trade diversion. While trade with the United States increased 183 % from 1993 to 2002, and that with Canada 165 %, other trade agreements have shown even more impressive results: trade with Chile increased 285 %, with Costa Rica 528 % and Honduras 420 %. Trade with the European Union increased 105 % over the same time period.
Mexico joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986, and today is an active and constructive participant of the World Trade Organization. Fox 's administration promoted the establishment of a Free Trade Area of the Americas; Puebla served as temporary headquarters for the negotiations, and several other cities are now candidates for its permanent headquarters if the agreement is reached and implemented.
Mexico has signed 12 free trade agreements with 44 countries:
Mexico has shown interest in becoming an associate member of Mercosur. The Mexican government has also started negotiations with South Korea, Singapore and Peru, and also wishes to start negotiations with Australia for a trade agreement between the two countries.
The North American Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is by far the most important Trade Agreement Mexico has signed both in the magnitude of reciprocal trade with its partners as well as in its scope. Unlike the rest of the Free Trade Agreements that Mexico has signed, NAFTA is more comprehensive in its scope and was complemented by the North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC).
The NAAEC agreement was a response to environmentalists ' concerns that companies would relocate to Mexico or the United States would lower its standards if the three countries did not achieve a unanimous regulation on the environment. The NAAEC, in an aim to be more than a set of environmental regulations, established the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NACEC), a mechanism for addressing trade and environmental issues, the North American Development Bank (NADBank) for assisting and financing investments in pollution reduction and the Border Environmental Cooperation Commission (BECC). The NADBank and the BECC have provided economic benefits to Mexico by financing 36 projects, mostly in the water sector. By complementing NAFTA with the NAAEC, it has been labeled the "greenest '' trade agreement.
The NAALC supplement to NAFTA aimed to create a foundation for cooperation among the three members for the resolution of labor problems, as well as to promote greater cooperation among trade unions and social organizations in all three countries, in order to fight for the improvement of labor conditions. Though most economists agree that it is difficult to assess the direct impact of the NAALC, it is agreed that there has been a convergence of labor standards in North America. Given its limitations, however, NAALC has not produced (and in fact was not intended to achieve) convergence in employment, productivity and salary trend in North America.
The agreement fell short in liberalizing movement of people across the three countries. In a limited way, however, immigration of skilled Mexican and Canadian workers to the United States was permitted under the TN status. NAFTA allows for a wide list of professions, most of which require at least a bachelor 's degree, for which a Mexican or a Canadian citizen can request TN status and temporarily immigrate to the United States. Unlike the visas available to other countries, TN status requires no sponsorship, but simply a job offer letter.
The overall benefits of NAFTA have been quantified by several economists, whose findings have been reported in several publications like the World Bank 's Lessons from NAFTA for LA and the Caribbean, NAFTA 's Impact on North America, and NAFTA revisited by the Institute for International Economics. They assess that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, whose poverty rates have fallen, and real income salaries have risen even after accounting for the 1994 -- 1995 Economic Crisis. Nonetheless, they also state that it has not been enough, or fast enough, to produce an economic convergence nor to reduce the poverty rates substantially or to promote higher rates of growth. Beside this the textile industry gain hype with this agreement and the textile industry in Mexico gained open access to the American market, promoting exports to the United States. The value of Mexican cotton and apparel exports to the U.S. grew from $3 billion in 1995 to $8.4 billion in 2002, a record high of $9.4 billion in 2000. At the same time, the share of Mexico 's cotton textile market the U.S. has increased from 8 percent in 1995 to 13 percent in 2002. Some have suggested that in order to fully benefit from the agreement Mexico should invest in education and promote innovation as well as in infrastructure and agriculture.
Contrary to popular belief, the maquiladora program was in place far before NAFTA, in some sense dating all the way back to 1965. A maquiladora manufacturer operates by importing raw materials into Mexico either tariff free (NAFTA) or at a reduced rate on a temporary basis (18 months) and then using Mexico 's relatively less expensive labor costs to produce finished goods for export. Prior to NAFTA maquiladora companies importing raw materials from anywhere in the world were given preferential tariff rates by the Mexican government so long as the finished good was for export. The US, prior to NAFTA, allowed Maquiladora manufactured goods to be imported into the US with the tariff rate only being applied to the value of non US raw materials used to produce the good, thus reducing the tariff relative to other countries. NAFTA has eliminated all tariffs on goods between the two countries, but for the maquiladora industry significantly increased the tariff rates for goods sourced outside of NAFTA.
Given the overall size of trade between Mexico and the United States, there are remarkably few trade disputes, involving relatively small dollar amounts. These disputes are generally settled in WTO or NAFTA panels or through negotiations between the two countries. The most significant areas of friction involve trucking, sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and a number of other agricultural products.
A research brief published by the World Bank as part of its Trade Costs and Facilitation Project suggests that Mexico has the potential to substantially increase trade flows and economic growth through trade facilitation reform. The study examines the potential impacts of trade facilitation reforms in four areas: port efficiency, customs administration, information technology, and regulatory environment (including standards).
The study projects overall increments from domestic reforms to be on the order of $31.8 billion, equivalent to 22.4 percent of total Mexican manufacturing exports for 2000 -- 03. On the imports side, the corresponding figures are $17.1 billion and 11.2 percent, respectively. Increases in exports, including textiles, would result primarily from improvements in port efficiency and the regulatory environment. Exports of transport equipment would be expected to increase by the greatest increment from improvements in port efficiency, whereas exports of food and machinery would largely be the result of improvements in the regulatory environment. On the imports side, Mexican improvements in port efficiency would appear to be the most important factor, although for imports of transport equipment, improvements in service sector infrastructure would also be of relative importance.
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working for a nuclear free city asleep at the wheel | Working for a Nuclear Free City - wikipedia
Working for a Nuclear Free City (sometimes abbreviated to WFANFC) was an indie nu gaze band from Manchester, England.
Original members Phil Kay (production and keyboard) and Gary McClure (guitar) formed as a studio entity in 1999; WFANFC began performing live in 2004, after adding drummer Jon Kay and bassist Ed Hulme to the group. Guitarist Neil Harris joined the band shortly before their American tour in 2008.
The band 's self - titled debut album was released in the UK in 2006. Tracks from the album also formed part of their debut American release, Businessmen & Ghosts, which came out in November 2007. The band cites a wide array of influences, including artists as disparate as Bill Evans, Devo, The Grateful Dead, and Yes. WFANFC 's sound has been described as "a flawless lucid - dream trip through a thousand fantastical influences '' and "as fresh as morning rain on Piccadilly Gardens ''. Regarding their importance, major media outlets such as the BBC have stated: "it 's the way that (WFANFC and The Longcut, another British music group) have distilled Manchester 's history into an exciting future brew that makes them important. ''
WFANFC 's releases have won them praise from a variety of media outlets, including Spin, the BBC, Stylus, and Citylife magazine; their song "Rocket '' was featured on National Public Radio in June 2007.
The band performed on the Topman Unsigned Stage at the Carling Weekend 's Leeds Festival in 2007.
In 2009 the band was approached by the development team for the video game Infamous to create the song that plays at the end of the game. The song is called "Silent Melody ''.
The band released their third album, Jojo Burger Tempest, in October 2010, and in January 2011 the band opened a YouTube channel, uploading snippets of a fourth album, Apoptosis. No record label was named. In 2011, the band released the single "Turning Shadow '' via their Bandcamp.
In 2013, guitarist Gary McClure released his solo record, Wreaths, on AED Records. In celebration of this release, the band 's Facebook page shared an unreleased 52 - minute - long album titled Odds and Sods posted to member Phil Kay 's SoundCloud.
In 2014, producer and keyboardist Phil Kay released his solo record, Zoetrope as King of the Mountains on Melodic Records.
Gary McClure currently records under the name American Wrestlers, and released his debut album, American Wrestlers, in 2014. During promotion for the album, he noted the band had broken up. A new album, however, entitled What Do People Do All Day? was announced in December 2015.
In 2008, the band composed a commissioned piece, "History '', for the Go On Lad Hovis advertisement. In 2009, Spoke Film 's director Gary Holder used the song "England '' in a launch film for the Jaguar X-Type: X409. In 2009 the band produced another commissioned track for the PlayStation 3 game inFamous, and was used in the Power Trip trailer for the game. The track, entitled "Silent Melody '', was available for download on iTunes on May 21, 2009.
The song "Dead Fingers Talking '' was featured in Pilot of the AMC Original Series Breaking Bad.
The song "Asleep at the Wheel '' was used for a relaunch trailer for the British Channel 5 re-branding in 2008 and at the close of an Apple promotional video for the 10 / 2009 update of the iMac.
The song "Rocket '' was used in the soundtrack for the movie Push.
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who led a small group of pilgrims to plymouth on the mayflower | Mayflower - wikipedia
The Mayflower was an English ship that famously transported the first English Puritans, known today as the Pilgrims, from Plymouth, England to the New World in 1620. There were 102 passengers, and the crew is estimated to have been about 30, but the exact number is unknown. This voyage has become an iconic story in some of the earliest annals of American history, with its story of death and of survival in the harsh New England winter environment. The culmination of the voyage in the signing of the Mayflower Compact was an event which established a rudimentary form of democracy, with each member contributing to the welfare of the community. There was a second ship named Mayflower that made the London to Plymouth, Massachusetts voyage several times.
The Pilgrim ship Mayflower was square - rigged and beak - bowed with high, castle - like structures fore and aft that served to protect the ship 's crew and the main deck from the elements -- designs that were typical with English merchant ships of the early 17th century. Her stern carried a 30 - foot high, square aft - castle which made the ship extremely difficult to sail against the wind and unable to sail well against the North Atlantic 's prevailing westerlies, especially in the fall and winter of 1620, and the voyage from England to America took more than two months as a result. The Mayflower 's return trip to London in April -- May 1621 took less than half that time, with the same strong winds now blowing in the direction of the voyage.
No dimensions of her hull can be stated exactly, since this was many years before such measurements were standardized. She probably measured about 100 feet (30 m) in length from the forward end at the beak of her prow to the tip of her stern superstructure aft. She was about 25 feet (7.6 m) at her widest point, with the bottom of her keel about 12 feet (3.6 m) below the waterline. William Bradford estimated that Mayflower had a cargo capacity of 180 tons. Surviving records from that time indicate that she could certainly accommodate 180 casks of wine in her cargo hold. The casks were great barrels holding hundreds of gallons of claret wine each.
This was a ship that traditionally was heavily armed while on trading routes around Europe, due to the possibility of encountering pirates and privateers of all types. And with its armament, the ship and crew could easily be conscripted by the English monarch at any time in case of conflict with other nations. By 1620, the Mayflower was aging, nearing the end of the usual 15 - year working life of an English merchant ship in that era.
The general layout of the ship was as follows:
Aft on the main deck in the stern was the cabin for Master Christopher Jones, measuring about ten by seven feet (3 m × 2.1 m). Forward of that was the steerage room, which housed a whipstaff (tiller extension) for sailing control; not a wheel, as in later ships. Also here was the ship 's compass and probably also berths for the ship 's officers. Forward of the steerage room was the capstan, a vertical axle used to pull in ropes or cables. Far forward on the main deck, just aft of the bow, was the forecastle space where the ship 's cook prepared meals for the crew; it may also have been where the ship 's sailors slept.
The poop deck was above the cabin of Master Jones, on the ship 's highest level above the stern on the aft castle. The poop house was on this deck, which may have been for passengers ' use either for sleeping or cargo. On normal merchant ships, this space was probably a chart room or a cabin for the master 's mates.
The gun deck was where the passengers resided during the voyage, in a space measuring about 50 by 25 feet (15.2 m × 7.6 m) with a five - foot (1.5 m) overhead (ceiling). But it was also a dangerous place in conflict, as it had port and starboard gun ports from which cannon could be run out to fire on the enemy. The gun room was in the stern area of the gun deck, to which passengers had no access due to it being the storage space for powder and ammunition for the ship 's cannons and any other weapons belonging to the ship. The gun room might also house a pair of stern chasers, small cannons used to fire out the stern of the ship. Forward on the gun deck in the bow area was a windlass, equipment similar in function to the capstan in steerage, which was used to raise and lower the ship 's main anchor. There were no stairs for the passengers on the gun deck to go up through the gratings to the main deck. To get up to the main deck, passengers were required to climb a wooden or rope ladder.
There was no facility for a latrine or privy on the Mayflower, and ship 's crew had to fend for themselves in that regard. Gun deck passengers most likely used a bucket as a chamber pot, affixed to the deck or bulkhead to keep it from being jostled at sea.
The largest gun was a minion cannon which was brass, weighed about 1,200 pounds (545 kg), and could shoot a 3.5 pound (1.6 kg) cannonball almost a mile (1,600 m). The Mayflower also had on board a saker cannon of about 800 pounds (360 kg), and two base cannons that weighed about 200 pounds (90 kg) which shot a 3 to 5 ounce ball (85 -- 140 g). She carried at least ten pieces of ordnance on the port and starboard sides of her gun deck: seven cannons for long range purposes, and three smaller guns often fired from the stern at close quarters that were filled with musket balls. Later at New Plymouth, Mayflower Master Jones unloaded four of the pieces to help fortify the colony against invaders, and would not have done so unless he was comfortable with the armament that he still had on board.
Below the gun deck was the cargo hold where the passengers kept most of their food stores and other supplies. Other items included most of their clothing and bedding. The hold also stored the passengers ' personal weapons and military equipment -- armor, muskets, gunpowder, and shot, as well as swords and bandoliers. It also stored all the tools that the Pilgrims would need, as well as all the equipment and utensils needed to prepare meals in the New World. It is also known that some Pilgrims loaded trade goods on board, including Isaac Allerton, William Mullins, and possibly others; these also most likely were stored in the cargo hold.
It is not known when and where the Mayflower was built, but it is likely that she was launched at Harwich in the county of Essex, England. She was designated as "of Harwich '' in the Port Books of 1609 -- 11, although later known as "of London ''. Harwich was also the birthplace of Mayflower master Christopher Jones about 1570.
Captain Jones became master of the Mayflower 11 years prior to the Pilgrims ' voyage, sailing the ship cross-Channel taking English woolens to France and bringing French wine to London. In addition, he had also transported hats, hemp, Spanish salt, hops, and vinegar to Norway, and may have taken the Mayflower whaling in the North Atlantic in the Greenland area. She had traveled to Mediterranean ports, being then owned by Christopher Nichols, Robert Child, Thomas Short, and Christopher Jones, the ship 's master. In 1620, Jones and Robert Child still owned their quarter shares in the ship, and it was from them that Thomas Weston chartered her in the summer of 1620 to undertake the Pilgrim voyage. Weston had a significant role in the Mayflower voyage, due to his membership in the Company of Merchant Adventurers, and he eventually traveled to the Plymouth Colony himself.
There were 26 vessels bearing the same name as the Pilgrim ship in the Port Books of England in the reign of James I (1603 -- 1625), and the reason for this popularity of the name has never been found. One particular Mayflower that has caused historical confusion is a Mayflower erroneously identified as one of the 1620 Pilgrims. This ship was partly owned by John Vassall and was outfitted for Queen Elizabeth in 1588, during the time of the Spanish Armada, a war for which Vassall outfitted several ships. However, there are no records of Vassall 's Mayflower after 1594. The identity of Captain Jones 's Mayflower is based on records of the time of her home port, her tonnage (est. 180 -- 200 tons), and the master 's name in 1620 in order to avoid confusion with the many other Mayflower ships.
Records dating from August 1609 first note Christopher Jones as master and part owner of the Mayflower when his ship was chartered for a voyage from London to Trondheim in Norway and back to London. The ship lost an anchor on her return, due to bad weather, and made short delivery of her cargo of herrings. Litigation resulted, and this was still proceeding in 1612.
Christopher Jones is described in a document of January 1611 as being "of Harwich '', and his ship is called the Mayflower of Harwich (in the county of Essex). Records of Jones 's ship Mayflower show that the ship was twice on the Thames at London in 1613, once in July and again in October and November. Records of 1616 again state that Jones 's ship was on the Thames, carrying a cargo of wine, which suggests that the ship had recently been on a voyage to France, Spain, Portugal, the Canaries, or some other wine - producing land.
After 1616, there is no further record which specifically relates to Jones 's Mayflower until 1624. This is unusual for a ship trading to London, as it would not usually disappear from the records for such a long time. And no Admiralty court document can be found relating to the pilgrim fathers ' voyage of 1620, although this might be due to the unusual way in which the transfer of the pilgrims was arranged from Leyden to New England. Or some of the records of the period may have been lost.
Approximately 65 passengers embarked the Mayflower in the middle of July 1620 at its home port in the Rotherhithe district of London on the Thames river. The ship then proceeded down the Thames into the English Channel and then on to the south coast of England to anchor at Southampton Water. The Mayflower waited there for a rendezvous on July 22 with the Speedwell. Speedwell was coming from Holland with English separatist Puritans, members of the Leiden congregation who had been living in Holland to escape religious persecution in England.
The two ships set sail for America around August 5, but the Speedwell sprang a leak shortly after, and the two ships were brought into Dartmouth for repairs. They made a new start after the repairs, and they were more than 200 miles (320 km) beyond Land 's End at the southwestern tip of England when Speedwell sprang another leak. It was now early September, and they had no choice but to abandon the Speedwell and make a determination on her passengers. This was a dire event, as the ship had wasted vital funds and was considered very important to the future success of their settlement in America. Both ships returned to Plymouth, where some of the Speedwell passengers joined the Mayflower and others returned to Holland. The Mayflower then continued on her voyage to America, and the Speedwell was sold soon afterwards.
Mayflower carried 102 passengers plus a crew of 25 to 30 officers and men, bringing the total to approximately 130. According to William Bradford, Speedwell was refitted and "made many voyages... to the great profit of her owners. '' Bradford later implied that the Speedwell 's master used "cunning and deceit '' to abort the voyage, possibly by causing leaks in the ship and motivated by a fear of starving to death in America.
In early September, western gales began to make the North Atlantic a dangerous place for sailing. The Mayflower 's provisions were already quite low when departing Southampton, and they became lower still by delays of more than a month. The passengers had been on board the ship for this entire time, and they were quite worn out and in no condition for a very taxing, lengthy Atlantic journey cooped up in cramped spaces in a small ship. But the Mayflower sailed from Plymouth on September 6, 1620 with what Bradford called "a prosperous wind ''.
Aboard the Mayflower were many stores that supplied the pilgrims with the essentials needed for their journey and future lives. It is assumed that they carried tools and weapons, including cannon, shot, and gunpowder, as well as some live animals, including dogs, sheep, goats, and poultry. Horses and cattle came later. The ship also carried two boats: a long boat and a "shallop '', a 21 - foot boat powered by oars or sails. She also carried 12 artillery pieces (eight minions and four sakers), as the Pilgrims feared that they might need to defend themselves against enemy European forces, as well as the natives.
The passage was a miserable one, with huge waves constantly crashing against the ship 's topside deck until a key structural support timber fractured. The passengers had already suffered agonizing delays, shortages of food, and other shortages, and they were now called upon to provide assistance to the ship 's carpenter in repairing the fractured main support beam. This was repaired with the use of a metal mechanical device called a jackscrew, which had been loaded on board to help in the construction of settler homes. It was now used to secure the beam to keep it from cracking further, making the ship seaworthy enough.
The crew of the Mayflower had some devices to assist them en route, such as a compass for navigation, as well as a log and line system to measure speed in nautical miles per hour (knots). Time was measured with the ancient method of an hourglass.
On November 9, 1620, they sighted present - day Cape Cod. They spent several days trying to sail south to their planned destination of the Colony of Virginia, where they had obtained permission to settle from the Company of Merchant Adventurers. However, strong winter seas forced them to return to the harbor at Cape Cod hook, well north of the intended area, where they anchored on November 11. The settlers wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact after the ship dropped anchor at Cape Cod, in what is now Provincetown Harbor, in order to establish legal order and to quell increasing strife within the ranks.
On Monday, November 27, an exploring expedition was launched under the direction of Capt. Christopher Jones to search for a suitable settlement site. As master of the Mayflower, Jones was not required to assist in the search, but he apparently thought it in his best interest to assist the search expedition. There were 34 persons in the open shallop: 24 passengers and 10 sailors. They were obviously not prepared for the bitter winter weather which they encountered on their reconnoiter, the Mayflower passengers not being accustomed to winter weather much colder than back home. They were forced to spend the night ashore due to the bad weather which they encountered, ill - clad in below - freezing temperatures with wet shoes and stockings that became frozen. Bradford wrote, "Some of our people that are dead took the original of their death here '' on that expedition.
The settlers explored the snow - covered area and discovered an empty native village, now known as Corn Hill in Truro. The curious settlers dug up some artificially made mounds, some of which stored corn, while others were burial sites. The modern writer Nathaniel Philbrick claims that the settlers stole the corn and looted and desecrated the graves, sparking friction with the locals. Philbrick goes on to say that they explored the area of Cape Cod for several weeks as they moved down the coast to what is now Eastham, and he claims that the Pilgrims were looting and stealing native stores as they went. He then writes about how they decided to relocate to Plymouth after a difficult encounter with the Nausets at First Encounter Beach in December 1620.
However, the only contemporary account of events, William Bradford 's History of Plymouth Plantation, records only that the pilgrims took "some '' of the corn, to show to others back at the boat, leaving the rest. They later took what they needed from another store of grain, but paid the natives back in six months, and there was no resulting conflict.
Also there was found more of their corn and of their beans of various colors; the corn and beans they brought away, purposing to give them full satisfaction when they should meet with any of them as, about some six months afterward they did, to their good content.
During the winter, the passengers remained on board the Mayflower, suffering an outbreak of a contagious disease described as a mixture of scurvy, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. When it ended, only 53 passengers remained -- just over half; half of the crew died, as well. In the spring, they built huts ashore, and the passengers disembarked from the Mayflower on March 21, 1621.
The settlers decided to mount "our great ordnances '' on the hill overlooking the settlement in late February 1621, due to the fear of attack by the natives. Christopher Jones supervised the transportation of the "great guns '' -- about six iron cannons that ranged between four and eight feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) in length and weighed almost half a ton. The cannon were able to hurl iron balls 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) in diameter as far as 1,700 yards (1.5 km). This action made what was no more than a ramshackle village almost into a well - defended fortress.
Jones had originally planned to return to England as soon as the Pilgrims found a settlement site. But his crew members began to be ravaged by the same diseases that were felling the Pilgrims, and he realized that he had to remain in Plymouth Harbor "till he saw his men began to recover. '' The Mayflower lay in New Plymouth harbor through the winter of 1620 -- 21, then set sail for England on April 5, 1621, her empty hold ballasted with stones from the Plymouth Harbor shore. As with the Pilgrims, her sailors had been decimated by disease. Jones had lost his boatswain, his gunner, three quartermasters, the cook, and more than a dozen sailors.
The Mayflower made excellent time on her voyage back to England. The westerly winds that had buffeted her coming out pushed her along going home, and she arrived at the home port of Rotherhithe in London on May 6, 1621, less than half the time that it had taken her to sail to America. ''
Jones died after coming back from a voyage to France on March 5, 1622, at about age 52. For the next two years, the Mayflower lay at her berth in Rotherhithe, not far from Jones ' grave at St. Mary 's church. By 1624, she was no longer useful as a ship; her subsequent fate is unknown, but she was probably broken up about that time.
Some families traveled together, while some men came alone, leaving families in England and Leiden. Two wives on board were pregnant; Elizabeth Hopkins gave birth to son Oceanus while at sea, and Susanna White gave birth to son Peregrine in late November while the ship was anchored in Cape Cod Harbor. He is historically recognized as the first European child born in the New England area. One child died during the voyage, and there was one stillbirth during the construction of the colony.
According to the Mayflower passenger list, just over a third of the passengers were Puritan Separatists who sought to break away from the established Church of England and create a society along the lines of their religious ideals. Others were hired hands, servants, or farmers recruited by London merchants, all originally destined for the Colony of Virginia. Four of this latter group of passengers were small children given into the care of Mayflower pilgrims as indentured servants. The Virginia Company began the transportation of children in 1618. Until relatively recently, the children were thought to be orphans, foundlings, or involuntary child labor. At that time, children were routinely rounded up from the streets of London or taken from poor families receiving church relief to be used as laborers in the colonies. Any legal objections to the involuntary transportation of the children were overridden by the Privy Council. For instance it was proven that the four More children were sent to America because they were deemed illegitimate. Three of the four More children died in the first winter in the New World, but Richard lived to be approximately 81, dying in Salem, probably in 1695 or 1696.
The passengers mostly slept and lived in the low - ceilinged great cabins and on the main deck, which was 75 by 20 feet large (23 m × 6 m) at most. The cabins were thin - walled and extremely cramped, and the total area was 25 ft by 15 ft (7.6 m × 4.5 m) at its largest. Below decks, any person over five feet (150 cm) tall would be unable to stand up straight. The maximum possible space for each person would have been slightly less than the size of a standard single bed.
Passengers would pass the time by reading by candlelight or playing cards and games such as Nine Men 's Morris. Meals on board were cooked by the firebox, which was an iron tray with sand in it on which a fire was built. This was risky because it was kept in the waist of the ship. Passengers made their own meals from rations that were issued daily and food was cooked for a group at a time.
Upon arrival in America, the harsh climate and scarcity of fresh food were exacerbated by the shortness of provisions due to the delay in departure. Living in these extremely close and crowded quarters, several passengers developed scurvy, a disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C. At the time the use of lemons or limes to counter this disease was unknown, and the usual dietary sources of vitamin C in fruits and vegetables had been depleted, since these fresh foods could not be stored for long periods without their becoming rotten. Passengers who developed scurvy experienced symptoms such as bleeding gums, teeth falling out, and stinking breath.
Passengers consumed large amounts of alcohol such as beer with meals. This was known to be safer than water, which often came from polluted sources causing diseases. All food and drink was stored in barrels known as "hogsheads ''.
The passenger William Mullins brought 126 pairs of shoes and 13 pairs of boots in his luggage. Other items included oiled leather and canvas suits, stuff gowns and leather and stuff breeches, shirts, jerkins, doublets, neckcloths, hats and caps, hose, stockings, belts, piece goods, and haberdasherie. At his death, his estate consisted of extensive footwear and other items of clothing, and made his daughter Priscilla and her husband John Alden quite prosperous.
No cattle or beasts of draft or burden were brought on the journey, but there were pigs, goats, and poultry. Some passengers brought family pets such as cats and birds. Peter Browne took his large bitch mastiff, and John Goodman brought along his spaniel.
According to author Charles Banks, the officers and crew of the Mayflower consisted of a captain, four mates, four quartermasters, surgeon, carpenter, cooper, cooks, boatswains, gunners, and about 36 men before the mast, making a total of about 50. The entire crew stayed with the Mayflower in Plymouth through the winter of 1620 -- 1621, and about half of them died during that time. The remaining crewmen returned to England on the Mayflower, which sailed for London on April 5, 1621.
Banks states that the crew totaled 36 men before the mast and 14 officers, making a total of 50. Nathaniel Philbrick estimates between 20 and 30 sailors in her crew whose names are unknown. Nick Bunker states that Mayflower had a crew of at least 17 and possibly as many as 30. Caleb Johnson states that the ship carried a crew of about 30 men, but the exact number is unknown.
Three of Mayflower 's owners applied to the Admiralty court for an appraisal of the ship on May 4, 1624, two years after Captain Jones ' death in 1622; one of these applicants was Jones ' widow Mrs. Josian (Joan) Jones. This appraisal probably was made to determine the valuation of the ship for the purpose of settling the estate of its late master. The appraisal was made by four mariners and shipwrights of Rotherhithe, home and burial place of Captain Jones, where the Mayflower was apparently then lying in the Thames at London. The appraisement is extant and provides information on ship 's gear on board at that time, as well as equipment such as muskets and other arms. The ship may have been laid up since Jones ' death and allowed to get out of repair, as that is what the appraisal indicates. The vessel was valued at one hundred and twenty - eight pounds, eight shillings, and fourpence.
What finally became of the Mayflower is an unsettled issue. Charles Edward Banks, an English historian of the Pilgrim ship, claims that the ship was finally broken up, with her timbers used in the construction of a barn at Jordans village in Buckinghamshire. Tradition claims that this barn still exists as the Mayflower Barn, located within the grounds of Old Jordan in South Buckinghamshire. In 1624, Thomas Russell supposedly added to part of a farmhouse already there with timbers from a ship, believed to be from the Pilgrim ship Mayflower, bought from a shipbreaker 's yard in Rotherhithe. The well - preserved structure was a tourist attraction, receiving visitors each year from all over the world and particularly from America, but it is now privately owned and not open to the public.
Another ship called the Mayflower made a voyage from London to Plymouth Colony in 1629 carrying 35 passengers, many from the Pilgrim congregation in Leiden that organized the first voyage. This was not the same ship that made the original voyage with the first settlers. This voyage began in May and reached Plymouth in August. This ship also made the crossing from England to America in 1630 (as part of the Winthrop Fleet), 1633, 1634, and 1639. It attempted the trip again in 1641, departing London in October of that year under master John Cole, with 140 passengers bound for Virginia. It never arrived. On October 18, 1642, a deposition was made in England regarding the loss.
The Pilgrim ship Mayflower has a famous place in American history as a symbol of early European colonization of the future United States.
The main record for the voyage of the Mayflower and the disposition of the Plymouth Colony comes from the letters and journal of William Bradford, who was a guiding force and later the governor of the colony.
The 400th anniversary of the Mayflower sailing will take place in 2020. The Harwich Mayflower Project is hoping to build a replica of the ship at Harwich, England.
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where are the four corners of the world located | Four corners of the world - wikipedia
Several cosmological and mythological systems portray four corners of the world or four quarters of the world corresponding approximately to the four points of the compass (or the two solstices and two equinoxes). At the center may lie a sacred mountain, garden, world tree, or other beginning - point of creation. Often four rivers run to the four corners of the world, and water or irrigate the four quadrants of the earth.
In Christianity and Judaism, the Old Testament (Genesis 2: 8 - 14) identifies the Garden of Eden, and the four rivers as the Tigris, Euphrates, Pishon, and Gihon. The Tigris runs to Assyria, the Euphrates to Armenia, the Pishon to Havilah or Elam, and the Gihon to Ethiopia.
In Mesopotamian cosmology, four rivers flowing out of the garden of creation, which is the center of the world, define the four corners of the world. From the point of view of the Akkadians, the northern geographical horizon was marked by Subartu, the west by Mar. tu, the east by Elam and the south by Sumer; later rulers of all of Mesopotamia, such as Cyrus, claimed among their titles LUGAL kib - ra - a-ti er - bé - et - tì, "King of the Four Quarters ''.
In Hinduism, the sacred mountain Kailash has four sides, from which four rivers flow to the four quarters of the world (the Ganges, Indus, Oxus (Amu Darya), and Śita (Tarim)), dividing the world into four quadrants. Another account portrays a celestial mountain, Mount Meru, buttressed by four terrestrial mountain ranges which extend in four directions. Between them lie four sacred lakes, through which the celestial river divides into four earthly rivers, which flow to the four corners and irrigate the four quadrants of the Earth. Buddhism and the Bon religion of Tibet have similar accounts.
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list of playable characters in mortal kombat x | Mortal Kombat X - wikipedia
Mortal Kombat X is a fighting video game developed by NetherRealm Studios and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. Running on the Unreal Engine 3, it is the tenth main installment in the Mortal Kombat video game series and a sequel to the 2011 game Mortal Kombat. It was released on April 14, 2015 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. NetherRealm studio 's mobile team developed a version for iOS and Android devices. A version for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 was in development but was eventually cancelled because NetherRealm could not get the seventh generation of consoles versions to the expected level of quality. High Voltage Studios developed the PC version of the game, with Polish studio QLoc taking over the work on it shortly after the release of Kombat Pack 1.
Like previous Mortal Kombat games, Mortal Kombat X 's gameplay consists of two players, or one player and the CPU, fighting against each other with their selected character, using a large, varied array of character specific attacks. The game contains several modes, such as a story mode, which takes place twenty years after the previous Mortal Kombat game, several ' Tower ' modes, which feature dynamically changing challenges, numerous online modes, and the ' Krypt ', a mode played in a first - person perspective where players explore the areas unlocking a variety of in - game items.
The console versions of Mortal Kombat X received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release. Most praise was directed at the game 's controls, overall gameplay, graphics, story, and characters, with some reviewers calling it the best game in the Mortal Kombat series. However, the PC version of the game was met with mixed reception, with reviewers blaming numerous technical issues (including frequent crashes and slow netcode) for severely hindering the experience. Selling more than 5 million copies, the game was the fastest - selling game in the franchise and the ninth best - selling game in 2015.
An upgraded version of Mortal Kombat X, titled Mortal Kombat XL, was released on March 1, 2016 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, including all downloadable content characters from the two released Kombat Packs, almost all bonus alternate costumes available at the time of release, improved gameplay, and improved netcode. This edition was also released for PC on October 4, 2016.
Mortal Kombat X is a fighting game in which two characters fight against each other using a variety of attacks, including special moves, and the series ' trademark gruesome finishing moves. The game allows two players to face each other (either locally or online), or a single player to play against the CPU. The energy meter, first introduced in Mortal Kombat (2011), allows players to perform techniques such as "X-Ray '' special moves. Similarly to NetherRealm Studios ' previous title, Injustice: Gods Among Us, fighters are able to interact with the environment, using parts of the scenery to reposition themselves or using available objects as weapons. In addition, each fighter has three different variations, each featuring a different set of moves they can use during the fight: for example, the character Scorpion features a Ninjutsu variation which gives him specific moves utilizing dual swords, a Hellfire variation which incorporates fiery special moves, and an Inferno variation which allows him to summon hellspawn minions to aid him in the fight.
Returning from the previous Mortal Kombat game is the Energy Bar, which is divided in three sections, and provides access to enhanced special moves (costing one section), breaking combos (costing two sections) and performing X-ray moves (costing all three sections of the bar). Additionally, a Stamina Meter has been added under the health bar, which consists of two sections, and is consumed whenever the player runs, performs a back dash, a combo breaker, a stage interaction, or certain special techniques, such as cancelling Scorpion 's teleports.
In addition to the usual Fatalities, Mortal Kombat X features two new types of finishing moves: Quitality, which instantly kills the player 's character if they quit during a multiplayer match; and Faction Kills, two finishing moves given to each character based on the selection of one of the game 's five factions (Black Dragon, Brotherhood of Shadow, Lin Kuei, Special Forces, and White Lotus). Brutality finishing moves make a comeback, although different from the ones featured in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3. Brutalities now take the form of enhanced versions of certain moves that are triggered when said move is used as the final blow to win the final round in a fight, provided certain conditions are met. In addition, the game features stage Brutalities, which are triggered when certain environment interactions are used to finish the opponent. Additionally, stage Fatalities were reinstated in Mortal Kombat XL, being available in three of the game 's stages.
For local single player, the game offers Story mode, a plot - driven mode with cutscenes between fights; and Living Towers, an evolved form of Mortal Kombat 's Challenge Tower where the play conditions change. Also locally, player vs. player mode is available. Playing online, the play modes include 1 vs. 1 (ranked or random), King of the Hill, Survivor, and Test Your Luck. Another new mode is Faction Wars, where the players choose one from the five factions to align with, and join a persistent online cross-platform competition with others, winning points for their faction, contributing in the conflict between them, ranking up personally, and earning special rewards such as faction - specific finishing moves (one of which is unlocked to the player if their faction wins at the end of any given week).
Two years after the defeat of Shao Kahn, Shinnok attacks Earthrealm with his army of Netherrealm demons, as well as the Earthrealm warriors who were killed during Kahn 's invasion and are now resurrected as revenants under Quan Chi 's control. After fighting their fallen comrades, a strike team led by Johnny Cage, Sonya Blade, and Kenshi open a portal to Raiden 's Sky Temple and head to the Jinsei Chamber, the source of Earthrealm 's life force, where Raiden and Fujin are seen battling Shinnok and his Netherrealm forces. When Shinnok tries to kill Sonya, Johnny rushes to defend her, inadvertently awakening ancient superhuman powers within himself. Using his newly - found powers, Johnny holds Shinnok at bay long enough for Raiden to steal Shinnok 's amulet and imprison him inside it, but Quan Chi escapes. Johnny, Raiden, and Sonya track him to his lair in the Netherrealm and defeat him, successfully restoring Scorpion, Sub-Zero, and Jax to human form in the process, though Quan Chi escapes again. In the years that follow, Johnny and Sonya marry and have a daughter, Cassie, though they later divorce. Scorpion, now known as Hanzo Hasashi, rebuilds his Shirai Ryu clan while mentoring Kenshi 's son Takeda, and Sub-Zero becomes the new Grandmaster of the Lin Kuei after killing Sektor. Sub-Zero uses the data from Sektor 's memory banks detailing Quan Chi 's manipulations, including the truth about the deaths of Hasashi 's wife and son, to help end his feud with Hasashi.
Twenty years after Shinnok 's defeat, Johnny assembles a team of fighters composed of Cassie, Takeda, Jax 's daughter Jacqui, and Kung Lao 's cousin Kung Jin. After undergoing a training exercise with Sub-Zero, they are deployed to Outworld to resolve a civil war between former empress Mileena, who has obtained Shinnok 's amulet from Kano, and Outworld 's current emperor Kotal Kahn, with whom Earthrealm has a peace treaty. Meanwhile, in an Outworld refugee camp in Earthrealm, Sonya captures Kano and forces him to reveal Mileena 's location. Using this information, Cassie 's team aids Kotal in recovering Shinnok 's amulet and capturing Mileena, who is subsequently executed on Kotal 's orders. No longer believing Earthrealm capable of keeping the amulet safe, Kotal decides to keep it in Outworld 's hands, and takes Cassie and her friends hostage as leverage against Raiden. Kotal 's second - in - command D'Vorah, who is revealed as a double agent for Quan Chi, steals the amulet. Cassie and her team escape captivity, and inform Earthrealm of D'Vorah's intentions.
Hoping to stop Quan Chi from getting the amulet, Jax and Kenshi, aided by Sareena, lead an assault on the Netherrealm. After fighting his way through the revenants, Jax captures a weakened Quan Chi, who is brought to Earthrealm and held at an Outworld refugee camp. Hasashi infiltrates the refugee camp alongside his clan with the intent of assassinating Quan Chi, defeating Kenshi, Johnny and Sonya in the process. As Hasashi prepares to kill Quan Chi, D'Vorah arrives with the amulet. Quan Chi manages to finish a spell moments before being beheaded by Hasashi, releasing Shinnok from captivity. Weakened by the Shirai Ryu 's previous attack, Johnny is taken hostage by Shinnok and D'Vorah. With the aid of Quan Chi 's revenants, Shinnok and D'Vorah assault the Sky Temple, and subdue Raiden and Bo _́ Rai Cho in the process. Shinnok then enters the Jinsei and corrupts it, transforming himself into a powerful demon in the process.
Cassie 's team pursues Shinnok, only to be intercepted by Kotal Kahn and his army. They inform him of Shinnok 's return and Kotal decides to kill them, hoping to appease Shinnok and buy time to bolster Outworld 's defenses, but Sub-Zero and his Lin Kuei warriors appear just in time to repel the Outworld forces. At the Sky Temple, Jacqui and Takeda occupy the revenants, while Cassie and Jin enter the Jinsei chamber. Cassie defeats D'Vorah, though Jin is knocked out, leaving her to face Shinnok alone. When Shinnok begins torturing Johnny, Cassie gains her father 's superhuman powers, which she uses to defeat Shinnok. A grievously - wounded Raiden then purifies the Jinsei, stripping Shinnok of his powers and forcing the revenants to withdraw. Sonya and her soldiers arrive to take Shinnok and D'Vorah away, and the Cage family reunites.
Some time later, the revenants Liu Kang and Kitana are revealed to have assumed leadership of the Netherrealm. Raiden, now in possession of Shinnok 's amulet and corrupted in the process of purifying the Jinsei, warns them they will face "fates worse than death '' if they threaten Earthrealm. Before departing, Raiden leaves behind Shinnok 's severed, yet still living head as a final warning.
New playable characters are listed in bold.
Along with series staples such as Scorpion, Sub-Zero, Liu Kang, Kitana and Raiden, several new fighters are added to the series ' roster: D'Vorah, an insect - like humanoid who controls other insects; Ferra / Torr, a pairing consisting of a small armored female warrior and a giant masked brute; and Kotal Kahn, an Aztec - inspired "blood god '' who is the new emperor of Outworld. With the game 's story mode spanning 25 years, the game also introduces the offsprings of several characters, such as Cassie Cage, the daughter of Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade; Takeda, son of Kenshi; and Jacqui Briggs, daughter of Jax. Other series newcomers include Kung Jin, an archer, cousin of Kung Lao; and Erron Black, a Western - style gunfighter. A non-playable demonic form of Shinnok called "Corrupted Shinnok '' appears as the final boss. Also, Tanya and Bo ' Rai Cho, who would later become downloadable characters, originally appeared in the story mode cutscenes, the former even being a non-playable opponent. Other notable characters that appear, but are not playable, are Fujin, Kabal, Li Mei, Nightwolf, Stryker, Smoke, Sareena, Baraka, Sindel, and Rain, the final three can be fought as opponents in the story mode with movesets taken directly from Mortal Kombat 9.
The mobile game features three exclusive characters: Baraka, Jade, and guest Freddy Krueger.
NetherRealm Studios began publicly hiring for the eighth generation development in April 2012. In July 2013, it was confirmed that a new Mortal Kombat game was in development and was said to be released alongside the film series ' reboot in September 2015. In February 2014, actor Kiefer Sutherland claimed he was participating in this "huge game '' in an unidentified role. The following June, Sutherland 's involvement was denied by series creator Ed Boon. According to the resume of Karen Strassman, who voiced Kitana and Mileena in 2011 's Mortal Kombat, the game 's working title was Mortal Kombat 2. The game 's poster was leaked and an updated version of the series ' iconic dragon logo was revealed on May 28, 2014. Boon posted daily riddles on his Twitter account that constituted a countdown suggesting a June 2 announcement date, hinting at the game 's title being Mortal Kombat X. One of the Twitter clues left by Boon teasing this title was the image of a Lincoln MKX emblem posted with the comment, "I wonder what the X stands for? ''
On June 2, 2014, the title was indeed officially revealed as Mortal Kombat X, alongside an official reveal trailer featuring a fight between the iconic characters Scorpion and Sub-Zero. The game made its first public appearance at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014, starting on June 10, 2014, where four new characters were revealed, apart from the two already revealed by the trailer. With over eleven million views, it was the third - highest viewed trailer on YouTube in the second quarter of 2014. NetherRealm Studios said they are only working on the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions of the game. The game, which runs at 1080p screen resolution and 60 FPS, has been said to feature the most brutal finishing moves in the series. Boon said: "We have these meetings and everyone comes up with ideas for Fatalities. The ones that people say ' there 's no way we can do that ' -- they 're the first ones we work on. ''
By July 2015, due to heavy criticism for the porting issues in that plagued the PC release of the game, almost all references to Mortal Kombat X had been removed from High Voltage Software 's Facebook page. It would later be revealed that work on the PC port had been handed over to Polish developers QLoc. On August 28, 2015, Warner Bros. announced the cancellation of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 ports (originally scheduled for release at a later unspecified date) of Mortal Kombat X due to the inability to get the version for the last gen consoles to reach the quality standards set by the current generation. NetherRealm Studios community specialist Tyler Lansdown initially stated that Kombat Pack 2, Mortal Kombat XL, and the enhanced online netcode would not be available on the PC version. However, on August 25, 2016 an open beta test period of the online functionality of XL was announced for the PC, and ultimately a release date was set for October 4, 2016.
Mortal Kombat X was released worldwide (except Germany) for PC, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on April 14, 2015. For reasons relating to the initial refusal by the German USK to issue the game with an age rating, the official German release of Mortal Kombat X was delayed until September 1, 2015. On August 28, 2015, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 ports were cancelled. The game 's Kollector 's Edition includes a figurine of Scorpion and the Gold Scorpion skin, as well as future access to Kombat Pack 1. Simultaneously with the release of Kombat Pack 2 and Mortal Kombat XL, the game received a free major update that introduced balance changes, a new stage -- The Pit --, several stage brutalities, and rollback - based netcode similar to GGPO.
Before the game 's launch, Goro was offered as a pre-order bonus. Later on, upon the game 's release, he was also made available for purchase.
The game has also received numerous downloadable content (DLC) packages, containing skin packs and occasionally new characters, such as:
On March 13, 2015, Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th franchise was announced as the first downloadable bonus character in the downloadable "Kombat Pack '' season - pass bundle. One week later, Predator, from the eponymous franchise, was revealed as the second DLC guest character after he was inadvertently leaked by the Xbox Games Store, with Tremor from Mortal Kombat: Special Forces and Tanya from Mortal Kombat 4 later rounding out the cast of the Kombat Pack. Ultimately, the pack was revealed to include all of the content in the Samurai Pack, Ultimate Horror Pack, Klassic Pack # 1, Predator / Prey Pack and Klassic Pack # 2.
On September 2, 2015, Ed Boon teased a "Kombat Pack 2 '' DLC, which would include four new characters. On December 3, 2015, the characters for Kombat Pack 2 were revealed to be Bo ' Rai Cho from Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, a new character named Triborg (a cyborg character that features Cyrax, Sektor, Smoke and Cyber Sub-Zero as its variations), Leatherface from The Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise, and the Alien from the eponymous franchise. Kombat Pack 2 also makes Goro playable for those who did n't have him as preorder bonus, and includes Kold War Scorpion, Kold War Pack, Apocalypse Pack and Klassic Fatalities # 1 and # 2. Kombat Pack 2 was ultimately announced for release on March 1, 2016 only on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, marking the beginning of a period where the Microsoft Windows port was left aside for any updates and new DLC releases. Eventually it was released on PC on October 4, 2016 along with the PC release of Mortal Kombat XL.
On January 20, 2016, coinciding with the official announcement of Kombat Pack 2, NetherRealm Studios announced a new release of the game, called Mortal Kombat XL to be released simultaneously with said Kombat Pack, which would include all previously released downloadable content up to Kombat Pack 2. Mortal Kombat XL was then released for Xbox One and PlayStation 4 on March 1, 2016 in North America, and March 4, 2016 in Europe.
With the PC having been left behind after Kombat Pack 1, in August 2016 Ed Boon ran a poll on Twitter, which resulted in 45 % of 10,000 voters saying they wanted Mortal Kombat XL for PC. After it ended, he posted the results, suggesting they would be acted upon. Shortly after, an online - only beta was officially released on August 25, 2016 as a free - to - play title on Steam in order to test the enhanced netcode, which lasted through September 1, 2016. As soon as the beta ended, it was announced that Mortal Kombat XL (both as a full game for purchase, and as an update for Mortal Kombat X owners) would become available alongside the Kombat Pack 2 DLC on October 4, 2016, along with the updates that would bring the PC port back to parity with its console counterparts. As revealed by the game 's updated intro credits, the porting of XL to the PC was handled by QLoc, in opposition to the previous problematic releases, by High Voltage Studios. Coinciding with the release of XL for PC, an "XL Pack '' was announced for existing owners of the game, which provides all of the previously existing DLC in a single package. Also coinciding with the release of the PC port of Mortal Kombat XL was a balance patch affecting most of the 33 characters in the roster in all three of the game 's platforms. Overall reception of the PC version has since been very positive.
On March 2, 2015, NetherRealm Studios announced that their mobile division would release an iOS / Android version of Mortal Kombat X in April 2015. The mobile game is described as a "free - to - play fighting / card - battler hybrid '' and players will be able to unlock content in the console version of the game by playing the mobile version (and vice versa). The iOS version was released worldwide on April 7, 2015, while the Android version was soft launched on April 21, 2015 in select Asian countries and was officially launched worldwide on May 4, 2015.
With the 1.11 update version of the mobile game released on December 6, 2016, Freddy Krueger who appeared as a DLC character in MK9 was added as a mobile exclusive character using his signature moves and X-Ray attack from MK9.. On the update 1.13, Jade and Baraka were also added in the game as mobile exclusives, using their X-Rays from MK9. The latest version as of September of 2017 (version 1.14) includes the popularly demanded Takeda, as well as the most recent addition to the ninja cast, Tremor.
Prior to the game 's release, DC Comics published a comic book series based on the game, with the first issue released on January 6, 2015. The debut trailer and opening cinematic features an original track by Wiz Khalifa titled "Ca n't Be Stopped ''. The official television commercial and launch trailer for the game were directed by System of a Down member Shavo Odadjian and featured the band 's 2001 track "Chop Suey! ''. The Mortal Kombat X logo was featured on NASCAR driver Erik Jones ' # 20 Xfinity Series car (sponsored by GameStop) that won the O'Reilly Auto Parts 300 on April 10, 2015. Mortal Kombat X has been used in eSports competitions, with international tournaments in Europe, Asia, and North America with $1,000 weekly tournament prizes starting on April 19, 2015 with a season final on July 11, 2015 worth at least $100,000. The ESL Pro League Season 1 Finals was won by Critical Reaction 's Dominique "Sonic Fox '' McLean using Kitana with Erron Black as a secondary. McLean earned a grand total of $60,000 from the Season 1 Finals. Season Two of the ESL Pro League for Mortal Kombat X began on October 18, 2015 and concluded in early 2016.
Mortal Kombat X received mostly positive reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Xbox One version 86 / 100 based on 21 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 83 / 100 based on 80 reviews, and the Microsoft Windows version 76 / 100 based on 10 reviews. It became the fastest selling game in the history of the Mortal Kombat series and topped the US and UK PlayStation 4 sales charts in the month of release.
Brian Shea of Game Informer called Mortal Kombat X "more than the continuation of NetherRealm 's successful vision for the franchise; it 's one of the best fighting games in years '', adding that the core gameplay was complex and varied while he enjoyed the multiplayer options. GameSpot 's Peter Brown enjoyed the overall gameplay, saying it had "the best fighting mechanics of any game in the series '' but was critical of the downloadable content as "there 's so much to love about the new Mortal Kombat that it 's a shame to see such blatant monetization practices overlap with your experience ''. Lucas Sullivan of GamesRadar described the story mode as "ceaselessly entertaining '', having "great voice - acting and a surprisingly enjoyable script '', and "a pretty tough act to follow '', criticizing the other single - player modes outside of the main story, and "sparse '' tutorial options.
Destructoid 's Chris Carter scored the game an 8 out of 10 and called it "one of the biggest fighting games of 2015 ''. Carter felt that as more characters are added via DLC, the game will get better over time. VideoGamer.com 's Brett Phipps gave the game an 8 / 10 and called it "absurd, gruesome ridiculous fun ''. Phipps mostly praised the story, character gameplay variety, and gore, but was annoyed by online "hiccups ''. Nick Tan from Game Revolution commended the gameplay, particularly complimenting the character variations, environmental attacks, Brutalities, the Krypt, and the Tower system. Tan also liked the overall presentation and the story 's concept, but missed Stage Fatalities and tag - team matches, disliked the story 's ending, and felt that the game was purposefully "truncated ''.
Michael Huber of GameTrailers called it a "superb entry in the franchise '', noting the gameplay, story mode and new online components. Vince Ingenito of IGN gave it a score of 8.4. He claimed that Mortal Kombat X was the best Mortal Kombat game in the franchise 's history, lauding it as deeper, mechanically richer and more fully featured than the previous Mortal Kombat games. He also praised the presence of the new characters as the major roster shakeup made the game feel new and exciting to longtime series fans and casual fans. Michael McWhertor of Polygon called the game "one of the best fighting games in the series '', praising the gameplay in addition to the newer systems in place and overall presentation. Stephen Kleckner of VentureBeat was more critical of the game, citing in his opinion confusing move animations, a system favoring close range mid-to - high combos, having to use the block button to execute a run, poor online play, and easy Fatality DLC. He also mentioned an issue where save data would be erased due to a bug in the PC version. Matt Elliott of PC Gamer had mixed feelings about the online gameplay and said that "Mortal Kombat online simply is n't sturdy enough to remain competitive ''.
In October 2015, Warner Bros. confirmed that Mortal Kombat X had sold more than 5 million copies worldwide by then. It was the fastest selling game in the franchise and was the ninth best - selling retail game of 2015 in the United States. The first - month sales of the game is higher than the first - month sales of every game released in April 2016.
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the less i know the better girl in music video | The Less I Know the Better - wikipedia
"The Less I Know the Better '' is a song by the Australian rock band Tame Impala, released on 29 November 2015 as the third and final single from the group 's third studio album Currents. The song 's accompanying music video takes place in a high school where a basketball player suffers a broken heart.
The song peaked at number 23 on the Belgian Flanders singles chart, number 66 on the ARIA Singles Chart and number 195 on the French Singles Chart. In the U.S., the song charted at number 36 on Billboard 's Hot Rock Songs chart. Along with "Let It Happen '', the song was one of two from Tame Impala 's Currents to reach the top five in the Triple J Hottest 100, 2015, coming in at # 4.
Parker stated that "The Less I Know the Better '' originated from his love of disco:
According to Parker, recording the song became obsessive. He recalled performing over 1,057 partial vocal takes for either "The Less I Know the Better '' or the album 's second single, "' Cause I 'm a Man '', though he could not recall which.
A music video for the song was uploaded on 26 November 2015 to the group 's Vevo channel. The video follows a high school basketball player in love with a cheerleader, who soon begins a relationship with the team 's gorilla mascot (named Trevor). Lars Brandle of Billboard described it thus: "the clip is a strange tale of high school lust and jealousy (and King Kong) played out in a technicolor trip. '' The clip was filmed by the Spanish creative collective and directors Canada. The cheerleader is portrayed by Catalan actress Laia Manzanares and the basketball player is portayed by Catalan actor Albert Baró.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who received a patent for the manufacture of chewing gum | William F. Semple - Wikipedia
William Finley Semple (1832 - 1923) was a dentist from Mount Vernon, Ohio, commonly referred to as the first person anywhere to patent a chewing gum. On December 28, 1869, Semple filed Patent No. 98,304 with the U.S. Commissioner of Patents. However, Amos Tyler of Toledo, Ohio, patented his chewing gum on July 27 of the same year. John B. Curtis successfully sold his "State of Maine Pure Spruce Gum '' in 1848, though he did not patent it.
Semple 's gum was intended to clean the teeth and strengthen the chewer 's jaw. It was not a sweet treat; ingredients included chalk and powdered licorice root. Charcoal was also suggested as a "suitable '' ingredient in the patent.
"To all whom it may concern: Be it know that, I, WILLIAM F. SEMPLE, of Mount Vernon, county of Knox, and State of Ohio, have invented a new and improved Chewing - Gum; and I do hereby declare that the following is a full, clear, and exact description of the same. The nature of my invention consists in compounding with rubber, in any proportions, other suitable substances, so as to form not only an agreeable chewing - gum, but also, that from the scouring - properties of the same, it will subserve the purpose of a dentifrice. It is well known that rubber itself is too hard to be used as a chewing - gum, but in combination with non-adhesive earths may be rendered capable of kneading into any shape under the teeth. In the manufacture of this improved chewing - gum, no vulcanizing - process is employed. It is produced by simply dissolving the rubber in naphtha and alcohol, and when of the consistence of jelly, mixing with it prepared chalk, powdered licorice - root, or any other suitable material, in the desired proportions, and subsequently evaporating the solvents. I do not, however, confine myself to this method alone for the manufacture of the gum. For commercial purposes, other equally effectual processes maybe used for the uniting of the rubber with suitable substances. Instead of the solvents named, any other that will soften the rubber, without being offensive, may be employed, such as paraffine, spermaceti, wax, gums, resins, and the like. Any of the materials commonly used for the manufacture of dentifrices may be combined with the rubber, such as orris - root, myrrh, licorice - root, sugar, barytes, charcoal, &c. By the term "rubber, '' I wish to include the allied vegetable gums, which are ordinarily known as the equivalents of caoutchouc. Having thus fully described my invention, What I claim as new, and, desire to secure by Letters Patent, is -- The combination of rubber with other articles, in any proportions adapted to the formation of an acceptable chewing - gum.
W.F. SEMPLE.
Witnesses: C. MAGERS, T.V. PARKE. ''
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who is our chief justice of the supreme court | Chief justice of the United States - wikipedia
The Chief Justice of the United States is the chief judge of the nine - member Supreme Court of the United States, the highest judicial body in the United States. As such, the chief justice is the highest - ranking judge of the federal judiciary -- one of the three branches of the federal government. Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution grants plenary power to the President of the United States to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the United States Senate, appoint a chief justice, who serves until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.
The Chief Justice has significant influence in the selection of cases for review, presides when oral arguments are held, and leads the discussion of cases among the justices. Additionally, when the Court renders an opinion, the chief justice -- if in the majority -- chooses who writes the Court 's opinion. When deciding a case, however, the chief justice 's vote counts no more than that of any associate justice.
Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 of the Constitution designates the chief justice to preside during presidential impeachment trials in the Senate; this has occurred twice. Also, while nowhere mandated, the presidential oath of office is typically administered by the Chief Justice.
Additionally, the Chief Justice serves as a spokesperson for the federal government 's judicial branch and acts as a chief administrative officer for the federal courts. The Chief Justice presides over the Judicial Conference and, in that capacity, appoints the director and deputy director of the Administrative Office. The Chief Justice is also an ex officio member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution and, by custom, is elected chancellor of the board.
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 17 people have served as chief justice. The first was John Jay (1789 -- 1795). The current chief justice is John Roberts (since 2005). Four -- Edward Douglass White, Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan Fiske Stone, and William Rehnquist -- were previously confirmed for associate justice and subsequently confirmed for chief justice separately.
The United States Constitution does not explicitly establish an office of Chief Justice, but presupposes its existence with a single reference in Article I, Section 3, Clause 6: "When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. '' Nothing more is said in the Constitution regarding the office. Article III, Section 1, which authorizes the establishment of the Supreme Court, refers to all members of the Court simply as "judges ''. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the distinctive titles of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
In 1866, at the urging of Salmon P. Chase, Congress restyled the chief justice 's title to the current Chief Justice of the United States. The first person whose Supreme Court commission contained the modified title was Melville Fuller in 1888. The associate justices ' title was not altered in 1866, and remains as originally created.
The chief justice, like all federal judges, is nominated by the President and confirmed to office by the U.S. Senate. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution specifies that they "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior ''. This language means that the appointments are effectively for life, and that, once in office, justices ' tenure ends only when they die, retire, resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process. Since 1789, 15 presidents have made a total of 22 official nominations to the position.
The salary of the chief justice is set by Congress; the current (2018) annual salary is $267,000, which is slightly higher than that of associate justices, which is $255,300.
The practice of appointing an individual to serve as chief justice is grounded in tradition; while the Constitution mandates that there be a chief justice, it is silent on the subject of how one is chosen and by whom. There is no specific constitutional prohibition against using another method to select the chief justice from among those justices properly appointed and confirmed to the Supreme Court. Constitutional law scholar Todd Pettys has proposed that presidential appointment of chief justices should be done away with, and replaced by a process that permits the Justices to select their own chief justice.
Three incumbent associate justices have been nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate as chief justice: Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, and William Rehnquist in 1986. A fourth, Abe Fortas, was nominated to the position in 1968, but was not confirmed. As an associate justice does not have to resign his or her seat on the Court in order to be nominated as chief justice, Fortas remained an associate justice. Similarly, when associate justice William Cushing was nominated and confirmed as chief justice in January 1796, but declined the office, he too remained on the Court. Two former associate justices subsequently returned to service on the Court as chief justice. John Rutledge was the first. President Washington gave him a recess appointment in 1795. However, his subsequent nomination to the office was not confirmed by the Senate, and he left office and the Court. In 1933, former associate justice Charles Evans Hughes was confirmed as chief justice. Additionally, in December 1800, former chief justice John Jay was nominated and confirmed to the position a second time, but ultimately declined it, opening the way for the appointment of John Marshall.
Along with his general responsibilities as a member of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice has several unique duties to fulfill.
Article I, section 3 of the U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice shall preside over impeachment trials of the President of the United States in the U.S. Senate. Two Chief Justices, Salmon P. Chase and William Rehnquist, have presided over the trial in the Senate that follows an impeachment of the president -- Chase in 1868 over the proceedings against President Andrew Johnson and Rehnquist in 1999 over the proceedings against President Bill Clinton. Both presidents were subsequently acquitted.
Many of the Court 's procedures and inner workings are governed by the rules of protocol based on the seniority of the justices. The chief justice always ranks first in the order of precedence -- regardless of the length of the officeholder 's service (even if shorter then that of one or more associate justices). This elevated status has enabled successive chief justices to define and refine both the Court 's culture and its judicial priorities.
The chief justice sets the agenda for the weekly meetings where the justices review the petitions for certiorari, to decide whether to hear or deny each case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear less than one percent of the cases petitioned to it. While associate justices may append items to the weekly agenda, in practice this initial agenda - setting power of the chief justice has significant influence over the direction of the court. Nonetheless, a chief justice 's influence may be limited by circumstances and the associate justices ' understanding of legal principles; it is definitely limited by the fact that he has only a single vote of nine on the decision whether to grant or deny certiorari.
Despite the chief justice 's elevated stature, his vote carries the same legal weight as the vote of each associate justice. Additionally, he has no legal authority to overrule the verdicts or interpretations of the other eight judges or tamper with them. The task of assigning who shall write the opinion for the majority falls to the most senior justice in the majority. Thus, when the chief justice is in the majority, he always assigns the opinion. Early in his tenure, Chief Justice John Marshall insisted upon holdings which the justices could unanimously back as a means to establish and build the Court 's national prestige. In doing so, Marshall would often write the opinions himself, and actively discouraged dissenting opinions. Associate Justice William Johnson eventually persuaded Marshall and the rest of the Court to adopt its present practice: one justice writes an opinion for the majority, and the rest are free to write their own separate opinions or not, whether concurring or dissenting.
The chief justice 's formal prerogative -- when in the majority -- to assign which justice will write the Court 's opinion is perhaps his most influential power, as this enables him to influence the historical record. He "may assign this task to the individual justice best able to hold together a fragile coalition, to an ideologically amenable colleague, or to himself. '' Opinion authors can have a big influence on the content of an opinion; two justices in the same majority, given the opportunity, might write very different majority opinions. A chief justice who knows well the associate justices can therefore do much -- by the simple act of selecting the justice who writes the opinion of the court -- to affect the general character or tone of an opinion, which in turn can affect the interpretation of that opinion in cases before lower courts in the years to come.
Additionally, the chief justice chairs the conferences where cases are discussed and tentatively voted on by the justices. He normally speaks first and so has influence in framing the discussion. Although the chief justice votes first -- the Court votes in order of seniority -- he may strategically pass in order to ensure membership in the majority if desired. It is reported that:
Chief Justice Warren Burger was renowned, and even vilified in some quarters, for voting strategically during conference discussions on the Supreme Court in order to control the Court 's agenda through opinion assignment. Indeed, Burger is said to have often changed votes to join the majority coalition, cast "phony votes '' by voting against his preferred position, and declined to express a position at conference.
The Chief Justice typically administers the oath of office at the inauguration of the President of the United States. This is a tradition, rather than a constitutional responsibility of the Chief Justice; the Constitution does not require that the oath be administered by anyone in particular, simply that it be taken by the president. Law empowers any federal and state judge, as well as notaries public (such as John Calvin Coolidge, Sr.), to administer oaths and affirmations.
If the Chief Justice is ill or incapacitated, the oath is usually administered by the next senior member of the Supreme Court. Seven times, someone other than the Chief Justice of the United States administered the oath of office to the President. Robert Livingston, as Chancellor of the State of New York (the state 's highest ranking judicial office), administered the oath of office to George Washington at his first inauguration; there was no Chief Justice of the United States, nor any other federal judge prior to their appointments by President Washington in the months following his inauguration. William Cushing, an associate justice of the Supreme Court, administered Washington 's second oath of office in 1793. Calvin Coolidge 's father, a notary public, administered the oath to his son after the death of Warren Harding. This, however, was contested upon Coolidge 's return to Washington and his oath was re-administered by Judge Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr. of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. John Tyler and Millard Fillmore were both sworn in on the death of their predecessors by Chief Justice William Cranch of the Circuit Court of the District of Columbia. Chester A. Arthur and Theodore Roosevelt 's initial oaths reflected the unexpected nature of their taking office. On November 22, 1963, after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Judge Sarah T. Hughes, a federal district court judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, administered the oath of office to then Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson aboard the presidential airplane.
In addition, the Chief Justice ordinarily administers the oath of office to newly appointed and confirmed associate justices, whereas the senior associate justice will normally swear in a new Chief Justice or vice president.
Since the tenure of William Howard Taft, the office of the Chief Justice has moved beyond just first among equals. The Chief Justice also:
Unlike Senators and Representatives who are constitutionally prohibited from holding any other "office of trust or profit '' of the United States or of any state while holding their congressional seats, the Chief Justice and the other members of the federal judiciary are not barred from serving in other positions. Chief Justice John Jay served as a diplomat to negotiate the so - called Jay Treaty (also known as the Treaty of London of 1794), Justice Robert H. Jackson was appointed by President Truman to be the U.S. Prosecutor in the Nuremberg trials of leading Nazis, and Chief Justice Earl Warren chaired The President 's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy. As described above, the Chief Justice holds office in the Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress.
Under 28 U.S.C. § 3, when the chief justice is unable to discharge his functions, or when that office is vacant, the chief justice 's duties are carried out by the most senior associate justice until the disability or vacancy ends. Currently, since August 2018, Clarence Thomas is the most senior associate justice.
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 17 persons have served as Chief Justice:
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old english influence on the lord of the rings | J.R.R. Tolkien 's influences - wikipedia
While highly creative, the fiction of J.R.R. Tolkien was influenced by a number of sources. Tolkien was inspired by his academic fields of philology and early Germanic literature, especially poetry and mythology, as well as a wide range of other beliefs, culture, and experiences.
The Lord of the Rings is a sequel to The Hobbit and so shares influences with it. At the same time, it is a novel which is much greater in scale and scope and so encompasses many other influences as well.
Tolkien once described The Lord of the Rings to his friend, the English Jesuit Father Robert Murray, as "a fundamentally religious and Catholic work, unconsciously so at first, but consciously in the revision. '' Many theological themes underlie the narrative, including the battle of good versus evil, the triumph of humility over pride, and the activity of grace, as seen with Frodo 's pity toward Gollum. In addition the epic includes the themes of death and immortality, mercy and pity, resurrection, salvation, repentance, self - sacrifice, free will, justice, fellowship, authority and healing. Tolkien mentions the Lord 's Prayer, especially the line "And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil '' in connection with Frodo 's struggles against the power of the One Ring. Tolkien has also said "Of course God is in The Lord of the Rings. The period was pre-Christian, but it was a monotheistic world '' and when questioned who was the One God of Middle - earth, Tolkien replied "The one, of course! The book is about the world that God created -- the actual world of this planet. ''
Tolkien was heavily influenced by Nordic / Norse mythology. During his education at King Edward 's School in Birmingham, the then young Tolkien read and translated from the Old Norse on his own time. One of his first Nordic purchases was the Völsunga saga. It is known that while a student, Tolkien read the only available English translation of the Völsunga saga, that by William Morris of the Victorian Arts and Crafts Movement and Icelandic scholar Eiríkur Magnússon. The Völsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied were coeval texts made with the use of the same ancient sources. Both of them provided some of the basis for Richard Wagner 's opera series, Der Ring des Nibelungen, featuring in particular a magical golden ring and a broken sword reforged. In the Völsungasaga, these items are respectively Andvarinaut and Gram, and they correspond broadly to the One Ring and the sword Narsil (reforged as Andúril). The Volsunga Saga also gives various names found in Tolkien. Tolkien wrote a book entitled The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún, in which he discusses the saga in relation to the myth of Sigurd and Gudrún.
Tolkien 's Elves and Dwarves are by and large based on Norse and related Germanic mythologies Two sources that contain accounts of elves and dwarves that were of interest to Tolkien were the Prose Edda and the Elder or Poetic Edda. The descriptions of elves and dwarves in these works are ambiguous and contradictory, however. Within the contents of the Völuspá, specifically in stanza 9, the creation of Dwarves predates Man, which is precisely the formula Tolkien uses for Middle - earth. The names of Gandalf and the dwarves in The Hobbit were taken from the "Dvergatal '' in the Elder Edda and the "Gylfaginning '' in the Prose Edda.
The figure of Gandalf is particularly influenced by the Norse deity Odin in his incarnation as "The Wanderer '', an old man with one eye, a long white beard, a wide brimmed hat, and a staff. Tolkien, in a letter of 1946, nearly a decade after the character was invented, wrote that he thought of Gandalf as an "Odinic wanderer ''. Much like Odin, Gandalf promotes justice, knowledge, truth, and insight.
The Balrog and the collapse of the Bridge of Khazad - dûm in Moria, is a direct parallel of the fire giant Surt and the destruction of Asgard 's bridge in Norse myth.
Tolkien was a Professor of Old English / Anglo - Saxon and Middle English language and literature, and this literature, particularly Beowulf, influenced his own writings. As Tolley tells us in his Old English Influences on The Lord of the Rings, the ideas of heroism and masculinity that inform the character of Beowulf, can also be seen in Aragorn. Both Aragorn and Beowulf have questionable family lines, and both take on kingship only for the good of the people. Other themes, such as the conversation in The Hobbit between Bilbo Baggins and Smaug the dragon, as well as the antagonism created by the mere mention of gold and even the concept of riddles, are also reflected in Beowulf. Tolkien also based the people of Rohan, the Rohirrim, on the historical Anglo - Saxons, giving them Anglo - Saxon names, customs, and poetry. The Anglo - Saxon poem, "The Wanderer, '' is paraphrased by Aragorn as an example of Rohirric verse.
Another major influence on Tolkien is riddle poetry from Anglo - Saxon England. Some of the oldest surviving Old English manuscripts contain riddle poems, such as the Leiden Riddle in the Leiden MS. The contest between Bilbo and Gollum is a good example of this.
The Middle English vision poem Pearl also influenced Tolkien 's writings. The anonymous poem commemorates the loss of the poet 's daughter, who is described as a pearl. In the description of the pearl, we can see elements not only of Tolkien 's One Ring, but also of Gollum 's obsession with it, even to the phrase "My Precious '':
To that spot that I in speche expoun I entred in that erber grene In Augoste in a hygh seysoun Quen corne is corven wyth crokes kene. On huyle ther perle hit trendeled doun Schadowed this wortes ful schyre and schene: Gilofre, gyngure, and gromylyoun, And pyonys powdered ay bytwene. Yif hit was semly on to sene A fayr reflayr yet fro hit flot. Ther wonys that worthyly, I wot and wene, My precious perle wythouten spot
Tolkien made translations of both Pearl and Beowulf, as well as other Old and Middle English texts.
Finnish mythology and more specifically the Finnish national epic Kalevala were also acknowledged by Tolkien as an influence on Middle - earth. In a manner similar to The Lord of the Rings, the Kalevala centres around a magical item of great power, the Sampo, which bestows great fortune on its owner, but never makes clear its exact nature. Like the One Ring, the Sampo is fought over by forces of good and evil, and is ultimately lost to the world as it is destroyed towards the end of the story. In another parallel, the work 's wizard character, Väinämöinen, is similar to Gandalf in his immortal origins and wise nature, and both works end with the wizard character departing on a ship to lands beyond the mortal world. Tolkien also based elements of his Elvish language Quenya on Finnish.
The extent of Celtic influence is debatable. Tolkien wrote that he gave the Elvish language Sindarin "a linguistic character very like (though not identical with) British - Welsh... because it seems to fit the rather ' Celtic ' type of legends and stories told of its speakers ''. A number of the names of characters and places in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings have been found to have Welsh origin. In addition, the depiction of elves has been described as deriving from Celtic mythology.
Though Tolkien denied the influence of Arthurian legends, several parallels have been drawn. Gandalf has been compared with Merlin, Frodo and Aragorn with Arthur, Galadriel with the Lady of the Lake.
Tolkien was also influenced by more modern literature. The Ent attack on Isengard was inspired by "Birnam Wood coming to Dunsinane '' in Shakespeare 's Macbeth. Charles Dickens ' The Pickwick Papers has likewise been shown to have reflections in Tolkien.
One of the greatest influences on Tolkien was the Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris. Tolkien wished to imitate Morris 's prose and poetry romances, along with the general style and approach; he took elements such as the Dead Marshes in The Lord of the Rings and Mirkwood in The Hobbit from Morris. He was also influenced by the modern fantasy author George MacDonald, who wrote The Princess and the Goblin. Books by the Inkling author Owen Barfield are also known to have contributed to his world - view, particularly The Silver Trumpet (1925), History in English Words (1926) and Poetic Diction (1928). Edward Wyke - Smith 's Marvellous Land of Snergs, with its "table - high '' title characters, strongly influenced the incidents, themes, and depiction of Bilbo 's race in The Hobbit.
The character George Babbitt from Babbitt was another inspiration for hobbits.
In his biography of Tolkien, Carpenter notes that in the limited amount of time Tolkien could apply to the reading of fiction, he "preferred the lighter contemporary novels ''. The stories of John Buchan are listed as an example. Critics such as Hooker have detailed the resonances between the two authors.
Another contemporary adventure novel, H. Rider Haggard 's She, was acknowledged by Tolkien in an interview: "I suppose as a boy She interested me as much as anything -- like the Greek shard of Amyntas (Amenartas), which was the kind of machine by which everything got moving. '' A supposed facsimile of this potsherd appeared in Haggard 's first edition, and the ancient inscription it bore, once translated, led the English characters to She 's ancient kingdom. Critics have compared this device to the Testament of Isildur in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien 's efforts to produce as an illustration a realistic page from the Book of Mazarbul. Critics starting with Edwin Muir have found resemblances between Haggard 's romances and Tolkien 's.
Tolkien scholar Mark T. Hooker has catalogued a series of parallels between The Hobbit and Jules Verne 's Journey to the Center of the Earth. These include, among other things, a hidden runic message and a celestial alignment that direct the adventurers to the goals of their quests.
Tolkien wrote of being impressed as a boy by Samuel Rutherford Crockett 's historical novel The Black Douglas and of basing the Necromancer -- Sauron -- on its villain, Gilles de Retz. Incidents in both The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings are similar in narrative and style to the novel, and its overall style and imagery have been suggested as having had an influence on Tolkien.
Tolkien wrote that stories about "Red Indians '' were his favourites as a boy. Shippey mentions Tolkien 's interest in the primeval forests and people of North America, and speculates that the romantic descriptions of characters in James Fenimore Cooper might have influenced his descriptions of Aragorn and Éomer.
Though he read many of Edgar Rice Burroughs ' books, he denied that the Barsoom novels influenced his giant spiders: "I did read many of Edgar Rice Burroughs ' earlier works, but I developed a dislike for his Tarzan even greater than my distaste for spiders. Spiders I had met long before Burroughs began to write, and I do not think he is in any way responsible for Shelob. At any rate I retain no memory of the Siths or the Apts. ''
Some critics have suggested that The Lord of the Rings was directly and heavily derived from Richard Wagner 's opera cycle, Der Ring des Nibelungen which also centres its plot on a powerful ring. Others have argued that any similarity is due to Tolkien being influenced by the legendary Volsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied, which were the basis for the operas.
Tolkien sought to dismiss critics ' direct comparisons to Wagner, telling his publisher, "Both rings were round, and there the resemblance ceases. '' According to Humphrey Carpenter 's biography of Tolkien, the author claimed to hold Wagner 's interpretation of the relevant Germanic myths in contempt, even as a young man before reaching university.
Some researchers take an intermediate position: that both the authors used the same sources, but that Tolkien was influenced by Wagner 's development of the mythology, especially "concept of the Ring as giving the owner mastery of the world that was Wagner 's own contribution to the myth of the Ring ''. Wagner probably developed this element by combining the ring with a magical wand mentioned in the Nibelungenlied that could give to its wearer the control "over the race of men ''. In addition, the corrupting power of Tolkien 's One Ring has a central role in Wagner 's operas but was not present in the mythical sources.
Some argue that Tolkien 's denial of a Wagnerian influence was an over-reaction to the statements of Åke Ohlmarks, Tolkien 's Swedish translator, who in the introduction to his much - criticized translation of The Lord of the Rings "mixed material from various legends, some which mention no ring and one which concerns a totally different ring ''. Furthermore, critics believe that Tolkien was reacting against the links between Wagner 's work and Nazism.
Some locations and characters were inspired by Tolkien 's childhood in Birmingham, where he first lived near Sarehole Mill, and later near Edgbaston Reservoir. There are also hints of the Black Country, which is within easy reach of north west Edgbaston. This shows in such names as "Underhill '', and the description of Saruman 's industrialization of Isengard and The Shire is explicitly stated by Tolkien to have been based on the industrialization of England. It has also been suggested that The Shire and its surroundings were influenced by the Iron Age and Roman mineral workings and remains which Tolkien saw in 1929 when working with archaeologists Tessa and Mortimer Wheeler at Lydney Park in the Forest of Dean; or alternatively were based on the countryside around Stonyhurst College in Lancashire where he frequently stayed during the 1940s.
The Lord of the Rings was crucially influenced by Tolkien 's experiences during World War I and his son 's during World War II.
After the publication of The Lord of the Rings these influences led to speculation that the One Ring was an allegory for the nuclear bomb. Tolkien, however, repeatedly insisted that his works were not an allegory of any kind. He states in the foreword to The Lord of the Rings that he disliked allegories and that the story was not one. Instead he preferred what he termed "applicability '', the freedom of the reader to interpret the work in the light of his or her own life and times. Tolkien had already completed most of the book, including the ending in its entirety, before the first nuclear bombs were made known to the world at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
Bedeviled, a book by Lewis / Tolkien scholar Colin Duriez, discusses in more depth how the World Wars and concepts of evil and suffering influenced the writings of Tolkien and his literary group, the Inklings.
The Silmarillion is a complex work exhibiting the influence of many sources.
A major influence was the Finnish epic Kalevala, especially the tale of Kullervo. Tolkien admitted that he had been "greatly affected '' by Finnish mythologies, and even credited Kullervo 's story with being the "germ of (his) attempt to write legends ''. Tolkien attempted to rework the story of Kullervo into a story of his own, and though he never finished, similarities to the story can still be seen in the tale of Túrin Turambar. Both are tragic heroes who accidentally commit incest with their sister who on finding out kills herself by leaping into water. Both heroes later kill themselves after asking their sword if it will slay them, which it confirms.
Similarly, the Valar also contain elements of Norse mythology. Several of the Valar have characteristics resembling various Æsir, the gods of Asgard. Thor, for example, physically the strongest of the gods, can be seen both in Oromë, who fights the monsters of Melkor, and in Tulkas, the physically strongest of the Valar. Manwё, the head of the Valar, exhibits some similarities to Odin, the "Allfather ''.
The division between the Calaquendi (Elves of Light) and Moriquendi (Elves of Darkness) also echoes Norse mythology, which has its own Light elves and Dark elves. The Light elves of Norse mythology are associated with the gods, much as the Calaquendi are associated with the Valar. also the werewolves seem to be inspired by werewolves from Völsunga saga as well as Fenris the Warg
Influence from Greek mythology is also apparent. The island of Númenor, for example, recalls Atlantis. Tolkien 's Elvish name "Atalantë '' for Númenor resembles Plato 's Atlantis furthering the illusion that his mythology simply extends the history and mythology of the real world. In his Letters, however, Tolkien described this merely as a "curious chance. ''
Greek mythology also colours the Valar, who borrow many attributes from the Olympian gods. The Valar, like the Olympians, live in the world, but on a high mountain, separated from mortals; Ulmo, Lord of the Waters, owes much to Poseidon, and Manwë, the Lord of the Air and King of the Valar, to Zeus. But the correspondences are only approximate; Tolkien borrows ideas from Greek mythology, but does not model the Valar and Maiar on Greek deities.
Tolkien also compared Beren and Lúthien with Orpheus and Eurydice with the gender roles reversed.
Fëanor has been compared with Prometheus by researchers such as Verlyn Flieger. They share a symbolical and literal association with fire, are both rebels against gods 's decrees and, basically, inventors of artefacts that were sources of light, or vessels to divine flame.
The Bible and traditional Christian narrative also influenced The Silmarillion. Tolkien was a devout Roman Catholic. The conflict between Melkor and Eru Ilúvatar parallels that between Satan and God. Further, The Silmarillion tells of the creation and fall of the Elves, as Genesis tells of the creation and fall of Man. As with all of Tolkien 's works, The Silmarillion allows room for later Christian history, and one version of Tolkien 's drafts even has Finrod, a character in The Silmarillion, speculating on the necessity of Eru 's (God 's) eventual Incarnation to save Mankind. A specifically Christian influence is the notion of the Fall of man, which influenced the Ainulindalë, the Kinslaying at Alqualondë, and the fall of Númenor.
Though Tolkien wrote of "a certain distaste '' for Celtic legends, "largely for their fundamental unreason '', The Silmarillion may betray some Celtic influence. The exile of the Noldorin Elves, for example, has parallels with the story of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann semi-divine beings, invaded Ireland from across the sea, burning their ships when they arrived and fighting a fierce battle with the current inhabitants. The Noldor arrived in Middle - earth from Valinor and burned their ships, then turned to fight Melkor. Another parallel can be seen between the loss of a hand by Maedhros, son of Fëanor, and the similar mutilation suffered by Nuada Airgetlám ("Silver Hand / Arm '') during the battle with the Firbolg. Nuada received a hand made of silver to replace the lost one, and his later appellation has the same meaning as the Elvish name Celebrimbor: "silver fist '' or "Hand of silver '' in Sindarin (Telperinquar in Quenya).
Another similarity between the Silmarillion and the Lebor Gabála Érenn can be seen by comparing Nuada and Lugh (who possessed a famed magic spear, the Spear Luin) and the outcome of their respective confrontations against Balor of the Evil Eye with the events surrounding Celebrimbor and Gil - galad (whose weapon is the spear Aeglos) and their conflicts with Sauron of the Lidless Red Eye in the Second Age.
Other authors, such as Donald O'Brien, Patrick Wynne and Carl Hostetter, Tom Shippey, David Day have pointed out the similarities between Beren and Lúthien, one of the main storylines of the Silmarillion, and Culhwch and Olwen, one the tales collected in the Welsh Mabinogion.
In both, the male heroes make rash promises after having been stricken by the beauty of non-mortal maidens; both enlist the aid of great kings, Arthur and Finrod; both show rings that prove their identities; both are set impossible tasks that include, directly or indirectly, the hunting and killing of ferocious beasts (the wild boars, Twrch Trwyth and Ysgithrywyn, and the wolf Carcharoth) with the help of a supernatural hound (Cafall and Huan). Both maidens possess such beauty that flowers grow beneath their feet when they come to meet the heroes for the first time, as if they were living embodiments of spring.
The Mabinogion itself was part of the Red Book of Hergest, which the Red Book of Westmarch probably imitates.
The Arthurian legends are part of the cultural heritage appearing in Celtic and Welsh mythology. Though Tolkien denied this influence, several parallels between the legends and Tolkien 's stories have been found by numerous specialists. Verlyn Flieger, in particular, has investigated the correlations at length and has studied their numerous parallels with Tolkien 's creative methods. Flieger points out visible correspondences such as Avalon and Avallónë and Broceliande and Broceliand, the original name of Beleriand. Tolkien himself said that Frodo and Bilbo 's departure to Tol Eressëa (also called "Avallon '' in the Legendarium) was an "Arthurian ending ''. Such correlations are discussed in the posthumously published The Fall of Arthur, which includes an entire section, "The Connection to the Quenta '', on Tolkien 's treatment of Arthurian material and its influence on The Silmarillion.
Another parallel is the tale of Sir Balin in the Arthurian Legend with that of Túrin Turambar. Though Balin knows he wields an accursed sword, he nevertheless continues his quest to regain King Arthur 's favour; yet he unintentionally causes misery wherever he goes. Fate eventually catches up with him when he unwittingly kills his own brother, who in turn mortally wounds him. Similarly, Turin accidentally kills his friend Beleg with his sword.
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what is signaled by nerve growth factor (ngf) | Nerve growth factor - wikipedia
4ZBN, 1SG1, 1WWW, 2IFG, 4EDW, 4EDX
4803
18049
ENSG00000134259
ENSMUSG00000027859
P01138
P01139
NM_002506
NM_001112698 NM_013609
NP_002497
NP_001106168 NP_038637
Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide primarily involved in the regulation of growth, maintenance, proliferation, and survival of certain target neurons. It is perhaps the prototypical growth factor, in that it was one of the first to be described. Since it was first isolated by Nobel Laureates Rita Levi - Montalcini and Stanley Cohen in 1956, numerous biological processes involving NGF have been identified, two of them being the survival of pancreatic beta cells and the regulation of the immune system.
NGF is initially in a 7S, 130 - kDa complex of 3 proteins - Alpha - NGF, Beta - NGF, and Gamma - NGF (2: 1: 2 ratio) when expressed. This form of NGF is also referred to as proNGF (NGF precursor). The gamma subunit of this complex acts as a serine protease, and cleaves the N - terminal of the beta subunit, thereby activating the protein into functional NGF.
The term nerve growth factor usually refers to the 2.5 S, 26 - kDa beta subunit of the protein, the only component of the 7S NGF complex that is biologically active (i.e. acting as signaling molecules).
As its name suggests, NGF is involved primarily in the growth, as well as the maintenance, proliferation, and survival of nerve cells (neurons). In fact, NGF is critical for the survival and maintenance of sympathetic and sensory neurons, as they undergo apoptosis in its absence. However, several recent studies suggest that NGF is also involved in pathways besides those regulating the life cycle of neurons.
NGF can drive the expression of genes such as bcl - 2 by binding to the TrkA receptor, which stimulates the proliferation and survival of the target neuron.
High affinity binding between proNGF, sortilin, and p75NTR can result in either survival or programmed cell death. Study results indicate that superior cervical ganglia neurons that express both p75NTR and TrkA die when treated with proNGF, while NGF treatment of these same neurons results in survival and axonal growth. Survival and PCD mechanisms are mediated through adaptor protein binding to the death domain of the p75NTR cytoplasmic tail. Survival occurs when recruited cytoplasmic adaptor proteins facilitate signal transduction through tumor necrosis factor receptor members such as TRAF6, which results in the release of nuclear factor κB (NF - κB) transcription activator. NF - κB regulates nuclear gene transcription to promote cell survival. Alternatively, programmed cell death occurs when TRAF6 and neurotrophin receptor interacting factor (NRIF) are both recruited to activate c - Jun N - terminal kinase (JNK); which phosphorylates c - Jun. The activated transcription factor c - Jun regulates nuclear transcription via AP - 1 to increase pro-apoptotic gene transcription.
There is evidence that pancreatic beta cells express both the TrkA and p75NTR receptors of NGF. It has been shown that the withdrawal of NGF induces apoptosis in pancreatic beta cells, signifying that NGF may play a critical role in the maintenance and survival of pancreatic beta cells.
NGF plays a critical role in the regulation of both innate and acquired immunity. In the process of inflammation, NGF is released in high concentrations by mast cells, and induces axonal outgrowth in nearby nociceptive neurons. This leads to increased pain perception in areas under inflammation. In acquired immunity, NGF is produced by the Thymus as well as CD4+ T cell clones, inducing a cascade of maturation of T cells under infection.
NGF is abundant in seminal plasma. Recent studies have found that it induces ovulation in some mammals e.g. "induced '' ovulators, such as llamas. Surprisingly, research showed that these induced animals will also ovulate when semen from on - schedule or "spontaneous '' ovulators, such as cattle is used. Its significance in humans is unknown. It was previously dubbed ovulation - inducing factor (OIF) in semen before it was identified as beta - NGF in 2012.
Recent studies found that the concentration of NGF in the blood plasma is significantly higher in individuals who have been in a romantic relationship with another person for less than 12 months (227 (14) pg / ml), than those who are either not in a romantic relationship (149 (12) pg / ml) or have been in one for more than 12 months (123 (10) pg / ml).
NGF can indirectly stimulate the expression of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) in the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis (HPA) by increasing Vasopressin secretion. ACTH binds to the MC receptor in the Zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex, and stimulates secretion of the stress hormone cortisol. This rapid increase of cortisol in the blood plasma can induce feelings of euphoria, which may explain the initial "rush '' of falling in love. Studies show that ACTH can in turn stimulate NGF secretion in both the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus. It is possible that this NGF - ACTH interaction may form a recursive cycle, maintaining the "feeling of love '' for a certain length of time. Because NGF modulates nerve plasticity, neurogenesis, and axonal outgrowth, this may form permanent memories associating the loved one with the feeling of love during the course of the cycle. However, it has been shown that cortisol, whose secretion is directly upregulated by ACTH, shows inhibitory effects over NGF expression in the cerebral cortex. This may be the cause of the eventual deterioration of NGF levels after 12 months. It may also explain why plasma NGF levels were significantly lower in individuals who have maintained a long - lasting romantic relationship beyond 12 months, than those who were n't in a romantic relationship at all.
NGF binds with at least two classes of receptors: the tropomyosine receptor kinase A (TrkA) and low - affinity NGF receptor (LNGFR / p75NTR). Both are associated with neurodegenerative disorders.
When NGF binds to the TrkA receptor, it drives the homodimerization of the receptor, which in turn causes the autophosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase segment. This leads to the activation of PI 3 - kinase, ras, and PLC signaling pathways. Alternatively, the p75NTR receptor can form a heterodimer with TrkA, which has higher affinity and specificity for NGF.
Studies suggest that NGF circulates throughout the entire body via the blood plasma, and is important for the overall maintenance of homeostasis.
Binding interaction between NGF and the TrkA receptor facilitates receptor dimerization and tyrosine residue phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic tail by adjacent Trk receptors. Trk receptor phosphorylation sites operate as Shc adaptor protein docking sites, which undergo phosphorylation by the TrkA receptor Once the cytoplasmic adaptor protein (Shc) is phosphorylated by the receptor cytoplasmic tail, cell survival is initiated through several intracellular pathways.
One major pathway leads to the activation of the serine / threonine kinase, Akt. This pathway begins with the Trk receptor complex - recruitment of a second adaptor protein called growth factor - receptor bound protein - 2 (Grb2) along with a docking protein called Grb2 - associated Binder - 1 (GAB1). Subsequently, phosphatidylinositol - 3 kinase (PI3K) is activated, resulting in Akt kinase activation. Study results have shown that blocking PI3K or Akt activity results in death of sympathetic neurons in culture, regardless of NGF presence. However, if either kinase is constitutively active, neurons survive even without NGF.
A second pathway contributing to cell survival occurs through activation of the mitogen - activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase. In this pathway, recruitment of a guanine nucleotide exchange factor by the adaptor and docking proteins leads to activation of a membrane - associated G - protein known as Ras. The guanine nucleotide exchange factor mediates Ras activation through the GDP - GTP exchange process. The active Ras protein phosphorylates several proteins, along with the serine / threonine kinase, Raf. Raf in turn activates the MAPK cascade to facilitate ribosomal s6 kinase (RSK) activation and transcriptional regulation.
Both Akt and RSK, components of the PI3K - Akt and MAPK pathways respectively, act to phosphorylate the cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) transcription factor. Phosphorylated CREB translocates into the nucleus and mediates increased expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, thus promoting NGF - mediated cell survival. However, in the absence of NGF, the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins is increased when the activation of cell death - promoting transcription factors such as c - Jun are not suppressed by the aforementioned NGF - mediated cell survival pathways.
Rita Levi - Montalcini and Stanley Cohen discovered NGF in the 1950s while faculty members at Washington University in St Louis. However, its discovery, along with the discovery of other neurotrophins, was not widely recognized until 1986, when it won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Studies in 1971 determined the primary structure of NGF. This eventually led to the discovery of the NGF gene.
NGF is abundant in seminal plasma. Recent studies have found that it induces ovulation in some mammals.
Nerve growth factor prevents or reduces neuronal degeneration in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases and these encouraging results in animals have led to several clinical trials in humans. NGF promotes peripheral nerve regeneration in rats. The expression of NGF is increased in inflammatory diseases where it suppresses inflammation. NGF appears to promote myelin repair. Hence NGF may be useful for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. NGF could also be involved in various psychiatric disorders, such as dementia, depression, schizophrenia, autism, Rett syndrome, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa.
Dysregulation of NGF signaling has also been linked to Alzheimer 's disease. Connective tissue cells genetically engineered to synthesize and secrete NGF and implanted in patients ' basal forebrains reliably pumped out NGF, which enhanced the cells ' size and their ability to sprout new neural fibers. The treatment also rescued vulnerable cells, even if they already showed the trademark signs of Alzheimer 's pathology. In some patients, these beneficial effects lasted almost 10 years after the treatment. Even patients who died responded positively to the therapy. Even pathological cells with protein clumps in their cell bodies and surroundings extended their fibers toward the NGF source, maintained a healthy size and activated pro-survival signals that boosted their stress resilience. Two other patients received direct injections of modified viruses containing the NGF gene directly to their basal forebrains. This allowed the gene to express longer in the brain.
Neurotrophins, including NGF, have been shown to affect many areas of the brain, including areas that are related to Rett syndrome, bipolar disorder, and Alzheimer 's disease. Stress and / or anxiety are usually a precipitating factor in these disorders and affects levels of NGF, leading to impaired cognitive functioning.
This impaired cognitive functioning can be seen in patients with Schizophrenia. In treatment of schizophrenia, NGF levels are increased in patients using atypical antipsychotic medication, but not in patients using typical antipsychotic medications. Patients using atypical medications usually report improved cognitive performance compared to those using typical antipsychotics. In addition, these higher NGF levels from the atypical antipsychotic medications lead to a reduction in negative symptoms of Schizophrenia.
NGF has been shown to restore learning ability in rats recovering from induced alcoholism
Rett syndrome and Autism often show similar signs early in life, such as slowing development and intellectual disability. One distinguishing factor is that low levels of NGF have been found in the cerebral spinal fluid of children with Rett syndrome compared to children with Autism who have relatively normal to high levels Pharmaceutical therapies with NGF - like activity can be effective in treating Rett syndrome, including better motor and cortical functioning as well as increased social communication.
Impairment of neuroplasticity and altered levels of neuro - trophins are involved in bipolar disorder. NGF has been found to be decreased overall in bipolar disorder patients. More specifically, while in a manic state NGF is especially low. This leads to elevated or irritable mood with increased energy and decreased need for sleep while in a manic state. This decreased NGF may serve as a biological marker when assessing the present state of a bipolar disorder patient. When bipolar disorder patients were treated with lithium, their NGF concentrations increased in the frontal cortex, limbic forebrain, hippocampus, and amygdala.
An increase in cortical and subcortical NGF has been found in patients with Alzheimer 's disease. Alzheimer 's is a neurodegenerative disease with which dysregulation of NGF signaling has also been linked, causing impaired retrograde transport of NGF to certain areas of the brain. This impairment may be caused by an atypical production or use of receptors in the brain. Stimulating NGF receptors via NGF infusion has been shown to increase blood flow and verbal episodic memory. These improvements have been longer lasting than other treatments for Alzheimer 's.
Also, NGF has been shown to play a role in number cardiovascular diseases, such as coronary atherosclerosis, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Reduced plasma levels of NGF and BDNF have been associated with acute coronary syndromes and metabolic syndromes. NGF is known to have insulinotropic, angiogenic, and antioxidant properties. NGF suppresses food intake.
NGF has also been shown to accelerate wound healing. There is evidence that it could be useful in the treatment of skin ulcers and cornea ulcers.
In some gynecological diseases, an elevated prostaglandin E2 is thought to stimulate production of NGF which contributes to the perception of pain and increased inflammation in endometriosis.
Monoclonal antibodies against NGF have been used in clinical trials to modulate pain. One of these is Tanezumab. An other one is Fulranumab.
Nerve growth factor may contribute to increased longevity and mental capacity. Centenarian Rita Levi - Montalcini took a daily solution in the form of eye drops, and has stated that her brain is more active now than it was four decades ago. In 2014, Sundaravadivel Balasubramanian and coworkers at Medical University of South Carolina showed that NGF level is elevated in people who performed a single 20 - minute yoga session involving om - chanting and thirumoolar pranayama, when compared to a control group.
Nerve growth factor has been shown to interact with TrkA and p75NTR (LNGFR).
It has recently been suggested that NGF expression may be stimulated by dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). DHEA may also act as an agonist of both TrkA and p75NTR and activate the pathways of NGF, demonstrating neurotrophic activities similar to that of NGF.
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) can also upregulate NGF expression in the brain.
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who represents california in the house of representatives | United States congressional delegations from California - wikipedia
These are tables of congressional delegations from California to the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate.
List of members of the Californian United States House delegation, their terms in office, district boundaries, and the district political ratings according to the CPVI. The delegation has 53 members, with 39 Democrats and 14 Republicans, including both the Republican majority leader, Kevin McCarthy, and the Democratic minority leader, Nancy Pelosi.
Tables showing all members of the U.S. House of Representatives from California.
After the 2000 U.S. census, California gained one seat. The 2010 U.S. census, however, kept the state 's apportionment at 53 seats.
In 2012, owing to a new reapportionment method, some incumbent members chose to run in differently numbered districts (typically within a similar geographic region, with some changing their residence) and owing to a new open primary system, some incumbents were placed against opponents of their own party in the general election. For details concerning these changes and the specific effects upon the 2012 election see Politics of California.
Tables showing membership in the California U.S. Senate delegation.
As of January 2018, there are three living former U.S. Senators from California, two from Class 1 and one from Class 3
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who killed john in hush hush sweet charlotte | Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte - wikipedia
Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte is a 1964 American psychological thriller film directed and produced by Robert Aldrich, and starring Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland, Joseph Cotten, Agnes Moorehead and Mary Astor in her final film role.
The movie was adapted for the screen by Henry Farrell and Lukas Heller, from Farrell 's unpublished short story "What Ever Happened to Cousin Charlotte? '' It received seven Academy Award nominations.
In 1927, young Southern belle Charlotte Hollis (Bette Davis) and her married lover John Mayhew (Bruce Dern) plan to elope during a party at the Hollis family 's antebellum mansion in Ascension Parish, Louisiana. Charlotte 's father (Victor Buono) confronts John over the affair and intimidates him with the news that John 's wife Jewel (Mary Astor) visited the day before and revealed the affair. John pretends to Charlotte that he no longer loves her and that they must part.
John is then brutally decapitated in the summerhouse with a cleaver, with one hand severed. Charlotte discovers his body. She returns traumatized to the party in a bloody dress, and most of the guests assume Charlotte is the murderer.
The story jumps to 1964. Charlotte is now a wealthy (spinster, still living on the plantation that has been in her family for generations. Charlotte 's father died the year after Mayhew 's murder, believing his daughter guilty. Throughout the years, Charlotte believed her father killed John Mayhew. Everyone else assumes that Charlotte, the crazy recluse, decapitated her lover.
The Louisiana Highway Commission intends to demolish her house and build a new highway through the plantation. Charlotte refuses to leave and ignores the eviction notice. She keeps the foreman (George Kennedy), his demolition crew, and the bulldozer away by shooting at them with a rifle. They temporarily give up and leave.
Charlotte is living alone as a virtual recluse in the Hollis mansion, tended by Velma (Agnes Moorehead), her housekeeper. Seeking help in her fight against the Highway Commission, she calls upon Miriam (Olivia de Havilland), a poor cousin who lived with the family as a girl, but has since moved to New York City and has become wealthy. Miriam renews her relationship with Drew Bayliss (Joseph Cotten), a local doctor who jilted her after the murder.
Charlotte 's sanity deteriorates with Miriam 's arrival, her nights haunted by a mysterious harpsichord playing the song Mayhew wrote for her and by the appearance of Mayhew 's disembodied hand and head. Suspecting that Miriam and Drew are after Charlotte 's money, Velma seeks help from Mr. Willis (Cecil Kellaway), an insurance investigator who is still interested in the Mayhew case and who has visited Mayhew 's ailing widow Jewel.
Miriam fires Velma, who later returns to discover that Charlotte is being drugged. Miriam sees the housekeeper trying to take Charlotte out of the house. The two argue at the top of the stairs. Velma tries to escape, but knowing that Velma has discovered the drugs, Miriam smashes a chair over her head. Velma falls down the stairs to her death.
One night, a drugged Charlotte runs downstairs in the grip of a hallucination, believing John has returned to her. Miriam and Drew trick Charlotte into shooting Drew with a gun loaded with blanks, and then Miriam helps dispose of the "body '' in a swamp. Charlotte returns to the house and sees the supposedly dead Drew at the top of the stairs, reducing her to whimpering insanity.
Now believing Charlotte completely mad and secure in her room, Miriam and Drew go into the garden to discuss their plan: to drive Charlotte insane to get her money. Miriam also tells Drew that back in 1927 she saw Jewel murder her husband. She 's been using this knowledge to blackmail Jewel throughout the years while plotting to gain possession of Charlotte 's wealth.
Charlotte overhears the plan. She moves toward a huge stone urn on the ledge of the balcony directly over the lovers ' heads. Miriam embraces Drew, then she looks up and becomes paralyzed by the sight of Charlotte 's tipping the stone urn off the ledge, crushing both to death.
The next morning the authorities take Charlotte away. Many neighbors and locals gather at the Hollis home to watch the proceedings, believing that crazy Charlotte has murdered again, although some are complimentary and sympathetic toward her. Willis hands her an envelope from the now - dead Jewel Mayhew, who had a stroke after hearing of the incident the previous night. The envelope contains Jewel 's confession to the murder of her husband. As the authorities drive Charlotte away, she looks back at her beloved plantation.
Following the unexpected box - office success of What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), director Robert Aldrich wanted to make a film on similar themes that reunited stars Joan Crawford and Bette Davis. Writer Henry Farrell, on whose novel the film had been based, had written an unpublished short story called "What Ever Happened to Cousin Charlotte? '' that seemed to make an excellent followup. It told a similar story of a woman who manipulates a relative for personal gain, but for this film, Aldrich 's idea was that the two actresses would switch the roles from the previous one, with Crawford playing the devious cousin trying to manipulate the innocent Davis into giving up her estate.
However, Davis was incensed when Crawford accepted Anne Bancroft 's Oscar for The Miracle Worker on the absent winner 's behalf at that year 's ceremony, an award for which Davis had been nominated but not Crawford. She believed Crawford had somehow ensured Bancroft would win so she could upstage her costar and rival. After asking Aldrich if he had been having a sexual relationship with Crawford (much as Crawford had asked the director the same question about him and Davis before Baby Jane), she agreed to take the role only if she got a producing credit.
Aware of this, Crawford was convinced that Davis was trying to undermine her in retaliation for the Oscar - night humiliation. Her suspicions only increased when no one came to pick her up at the airport in Baton Rouge for the film 's principal photography at the location shooting. At that time, Davis was asking crew members to decide whether they were with her or Crawford, and wound up with support from those who had disliked Crawford 's imperious behavior on the shoot. On the last day of filming on location, Crawford, who had gone back to her trailer and fallen asleep in case she was needed for anything extra, awoke to find everyone had left her behind, having gone back to the hotel after wrapping.
Crawford was convinced Davis had engineered this, and upon returning to Hollywood where production was to continue on set, announced after one day that she was sick -- at first a ploy to get changes made to the script, but then she actually convinced herself she was sick. Production was suspended to allow her to recover, and she returned for a day, but then after two months, during which a private investigator trailed her to see whether she was really sick or not, the producers were told that either Crawford would be replaced or the production would be canceled. After Aldrich spent four days at Olivia de Havilland 's home in Switzerland, she agreed to take the part. Crawford later complained that she only learned of her firing during the news on the radio.
Three other cast members from What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? did appear in Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte: Wesley Addy, Dave Willock (as a taxi driver) and Victor Buono. The cast also included Mary Astor, a friend and former co-worker of Davis ' during her time at Warner Bros.
Scenes outside the Hollis mansion were shot on location at Houmas House plantation in Louisiana. The inside scenes were shot on a soundstage in Hollywood.
Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte was another hit for Aldrich, opening to positive reviews. A pan, however, came from The New York Times. Bosley Crowther observed, "So calculated and coldly carpentered is the tale of murder, mayhem and deceit that Mr. Aldrich stages in this mansion that it soon appears grossly contrived, purposely sadistic and brutally sickening. So, instead of coming out funny, as did Whatever Happened to Baby Jane?, it comes out grisly, pretentious, disgusting and profoundly annoying. ''
Variety 's reviewer wrote: "Davis ' portrayal is reminiscent of Jane in its emotional overtones, in her style of characterization of the near - crazed former Southern belle, aided by haggard makeup and outlandish attire. It is an outgoing performance, and she plays it to the limit. De Havilland, on the other hand, is far more restrained but nonetheless effective dramatically in her offbeat role. ''
Time Out London observed: "Over the top, of course, and not a lot to it, but it 's efficiently directed, beautifully shot, and contains enough scary sequences amid the brooding, tense atmosphere. Splendid performances from Davis and Moorehead, too. ''
Judith Crist wrote about the film, "The guignol is about as grand as it gets. ''
Kenneth Tynan asserted that "(Davis) has done nothing better since The Little Foxes. ''
The film maintains a rating of 85 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 20 reviews.
Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte received Academy Award nominations for the following:
Moorehead won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. Farrell and Heller won a 1965 Edgar Award, from the Mystery Writers of America, for Best Motion Picture Screenplay. The title song became a hit for Patti Page, who took it to no. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100. The film 's seven Oscar nominations were the most for a movie of the horror genre up to that time.
Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte was first released on DVD on August 9, 2005. It was re-released on April 8, 2008 as part of The Bette Davis Centenary Celebration Collection 5 - DVD box - set.
On October 17, 2016, Hush... Hush Sweet Charlotte was released onto high - definition Blu - ray by Twilight Time as a 3,000 - print limited edition.
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how do you get to green bay wisconsin | Green Bay, Wisconsin - wikipedia
Green Bay is a city in and the county seat of Brown County in the U.S. state of Wisconsin, at the head of Green Bay, a sub-basin of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Fox River. It is 581 feet (177 m) above sea level and 112 miles (180 km) north of Milwaukee. The population was 104,057 at the 2010 census. Green Bay is the third - largest city in the state of Wisconsin, after Milwaukee and Madison, and the third - largest city on Lake Michigan 's west shore, after Chicago and Milwaukee. Green Bay is home to the National Football League team Green Bay Packers.
Green Bay is the principal city of the Green Bay Metropolitan Statistical Area, which covers Brown, Kewaunee, and Oconto counties; the MSA had a combined population of 306,241 at the 2010 census.
Green Bay is an industrial city with several meatpacking plants, paper mills, and a port on Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan known locally as "the Bay of Green Bay ''. Green Bay hosts the Neville Public Museum, with exhibitions of art, history, and science; the Children 's Museum; and the University of Wisconsin -- Green Bay.
Samuel de Champlain, the founder of New France, commissioned Jean Nicolet to form a peaceful alliance with Native Americans in the western areas, whose unrest interfered with French fur trade, and to search for a shorter trade route to China through Canada. Nicolet and others had learned from other First Nations of the Ho - Chunk (Winnebago) people, who identified as "People of the Sea '', and believed they must reside on or near the Pacific Ocean. Champlain had also heard about natural resources in the area, including fertile soil, forests, and animals. Nicolet began his journey for this new land shortly before winter in 1634. In what later became a French fur - trading route, he sailed up the Ottawa River, through Lake Nipissing and down the French River to Lake Huron, then through the straits of Michilimackinac into Lake Michigan. He is believed to have landed at Red Banks, near the site of the modern - day city of Green Bay, Wisconsin.
Nicolet founded a small trading post here in 1634, originally named La Baye or La Baie des Puants (French for "the Bay of Stinking Waters ''). Nicolet 's settlement was one of the oldest European permanent settlements in America.
When Nicolet arrived in the Green Bay area, he encountered the Menominee, as this was their territory. He also met the Ho - Chunk, also known as the Winnebago, a people who spoke a Sioux language. The Winnebago hunted, fished, and cultivated corn, bean, squash, and tobacco. Wild rice, which they had incorporated as a dietary staple, grew in abundance along the riverbanks. They regularly harvested and cooked this, along with a wide variety of nuts, berries, and edible roots of the woods. The tribe had clearly distinguished gender roles. The men typically hunted and fished for food, and the women processed game and other foods in cooking. They prepared and made clothing from the furs as well as using other parts of animals for tools, cord, etc. Women also had a role in the political process, as no action could be taken without agreement of half of the women. Nicolet stayed with this tribe for about a year, becoming an ally. He helped open up opportunities for trade and commerce with them before returning to Quebec.
A few months after Nicolet returned to Quebec, Champlain died. His death halted other journeys to La Baie Verte (French for "The Green Bay ''). Père Claude Allouez sent Nicolas Perrot to La Baie. After this, the French avoided the area for some decades, because of the intensity of First Nations and European conflicts in the east. In 1671, a Jesuit Mission was set up in the area. A fort was added in 1717 and gradually associated development took place. The town was incorporated in 1754. As Great Britain took control of French areas during the Seven Years ' War, known as the French and Indian War in some areas of North America, this town came under British control in 1761. The French ceded their North American lands East of the Mississippi River to the British following defeat in 1763.
The first permanent French settlers were Charles de Langlade and his family from Canada, who moved to Green Bay in 1765, becoming the first European - American settlers in today 's Wisconsin. Langlade, called the "Founder and Father of Wisconsin '', was an Ottawa war chief with a French father. He is credited with planning the ambush of British General Braddock and George Washington in the French and Indian War. The Grignons, Porliers and Lawes, who followed, brought Canadian - French culture with them. Colorful "jack - knife Judge '' Reaume dispensed British justice in the territory. These early French settlers set the tone for many who followed.
The British gradually took over Wisconsin during the French and Indian War, taking control of Green Bay in 1761 and gaining control of all of Wisconsin in 1763. Like the French, the British were interested in little but the fur trade. One notable event in the fur trading industry in Wisconsin occurred in 1791, when two free African Americans set up a fur trading post among the Menominee at present day Marinette. The first permanent settlers, mostly French Canadians, some Anglo - New Englanders and a few African American freedmen, arrived in Wisconsin while it was under British control. Charles Michel de Langlade is generally recognized as the first settler, establishing a trading post at Green Bay in 1745, and moving there permanently in 1764. Settlement began at Prairie du Chien around 1781. The French residents at the trading post in what is now Green Bay, referred to the town as "La Bey '', however British fur traders referred to it as "Green Bay '', because the water and the shore assumed green tints in early spring. The old French title was gradually dropped, and the British name of "Green Bay '' stuck. The region coming under British rule had virtually no adverse effect on the French residents as the British needed the cooperation of the French fur traders and the French fur traders needed the goodwill of the British. During the French occupation of the region licenses for fur trading had been issued scarcely and only to select groups of traders, whereas the British, in an effort to make as much money as possible from the region, issued licenses for fur trading freely, both to British and French residents. The fur trade in what is now Wisconsin reached its height under British rule, and the first self - sustaining farms in the state were established as well. From 1763 to 1780, Green Bay was a prosperous community which produced its own foodstuff, built graceful cottages and held dances and festivities.
The Green Bay area was still under British control until the 1783 treaty formally ended the American Revolutionary War. Following the War of 1812, which in part was over disputes related to the border with Canada, the United States built Fort Howard on the Fox River in 1816 to protect its northern border. Doty, Whitney, Arndt, Baird and Martin were among the many British - American settlers whose numbers pushed French culture into the background. As British settlers in the area came to outnumber the French, they referred to the town as "Green Bay '' (from the French: Baie Verte).
The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, linking New England with the Great Lakes. This led to the advance of Green Bay as a trading center. The end of the Black Hawk War in 1832 also gave impetus to settlement of the region. Most of the settlers were farmers from New England who began using the Erie Canal to pour into Wisconsin. As more and more New England settlers arrived, Green Bay developed into a trading center for this population.
Wisconsin 's first newspaper, The Green Bay Intelligencer, was started in 1833 by Albert Ellis and John V. Suydam. The borough of Green Bay, created in 1838, is the center of the present - day city. The borough combined the town of Astoria (a company town of the American Fur Company), with Navarino, platted by Daniel Whitney. Before Wisconsin became a state in 1848, its commerce was based on the fur trade, which became dominated by John Jacob Astor 's American Fur Company. After statehood, there was a shift away from fur trading toward lumbering. "For a short time in 1860s and 1870s, iron smelting in charcoal kilns rivaled the timber industry while the port handled increasing amounts of fuel, feed, and lumber. Today 's major local industry had its start in 1865 when the first paper mill was built. ''
By 1850 the town had a population of 1,923. The town was incorporated as the city of Green Bay in 1854. The Green Bay Area Public School District was founded in 1856. Throughout the 1850s, word spread of America 's cheap land and good soil, bringing in an influx of Belgian people, German, Scandinavian, Irish and Dutch immigrants, each adding to the culture. The greatest concentration of newcomers came from Belgium. They cleared the land to farm and build their homes.
The railroad arrived in the 1860s. Chicago and Northwestern Railroad companies were formed, which allowed people and products to travel all over the state, increasing business and trade opportunities. The area was able to grow and enrich itself with the use of the river and the plentiful timber resources. This led to the paper industry becoming the major employer in Green Bay, and opened up the port for international trade.
In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt came to Green Bay to honor its tercentenary. By 1950, the city had a population of 52,735. In 1964, the Town of Preble was consolidated with the city of Green Bay.
Green Bay is in the northeastern part of Wisconsin at the mouth of the Fox River. Today, Interstate 43 meets U.S. Route 41 in Green Bay, about 90 miles (140 km) north of Milwaukee.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 55.96 square miles (144.94 km), of which, 45.47 square miles (117.77 km) is land and 10.49 square miles (27.17 km) is water.
Green Bay has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb), with some moderation due to the city 's proximity to Lake Michigan. Like other cities with this type of climate, there are four distinct seasons, often with severe or extreme variation between them in terms of temperature and precipitation. Green Bay experiences warm, humid, frequently hot summers and long, cold and snowy winters. The variance in temperature and precipitation between months is severe and often extreme. Tornadoes are rare in the Green Bay area, with the strongest being an F3 tornado that hit the community of Pittsfield on June 26, 1969.
Monthly mean temperatures range from 16.6 ° F (− 8.6 ° C) in January to 69.1 ° F (20.6 ° C) in July. In July, the warmest month, the average high temperature is 81.2 ° F (27.3 ° C). There are 6.1 days of 90 ° F (32 ° C) + highs, 68 days where the high remains at or below freezing, and 19 days with sub-0 ° F (− 18 ° C) lows annually. From December to February, even during thaws, the temperature rarely reaches 50 ° F (10 ° C). Extremes have ranged from − 36 ° F (− 38 ° C) on January 21, 1888 to 104 ° F (40 ° C) on July 13, 1936.
The wettest month in Green Bay is August, when 3.77 inches (95.8 mm) of precipitation falls, mostly in the form of rainfall from thunderstorms. The driest month in Green Bay is February, when the majority of precipitation falls as low moisture - content snow due to cold, dry air. On average, 1.01 inches (25.7 mm) of precipitation falls in February.
As of the census of 2010, there were 104,057 people, 42,244 households, and 24,699 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,288.5 inhabitants per square mile (883.6 / km). There were 45,241 housing units at an average density of 995.0 per square mile (384.2 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 77.9 % White, 3.5 % African American, 4.1 % Native American, 4.0 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 7.2 % from other races, and 3.1 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.4 % of the population.
There were 42,244 households of which 31.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.4 % were married couples living together, 12.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, 5.6 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.5 % were non-families. 32.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.06.
The median age in the city was 33.7 years. 24.7 % of residents were under the age of 18; 11.7 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.7 % were from 25 to 44; 24.5 % were from 45 to 64; and 11.3 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.4 % male and 50.6 % female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 102,313 people, 41,591 households, and 24,663 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,332.1 people per square mile (900.5 / km). There were 43,123 housing units at an average density of 982.9 per square mile (379.5 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 85.86 % White, 1.38 % African American, 3.28 % Native American, 3.76 % Asian, 0.04 % Pacific Islander, 3.72 % from other races, and 1.97 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.13 % of the population.
There were 41,591 households of which 30.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.1 % were married couples living together, 10.8 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.7 % were non-families. About 31.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.06.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 25.4 % under the age of 18, 11.6 % from 18 to 24, 31.7 % from 25 to 44, 19.5 % from 45 to 64, and 11.8 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $38,820, and the median income for a family was $48,678. Males had a median income of $33,246 versus $23,825 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,269. About 7.4 % of families and 10.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.7 % of those under the age of 18 and 9.2 % of those 65 and older.
Green Bay is governed by a mayor and a city council. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. The city council consists of 12 members each elected from districts.
Green Bay is represented by Mike Gallagher (R) in the United States House of Representatives, and by Ron Johnson (R) and Tammy Baldwin (D) in the United States Senate. Frank Lasee (R), Robert Cowles (R), and Dave Hansen (D) represent Green Bay in the Wisconsin State Senate, and David Steffen (R), John Macco (R), and Eric Genrich (D) represent Green Bay in the Wisconsin State Assembly.
The Green Bay Police Department was established in on August 27, 1857, when the Green Bay Police Corps was established, and Henry Baird was named Chief of Police. The Green Bay Police Department provides many specialized services such as a Dive Team, Harbor Patrol, Motorcycle Patrol, and a S.W.A.T. Team.
Since the establishment of the Green Bay Police Department, one officer has died in the line of duty.
From 1896 to 1993 the city was the headquarters of the Green Bay and Western Railroad. In 1993, the line was purchased by the Wisconsin Central. In 2001, the WC was merged into the Canadian National Railway. The Chicago and North Western Railway also served Green Bay and its depot still stands. Green Bay was last served with a regular passenger train, the CNW 's Peninsula 400, in 1971. The CNW sold its trackage from Green Bay south to Sheboygan in 1987 to the Fox River Valley Railroad, which became part of the WC in 1993. Green Bay also saw passenger service from the Milwaukee Road 's Chippewa - Hiawatha, which ran from Chicago into the upper peninsula of Michigan. Green Bay is also served by the Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad.
Green Bay is served by Green Bay - Austin Straubel International Airport. Delta Airlines, American Airlines, and United Airlines all offer flights out of Green Bay.
Green Bay Metro provides mass transit bus service throughout Green Bay and the surrounding suburbs.
Greyhound Lines, Jefferson Lines, Indian Trails, and Lamers Bus Lines provide intercity transportation from the central Green Bay Metro station which is downtown.
Green Bay is served by the Port of Green Bay. The port handled 1.99 million tons of cargo in 2015. The primary shipments into and out of the port include coal, limestone, salt, and cement.
Green Bay is served by Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, which operates the J.P. Pulliam Generating Station within the city.
Water service is provided to the city by the Green Bay Water Utility.
Sewer service is provided by the Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District, also known as NEW Water.
Green Bay is the headquarters of Bellin Health and Prevea Health, regional health care providers.
Green Bay is home to four hospitals: Aurora Baycare Medical Center, Bellin Hospital, St. Mary 's Hospital Medical Center, and St. Vincent Hospital.
Green Bay is also home to the Milo C. Huempfner VA Outpatient Clinic, and Bellin Psychiatric Center and Willow Creek Behavioral Health, the city 's two psychiatric hospitals.
Green Bay is served by the Green Bay Area Public School District. It operates 25 elementary schools, two K - 8 schools, four middle schools, four high schools, and one alternative school in the city and surrounding area. Private schools in Green Bay include Notre Dame de la Baie Academy, Northeastern Wisconsin Lutheran High School, and Bay City Baptist School.
Green Bay area colleges and universities:
The Brown County Library (BCL) Central Branch is downtown in downtown Green Bay and has served as the county public library since 1968. The Central Branch is the headquarters for the BCL system, which encompasses all public libraries in Brown County, including eight branch libraries and a bookmobile that regularly visits locations throughout the county. In 1994, the Brown County Library was named Wisconsin Library of the Year.
In 2000, the American Religion Data Archive reported Green Bay to be predominantly Catholic (71.5 %), with Lutherans composing an additional 16.4 %. The remaining 12 % is almost entirely made - up of other Protestant denominations.
The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod has four churches in Green Bay: St. Paul Lutheran Church, First Evangelical Lutheran Church, Beautiful Savior Lutheran Church, and Messiah Lutheran Church.
Christ the King Lutheran Church is a church of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Green Bay.
The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Green Bay. The Cathedral of Saint Francis Xavier in Green Bay is the mother church of the Diocese. The diocese is in the province of the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. The Saint Joseph Oratory is in Green Bay.
The Islamic Society of Wisconsin, Green Bay serves the Islamic community. The Green Bay Area Unitarian Universalist Fellowship is in the city. Congregation Cnesses Israel Temple, serving the area 's Jewish population, is on the city 's east side.
Other major sporting events in Green Bay include the Bellin Run and the Cellcom Green Bay Marathon.
The Meyer Theatre and the Hotel Northland are on the National Register of Historic Places. The Northland was once the largest hotel in Wisconsin.
Daddy D Productions perform at Riverside Ballroom and Let Me Be Frank Productions perform at the Meyer Theatre. The Green Bay Civic Symphony performs at the Meyer Theatre, its home venue. The former Green Bay Symphony Orchestra disbanded after their 2014 -- 2015 season, after performing for over 100 years, citing financial difficulties.
Performance venues in Green Bay include: Lambeau Field, Resch Center, Brown County Veterans Memorial Arena, Shopko Hall, Weidner Center, and the Meyer Theatre.
The Artgarage and the Automotive Gallery are art galleries in the downtown area.
Museums in the city include the Neville Public Museum and the Hazelwood Historic House Museum.
Every summer, the downtown area plays host to ArtStreet, an art festival featuring studio displays, demonstrations, and live entertainment. Dine on the Deck is an event that allows patrons to dine on the CityDeck and features dishes from local restaurants. Taste on Broadway has live entertainment and dishes served by local restaurants who compete for awards. The Broadway Neighborhood association hosts a farmer 's market every Wednesday from May to October.
Television stations in Green Bay are WBAY (2), (ABC); WFRV (5), (CBS); WLUK (11), (FOX); WCWF (14), (CW); WGBA (26), (NBC); WACY (32), (MNT); and WPNE (38), a PBS affiliate. Green Bay is served by the Green Bay Press - Gazette. Another local newspaper, the Green Bay News - Chronicle, ceased publication in 2005.
The free public Wi - Fi system in the downtown Green Bay Broadway District went into operation in 2007.
Green Bay is known as the "Toilet Paper Capital of the World '' because of the prevalence of the paper industry in the city. Northern Paper Company, Fort Howard Paper Company, and Hoberg Paper Company were among Green Bay 's first paper companies. Northern Paper Company offered the first splinter - free toilet paper in the early 1930s. The presence of the paper industry helped Green Bay avoid the worst effects of the Great Depression. Today, major paper producers include Georgia - Pacific, Procter & Gamble, and Steen - Macek Paper Company.
Among the earliest packing companies in Green Bay were Acme Packing Company and Indian Packing Company, the namesake of the Green Bay Packers. Today, major meatpackers in the city include JBS S.A. (formerly Packerland Packing) and American Foods Group.
As of 2014, the largest employers in the city were:
Other major employers include Associated Banc - Corp, Green Bay Area Public School District, Shopko, JBS USA, Expert Global Solutions, Walmart, Green Bay Packaging, Procter & Gamble, Schreiber Foods, the Green Bay Packers, Nature 's Way, HJ Martin and Son, and Nicolet National Bank.
Green Bay has one enclosed shopping mall. The city is home to the first Shopko discount department store.
Built in 1982 and remodeled three times, East Town Mall is an enclosed shopping center on Green Bay 's east side. East Town 's anchors are Hobby Lobby, Office Max, Petco, and Kohl 's. East Town has about 17 specialty shops. East Town Mall has seven Windspire vertical wind turbines outside of its main entrance that help reduce costs to the common area. East Town has been struggling with a declining number of shoppers. A New Jersey developer 's plans to purchase the mall was approved by the Green Bay City Council.
Built in 1960, Green Bay Plaza is a large strip mall on Green Bay 's west side. It is anchored by Ross Dress for Less, Party City, T.J. Maxx, HomeGoods, Big Lots, Office Depot, and a Sears store. It contains specialty shops and restaurants.
Hotel Northland
South Village Historical District
Adams Street
Nicolet Bank
Downtown Green Bay YMCA
The Broadway District
Large South Side home
South Washington Street on the near east side of Green Bay
The Northern Building
Schreiber Foods Headquarters, downtown
View of Downtown from the Fox River
The east side of Green Bay
British Railways LNER Class A4 No. 60008 "Dwight D. Eisenhower '' on display at the National Railroad Museum
Bay of Green Bay
Thome Fountain, in Green Bay Botanical Garden
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when does damon find out elena is katherine | No Exit (the Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"No Exit '' is the 14th episode of the fifth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 103rd episode overall. "No Exit '' was originally aired on February 27, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Brian Young and directed by Michael Allowitz.
Enzo (Michael Malarkey) and Damon (Ian Somerhalder) turn people to vampires so that Damon can feed on them since now, after Wes ' (Rick Cosnett) injection, he craves vampire blood and not human. The two of them try to leave the last victim 's house when Wes appears with travelers who spell the house so vampires will not be able to get out. Wes informs them that he wants to make one last test; how long can Damon last before he attacks his friends to feed on.
Katherine (Nina Dobrev), still pretending to be Elena, tries to get closer to Stefan (Paul Wesley) so they can be back together. When Caroline (Candice Accola) arrives and tells them about Damon, Stefan wants to find him and Katherine offers to go with him. Caroline warns him that it is weird for him to be so close to "Elena '' after everything that happened but he reassures her that they are just friends. Before Stefan and Katherine go, Caroline gets a phone call from Tyler (Michael Trevino) who tells her that he worries about Matt (Zach Roerig), who has vanished for two days, and that Nadia (Olga Fonda) was compelling him. Katherine hears Caroline 's conversation with Tyler and she calls Nadia to ask if everything is fine. When Nadia tells her that Matt found out that she is not Elena, Katherine asks her to kill him. Caroline leaves to go to Tyler 's while Katherine and Stefan leave to find Damon.
Caroline gets to Tyler 's and they try to find out why Nadia would compel Matt and what she wants from him. The two of them feel awkward because of what happened between Caroline and Klaus (Joseph Morgan). At the same time, Matt tries to convince Nadia that she does not have to kill him and all he has to do is convince his friends that he is fine. Matt returns home with Nadia and acts like everything is fine. He tells Tyler and Caroline that Nadia is not compelling him and that they just have fun together but Caroline is not really supportive of that. They both depart, leaving Matt and Nadia alone.
Katherine and Stefan are on the road in search of Damon and Katherine tries to seduce Stefan. She breaks the car so they can stay at a hotel she had seen till the car is ready. While there, Enzo calls Stefan to inform him about the situation he and Damon are in but Katherine answers who asks him to text her the address. Stefan goes to get the car and Katherine calls Nadia to tell her that she plans to lead Stefan on killing Damon to save her. Stefan gets back and before they leave the hotel, Katherine gets closer to him and kisses him. He kisses her back but he stops because "Elena '' has just broken up with Damon and it is not right.
Enzo chains Damon on a chair in an attempt to prevent him of attacking him. Wes shoots Enzo to make him bleed, so Damon will not be able to resist. Damon breaks the chains and attacks Enzo who tries to tell him to stop. Damon chokes at Enzo 's blood and Wes appears to tell him that it is because he had travelers put a spell on it. He offers for Enzo to go with him so he will not be killed by Damon since the spell will not last forever. Enzo does not want to go but Damon convinces him to do it because if he stays he will kill him. Enzo leaves with Wes and Damon stays alone, trapped in the house.
Nadia checks that finally the vervain is out of Matt 's system so she can compel him again but before she makes him forget, Matt tries to warn Caroline about Katherine taking over Elena 's body. He kisses Nadia who kisses him back and while they are kissing, he tries to text Caroline. He manages to write "Help K '' and send it to Caroline before Nadia sees him and stops him. She is hurt by his behavior and trying to fool her, so she compels him and starts to exit the house. Caroline, who got the text, meets Nadia at the door and asks her what is she planning and they start fighting. Tyler gets there in time to stop Nadia from killing Caroline and he fights Nadia who runs away.
Katherine and Stefan arrive at the house where Damon is but Damon warns them to not get into the house because they will not be able to get out and he will attack them. They tell him that they are not afraid of him and they both enter the house. Katherine, to help Damon fight his urge, cuts her hand with a glass and provokes him with her blood telling him that he can fight it. Damon starts feeding on her, Stefan tells him to stop and Katherine kicks a stake towards Stefan telling him that Damon is going to kill her. Stefan, instead of taking the stake, he takes a piece of glass and cuts himself to distract Damon. Damon leaves Katherine and Stefan snaps his neck.
Katherine and Stefan bring Damon back to Mystic Falls and Katherine arranges immediately to meet Nadia. Katherine is happy because, despite her plan to kill Damon not working, she had a moment with Stefan. She stops smiling when Nadia tells her that she was bitten by Tyler Lockwood.
Damon wakes up chained on the Salvatore house 's basement. Stefan is there and Damon tries to warn him that because of his cravings, one day he will kill him but Stefan tells him that they will find a solution. Damon points to Stefan that "Elena '' provoked him to feed on her and then she kicked a stake towards him so he will kill him. Stefan does not believe that Elena would want that, he locks Damon up and gets upstairs where Caroline is. The two of them discuss what happened between Stefan and "Elena '' and Caroline also tells him about Nadia and Matt and the text he sent to her. From Matt 's text, who used "K '' and not "E '', they put the pieces together and they realize that Katherine is in Elena 's body.
In the "No Exit '' episode we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "No Exit '' was watched by 2.03 million; down by 0.13 from the previous episode.
"No Exit '' received mixed to negative reviews with many hoping that now that Katherine 's secret was revealed, the show will "kick in ''.
Carrie Raisler from The A.V. Club gave a B rate to the episode saying that it was a filler episode: "this path to realization (finding out that Katherine is in Elena 's body) basically creates a filler episode, a way to move the story to the place it needs to be for the inevitable big confrontation in the future (...) Katherine taking over Elena 's life was an incredibly inspired storyline, and watching it unfold has been delightful, but sooner or later, someone had to figure out what was going on. To spend an episode almost solely focused on making that happen is a good thing. ''
Alyse Wax of Fearnet writes: "I miss the bad - assery this show used to have. Julie Plec took it all with her and stuffed it into The Originals. (...) All of the awesome, violent, supernatural drama has been replaced with standard who 's - sleeping - with - who nonsense, ever since the original vampires got their own show. I guess Klaus really took the bad - assery with him. Well, now everyone knows that "Elena '' is really Katherine, so hopefully the crazy shit will kick in. ''
Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave a negative review saying that season five of the show has been the worst by far. "(The show) stopped being a fast - paced, well - written vampire show and became a long - running soap that happened to have mythical creatures in it. That 's not what any of us signed up for but, with the Katherine storyline presumably on its way out now that Stefan and Caroline have figured out the deceit and Nadia has a dreaded werewolf bite to contend with, maybe the next half - arsed arc will be better? Let 's hope so because, since we all know how fantastically entertaining this show can be at its best, there is always a glimmer of hope that it can return to form. ''
Stephanie Hall from K Site TV said that overall the episode left her a feeling that this was an off week of the show. "'' No Exit '' was an uncharacteristically odd episode of The Vampire Diaries that primarily served to stall the impending solutions of this run of episodes ' two most pressing issues: Katherine and Damon. While it did bring our heroes a step closer to solving both of these problems, the ways in which it did so were not delivered with as much metaphoric bang as could be hoped. ''
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic rated the episode with only 1.3 / 5 saying that it was one boring hour of television and that the writers recycles scenes and stories from previous episodes / seasons. "We knew from the moment Katherine inhabited Elena 's body that she would eventually be found out. What other alternative possibly existed? So we 've been waiting and waiting and waiting for that moment for weeks and that 's exactly what tonight 's episode felt like. ''
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what is a codon and what is its function | Genetic code - wikipedia
The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells. Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which links amino acids in an order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA), using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a time. The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be expressed in a simple table with 64 entries.
The code defines how sequences of nucleotide triplets, called codons, specify which amino acid will be added next during protein synthesis. With some exceptions, a three - nucleotide codon in a nucleic acid sequence specifies a single amino acid. The vast majority of genes are encoded with a single scheme (see the RNA codon table). That scheme is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though variant codes (such as in human mitochondria) exist.
While the "genetic code '' determines a protein 's amino acid sequence, other genomic regions determine when and where these proteins are produced according to various "gene regulatory codes ''.
Efforts to understand how proteins are encoded began after DNA 's structure was discovered in 1953. George Gamow postulated that sets of three bases must be employed to encode the 20 standard amino acids used by living cells to build proteins, which would allow a maximum of 4 = 64 amino acids.
The Crick, Brenner et al. experiment first demonstrated that codons consist of three DNA bases. Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich J. Matthaei were the first to reveal the nature of a codon in 1961.
They used a cell - free system to translate a poly - uracil RNA sequence (i.e., UUUUU...) and discovered that the polypeptide that they had synthesized consisted of only the amino acid phenylalanine. They thereby deduced that the codon UUU specified the amino acid phenylalanine.
This was followed by experiments in Severo Ochoa 's laboratory that demonstrated that the poly - adenine RNA sequence (AAAAA...) coded for the polypeptide poly - lysine and that the poly - cytosine RNA sequence (CCCCC...) coded for the polypeptide poly - proline. Therefore, the codon AAA specified the amino acid lysine, and the codon CCC specified the amino acid proline. Using various copolymers most of the remaining codons were then determined.
Subsequent work by Har Gobind Khorana identified the rest of the genetic code. Shortly thereafter, Robert W. Holley determined the structure of transfer RNA (tRNA), the adapter molecule that facilitates the process of translating RNA into protein. This work was based upon Ochoa 's earlier studies, yielding the latter the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959 for work on the enzymology of RNA synthesis.
Extending this work, Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the code 's triplet nature and deciphered its codons. In these experiments, various combinations of mRNA were passed through a filter that contained ribosomes, the components of cells that translate RNA into protein. Unique triplets promoted the binding of specific tRNAs to the ribosome. Leder and Nirenberg were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments. Khorana, Holley and Nirenberg received the 1968 Nobel for their work.
The three stop codons were named by discoverers Richard Epstein and Charles Steinberg. "Amber '' was named after their friend Harris Bernstein, whose last name means "amber '' in German. The other two stop codons were named "ochre '' and "opal '' in order to keep the "color names '' theme.
In a broad academic audience, the concept of the evolution of the genetic code from the original and ambiguous genetic code to a well - defined ("frozen '') code with the repertoire of 20 (+ 2) canonical amino acids is widely accepted. However, there are different opinions, concepts, approaches and ideas, which is the best way to change it experimentally. Even models are proposed that predict "entry points '' for synthetic amino acid invasion of the genetic code.
Since 2001, 40 non-natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon (recoding) and a corresponding transfer - RNA: aminoacyl -- tRNA - synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins.
H. Murakami and M. Sisido extended some codons to have four and five bases. Steven A. Benner constructed a functional 65th (in vivo) codon.
In 2015 N. Budisa, D. Söll and co-workers reported the full substitution of all 20,899 tryptophan residues (UGG codons) with unnatural thienopyrrole - alanine in the genetic code of the bacterium Escherichia coli.
In 2016 the first stable semisynthetic organism was created. It was a (single cell) bacterium with two synthetic bases (called X and Y). The bases survived cell division.
In 2017 a mouse engineered with an extended genetic code that can produce proteins with unnatural amino acids was reported.
A reading frame is defined by the initial triplet of nucleotides from which translation starts. It sets the frame for a run of successive, non-overlapping codons, which is known as an "open reading frame '' (ORF). For example, the string 5 ' - AAATGAACG - 3 ' (see figure), if read from the first position, contains the codons AAA, TGA, and ACG; if read from the second position, it contains the codons AAT and GAA; and if read from the third position, it contains the codons ATG and AAC. Every sequence can, thus, be read in its 5 ' → 3 ' direction in three reading frames, each producing a possibly distinct amino acid sequence: in the given example, Lys (K) - Trp (W) - Thr (T), Asn (N) - Glu (E), or Met (M) - Asn (N), respectively (when translating with the vertebrate mitochondrial code). When DNA is double - stranded, six possible reading frames are defined, three in the forward orientation on one strand and three reverse on the opposite strand. Protein - coding frames are defined by a start codon, usually the first AUG (ATG) codon in the RNA (DNA) sequence.
In eukaryotes, ORFs in exons are often interrupted by introns.
Translation starts with a chain - initiation codon or start codon. The start codon alone is not sufficient to begin the process. Nearby sequences such as the Shine - Dalgarno sequence in E. coli and initiation factors are also required to start translation. The most common start codon is AUG, which is read as methionine or, in bacteria, as formylmethionine. Alternative start codons depending on the organism include "GUG '' or "UUG ''; these codons normally represent valine and leucine, respectively, but as start codons they are translated as methionine or formylmethionine.
The three stop codons have names: UAG is amber, UGA is opal (sometimes also called umber), and UAA is ochre. Stop codons are also called "termination '' or "nonsense '' codons. They signal release of the nascent polypeptide from the ribosome because no cognate tRNA has anticodons complementary to these stop signals, allowing a release factor to bind to the ribosome instead.
During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, mutations, can affect an organism 's phenotype, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are typically 1 error in every 10 -- 100 million bases -- due to the "proofreading '' ability of DNA polymerases.
Missense mutations and nonsense mutations are examples of point mutations that can cause genetic diseases such as sickle - cell disease and thalassemia respectively. Clinically important missense mutations generally change the properties of the coded amino acid residue among basic, acidic, polar or non-polar states, whereas nonsense mutations result in a stop codon.
Mutations that disrupt the reading frame sequence by indels (insertions or deletions) of a non-multiple of 3 nucleotide bases are known as frameshift mutations. These mutations usually result in a completely different translation from the original, and likely cause a stop codon to be read, which truncates the protein. These mutations may impair the protein 's function and are thus rare in in vivo protein - coding sequences. One reason inheritance of frameshift mutations is rare is that, if the protein being translated is essential for growth under the selective pressures the organism faces, absence of a functional protein may cause death before the organism becomes viable. Frameshift mutations may result in severe genetic diseases such as Tay - Sachs disease.
Although most mutations that change protein sequences are harmful or neutral, some mutations have benefits. These mutations may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild type organisms, or reproduce more quickly. In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection. Viruses that use RNA as their genetic material have rapid mutation rates, which can be an advantage, since these viruses thereby evolve rapidly, and thus evade the immune system defensive responses. In large populations of asexually reproducing organisms, for example, E. coli, multiple beneficial mutations may co-occur. This phenomenon is called clonal interference and causes competition among the mutations.
Degeneracy is the redundancy of the genetic code. This term was given by Bernfield and Nirenberg. The genetic code has redundancy but no ambiguity (see the codon tables below for the full correlation). For example, although codons GAA and GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy), neither specifies another amino acid (no ambiguity). The codons encoding one amino acid may differ in any of their three positions. For example, the amino acid leucine is specified by YUR or CUN (UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, or CUG) codons (difference in the first or third position indicated using IUPAC notation), while the amino acid serine is specified by UCN or AGY (UCA, UCG, UCC, UCU, AGU, or AGC) codons (difference in the first, second, or third position). A practical consequence of redundancy is that errors in the third position of the triplet codon cause only a silent mutation or an error that would not affect the protein because the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity is maintained by equivalent substitution of amino acids; for example, a codon of NUN (where N = any nucleotide) tends to code for hydrophobic amino acids. NCN yields amino acid residues that are small in size and moderate in hydropathy; NAN encodes average size hydrophilic residues. The genetic code is so well - structured for hydropathy that a mathematical analysis (Singular Value Decomposition) of 12 variables (4 nucleotides x 3 positions) yields a remarkable correlation (C = 0.95) for predicting the hydropathy of the encoded amino acid directly from the triplet nucleotide sequence, without translation. Note in the table, below, eight amino acids are not affected at all by mutations at the third position of the codon, whereas in the figure above, a mutation at the second position is likely to cause a radical change in the physicochemical properties of the encoded amino acid.
The frequency of codons, also known as codon usage bias, can vary from species to species with functional implications for the control of translation. The following codon usage table is for the human genome.
Amino acid. Fraction of each codon among all those specifying a given amino acid. Frequency among 40,662,582 codons of 93,487 coding sequences. Number.
The DNA codon table is essentially identical to that for RNA, but with U replaced by T.
In some proteins, non-standard amino acids are substituted for standard stop codons, depending on associated signal sequences in the messenger RNA. For example, UGA can code for selenocysteine and UAG can code for pyrrolysine. Selenocysteine became to be seen as the 21st amino acid, and pyrrolysine as the 22nd. Unlike selenocysteine, pyrrolysine - encoded UAG is translated with the participation of a dedicated aminoacyl - tRNA synthetase. Both selenocysteine and pyrrolysine may be present in the same organism. Although the genetic code is normally fixed in an organism, the achaeal prokaryote Acetohalobium arabaticum can expand its genetic code from 20 to 21 amino acids (by including pyrrolysine) under different conditions of growth.
Variations on the standard code were predicted in the 1970s. The first was discovered in 1979, by researchers studying human mitochondrial genes. Many slight variants were discovered thereafter, including various alternative mitochondrial codes. Small variants such as translation of the codon UGA as tryptophan in Mycoplasma species, and translation of CUG as a serine rather than leucine in yeasts of the "CTG clade '' (such as Candida albicans). Because viruses must use the same genetic code as their hosts, modifications to the standard genetic code could interfere with viral protein synthesis or functioning. However, viruses such as totiviruses adapted to the host 's genetic code modification. In bacteria and archaea, GUG and UUG are common start codons. In rare cases, certain proteins may use alternative start codons. Surprisingly, variations in the interpretation of the genetic code exist also in human nuclear - encoded genes: In 2016, researchers studying the translation of malate dehydrogenase found that in about 4 % of the mRNAs encoding this enzyme the stop codon is naturally used to encode the amino acids tryptophan and arginine. This type of recoding is induced by a high - readthrough stop codon context and it is referred to as functional translational readthrough.
Variant genetic codes used by an organism can be inferred by identifying highly conserved genes encoded in that genome, and comparing its codon usage to the amino acids in homologous proteins of other organisms. For example, the program FACIL infers a genetic code by searching which amino acids in homologous protein domains are most often aligned to every codon. The resulting amino acid probabilities for each codon are displayed in a genetic code logo, that also shows the support for a stop codon.
Despite these differences, all known naturally occurring codes are very similar. The coding mechanism is the same for all organisms: three - base codons, tRNA, ribosomes, single direction reading and translating single codons into single amino acids.
The genetic code is a key part of the story of life. The main hypothesis for life 's origin is the RNA world hypothesis. Any model for the emergence of genetic code is intimately related to a model of the transfer from ribozymes (RNA enzymes) to proteins as the principal enzymes in cells. In line with the RNA world hypothesis, transfer RNA molecules appear to have evolved before modern aminoacyl - tRNA synthetases, so the latter can not be part of the explanation of its patterns.
A hypothetical randomly evolved genetic code further motivates a biochemical or evolutionary model for its origin. If amino acids were randomly assigned to triplet codons, there would be 1.5 × 10 possible genetic codes. This number is found by calculating the number of ways that 21 items (20 amino acids plus one stop) can be placed in 64 bins, wherein each item is used at least once. However, the distribution of codon assignments in the genetic code is nonrandom. In particular, the genetic code clusters certain amino acid assignments.
Amino acids that share the same biosynthetic pathway tend to have the same first base in their codons. This could be an evolutionary relic of an early, simpler genetic code with fewer amino acids that later evolved to code a larger set of amino acids. It could also reflect steric and chemical properties that had another effect on the codon during its evolution. Amino acids with similar physical properties also tend to have similar codons, reducing the problems caused by point mutations and mistranslations.
Given the non-random genetic triplet coding scheme, a tenable hypothesis for the origin of genetic code could address multiple aspects of the codon table, such as absence of codons for D - amino acids, secondary codon patterns for some amino acids, confinement of synonymous positions to third position, the small set of only 20 amino acids (instead of a number approaching 64), and the relation of stop codon patterns to amino acid coding patterns.
Three main hypotheses address the origin of the genetic code. Many models belong to one of them or to a hybrid:
Hypotheses have addressed a variety of scenarios:
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what is the primary function of the national labor relations board | National Labor Relations Board - wikipedia
The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) is an independent US government agency with responsibilities for enforcing US labor law in relation to collective bargaining and unfair labor practices. Under the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 it supervises elections for labor union representation and can investigate and remedy unfair labor practices. Unfair labor practices may involve union - related situations or instances of protected concerted activity. The NLRB is governed by a five - person board and a General Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Board members are appointed to five - year terms and the General Counsel is appointed to a four - year term. The General Counsel acts as a prosecutor and the Board acts as an appellate judicial body from decisions of administrative law judges.
The NLRB is headquartered at 1015 Half St. SE, Washington, D.C., with over 30 regional, sub-regional, and residential offices throughout the U.S.
The history of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) can be traced to enactment of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933. Section 7 (a) of the act protected collective bargaining rights for unions, but was difficult to enforce. A massive wave of union organizing was punctuated by employer and union violence, general strikes, and recognition strikes. The National Industrial Recovery Act was administered by the National Recovery Administration (NRA). At the outset, NRA Administrator Hugh S. Johnson believed that Section 7 (a) would be self - enforcing, but the tremendous labor unrest proved him wrong. On August 5, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced the establishment of the National Labor Board, under the auspices of the NRA, to implement the collective bargaining provisions of Section 7 (a).
The National Labor Board (NLB) established a system of 20 regional boards to handle the immense caseload. Each regional board had a representative designated by local labor unions, local employers, and a "public '' representative. All were unpaid. The public representative acted as the chair. The regional boards could hold hearings and propose settlements to disputes. Initially, they lacked authority to order representation elections, but this changed after Roosevelt issued additional executive orders on February 1 and February 23, 1934.
The NLB, too, proved ineffective. Congress passed Public Resolution No. 44 on June 19, 1934, which empowered the president to appoint a new labor board with authority to issue subpoenas, hold elections, and mediate labor disputes. On June 29, President Roosevelt abolished the NLB and in Executive Order 6763 established a new, three - member National Labor Relations Board.
Lloyd K. Garrison was the first chair of the National Labor Relations Board (often referred to by scholars the "First NLRB '' or "Old NLRB ''). The "First NLRB '' established organizational structures which continue at the NLRB in the 21st century. This includes the regional structure of the board; the use of administrative law judges and regional hearing officers to initially rule on cases; an appeal process to the national board; and the use of expert staff, organized into various divisions, at the national level. Formally, Garrison established the:
Within a year, however, most of the jurisdiction of the "First NLRB '' was stripped away. Its decisions in the automobile, newspaper, textile, and steel industries proved so volatile that Roosevelt himself often removed these cases from the board 's jurisdiction. Several federal court decisions further limited the board 's power. Senator Robert F. Wagner (D -- NY) subsequently pushed legislation through Congress to give a statutory basis to federal labor policy that would survive court scrutiny. On July 5, 1935, a new law -- the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA, also known as the Wagner Act) -- superseded the NIRA and established a new, long - lasting federal labor policy. The NLRA designated the National Labor Relations Board as the implementing agency.
The first chair of the "new '' NLRB was J. Warren Madden, professor of the University of Pittsburgh School of Law. Madden largely confirmed the previous structure of the "first NLRB '' by formally establishing five divisions within the agency:
Benedict Wolf was the first Secretary of the NLRB, Charles H. Fahy the first General Counsel, and David J. Saposs the first Chief Industrial Economist. Wolf resigned in mid-1937, and Nathan Witt, an attorney in the Legal Division, was named Secretary in October.
The Economic Division was a critical one for the NLRB. Cause - and - effect was one of the fundamental assumptions of the National Labor Relations Act, and for the causes of labor unrest to be understood economic analysis was needed. From the start, the Economic Division undertook three important tasks: 1) Gather economic data in support of cases before the courts; 2) Conduct general studies of labor relations to guide the board in formulating decisions and policies; and 3) Research the history of labor relations (the history of written agreements, whether certain issues were historically part of collective bargaining, how unions functioned internally, trends in employer activities, trends in collective bargaining, whether certain employer actions led to labor disputes, etc.) so that the board could educate itself, the courts, Congress, and the public about labor relations. The first function proved critical to the survival of the NLRB. It was the Economic Division 's data and analysis, more than then NLRB 's legal reasoning, which proved critical in persuading the Supreme Court to sustain the Wagner Act in NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel. The Court even cited several Economic Division studies in its decision. In the wake of Jones & Laughlin Steel, many labor relations experts outside the agency concluded that economic analysis was "an accepted fact '' essential to the proper functioning of the agency. The Economic Division did, too. It asked Madden to pair an economist with an attorney in every important case, and prepared outline of the economic data needed to support each case in case it went before the courts.
During his time on the NLRB, Madden was often opposed by the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which believed that Madden was using the NLRA and the procedures and staff of the NLRB to favor the AFL 's primary competitor, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The NLRB and NLRA were also under intense pressure from employers, the press, congressional Republicans, and conservative Democrats.
The NLRB 's Economic Division proved critical in pushing for a congressional investigation into employer anti-union activities, and ensuring that investigation was a success. The Economic Division was deeply aware of employer use of labor spies, violence, and company unions to thwart union organizing, and quietly pressed for a congressional investigation into these and other tactics. Senator Robert M. La Follette, Jr. took up the suggestion, on June 6, 1936, the Senate Committee on Education and Labor established a Subcommittee Investigating Violations of Free Speech and the Rights of Labor chaired by La Follette. Better known as the "La Follette Committee '', the subcommittee held extensive hearings for five years and published numerous reports. The committee uncovered extensive evidence of millions of company dollars used to pay for spies and fifth columnists within unions, exposed the culpability of local law enforcement in acts of violence and murder against union supporters (particularly in the Harlan County War), revealed the wide extent of illegal blacklisting of union members, and exposed the use of armed strikebreakers and widespread stockpiling of tear gas, vomit gas, machine guns, mortars, and armor by corporations to use against strikers. Some of the evidence the committee used was provided by the Economic Division, and the investigation proved critical for a time in defending the agency from business and congressional attack.
The biggest issue the NLRB faced was constitutional. The Justice Department and NLRB legal staff wanted the Supreme Court to rule as quickly as possible on the constitutionality of the NLRA. But the Board and Justice Department also realized that the Court 's Lochner era legal philosophy made it unlikely that the Court would uphold the Act. Subsequently, Madden strove to resolve minor cases before they could become court challenges, and worked to delay appeals as long as possible until the best possible case could be brought to the Court. This legal strategy paid off. The Supreme Court upheld the NLRA in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation, 301 U.S. 1 (1937). Afterward, Madden continued to strategically guide the NLRB 's legal efforts to strengthen the federal courts ' view of the NLRA and the board 's actions. Because of the efforts of Madden and NLRB General Counsel Charles H. Fahy, the Supreme Court reviewed only 27 cases between August 1935 and March 1941, even though the board had processed nearly 5,000 cases since its inception. The Supreme Court enforced the NLRB 's rulings in 19 cases without modifying them, enforced them with modification in six more, and denied enforcement in two cases. Additionally, the Board won all 30 injunction and all 16 representation cases before the lower courts, a rate of success unequalled by any other federal agency.
AFL opposition to the "Madden Board '' grew after decisions in Shipowners ' Ass'n of the Pacific Coast, 7 NLRB 1002 (1938), enf 'd American Federation of Labor v. National Labor Relations Board, 308 U.S. 401 (1940) (awarding a longshoremen 's unit to the CIO rather than the AFL), and American Can Co., 13 NLRB 1252 (1939) (unit 's history of collective bargaining outweighs desire of workers to form craft - only unit).
The AFL began pushing for an investigation into the NLRB, and this investigation led to allegations of communist influence within the agency. In June 1938, the House Un-American Activities Committee (led by Chairman Martin Dies, Jr. (D - TX)) heard testimony from AFL leader John P. Frey, who accused Madden of staffing the NLRB with communists. The allegations were true, in at least one case: Nathan Witt, the NLRB 's executive secretary and the man to whom Madden had delegated most administrative functions, was a member of the Communist Party of the United States. These allegations and discoveries significantly damaged the agency 's support in Congress and with the public.
A second investigation into the NLRB led to organizational changes at the board. On July 20, 1939, Republicans and conservative Democrats formed a coalition to push through the House of Representatives a resolution establishing a Special Committee to Investigate the National Labor Relations Board (the "Smith Committee ''), chaired by conservative, anti-labor Rep. Howard W. Smith (D - VA). On March 7, 1940, the Smith Committee proposed legislation which would abolish the NLRB, reconstitute it, and radically amend the NLRA. President Roosevelt opposed the bill, although he conceded that perhaps the Board 's membership should be expanded to five from three. The Smith bill won several early tests in the House, which also voted to substantially cut the NLRB 's budget. Smith won a vote in the House Rules Committee permitting him to bring his bill to the floor for a vote. In an attempt to defuse the legislative crisis, Madden fired 53 staff and forced another five to resign, and decentralized the NLRB 's trial process to give regional directors and field agents more authority. But the House still passed the Smith bill by a vote of 258 to 129 on June 7, 1940. To protect the NLRB, Roosevelt convinced Senator Elbert D. Thomas, chair of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, to hold no hearings or votes on the bill, and the legislation died.
The Smith Committee investigation had a lasting effect on labor law in the U.S., and was the basis for the Taft - Hartley Act of 1947. Madden 's term on the NLRB came to an end after just four years. On November 15, 1940, President Roosevelt nominated Harry A. Millis to the NLRB and named him chair, and nominated Madden to a seat on the U.S. Court of Claims.
Another major structural change occurred at the same time that Madden left the NLRB. The Smith committee 's anti-communist drive also targeted David J. Saposs, the NLRB Chief Industrial Economist. Saposs had been surreptitiously assessed by members of the Communist Party USA for membership, and rejected as a prospect. But Smith and others attacked Saposs as a communist, and Congress defunded his division and his job on October 11, 1940. Although the Smith committee 's investigation proved critical, the disestablishment of the Economic Division was due to many reasons -- both internal and external to the NLRB, and only some of which involved allegations of communist infiltration. As historian James A. Gross observed:.
The Division was eliminated for all kinds of reasons which had nothing to do with the merits and importance of its work: political pressures and maneuverings, jealousy and empire building between and among lawyers and economists inside the Board, opposition to leftist ideologies, a personal attack on the Chief Economist, David Saposs, and a mighty hostility to the administrative process.
The loss of the Economic Division was a major blow to the NLRB. It had a major tactical impact: Economic data helped the NLRB fulfill its adjudicatorial and prosecutorial work in areas such as unfair labor practices (ULPs), representation elections, and in determining remedial actions (such as reinstatement, back pay awards, and fines). Economic data also undermined employer resistance to the agency by linking that opposition to employer ULPs. The loss also left the board dependent on the biased information offered by the parties in dispute before it, leading to poor decision - making and far less success in the courts. It also had a major strategic impact: It left the board unable to determine whether its administration of the law was effective or not. Nor could the board determine whether labor unrest was a serious threat to the economy or not. As labor historian Josiah Bartlett Lambert put it: "Without the Economic Research Division, the NLRB could not undertake empirical studies to determine the actual impact of secondary boycotts, jurisdictional strikes, national emergency strikes, and the like. '' The Economic Division was critical to a long - range NLRB process that would lead to the long - term evolution of industrial labor relations in the U.S., but that goal had to be abandoned. Most importantly, however, the evisceration of the Economic Division struck at the fundamental purpose of federal labor law, which was to allow experts to adjudicate labor disputes rather than use a legal process. With this data and analysis, widespread skepticism about the board 's expertise quickly spread through Congress and the courts. It also left the board largely unable to engage in rule - making, forcing it to make labor law on an inefficient, time - consuming case - by - case basis. As of 1981, NLRB was still the only federal agency forbidden to seek economic information about the impact of its activities.
The second chair of the NLRB, Harry A. Millis, led the board in a much more moderate direction. Lacking an economic division to give it ammunition to fight with Millis deliberately made the NLRB dependent on Congress and the executive branch for its survival. Millis made a large number of organizational changes. He stripped the office of Secretary of its power, set up an Administrative Division to supervise the 22 regional offices, initiated a study of the Board 's administrative procedures, and genuinely delegated power to the regional offices. He removed casehandling and regional office communication from the jurisdiction of the Office of the Secretary and created a Field Division. He also adopted procedures requiring the board made its decisions based solely on the trial examiner 's report, authorized NLRB review attorneys to review trial examiner report, required decisions to be drafted ahead of time and distributed for review, authorized review attorneys to revise drafts before a final decision was issued, required trial examiners to emphasize findings of fact and to address points of law, and began holding board meetings when there were differences of opinion over decisions.
Millis eliminated the Review Division 's decisive role in cases, which had been established under Madden and Witt. Madden and Witt had adopted a highly centralized Board structure so that (generally speaking) only the cases most favorable to the board made it to the courts. The centralized structure meant that only the strongest cases made it to national board, so that the board could apply all its economic and legal powers to crafting the best decision possible. This strategy enabled the NLRB to defend itself very well before the Supreme Court. But Madden and Witt had held on to the centralized strategy too long, and made political enemies in the process. Millis substituted a decentralized process in which the board was less a decision - maker and more a provider of services to the regions. Many of the changes Millis instituted were designed to mimic requirements placed on other agencies by the Administrative Procedure Act.
American entry into World War II on December 8, 1941, significantly changed the NLRB. On January 12, 1942, President Roosevelt created the National War Labor Board (NWLB), which displaced the NLRB as the main focus of federal labor relations for the duration of the war. The NWLB was given the authority to "finally determine '' any labor dispute which threatened to interrupt war production, and to stabilize union wages and benefits during the war. Although Roosevelt instructed the NWLB not to intrude on jurisdiction exercised by the NLRB, the War Labor Board refused to honor this request. From 1942 to 1945, Millis tried to secure a jurisdictional agreement with NWLB chair George W. Taylor. But these discussions proved fruitless, and Millis broke them off in June 1945. The NWLB also heavily raided the NLRB for staff, significantly hindering NLRB operations.
Additional changes came with the passage of the War Labor Disputes Act (WLDA) on June 25, 1943. Enacted over Roosevelt 's veto after 400,000 coal miners, their wages significantly lower due to high wartime inflation, struck for a $2 - a-day wage increase, the legislation (in part) required the NLRB to issue a ballot outlining all the collective bargaining proposals and counter-proposals, wait 30 days, and then hold a strike vote. The War Labor Disputes Act proved very burdensome. The NLRB processed 2,000 WLDA cases from 1943 to the end of 1945, of which 500 were strike votes. The act 's strike vote procedures did little to stop strikes, however, and Millis feared unions were using the referendums to whip up pro-strike feelings among their members. Millis also believed the law 's strike vote process actually permitted more strikes to occur than the NLRB would have allowed under its old procedures. There were so many strike vote filings in the six months after the war ended that NLRB actually shut down its long distance telephone lines, cancelled all out of town travel, suspended all public hearings, and suspended all other business to accommodate the workload. By early 1945, Millis was in ill health. He resigned from the NLRB on June 7, 1945, and Paul M. Herzog was named his successor.
A major turning point in the history of the NLRB came in 1947 with passage of the Taft - Hartley Act. Disruptions caused by strikes during World War II as well as the huge wave of strikes that followed the end of the war fueled a growing movement in 1946 and 1947 to amend the NLRA to correct what critics saw as a pro-labor tilt in federal law. Drafted by the powerful Republican Senator Robert A. Taft and the strongly anti-union Representative Fred A. Hartley, Jr., the Taft - Hartley Act banned jurisdictional strikes, wildcat strikes, political strikes, secondary boycotts, secondary picketing, mass picketing, union campaign donations made from dues money, the closed shop, and unions of supervisors. The act also enumerated new employer rights, defined union - committed ULPs, gave states the right to opt out of federal labor law through right - to - work laws, required unions to give an 80 - days ' strike notice in all cases, established procedures for the President to end a strike in a national emergency, and required all union officials to sign an anti-Communist oath. Organizationally, the act made the General Counsel a presidential appointee, independent of the board itself, and gave the General Counsel limited powers to seek injunctions without referring to the Justice Department. It also banned the NLRB from engaging in any mediation or conciliation, and formally enshrined in law the ban on hiring personnel to do economic data collection or analysis.
Herzog publicly admitted the need for some change in the NLRA, but privately he opposed the proposed Taft - Hartley amendments. He felt the communist oath provisions were unconstitutional, that the amendments would turn the NLRA into a management weapon, that creation of an independent General Counsel would weaken the NLRB, and that the law 's dismantling of the agency 's economic analysis unit deprived the NLRB of essential expertise. Nonetheless, Congress overrode Truman 's veto of the Taft - Hartley Act on June 23, 1947, and the bill became law.
The Taft - Hartley Act fundamentally changed the nature of federal labor law, but it also seriously hindered the NLRB 's ability to enforce the law. The loss of the mediation function left the NLRB unable to become involved in labor disputes, a function it had engaged in since its inception as the National Labor Board in 1933. This hindered the agency 's efforts to study, analyze, and create bulwarks against bad - faith collective bargaining; reduced its ability to formulate national labor policy in this area; and left the agency making labor law on an ineffective, time - consuming case - by - case basis. The separation of the General Counsel from supervision by the national board also had significant impact on the agency. This separation was enacted against the advice of the Justice Department, contradicted the policy Congress had enacted in the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946, and ignored Millis ' extensive internal reforms. The change left the NLRB as the only federal agency unable to coordinate its decision - making and legal activities, and the only agency exempted in this manner under the Administrative Procedure Act. Interestingly, the separation of the General Counsel was not discussed by the committee or by any witnesses during the legislation 's mark - up. Indeed, there was no basis for it at all in the public record. It was, in the words of sociologist Robin Stryker, "little - noted '' and "unprecedented ''.
The anti-communist oath provisions generated extensive public debate, and generated disputes before the Supreme Court several times. The Taft - Hartley oath first reached the court in American Communications Ass'n v. Douds, 339 U.S. 382 (1950), in which the court held 5 - to - 1 that the oath did not violate the First Amendment, was not an ex post facto law or bill of attainder in violation of Article One, Section 10, and was not a "test oath '' in violation of Article Six. The issue again came before the court in Garner v. Board of Public Works, 341 U.S. 716 (1951), in which the court unanimously held that a municipal loyalty oath was not an ex post facto law or bill of attainder. It came before the court yet a third time in Wieman v. Updegraff, 344 U.S. 183 (1952). This time, the outcome was radically different. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that state loyalty oath legislation violated the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In 1965, the Supreme Court held 5 - to - 4 that the anti-communist oath was, in fact, a bill of attainder in United States v. Brown, 381 U.S. 437 (1965). The Supreme Court essentially overturned Douds, but did not formally do so.
From December 2007 until June 2010, the five - person Board had only two members, creating a legal controversy. Three members ' terms expired in December 2007, leaving the NLRB with just two members -- Chair Wilma B. Liebman and Member Peter Schaumber. President George W. Bush refused to make some nominations to the Board and Senate Democrats refused to confirm those which he did make.
On December 28, 2007, just before the Board lost its quorum, the four members agreed to delegate their authority to a three - person panel per the National Labor Relations Act. Only Liebman and Schaumber would remain on the Board, but the Board concluded that the two constituted a quorum of the three - person panel and thus could make decisions on behalf of the Board. Liebman and Schaumber informally agreed to decide only those cases which were in their view noncontroversial and on which they could agree, and issued almost 400 decisions between January 2008 and September 2009.
The U.S. Courts of Appeals for the First, Second, and Seventh Circuits upheld the two - member NLRB 's authority to decide cases, while the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals did not. In September 2009, the Justice Department asked the U.S. Supreme Court to immediately hear arguments concerning the dispute, given the high stakes involved. The Supreme Court granted certiorari in October and agreed to decide the issue.
In June 2010, the Supreme Court ruled in New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB that the two - member Board had no authority to issue decisions, invalidating all rulings made by Liebman and Schaumber. In 2013, the question of a legitimate quorum on the NLRB surfaced again, when the District of Columbia Court of Appeals ruled that President Obama had "violated the Constitution when he bypassed the Senate to fill three board vacancies ''.
In 1947, the Taft -- Hartley Act created a formal administrative distinction between the Board and the General Counsel of the NLRB. In broad terms, the General Counsel is responsible for investigating and prosecuting unfair labor practice claims and for the general supervision of the NLRB field offices. The General Counsel is appointed by the President to a four - year term and independent from the Board; it has limited independence to argue for a change in the law in presenting cases to the Board. The General Counsel oversees four divisions: the Division of Operations Management, the Division of Administration, the Division of Advice, and the Division of Enforcement Litigation.
The Board, on the other hand, is the adjudicative body that decides the unfair labor practice cases brought to it. Once the Board has decided the issue, it is the General Counsel 's responsibility to uphold the Board 's decision, even if it is contrary to the position it advocated when presenting the case to the Board. The Board is also responsible for the administration of the Act 's provisions governing the holding of elections and resolution of jurisdictional disputes.
The Board has more than thirty regional offices. The regional offices conduct elections, investigate unfair labor practice charges, and make the initial determination on those charges (whether to dismiss, settle, or issue complaints). The Board has jurisdiction to hold elections and prosecute violations of the Act in Puerto Rico and American Samoa.
The Board 's jurisdiction is limited to private sector employees and the United States Postal Service; other than Postal Service employees, it has no authority over labor relations disputes involving governmental, railroad and airline employees covered by the Adamson Railway Labor Act, or agricultural employees. On the other hand, in those parts of the private sector its jurisdictional standards are low enough to reach almost all employers whose business has any appreciable impact on interstate commerce.
Charges are filed by parties against unions or employers with the appropriate regional office. The regional office will investigate the complaint. If a violation is believed to exist, the region will take the case before an Administrative Law Judge who will conduct a hearing. The decision of the Administrative Law Judge may be reviewed by the five member Board. Board decisions are reviewable by United States Courts of Appeals. The Board 's decisions are not self - executing: it must seek court enforcement in order to force a recalcitrant party to comply with its orders. (For greater detail on this process see the entry for unfair labor practice).
Lafe Solomon was named Acting General Counsel on June 21, 2010. His nomination was sent to the U.S. Senate on January 5, 2011. Solomon 's authority came into question on August 13, 2013 when Judge Benjamin H. Settle for the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington denied a petition for injunctive relief, ruling that Solomon had not been properly appointed under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998 (FVRA). Although other district courts had enforced Solomon 's requests, Judge Settle 's decision called into question all of Solomon 's activity since June 21, 2010, focusing on subsections (a) (1) and (2) of the FVRA; some pundits claimed that Solomon 's appointment was allowed under subsection (a) (3). President Obama withdrew Solomon 's nomination.
On July 31, 2013, President Obama nominated former NLRB nominee Richard Griffin as General Counsel -- "a kind of prosecutor at the board '' and "one of the most critical roles at the agency. '' Solomon 's nomination was withdrawn. The Senate approved Griffin 's nomination on October 29, 2013, by a vote of 55 to 44.
In April 2009, President Obama nominated Craig Becker (Associate General Counsel of the Service Employees International Union), Mark Gaston Pearce (a member on the Industrial Board of Appeals, an agency of the New York State Department of Labor), and Brian Hayes (Republican Labor Policy Director for the Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions) to fill the three empty seats on the NLRB.
Becker 's nomination appeared to fail on February 8, 2010, after Republican Senators (led by John McCain) threatened to filibuster his nomination. President Obama said he would consider making recess appointments to the NLRB due to the Senate 's failure to move on any of the three nominations. On March 27, 2010, Obama recess appointed Becker and Pearce.
On June 22, 2010, a voice vote in the Senate confirmed Pearce to a full term, allowing him to serve until August 27, 2013. The same day, the Senate confirmed Republican nominee Brian Hayes of Massachusetts by voice vote. Hayes ' term ended on December 16, 2012. Becker 's term, as a recess appointee, ended on December 31, 2011. Effective August 28, 2011, Pearce was named chairman to replace Democrat Wilma Liebman, whose term had expired.
On January 4, 2012, Obama announced recess appointments to three seats on the board: Sharon Block, Terence F. Flynn, and Richard Griffin. The appointments were criticized by Republicans, including the House Speaker John Boehner, as unconstitutional and "a brazen attempt to undercut the role of the Senate to advise and consent the executive branch on appointments ''. Although made as recess appointments, critics questioned their legality, arguing that Congress had not officially been in recess as pro forma sessions had been held. Former U.S. attorney general Edwin Meese stated that in his opinion, since the appointments were made when the Senate was "demonstrably not in recess '' they represented "a constitutional abuse of a high order ''. On January 12, 2012 the U.S. Justice Department released a memo stating that appointments made during pro forma sessions are supported by the Constitution and precedent.
On January 25, 2013, in Noel Canning v. NLRB, a panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that President Obama 's recess appointments were invalid as they were not made during an intersession recess of the Senate, and the President moved to fill them during the same recess. On May 16, 2013, in National Labor Relations Board v. New Vista Nursing and Rehabilitation, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit became the second federal appellate court to rule that the recess appointments to the NLRB were unconstitutional. In a split decision, it also found that the March 27, 2010 recess appointment of Craig Becker was unconstitutional. On January 14, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court heard the case in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning.
Between January 2008 and mid-July 2013 the agency never had all five members, and not once did it operate with three confirmed members. On July 14, 2013, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid threatened to exercise the "nuclear option '' and allow a simple majority (rather than a supermajority) of the Senate to end a filibuster. This threat to end the filibuster 's privileged position in the Senate was intended to end Republican filibustering of NLRB nominees. On July 16, 2013, President Obama and Senate Republicans reached an agreement to end the impasse over NLRB appointees. Obama withdrew the pending nominations of Block and Griffin, and submit two new nominees: Nancy Schiffer, associate general counsel at the AFL - CIO, and Kent Hirozawa, chief counsel to NLRB Chairman Mark Gaston Pearce. Republicans agreed not to oppose a fourth nominee, to be submitted in 2014.
On July 30, 2013, the Senate confirmed all five of Obama 's nominees for the NLRB: Kent Hirozawa, Harry I. Johnson III, Philip Miscimarra, Mark Gaston Pearce and Nancy Schiffer. Johnson and Miscimarra represented the Republican nominees for the board. Pearce was confirmed for a second five - year term. Nancy Schiffer 's term ended on December 15, 2014. She was succeeded by Lauren McFerran on December 16, 2014. Harry I. Johnson III 's term ended on August 27, 2015.
On January 25, 2017, President Donald J. Trump appointed Philip Miscimarra the acting chairman of the NLRB. Miscimarra retired on December 16, 2017. Marvin Kaplan succeeded him as NLRB chair on December 21, 2017.
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how many cars does the us sell in china | Automotive industry in China - Wikipedia
The automotive industry in China has been the largest in the world measured by automobile unit production since 2008. Since 2009, annual production of automobiles in China exceeds that of the European Union or that of the United States and Japan combined.
The traditional "Big Four '' domestic car manufacturers are SAIC Motor, Dongfeng, FAW and Chang'an. Other Chinese car manufacturers are Beijing Automotive Group, Brilliance Automotive, BYD, Chery, Geely, Jianghuai (JAC), Great Wall, and Guangzhou Automobile Group. In addition, several multinational manufacturers have partnerships with domestic manufacturers.
While most of the cars manufactured in China are sold within China, exports reached 814,300 units in 2011. China 's home market provides its automakers a solid base and Chinese economic planners hope to build globally competitive auto companies that will become more and more attractive and reliable over the years.
China 's automobile industry had mainly Soviet origins (plants and licensed auto design were founded in the 1950s, with the help of the USSR) and had small volumes for the first 30 years of the republic, not exceeding 100 -- 200 thousands per year. Since the early 1990s, it has developed rapidly. China 's annual automobile production capacity first exceeded one million in 1992. By 2000, China was producing over two million vehicles. After China 's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, the development of the automobile market accelerated further. Between 2002 and 2007, China 's national automobile market grew by an average 21 percent, or one million vehicles year - on - year. In 2009, China produced 13.79 million automobiles, of which 8 million were passenger cars and 3.41 million were commercial vehicles and surpassed the United States as the world 's largest automobile producer by volume. In 2010, both sales and production topped 18 million units, with 13.76 million passenger cars delivered, in each case the largest by any nation in history. In 2014, total vehicle production in China reached 23.720 million, accounting for 26 % of global automotive production.
The number of registered cars, buses, vans, and trucks on the road in China reached 62 million in 2009, and is expected to exceed 200 million by 2020. The consultancy McKinsey & Company estimates that China 's car market will grow tenfold between 2005 and 2030.
The main industry group for the Chinese automotive industry is the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (中国 汽车 工业 协会).
The first Chinese built motor vehicle was a truck called the Ming Sheng. It was designed by Daniel F Myers and a prototype was made at the Liao Ning Trench Mortar Arsenal, Shenyang. The prototype was completed on May 31, 1931 for Zhang Xueliang. Prior to production commencing, the factory was bombed by the invading Japanese and production never commenced. A fellow general, Yang Hucheng, patronized the inventor Tang Zhongming to make a new type of automobile engine powered by charcoal. In 1932 Tang founded the Chung Ming Machinery Co. Ltd. in Shanghai to produce the engines. Charcoal powered vehicles were mainly used during the Second Sino - Japanese War in China because of fuel shortages. Tung oil was also used during the war as a petroleum substitute. One source states that Du Yuming designed a car in 1937, but did not make it until 1943 after having been forced to move because of the war. No further information has been found about it.
Several vehicle assembly factories were set up in the 1950s and 1960s. They were Nanjing (today is Nanjing Automobile (Group) Corporation), Shanghai (today is Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation), Jinan (evolving into China National Heavy Duty Truck Group), and Beijing (today is Beijing Automotive Industry Holding Corporation). The Second Automobile Works (later Dongfeng Motor Corporation) was founded in 1968.
The first Chinese production vehicles were made by the First Automobile Works in 1956, a truck called the Jiefang CA - 30. This was followed on March 10, 1958 by the 21⁄2 ton light duty truck (NJ130), which was based on the Russian GAZ - 51, was produced in Nanjing. The truck was named Yuejin (meaning "leap forward '') by China 's First Ministry of Industrial Machinery.
In June 1958 the Nanjing Automobile Works, previously a vehicle servicing unit of the Army, was established. Production continued until the last truck (NJ134) rolled off the assembly line on July 9, 1987. Cumulative production was 161,988 units (including models NJ130, NJ230, NJ135 and NJ134). The first production automobiles were the Dongfeng CA71, Hongqi CA72, Feng Huang (later known as the Shanghai SH760) all from 1958.
The passenger car industry was a minor part of vehicle production during the first three decades of China 's socialist economy. As late as 1985, the country produced a total of only 5,200 cars. To announce that the desire for consumer goods was no longer politically suspect and stimulate personal spending, while also advertising the opening of the Chinese market to foreign producers, a fabricated news story about China 's first peasant to own a car was distributed across the world. Sun Guiying, a chicken farmer from near Beijing was touted as having purchased a silver Toyota Publica with her earnings. While the article was largely fraudulent (Mrs. Guiying did not know how to drive, and her husband was a senior official rather than a peasant), the message came across loud and clear. Car sales increased dramatically, although they were almost entirely purchased by danweis (work units -- private car ownership was virtually unknown at the time, in spite of the Sun Guiying story).
As domestic production was very limited, import totals rose dramatically, despite a 260 per cent import duty on foreign vehicles. Before 1984, the dominant exporter of cars to China had been the Soviet Union. In 1984, Japan 's vehicle exports to China increased sevenfold (from 10,800 to 85,000) and by mid-1985 China had become Japan 's second biggest export market after the US. The country spent some $3 billion to import more than 350,000 vehicles (including 106,000 cars and 111,000 trucks) in 1985 alone. Three taxi companies in particular thirsted for Japanese cars, such as Toyota Crowns and Nissan Bluebirds.
As this spending binge began to lead to a severe trade deficit, the Chinese leadership put on the brakes, both through propaganda efforts and by making foreign exchange much less accessible. Customs duties on imported goods were raised in March 1985 and a new "regulatory tax '' was added a little later. In September 1985, a two - year moratorium on nearly all vehicle imports was imposed.
While limiting imports, China also tried to increase local production by boosting the various existing joint - venture passenger car production agreements, as well as adding new ones. In 1983, American Motors Corporation (AMC, later acquired by Chrysler Corporation) signed a 20 - year contract to produce their Jeep - model vehicles in Beijing. The following year, Germany 's Volkswagen signed a 25 - year contract to make passenger cars in Shanghai, and France 's Peugeot agreed to another passenger car project to make vehicles in the prosperous southern city of Guangzhou. These early joint ventures did not allow the Chinese to borrow much foreign technology, as knock - down kit assembly made up the majority of manufacturing activities; tooling may not have been allowed to slip past borders.
Three big joint - ventures and three small joint - ventures:
Several enterprises entered the automobile industry since 1994. Some of them are originated from defense industry, such as Chang'an Motors, Changhe, and Hafei Motor; some were developed from old state - owned companies, such as BYD Auto, Brilliance China Auto, Chery Automobile, and Changfeng Automobile. Others are private - owned companies, such as Geely Automobile and Great Wall Motors.
The main industry group for the Chinese automotive industry is the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM).
China has its traditional "Big four '' domestic car manufacturers: Shanghai General Motors, Dongfeng, FAW, and Chang'an. The fourth place of Chang'an has recently been overtaken by manufacturer Beijing Auto (also known as BAIC Motor).
Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (上海 汽车 集团 股份 有限 公司), also known as SAIC (上汽) and SAIC - GM (上汽 通用), is a Chinese state - owned automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Shanghai operating in joint venture with US owned General Motors. The company had the largest production volume of any Chinese automaker in 2014, making more than 4.5 million vehicles.
SAIC sells vehicles under a variety of brands. Brand names that are exclusive to SAIC include Maxus, MG, Roewe, and Yuejin. Products produced by SAIC joint venture companies are sold under marques including Baojun, Buick, Chevrolet, Iveco, Škoda, Volkswagen, and Wuling.
Dongfeng Motor Corporation (东风 汽车 公司, abbreviated to 东风) is a Chinese state - owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Wuhan. The company was the second - largest Chinese vehicle maker in 2014, by production volume, manufacturing over 3.5 million vehicles that year. Its own brands are Dongfeng, Venucia and Dongfen Fengshen. Joint ventures include Cummins, Dana, Honda, Nissan, Infiniti, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault, Kia and Yulon.
FAW Group Corporation (第 一 汽车 集团, abbreviated to 一汽) is a Chinese state - owned automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Changchun. In 2014, the company ranked third in terms of output making 2.7 million vehicles. FAW sells products under at least ten different brands including its own and Besturn / Bēnténg, Dario, Haima, Hongqi, Jiaxing, Jie Fang, Jilin, Oley, Jie Fang and Yuan Zheng, and Tianjin Xiali. FAW joint ventures sell Audi, General Motors, Mazda, Toyota and Volkswagen.
BAIC Group, also known as Beiqi (Chinese: 北汽 集团, abbreviated to 北汽), is a state - owned enterprise and holding company of several Chinese automobile and machine manufacturers located in Beijing. In 2014, the company ranked third in terms of output making 2.6 million vehicles. Its principal subsidiaries include the passenger car maker BAIC Motor, the military vehicle and SUV maker BAW and the truck, bus and agricultural equipment maker Foton Motor. BAIC 's parent is the Beijing Municipal Government 's State - owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission (SASAC).
Chang'an Automobile Group (重庆 长安 汽车 股份 有限 公司, abbreviated to 长安) is an automobile manufacturer headquartered in Chongqing, and is a state - owned enterprise. In 2014, the company ranked fifth in terms of output making 2.1 million vehicles in 2014. Changan designs, develops, manufactures and sells passenger cars sold under the Changan brand and commercial vehicles sold under the Chana brand. Foreign joint venture companies include Suzuki, Ford, Mazda and PSA Peugeot Citroën.
Other notable Chinese automotive manufacturers include:
A notable Taiwanese automotive manufacturer is Yulon.
According to China Passenger Car Association (CPCA), automakers in China delivered 19,706,827 passenger vehicles in 2014, including 12,507,614 sedans, 4,105,802 SUVs, and 1,855,812 MPVs. Below is a breakdown of the deliveries by brand. Imports and commercial vehicles (pickups, buses, trucks, tractors) are not included, while microvans are. http://chinaautoweb.com/2015/01/2014-passenger-car-sales-by-brand/
Source:
In 2014, the best - selling passenger cars by brand in China where:
In 2013, the best - selling locally produced cars on the Chinese mainland where:
Several Chinese car makers have been accused of copying designs of other companies.
Some BYD cars look similar to those of other brands including Lexus, Toyota, Honda, Mercedes Benz, and Porsche. For example, the BYD S8 bears similarity to the Mercedes CLK from the front, and the Renault Megane CC or third generation Chrysler Sebring convertible from the rear.
An anonymous staff member at Honda claimed that the BYD F3 was "a known copy '' of the Toyota Corolla (with Honda Fit design cues). Another model too, the BYD F1, has been described by an industry observer as "a clear copy '' -- this one of the Toyota Aygo.
Domestic dealerships have been known to take advantage of this and replace the badging of BYD vehicles with those of other car manufacturers, including Toyota. Micheal Austin, vice president of BYD America, has acknowledged the issue saying that the practices done by dealers (which are franchised) has made BYD "uncomfortable ''. Even the US government has criticized BYD 's practices, with a WikiLeaked document from the US Consul - General to Guangzhou (Brian Goldbeck) referring to BYD 's practice of copying in a document entitled "BYD seeks to ' Build Your Dreams ' -- based on Someone Else 's Designs ''.
Some companies in China sell conversion kits (which include emblems) for certain vehicle models e.g. conversion of a BYD S6 to a Lexus RX350.
BYD established its North American headquarters in Los Angeles, California in 2012.
In June, 2003, General Motors, a U.S. company, sued Chery, accusing the Chinese manufacturer of copying the first generation Daewoo Matiz (developed by GM Korea) with the design for the Chery QQ. General Motors then went on to accuse Chery of using a Matiz in a crash test for the Chery QQ.
GM executives claimed design duplication, which may extend to interchangeable parts, and GM China Group stated the two vehicles, "shared remarkably identical body structure, exterior design, interior design and key components. ''
After mediation attempts failed, GM Daewoo brought a case against Chery in a Shanghai court, but by 2005, jurisdiction had been moved to the Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People 's Court.
Around that time Chinese state officials, including a vice-minister of commerce and a vice-director of the State Intellectual Property Office, publicly supported Chery. It was suggested that GM may have not patented its technology. In late 2005, the lawsuit was settled.
Fiat has claimed that a Great Wall A-segment car, the Peri (Jing Ling in China), is a copy of its 2nd - generation Fiat Panda.
A 2008 Italian Turin court ruling substantiated the claim stating that the Great Wall Peri, "does n't look like a different car but is a Fiat Panda with a different front end. ''
A copyright infringement case in China did not see a similar outcome.
Other Great Wall models may resemble those of other automakers: The Great Wall Florid, may look similar to a Toyota ist; and some older Great Wall Hover models may look like Isuzu Axioms, etc.
Landwind, a new joint venture between Changan Auto and Jiangling Motors, launched the Landwind X7 SUV in 2014. Jaguar Land Rover regarded it as a copy of the Range Rover Evoque, which is produced locally by Chery Jaguar Land Rover, and tried unsuccessfully to stop its production. Although the designs of the cars are similar, the X7 was almost three times as cheap as the Evoque when the former hit the market. Prices of the X7 started at 135,000 renminbi (US $21,700 as of August 2015), while the starting price of the Evoque amounted to ¥ 398,000 (US $64,000 as of August 2015). Kits for the X7 are sold in China in order to make the car look more like the Evoque. Such kits include the grille, logos, and badges of the Evoque.
Jaguar Land Rover 's first response came during the Guangzhou Auto Show in November 2014, when car designer Ian Callum, who works for Jaguar, tweeted pictures of the car and pointed out the resemblance between the X7 and the Evoque. Furthermore, the company stated that it was investigating whether the Evoque 's design elements were copied by Jiangling Motors, Landwind 's parent company, and that it would "take whatever steps are appropriate to protect its intellectual property. '' Jaguar Land Rover later went to court in China, but its complaints were dismissed in early 2015. At the 2015 edition of Auto Shanghai, Jaguar Land Rover 's CEO Ralf Speth said he regretted "that all of a sudden, copy - paste is coming up again. '' He added that his company could not do anything, since there were no laws against copying cars.
Both Jaguar Land Rover and Jiangling Motors had filed design patents for the Evoque and the X7, respectively, but both patents were annulled in 2016. The patent for the exterior design of the Evoque in China was declared invalid in April by the Chinese intellectual property regulator, because the car was unveiled before the patent was filed in China in November 2011. The nullification happened at the request of Jiangling Motors. The X7 's patent was annulled on May 16 at Jaguar Land Rover 's request, because the design was too related to the Evoque 's design.
In June 2016, Jaguar Land Rover took legal action against Jiangling Motors again in a Beijing court. The car manufacturer blamed Jiangling for copyright infringement and unfair competition. It was a rare move; most non-Chinese car manufacturers choose not to go to court over design copying by Chinese companies because of the small likelihood of winning such lawsuit. A Beijing lawyer said the following to the Chinese newspaper Global Times about the lawsuit: "Without detailed information, it 's hard to judge whether Jiangling copied the design of the Evoque. '' In the same month, an unnamed source said to Reuters that Jiangling had agreed with Jaguar Land Rover it would not export the X7 to Brazil. According to that same source, both companies had also discussed what would be acceptable in a design update for the X7.
The Shuanghuan Noble has caused numerous controversies, with Mercedes - Benz even filing a lawsuit against Shuanghuan because of its similarities with the Smart Fortwo. Mercedes - Benz also persuaded the Italian court to prohibit the car from being exhibited at the Bologna Motor Show, but the Shuanghuan Noble car was put on display anyway.
In May 2009, a Greek judge ruled against Daimler and cleared the car allowing sales to begin in Greece. The judge answering to Daimler 's demand to ban the Chinese vehicle from entering the Greek market said that "The impression the Noble makes on a third and informed party by its visual appearance is different to the one that is made to the same person by the Smart... It is commonly accepted that the decision over buying a new car can not be based only on the exterior characteristics but many other technical specifications such as the power of the engine, fuel consumption, trim specification, retail price and dealers ' network. ''
The ruling states that the latter party 's doings "can not possibly misguide the public '' as the German company claimed in its legal request. The judge noted the salient fact that "the plaintiff is no longer selling the specific generation of the Smart which claims to have been copied, but a different vehicle, with much different characteristics. ''
Another model, the Shuanghuan SCEO, has been criticised for resembling a first generation BMW X5, while the badge on the vehicle also resembles that used on older SsangYong SUVs.
German automaker Porsche threatened Zotye with legal action after it revealed the Zotye SR9 in 2016, which is said to resemble the Porsche Macan.. The car has been described as a "complete knockoff '', with many aspects of the exterior and interior resembling the Macan.
The Zotye SR9 gained notoriety on Chinese social media after a woman dumped her boyfriend for claiming that his SR9 was in fact a Porsche. The two vehicles are priced at 170,000 RMB and 588,000 RMB, respectively.
Other Zotye models have been said to resemble Volkswagen, Audi and Daihatsu models.
The Wall Street Journal reported that the government of China will be forcing foreign carmakers to disclose their electric vehicle technology secrets before the vehicles are allowed to be sold in China. The current Chinese automotive policy states that a foreign carmaker must form a joint - venture with a Chinese carmaker if the former plans to sell its electric vehicles there, with the Chinese carmaker owning 51 % of the joint venture.
Due to this supposed threat by the Chinese government, Toyota postponed the launch of the current - generation Prius until they learn more about the plan.
According to the New York Times, GM was asked to disclose key technological information on the Volt. Failure to do so would result in not qualifying for substantial (up to $19000) subsidies.
In 2011, China was believed to be behind the theft of information from Renault. In 2013 a US couple was sentenced to jail time for revealing GM trade secrets to Chery.
In 2014 it was noted there are "stringent '' and "extreme '' requirements for intellectual property transfer in order to sell to the Chinese market. Imported electric vehicles are subject to high taxes and no subsidies.
In 2017, the US government signaled willingness to investigate such forced technology transfers.
China had a total of 6,322 automotive enterprises as of the end of November 2006. The total output value of the automotive sector for the first three quarters of 2006 was US $143 billion. As incomes increase the high annual growth rate of private ownership is expected to accelerate.
China surpassed Japan to become the world 's second - largest vehicle market in 2006, and passed the United States to become the largest in 2009. This growth is spurring demand for automotive parts, services, and after - care products. China is presently capable of manufacturing a complete line of automobile products and large automotive enterprises. Major domestic firms include the China First Automobile Group Corp. (FAW), Dongfeng Motor Corp. (DMC) and Shanghai Automotive Industry (Group) Corp. (SAIC).
China encourages the development of clean and fuel efficient vehicles in an effort to sustain continued growth of the country 's automobile industry (see Fuel economy in automobiles). By the end of 2007, China plans to reduce the average fuel consumption per 100 km for all types of vehicles by 10 %. The proportion of vehicles burning alternate fuel will be increased to help optimize the country 's energy consumption. Priority will be given to facilitating the research and development of electric and hybrid vehicles as well as alternate fuel vehicles, especially CNG / LNG. Major cities like Beijing and Shanghai already require Euro - 3 emission standards. On March 10, 2008, Beijing became the first city to require light - duty vehicles to meet China - 4 emission standard, which was equivalent to Euro - 4. Beijing shifted its emission standards to the fifth - stage standards for light - duty and heavy - duty vehicles in January 2013 and August 2015, respectively. On 12 April 2016, the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) released the proposal for light - duty China - 6 standard.
The Chinese Automotive Industry Plan, announced on the main Web site of China 's central government, said China aims to create capacity to produce 500,000 new energy vehicles, such as battery electric cars and plug - in hybrid vehicles. The plan aims to increase sales of such new - energy cars to account for about 5 % of China 's passenger vehicle sales. At the 2010 Beijing Motor Show, more than 20 electric vehicles were on display, most of which came from native automakers. As of May 2010, at least 10 all - electric models have been reported to be on track for volume - production. The first mass - produced plug - in hybrid car (BYD F3DM), all - electric minivan (BYD e6) and all - electric long - range bus (BYD K9) are Chinese.
China subsidies oil and some Chinese automakers see opportunities in less mature electric vehicles because Western companies have yet to develop much of a lead in the technology.
New energy vehicle sales between January 2011 and March 2016, totaled 502,572 units, of which, over 92 % were sold between January 2014 and March 2016. These figures include heavy - duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks. These figures only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies. As of March 2016, the Chinese stock of plug - in electric vehicles consist of 366,219 all - electric vehicles (72.9 %) and 136,353 plug - in hybrids (27.1 %).
As of December 2015, China is the world 's largest electric bus market, and by 2020, the country is expected to account for more than 50 % of the global electric bus market. China also is the world 's leader in the plug - in heavy - duty segment, including electric buses, plug - in trucks, particularly sanitation / garbage trucks.
Currently auto parts and accessories enjoy lower levels of tariffs than cars (the average tariff is 10 -- 13 % for parts / accessories and 25 % for cars).
China has agreed to lower tariffs on imported auto parts and accessories to 10 %. Although this difference in duty rate was initially responsible for an increase in motorcycle and car kit imports, the loophole has been tightened. Now, only replacement parts and accessories enter China under the lower duty level.
Used cars can be imported to China although some restrictions apply. Refurbished heavy construction equipment can be imported with a special permit. Used and refurbished auto parts are not allowed to be imported into China.
China 's after - sales market now faces the following challenges:
In China, authorized car dealership are called 4S car shops. The 4S represents Sale, Sparepart, Service and Survey. 整 車 销售 (Sale) 、 零 配件 (Sparepart) 、 售 後 服务 (Service) 、 信息 反馈 (Survey).
In most cases, brand - name new cars can be purchased only from 4S shops. For new cars in high demand, a high premium is added for instant delivery or just placing an order.
The profit of car dealers in China is quite high compared to the rest of the world, in most cases 10 %. This is supposedly due to the ' non-transparent invoice price ' as announced by manufactures and to the premiums they charge for quick delivery. Due to the lack of knowledge for most customers, dealers can sell add - ons at much higher prices than the aftermarket.
There is no regulation by either the government or associations.
As of 2012, exports of Chinese automobiles were about 1 million vehicles per year and rapidly increasing. Most sales were made to emerging economies such as Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Libya, North Korea, the Philippines, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, or Syria where a Chinese - made automobile such as a Geely, Great Wall, or Chery sells for about half of what a comparable model manufactured by a multinational brand such as Toyota does. The Chinese cars are based on multinational designs but cheaply made; they are particularly lacking in safety features. Cars made in China by multinational joint ventures are generally not exported. The quality of Chinese cars is rapidly increasing but, according to J.D. Power and Associates, is not expected to reach parity with multinational manufacturers until about 2018.
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where was the day of the dead originated | Day of the Dead - wikipedia
The Day of the Dead (Spanish: Día de Muertos) is a Mexican holiday celebrated throughout Mexico, in particular the Central and South regions, and by people of Mexican ancestry living in other places, especially the United States. It is acknowledged internationally in many other cultures. The multi-day holiday focuses on gatherings of family and friends to pray for and remember friends and family members who have died, and help support their spiritual journey. In 2008, the tradition was inscribed in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
The holiday is sometimes called Día de los Muertos in Anglophone countries, a back - translation of its original name, Día de Muertos. It is particularly celebrated in Mexico where the day is a public holiday. Prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century, the celebration took place at the beginning of summer. Gradually, it was associated with October 31, November 1, and November 2 to coincide with the Western Christianity triduum of Allhallowtide: All Saints ' Eve, All Saints ' Day, and All Souls ' Day. Traditions connected with the holiday include building private altars called ofrendas, honoring the deceased using calaveras, aztec marigolds, and the favorite foods and beverages of the departed, and visiting graves with these as gifts. Visitors also leave possessions of the deceased at the graves.
Scholars trace the origins of the modern Mexican holiday to indigenous observances dating back hundreds of years and to an Aztec festival dedicated to the goddess Mictecacihuatl. The holiday has spread throughout the world, being absorbed into other deep traditions in honor of the dead. It has become a national symbol and as such is taught (for educational purposes) in the nation 's schools. Many families celebrate a traditional "All Saints ' Day '' associated with the Catholic Church.
Originally, the Day of the Dead as such was not celebrated in northern Mexico, where it was unknown until the 20th century because its indigenous people had different traditions. The people and the church rejected it as a day related to syncretizing pagan elements with Catholic Christianity. They held the traditional ' All Saints ' Day ' in the same way as other Christians in the world. There was limited Mesoamerican influence in this region, and relatively few indigenous inhabitants from the regions of Southern Mexico, where the holiday was celebrated. In the early 21st century in northern Mexico, Día de Muertos is observed because the Mexican government made it a national holiday based on educational policies from the 1960s; it has introduced this holiday as a unifying national tradition based on indigenous traditions.
The Mexican Day of the Dead celebration is similar to other societies ' observances of a time to honor the dead. The Spanish tradition, for instance, includes festivals and parades, as well as gatherings of families at cemeteries to pray for their deceased loved ones at the end of the day.
The Day of the Dead celebrations in Mexico developed from ancient traditions among its pre-Columbian cultures. Rituals celebrating the deaths of ancestors had been observed by these civilizations perhaps for as long as 2,500 -- 3,000 years. The festival that developed into the modern Day of the Dead fell in the ninth month of the Aztec calendar, about the beginning of August, and was celebrated for an entire month. The festivities were dedicated to the goddess known as the "Lady of the Dead '', corresponding to the modern La Calavera Catrina.
By the late 20th century in most regions of Mexico, practices had developed to honor dead children and infants on November 1, and to honor deceased adults on November 2. November 1 is generally referred to as Día de los Inocentes ("Day of the Innocents '') but also as Día de los Angelitos ("Day of the Little Angels ''); November 2 is referred to as Día de los Muertos or Día de los Difuntos ("Day of the Dead '').
Frances Ann Day summarizes the three - day celebration, the Day of the Dead:
People go to cemeteries to be with the souls of the departed and build private altars containing the favorite foods and beverages, as well as photos and memorabilia, of the departed. The intent is to encourage visits by the souls, so the souls will hear the prayers and the comments of the living directed to them. Celebrations can take a humorous tone, as celebrants remember funny events and anecdotes about the departed.
Plans for the day are made throughout the year, including gathering the goods to be offered to the dead. During the three - day period families usually clean and decorate graves; most visit the cemeteries where their loved ones are buried and decorate their graves with ofrendas (altars), which often include orange Mexican marigolds (Tagetes erecta) called cempasúchil (originally named cempoaxochitl, Nāhuatl for "twenty flowers ''). In modern Mexico the marigold is sometimes called Flor de Muerto (Flower of Dead). These flowers are thought to attract souls of the dead to the offerings.
Toys are brought for dead children (los angelitos, or "the little angels ''), and bottles of tequila, mezcal or pulque or jars of atole for adults. Families will also offer trinkets or the deceased 's favorite candies on the grave. Some families have ofrendas in homes, usually with foods such as candied pumpkin, pan de muerto ("bread of dead ''), and sugar skulls; and beverages such as atole. The ofrendas are left out in the homes as a welcoming gesture for the deceased. Some people believe the spirits of the dead eat the "spiritual essence '' of the ofrendas food, so though the celebrators eat the food after the festivities, they believe it lacks nutritional value. Pillows and blankets are left out so the deceased can rest after their long journey. In some parts of Mexico, such as the towns of Mixquic, Pátzcuaro and Janitzio, people spend all night beside the graves of their relatives. In many places, people have picnics at the grave site, as well.
Some families build altars or small shrines in their homes; these sometimes feature a Christian cross, statues or pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary, pictures of deceased relatives and other people, scores of candles, and an ofrenda. Traditionally, families spend some time around the altar, praying and telling anecdotes about the deceased. In some locations, celebrants wear shells on their clothing, so when they dance, the noise will wake up the dead; some will also dress up as the deceased.
Public schools at all levels build altars with ofrendas, usually omitting the religious symbols. Government offices usually have at least a small altar, as this holiday is seen as important to the Mexican heritage.
Those with a distinctive talent for writing sometimes create short poems, called calaveras (skulls), mocking epitaphs of friends, describing interesting habits and attitudes or funny anecdotes. This custom originated in the 18th or 19th century after a newspaper published a poem narrating a dream of a cemetery in the future, "and all of us were dead '', proceeding to read the tombstones. Newspapers dedicate calaveras to public figures, with cartoons of skeletons in the style of the famous calaveras of José Guadalupe Posada, a Mexican illustrator. Theatrical presentations of Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla (1817 -- 1893) are also traditional on this day.
José Guadalupe Posada created a famous print of a figure he called La Calavera Catrina ("The Elegant Skull '') as a parody of a Mexican upper - class female. Posada 's striking image of a costumed female with a skeleton face has become associated with the Day of the Dead, and Catrina figures often are a prominent part of modern Day of the Dead observances.
A common symbol of the holiday is the skull (in Spanish calavera), which celebrants represent in masks, called calacas (colloquial term for skeleton), and foods such as sugar or chocolate skulls, which are inscribed with the name of the recipient on the forehead. Sugar skulls can be given as gifts to both the living and the dead. Other holiday foods include pan de muerto, a sweet egg bread made in various shapes from plain rounds to skulls and rabbits, often decorated with white frosting to look like twisted bones.
The traditions and activities that take place in celebration of the Day of the Dead are not universal, often varying from town to town. For example, in the town of Pátzcuaro on the Lago de Pátzcuaro in Michoacán, the tradition is very different if the deceased is a child rather than an adult. On November 1 of the year after a child 's death, the godparents set a table in the parents ' home with sweets, fruits, pan de muerto, a cross, a rosary (used to ask the Virgin Mary to pray for them) and candles. This is meant to celebrate the child 's life, in respect and appreciation for the parents. There is also dancing with colorful costumes, often with skull - shaped masks and devil masks in the plaza or garden of the town. At midnight on November 2, the people light candles and ride winged boats called mariposas (butterflies) to Janitzio, an island in the middle of the lake where there is a cemetery, to honor and celebrate the lives of the dead there.
In contrast, the town of Ocotepec, north of Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos, opens its doors to visitors in exchange for veladoras (small wax candles) to show respect for the recently deceased. In return the visitors receive tamales and atole. This is done only by the owners of the house where someone in the household has died in the previous year. Many people of the surrounding areas arrive early to eat for free and enjoy the elaborate altars set up to receive the visitors.
In some parts of the country (especially the cities, where in recent years other customs have been displaced) children in costumes roam the streets, knocking on people 's doors for a calaverita, a small gift of candies or money; they also ask passersby for it. This relatively recent custom is similar to that of Halloween 's trick - or - treating in the United States.
Some people believe possessing Day of the Dead items can bring good luck. Many people get tattoos or have dolls of the dead to carry with them. They also clean their houses and prepare the favorite dishes of their deceased loved ones to place upon their altar or ofrenda.
During Day of the Dead festivities, food is both eaten by living people and given to the spirits of their departed ancestors as ofrendas ("offerings ''). Tamales are one of the most common dishes prepared for this day for both purposes.
Pan de muerto and calaveras are associated specifically with Day of the Dead. Pan de muerto is a type of sweet roll shaped like a bun, topped with sugar, and often decorated with bone - shaped phalanges pieces. Calaveras, or sugar skulls, display colorful designs to represent the vitality and individual personality of the departed.
In addition to food, drink is also important to the tradition of Day of the Dead. Historically, the main alcoholic drink was pulque while today families will commonly drink the favorite beverage of their deceased ancestors. Other drinks associated with the holiday are atole and champurrado, warm, thick, non-alcoholic masa drinks.
Jamaican iced tea is a popular herbal tea made of the flowers and leaves of the Jamaican hibiscus plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa), known as flor de Jamaica in Mexico. It is served cold and quite sweet with a lot of ice. The ruby - red beverage is called hibiscus tea in English - speaking countries and called agua de Jamaica (water of Jamaica) in Spanish.
In Belize, Day of the Dead is practiced by people of the Yucatec Maya ethnicity. The celebration is known as Hanal Pixan which means "food for the souls '' in their language. Altars are constructed and decorated with food, drinks, candies, and candles put on them.
Dia de los ñatitas ("Day of the Skulls '') is a festival celebrated in La Paz, Bolivia, on May 5. In pre-Columbian times indigenous Andeans had a tradition of sharing a day with the bones of their ancestors on the third year after burial. Today families keep only the skulls for such rituals. Traditionally, the skulls of family members are kept at home to watch over the family and protect them during the year. On November 9, the family crowns the skulls with fresh flowers, sometimes also dressing them in various garments, and making offerings of cigarettes, coca leaves, alcohol, and various other items in thanks for the year 's protection. The skulls are also sometimes taken to the central cemetery in La Paz for a special Mass and blessing.
The Brazilian public holiday of Finados (Day of the Dead) is celebrated on November 2. Similar to other Day of the Dead celebrations, people go to cemeteries and churches with flowers and candles and offer prayers. The celebration is intended as a positive honoring of the dead. Memorializing the dead draws from indigenous, African and European Catholic origins.
Guatemalan celebrations of the Day of the Dead, on November 1, are highlighted by the construction and flying of giant kites in addition to the traditional visits to grave sites of ancestors. A big event also is the consumption of fiambre, which is made only for this day during the year.
In Ecuador the Day of the Dead is observed to some extent by all parts of society, though it is especially important to the indigenous Kichwa peoples, who make up an estimated quarter of the population. Indigena families gather together in the community cemetery with offerings of food for a day - long remembrance of their ancestors and lost loved ones. Ceremonial foods include colada morada, a spiced fruit porridge that derives its deep purple color from the Andean blackberry and purple maize. This is typically consumed with guagua de pan, a bread shaped like a swaddled infant, though variations include many pigs -- the latter being traditional to the city of Loja. The bread, which is wheat flour - based today, but was made with masa in the pre-Columbian era, can be made savory with cheese inside or sweet with a filling of guava paste. These traditions have permeated mainstream society, as well, where food establishments add both colada morada and gaugua de pan to their menus for the season. Many non-indigenous Ecuadorians visit the graves of the deceased, cleaning and bringing flowers, or preparing the traditional foods, too.
Usually people visit the cemetery and bring flowers to decorate the graves of dead relatives. Sometimes people play music at the cemetery.
In many American communities with Mexican residents, Day of the Dead celebrations are very similar to those held in Mexico. In some of these communities, in states such as Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, the celebrations tend to be mostly traditional. The All Souls Procession has been an annual Tucson, Arizona event since 1990. The event combines elements of traditional Day of the Dead celebrations with those of pagan harvest festivals. People wearing masks carry signs honoring the dead and an urn in which people can place slips of paper with prayers on them to be burned. Likewise, Old Town San Diego, California annually hosts a traditional two - day celebration culminating in a candlelight procession to the historic El Campo Santo Cemetery.
In Missoula, Montana, celebrants wearing skeleton costumes and walking on stilts, riding novelty bicycles, and traveling on skis parade through town.
The festival also is held annually at historic Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston 's Jamaica Plain neighborhood. Sponsored by Forest Hills Educational Trust and the folkloric performance group La Piñata, the Day of the Dead festivities celebrate the cycle of life and death. People bring offerings of flowers, photos, mementos, and food for their departed loved ones, which they place at an elaborately and colorfully decorated altar. A program of traditional music and dance also accompanies the community event.
The Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with the University of Texas at El Paso and Second Life, have created a Smithsonian Latino Virtual Museum and accompanying multimedia e-book: Día de los Muertos: Day of the Dead. The project 's website contains some of the text and images which explain the origins of some of the customary core practices related to the Day of the Dead, such as the background beliefs and the offrenda (the special altar commemorating one 's deceased loved one). The Made For iTunes multimedia e-book version provides additional content, such as further details; additional photo galleries; pop - up profiles of influential Latino artists and cultural figures over the decades; and video clips of interviews with artists who make Dia de Muertos - themed artwork, explanations and performances of Aztec and other traditional dances, an animation short that explains the customs to children, virtual poetry readings in English and Spanish.
Santa Ana, California is said to hold the "largest event in Southern California '' honoring Día de Muertos, called the annual Noche de Altares, which began in 2002. The celebration of the Day of the Dead in Santa Ana has grown to two large events with the creation of an event held at the Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center for the first time on November 1, 2015.
In other communities, interactions between Mexican traditions and American culture are resulting in celebrations in which Mexican traditions are being extended to make artistic or sometimes political statements. For example, in Los Angeles, California, the Self Help Graphics & Art Mexican - American cultural center presents an annual Day of the Dead celebration that includes both traditional and political elements, such as altars to honor the victims of the Iraq War, highlighting the high casualty rate among Latino soldiers. An updated, intercultural version of the Day of the Dead is also evolving at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. There, in a mixture of Native Californian art, Mexican traditions and Hollywood hip, conventional altars are set up side - by - side with altars to Jayne Mansfield and Johnny Ramone. Colorful native dancers and music intermix with performance artists, while sly pranksters play on traditional themes.
Similar traditional and intercultural updating of Mexican celebrations are held in San Francisco. For example, the Galería de la Raza, SomArts Cultural Center, Mission Cultural Center, de Young Museum and altars at Garfield Square by the Marigold Project. Oakland is home to Corazon Del Pueblo in the Fruitvale district. Corazon Del Pueblo has a shop offering handcrafted Mexican gifts and a museum devoted to Day of the Dead artifacts. Also, the Fruitvale district in Oakland serves as the hub of the Dia de Muertos annual festival which occurs the last weekend of October. Here, a mix of several Mexican traditions come together with traditional Aztec dancers, regional Mexican music, and other Mexican artisans to celebrate the day.
The Catholic traditions were initiated with the arrival of the Portuguese in 1510. The Almacho Dis (Souls Day) is commemorated on Nov 2, following all Saints Day (Nov. 1). On this day, the forgotten souls are remembered and spiritual charity is done though prayer for the deceased family and ancestral souls. Charity is practiced also by offering food for the poor called beggars lunch (bikareanchem jevonn) where the poor are invited for lunch, from the village and treated with dignity and respect. The invited down trodden are served as guest and usually commences with prayers for the deceased souls. Following mass on all souls day, the deceased visit the graveyard of the deceased souls and pray and also decorate their graves.
While ancestor veneration is an ancient part of Filipino culture, the modern observance is believed to have been imported from Mexico when the islands (as part of the Spanish East Indies) were governed from Mexico City as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. During the holiday (observed every November 1), Filipinos customarily visit family tombs and other graves, which they repair and clean. Entire families spend a night or two at their loved ones ' tombs, passing time with card games, eating, drinking, singing and dancing. Prayers such as the rosary are often said for the deceased, who are normally offered candles, flowers, food, and even liquor. Some Catholic Chinese Filipino families additionally offer joss sticks to the dead, and observe customs otherwise associated with the Hungry Ghost Festival.
In Christian Europe, Roman Catholic customs absorbed pagan traditions. All Saints Day and All Souls Day became the autumnal celebration of the dead. Over many centuries, rites which had occurred in cultivated fields, where the souls of the dead were thought to leave after the harvest, to cemeteries.
In many countries with a Roman Catholic heritage, All Saints Day and All Souls Day have evolved traditions in which people take the day off work, go to cemeteries with candles and flowers, and give presents to children, usually sweets and toys. In Portugal and Spain ofrendas ("offerings '') are made on this day. In Spain, the play Don Juan Tenorio is traditionally performed. In Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain, people bring flowers (typically chrysanthemums in France and northern Europe) to the graves of dead relatives and say prayers over the dead.
In Eastern Europe holiday is called Dziady and also has pagan origins. In Belarus the ancient tradition involved cooking ritual dishes for supper. Part of each dish was put into a separate plate and left overnight for the dead ancestors. Public meetings are often organized on this day to commemorate the victims of Soviet political repressions.
As part of a promotion by the Mexican embassy in Prague, Czech Republic, since the late 20th century, some local citizens join in a Mexican - style Day of the Dead. A theatre group produces events featuring masks, candles, and sugar skulls.
Mexican - style Day of the Dead celebrations occur in major cities in Australia, Fiji, and Indonesia. Additionally, prominent celebrations are held in Wellington, New Zealand, complete with altars celebrating the deceased with flowers and gifts.
Many other cultures around the world have similar traditions of a day set aside to visit the graves of deceased family members. Often included in these traditions are celebrations, food, and beverages, in addition to prayers and remembrances of the departed.
In some African cultures, visits to ancestors ' graves, the leaving of food and gifts, and the asking of protection from them serve as important parts of traditional rituals. One such ritual is held just before the start of the hunting season.
The Qingming Festival (simplified Chinese: 清明 节; traditional Chinese: 清明 節; pinyin: qīng míng jié) is a traditional Chinese festival usually occurring around April 5 of the Gregorian calendar. Along with Double Ninth Festival on the 9th day of the 9th month in the Chinese calendar, it is a time to tend to the graves of departed ones. In addition, in the Chinese tradition, the seventh month in the Chinese calendar is called the Ghost Month (鬼 月), in which ghosts and spirits come out from the underworld to visit earth.
The Bon Festival (O - bon (お盆), or only Bon (盆)), is a Japanese Buddhist holiday held in August to honor the spirits of departed ancestors. It is derived in part from the Chinese observance of the Ghost Month, and was affixed to the solar calendar along with other traditional Japanese holidays.
In Korea, Chuseok (추석, 秋 夕; also called Hangawi) is a major traditional holiday. People go where the spirits of their ancestors are enshrined, and perform ancestral worship rituals early in the morning. They visit the tombs of immediate ancestors to trim plants, clean the area around the tomb, and offer food, drink, and crops to their ancestors.
During the Nepalese holiday of Gai Jatra ("Cow Pilgrimage ''), every family who has lost a member during the previous year creates a tai out of bamboo branches, cloth, and paper decorations, in which are placed portraits of the deceased. As a cow traditionally leads the spirits of the dead into the afterlife, an actual or symbolic cow is used depending on local custom. The festival is also a time to dress up in a costume reminiscent of the western Halloween, with popular subjects including political commentary and satire.
Disneyland Resorts ' annual "Halloween Time '' celebrates the art and traditions of Dias de los Muertos located at Frontierland.
The 1998 Grim Fandango video game features Mexican Day of the Dead iconography with Aztec and Egyptian influences.
The 2014 The Book of Life film follows a bullfighter who, on the Day of the Dead, embarks on an afterlife adventure.
In the 2015 James Bond film, Spectre, the opening sequence featured a Day of the Dead parade in Mexico City. At the time, no such parade took place in Mexico City; one year later, due to the interest in the film and the government desire to promote the pre-Hispanic Mexican culture, the federal and local authorities decided to organize an actual "Día de Muertos '' parade through Paseo de la Reforma and Centro Historico on October 29, 2016, which was attended by 250,000 people.
The 2016 Elena of Avalor season one episode "A Night to Remember '' focused on Dias de los Muertos.
The 2017 Pixar film Coco features the Dias de los Muertos holiday as a major element in its plot.
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what happens at the end of before i go to sleep | Before I Go to Sleep (film) - wikipedia
Before I Go to Sleep is a 2014 mystery psychological thriller film written and directed by Rowan Joffé and based on the 2011 novel Before I Go to Sleep by S.J. Watson. An international co-production between the United Kingdom, the United States, France, and Sweden, the film stars Nicole Kidman, Mark Strong, Colin Firth, and Anne - Marie Duff.
Forty - year - old Christine Lucas wakes up in bed with a man she does not know, in an unfamiliar house. The man explains that he is her husband, Ben, and that she suffered brain damage from a car accident ten years earlier. Christine wakes up every morning with no memory of her life from her early twenties onwards.
Christine receives treatment from Dr. Nasch, a neuropsychologist at a local hospital who gives her a camera to record her thoughts and progress each day, and calls her every morning to remind her to watch the video in the camera. Dr. Nasch instructs Christine to keep the camera hidden from Ben and reveals that her memory loss occurred after she was attacked and left for dead near an airport hotel. They surmise that Ben tells Christine it was a car accident to avoid upsetting her.
Over the course of treatment, Christine faintly remembers a red - haired woman named Claire. Ben tells her that Claire was a friend who could n't handle Christine 's condition and ended contact with her. Later, Christine recalls that she had a son. She angrily confronts Ben over hiding their child, but he says their son died of meningitis when he was eight. Christine remembers the name Mike and believes it may be the name of her attacker, which she relates to Dr. Nasch. He hugs her to comfort her and almost kisses her, but she pulls back and then sees her doctor 's name tag and his first name is Mike. She runs from him but he catches her and administers a sedative, leaving her at home. He tells her later that she was upset and he 's sorry but he does n't feel he can treat her anymore, because he has feelings for her and her memories are causing her to transfer what happened onto him.
Christine learns that, several years after her attack, Ben had placed her in an assisted care facility and divorced her, then had a change of heart and brought her home to live with him. Christine learns that Claire had been trying to contact her at the care facility, unaware that Ben took her away. Christine obtains Claire 's phone number and meets her. Claire reveals that Christine had embarked on an affair prior to her attack, while Ben and Claire had a one - time sexual encounter, due to their shared grief at Christine 's memory loss. Feeling obliged to keep Ben and Christine 's marriage intact, Claire ended contact.
Claire gives Christine a letter written to her by Ben. He asked Claire to give it to Christine should she ever be well enough to read it. In the letter, Ben tells Christine that he loves her, but that he had to leave her for their son Adam 's sake. Adam was unable to understand her memory loss every morning, and when Adam would insist things happened that Christine could not remember she would get upset. Adam had begun to be afraid of her. Ben believed for Adam 's sake that they needed to leave her, and he begs her to understand.
Out of gratitude for his love and care, Christine decides to let Ben see the videos she has made on the digital camera. However, Ben angrily accuses Christine of having an affair with Dr. Nasch, strikes her, and storms out. On the telephone, Claire tells Christine that Ben claims to not have seen Christine for several years. Claire asks Christine to describe the "Ben '' she is living with, and they realize he is not Ben. Christine is beginning to have more limited memories as things happen around her. Christine attempts to escape the house, but "Ben '' renders her unconscious.
The next morning, Christine again awakens with no memories but she finds the camera and sees her entry saying she loves "Ben '' and wants to make a life with him. "Ben '' calls Christine and tells her to pack, that they are going on a trip that night. He then visits Dr. Nasch at the hospital and tells him to stay away from Christine. That night, "Ben '' takes her to a hotel close to where she had been found. He reveals that he is Mike, the man she had an affair with. Christine then remembers that Mike had wanted Christine to reveal their affair to Ben, but Christine refused, and their argument culminated in Mike viciously attacking Christine, resulting in her amnesia. He also inadvertently reveals that Christine 's son Adam is still alive. Declaring his love for Christine, Mike deletes the videos on her camera and states that he is no longer interested in playing the part of Ben. He tells Christine that they leave together, or no one leaves. Another struggle ensues, but this time Christine knocks Mike out and gets away. She sets off the hotel fire alarm while running from the hotel and is seen telling her story on the camera while waiting in an ambulance.
Christine wakes up in a hospital bed and is visited by Dr. Nasch, this time as a friend and not her therapist. He assures her the man responsible for her condition has been arrested. He tells Christine that she has visitors and that he hopes the visit will provide the breakthrough they have been hoping for. Christine is then visited by the real Ben and Adam. Christine 's memories return when she sees Adam.
On 1 May 2011, Ridley Scott bought the film rights of the novel Before I Go to Sleep written by S.J. Watson and hired Rowan Joffé to direct and write the script. In February 2012 Nicole Kidman was in talks to join the film; later in May she joined to star as Christine. On 31 October 2012 Mark Strong also joined the cast of the film. According to The Hollywood Reporter on 16 November 2012, Kidman said she wanted Colin Firth to work with her again. They had already worked together in a drama The Railway Man. On 6 February 2013, it was confirmed that Firth has joined the cast to lead with Kidman.
The film was shot in London and at Twickenham Studios.
The film was released in the United Kingdom on 5 September 2014 and released in the United States on 31 October 2014.
On 3 July 2014, the first UK trailer of the film was released by StudioCanal UK.
The film was met with generally negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 35 %, based on 107 reviews, with an average rating of 5 / 10. The general consensus reads, "If it does n't completely avoid thriller clichés, Before I Go to Sleep still offers a stylish, fast - paced, and well - acted diversion. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 41 out of 100, based on reviews from 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
It has been unfavorably compared to Memento, a film released nearly a decade and a half earlier. "What the brilliant ' Memento ' once used as a way to explore a truly inventive way of storytelling is here just a gimmick. It 's shallow, it 's silly, it 's pat. It 's... forgettable, '' wrote the New Jersey Star - Ledger. "Christopher Nolan 's 2000 brain - twister ' Memento ' starred Guy Pearce as a man with a similar malady. The earlier film rigorously stuck within the logical confines of its premise. Joffé 's is filled with far too many contradictions and implausible situations, '' wrote the Philadelphia Inquirer.
Kidman 's performance has been positively received. Writing for Daily Star, critic Andy Lea said in a positive review that "Kidman puts in a chilling performance as the frail but determined Christine. '' David Edwards of Daily Mirror stated, "Leading lady Nicole Kidman has n't been this good in ages '' finishing with "Kidman is on top form as the nervy, spiky woman walking a psychological tightrope. ''
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who wrote the best is yet to come | The Best is Yet to Come - Wikipedia
"The Best is Yet to Come '' is a 1959 song composed by Cy Coleman, with lyrics written by Carolyn Leigh. It is generally associated with Frank Sinatra, who recorded it on his 1964 album It Might as Well Be Swing, accompanied by Count Basie, under the direction of Quincy Jones. It was the last song Sinatra sang in public, on February 25, 1995, and the words "The Best is Yet to Come '' are etched on Sinatra 's tombstone. Though Sinatra made it popular, the song was actually written for and introduced by Tony Bennett.
Notable recordings include:
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when did the first nike air max come out | Nike Air Max - wikipedia
Nike Air Max is a line of shoes first released by Nike, Inc. in 1987. The shoe was originally designed by Tinker Hatfield, who started out working for Nike as an architect designing shops; he also designed many of the Air Jordan models. The Nike air technology was created and patented by employee M. Frank Rudy.
The Nike Air Max shoe uses a large air cushioning unit at the heel which is visible from the side of the midsole in most models. Types of Air Max cushioning include:
The line of sneakers is popular amongst many subcultures, for example Hip Hop, Gabber and the working class. They have also found popularity amongst far - right youth.
In the mid-1990s the line, especially the Air Max 95 model, experienced such a surge of popularity in Japan that it led to a phenomenon known as "Air Max hunting ''. The extremely inflated prices of the shoes led to a rash of muggings in the normally - peaceful country wherein Air Max wearers were attacked and their shoes were stolen. Even used shoes were in demand, and fakes also became a serious problem.
Released in 1987 as the Air Max, the Air Max 1 is the first shoe to have Nike 's air cushioning unit on full display. The sneaker 's upper was made of nylon and synthetic suede. Leather version was later released in 1988. A 1992 reissue had taken the midsole and outsole from the Air Max III (now called the Air Max 90) and featured a leather upper. Nylon was brought back in a 1995 reissue.
Released in 1989 as the Air Max II, the Air Max Light weighed less than the original, achieved by replacing the forefoot polyurethane midsole with one made of EVA foam. Re-released in 2007, Nike has continued to release additional colorways.
Known as the Air Max III until 2000, when it was reissued taking its name from the year of its launch. The original colourway of white / black / cool grey with infrared was chosen to exaggerate the thickness of the sole air cushion. The upper featured Duromesh, synthetic suede and synthetic leather. Nike specially designed a pair of Nike Air Max 90s for President George H.W. Bush. Images of the customized sneakers have been seen around the Department of Nike Archives, and feature AIR PRES branding along with what appears to be a unique colorway.
Released in 1991, the Air Max 180 featured a lager air unit visible through the outsole. The technology was later used in the Air Force 180 sneaker.
Nike air 180
Released in 1993 as the Air Max 270, the Air Max 93 introduced a 270 - degree air unit and colored air units to the range. Nike employed a new manufacturing processes to provide the larger and more exposed air unit greater protection. The upper featured a more sock - like fit derived from 1991 's Air Hurrache sneaker.
The visual design of the Air Max 95 was created by Sergio Lozano who based the design of the Air Max 95 on the human anatomy, with the spine of the shoe resembling the human spine and the materials intended to represent skin, ribs, and tendons. The Air Max 95 was the first pair in the line to utilize two air cushions in the forefoot and used air pressure technology to fit the curvature of the wearer 's forefoot.. The first colorway was black, neon yellow and white. Neon yellow was used to emphasize the multiple air units. The shoe also introduced a smaller Nike swoosh minimized in the rear side panel. Original releases featured a "25 PSI '' air pressure reading on the rear air unit. Uppers also featured 3M Scotchlite material.
According to a 2007 tabloid newspaper study of the UK Forensic Science Service 's database of footwear, the Nike Air Max 95 was "criminals ' number one choice '' in footwear.
The product was referenced in the hip hop song "Hate It or Love It '' by The Game, which was a worldwide top 10 hit in 2005. Also referenced by rappers Gucci Mane in the hit single "Bricks '' and Waka Flocka Flame on the track "Head First '' in his 2009 mixtape, "Lebron Flocka James ''. The rapper Eminem designed a limited - edition range of Air Maxes sold for charity.
1997 's Air Max 97 was inspired by high - speed Japanese bullet trains. It was introduced with a sleeker, metallic silver colorway that contained a nearly full - length visible air unit. Uppers feature three reflective lines made of 3M Scotchbrite material. The Nike Air Max 97 is a Nike running shoe designed by Christian Tresser. It was inspired by Japan 's high - speed Bullet Trains and features a mix of leather, foam, and full - length visible Air. The original "Silver Bullet '' colorway released again in the US on April 13th, 2017 for $160. Over 13 new colorways are hitting retailers starting August 1st, 2017.
Released in 1998, the Air Max Plus introduced Nike 's Tuned Air system. It is often referred to as the Air Max TN. Designed by Sean McDowell, the Air Max Plus featured tranverse waves inspired by palm trees, and a prominent arch shank inspired by a whale tail. The initial release featured a "Hyper Blue '' colorway, characterized by a fading blue airbrush effect. The Nike swoosh had a slightly irregular appearance as a border was added along the inner edge, as opposed to the outer surface.
On January 21, 2006 Nike launched the Air Max 360, a new shoe design that utilized Max Air throughout the shoes midsole.
In September 2006 Nike introduced a special ' one time only pack ' which fused the 360 model with three classics. The three shoes used were the Air Max 90, Air Max 95, and Air Max 97. For this special release, the design of the 360 sole was used in place of the normal sole of the three classics. The shoes were released in the three original colors: red for the Air Max 90, green / yellow for the Air Max 95, and grey / silver for the Air Max 97. Like other Air Max releases, deluxe editions were also produced. These deluxe editions lasted for about 500 miles (800 km) before their shock absorbing properties deteriorated. The use of ' 360 ' of air cushioning is meant to ensure the shoes longevity.
The shoes were initially advertised in 1987 with a TV campaign that used the Beatles ' song "Revolution '', the first time a Beatles song had been used in a TV commercial. The following year, Nike used the Just Do It slogan. They were also endorsed by Bo Jackson in exchange for a $100,000 fee, with advertising agency Wieden and Kennedy coming up with the slogan "Bo knows... ''.
Models include:
The 1993 model was the first to have the fully visible heel Air unit that was visible in the back as well as on the sides, and the 1995 model was the first to feature visible forefoot Air. The 1997 model was the first to include a full length Air bag.
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which star in the big dipper is closest to earth | Big Dipper - wikipedia
The Big Dipper (US) or the Plough (UK, Ireland) is a large asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one, Megrez (δ), of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl '' or "body '' and three define a "handle '' or "head ''. It is recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures.
The North Star (Polaris), the current northern pole star and the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper (Little Bear), can be located by extending an imaginary line through the front two stars of the asterism, Merak (β) and Dubhe (α). This makes it useful in celestial navigation.
The constellation of Ursa Major (Greek: Great Bear) has been seen as a bear, a wagon, or a ladle. The "bear '' tradition is Greek, but apparently the name "bear '' has parallels in Siberian or North American traditions.
The name "Bear '' is Homeric, and apparently native to Greece, while the "Wain '' tradition is Mesopotamian. Book XVIII of Homer 's Iliad mentions it as "the Bear, which men also call the Wain ''. In Latin, these seven stars were known as the "Seven Oxen '' (septentriones, from septem triōnēs). The classical mythographer identified the "Bear '' as the nymph Callisto, changed into a she - bear by Hera, the jealous wife of Zeus.
In Ireland and the United Kingdom, this pattern is known as the Plough. The symbol of the Starry Plough has been used as a political symbol by Irish Republican and left wing movements. Former names include the Great Wain (i.e., wagon) or Butcher 's Cleaver. The terms Charles 's Wain and Charles his Wain are derived from the still older Carlswæn. A folk etymology holds that this derived from Charlemagne, but the name is common to all the Germanic languages and intended the churls ' wagon (i.e., "the men 's wagon ''), in contrast with the women 's wagon (the Little Dipper). An older "Odin 's Wain '' may have preceded these Nordic designations.
In German, it is known as the "Great Wagon '' (Großer Wagen) and, less often, the "Great Bear '' (Großer Bär). In Scandinavia, it is known by variations of "Charles 's Wagon '' (Karlavagnen, Karlsvogna, or Karlsvognen), but also the "Great Bear '' (Stora Björn). In Dutch, its official name is the "Great Bear '' (Grote Beer), but it is popularly known as the "Saucepan '' (Steelpannetje). In Italian, too, it is called the "Great Wagon '' (Grande Carro).
In Romanian and most Slavic languages, it is known as the "Great Wagon '' as well. In Hungarian, it is commonly called "Göncöl 's Wagon '' (Göncölszekér) or, less often, "Big Göncöl '' (Nagy Göncöl) after a táltos (shaman) in Hungarian mythology who carried medicine that could cure any disease. In Finnish, the figure is known as Otava with established etymology in the archaic meaning ' salmon net ', although other uses of the word refer to ' bear ' and ' wheel '. The bear relation is claimed to stem from the animal 's resemblance to -- and mythical origin from -- the asterism rather than vice versa.
In the Lithuanian language, the stars of Ursa Major are known as Didieji Grįžulo Ratai ("Stars of the Riding Hall 's Wheels ''). Other names for the constellation include Perkūno Ratai ("Wheels of Perkūnas ''), Kaušas ("Bucket ''), Vežimas ("Carriage ''), and Samtis ("Summit '').
In traditional Chinese astronomy, which continues to be used throughout East Asia (e.g., in astrology), these stars are generally considered to compose the Right Wall of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure which surrounds the Northern Celestial Pole, although numerous other groupings and names have been made over the centuries. Similarly, each star has a distinct name, which likewise has varied over time and depending upon the asterism being constructed. The Western asterism is now known as the "Northern Dipper '' (北斗) or the "Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper '' (Chinese and Japanese: 北斗 七星; pinyin: Běidǒu Qīxīng; Cantonese Yale: Bak1 - dau2 Cat1 - sing1; rōmaji: Hokutō Shichisei; Korean: 북두칠성; romaja: Bukdu Chilseong; Vietnamese: Sao Bắc Đẩu). The personification of the Big Dipper itself is also known as "Doumu '' (斗 母) in Chinese folk religion and Taoism, and Marici in Buddhism.
In Shinto, the seven largest stars of Ursa Major belong to Amenominakanushi, the oldest and most powerful of all kami.
In North Korea, the constellation is featured on the flag of the country 's special forces.
In South Korea, the constellation is referred to as "the seven stars of the north ''. In the related myth, a widow with seven sons found comfort with a widower, but to get to his house required crossing a stream. The seven sons, sympathetic to their mother, placed stepping stones in the river. Their mother, not knowing who put the stones in place, blessed them and, when they died, they became the constellation.
In Malaysian, it is known as the "Dipper Stars '' (Buruj Biduk); in Indonesian, as the "Canoe Stars '' (Bintang Biduk).
In Burmese, these stars are known as Pucwan Tārā (ပုဇွန် တာရာ, pronounced "bazun taya ''). Pucwan (ပုဇွန်) is a general term for a crustacean, such as prawn, shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.
In Javanese, as known as "Bintang Kartika ''. This name comes from Sanskrit which refers "krttikã '' the same star cluster. In ancient Javanese this brightest seven stars are known as Lintang Wuluh, literally means "seven stars ''. This star cluster is so popular because its emergence into the sky signals the time marker for planting.
In Hindu astronomy, it is referred to as the "Collection of Seven Great Sages '' (Saptarshi Mandala), as each star is named after a mythical Hindu sage.
An Arabian story has the four stars of the Plough 's bowl as a coffin, with the three stars in the handle as mourners, following it.
In Mongolian, it is known as the "Seven Gods '' (Долоон бурхан). In Kazakh, they are known as the Jetiqaraqshi (Жетіқарақшы) and, in Kyrgyz, as the Jetigen (Жетиген).
Within Ursa Major the stars of the Big Dipper have Bayer designations in consecutive Greek alphabetical order from the bowl to the handle.
In the same line of sight as Mizar, but about one light - year beyond it, is the star Alcor (80 UMa). Together they are known as the "Horse and Rider ''. At fourth magnitude, Alcor would normally be relatively easy to see with the unaided eye, but its proximity to Mizar renders it more difficult to resolve, and it has served as a traditional test of sight. Mizar itself has four components and thus enjoys the distinction of being part of an optical binary as well as being the first - discovered telescopic binary (1617) and the first - discovered spectroscopic binary (1889).
Five of the stars of the Big Dipper are at the core of the Ursa Major Moving Group. The two at the ends, Dubhe and Alkaid, are not part of the swarm, and are moving in the opposite direction. Relative to the central five, they are moving down and to the right in the map. This will slowly change the Dipper 's shape, with the bowl opening up and the handle becoming more bent. In 50,000 years the Dipper will no longer exist as we know it (citation required), but be re-formed into a new Dipper facing the opposite way. The stars Alkaid to Phecda will then constitute the bowl, while Phecda, Merak, and Dubhe will be the handle.
Not only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves, they may also be used as guides to yet other stars. Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky:
Additionally, the Dipper may be used as a guide to telescopic objects:
The "Seven Stars '' referenced in the Bible 's Book of Amos may refer to these stars or, more likely, to the Pleiades.
In addition, the constellation has also been used in corporate logos and the Alaska flag. The seven stars on a red background of the Flag of the Community of Madrid, Spain, are the stars of the Big Dipper Asterism. It can be said the same thing about the seven stars pictured in the bordure azure of the Coat of arms of Madrid, capital of Spain.
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how do cases reach the supreme court and what factors influence whether cases are heard | Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court in the United States and the only court specifically established by the Constitution of the United States, implemented in 1789.
This article is concerned with the process and procedures used by the modern court. For general discussion of the court 's jurisdiction and composition, see Supreme Court of the United States; for discussion of the court 's present and historical accommodations, see United States Supreme Court building; for discussion of the history of the court, see History of the Supreme Court of the United States.
A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of approximately two weeks known as "sittings '' and "recesses. '' Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.
In nearly all of the cases heard by the Supreme Court, the Court exercises the appellate jurisdiction granted it by Article III of the Constitution. This authority permits the Court to review -- and affirm or overturn -- decisions made by lower courts and tribunals. Procedures for bringing cases before the Supreme Court have changed significantly over time. Today, cases are brought before the Supreme Court by one of several methods, of which the first two account for the overwhelming majority of cases decided:
Certain cases that have not been considered by a lower court may be heard by the Supreme Court in the first instance under what is termed original jurisdiction. The Supreme Court 's authority in this respect is also derived from Article III of the Constitution, which states that the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction "in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party. '' The original jurisdiction of the Court is set forth in 28 U.S.C. § 1251. This statute provides further that, in the case of disputes between two or more states, the Supreme Court holds both original and exclusive jurisdiction and no lower court may hear such cases.
The number of original jurisdiction cases heard by the court is small; generally only one or two such cases are heard per term. Because the nine - member Supreme Court is not well - suited to conducting pretrial proceedings or trials, original jurisdiction cases accepted by the Court are typically referred to a well - qualified lawyer or lower - court judge to serve as special master, conduct the proceedings, and report recommendations to the Court. The Court then considers whether to accept the special master 's report or whether to sustain any exceptions filed to the report.
Although jury trials are in theory possible in the Court 's original jurisdiction cases, there has not been one since Georgia v. Brailsford in 1794. In 1950, in the case United States v. Louisiana, the state of Louisiana moved for a jury trial, but the Court denied the motion, ruling that the suit was an equity action and not an action at law, and that therefore the Seventh Amendment guarantee of a jury trial did not apply. If a matter involving an action at law did come before the court, however, a jury would likely be empaneled and would hear the case alongside the justices of the Court.
Since the Judiciary Act of 1925 ("The Certiorari Act '' in some texts), the majority of the Supreme Court 's jurisdiction has been discretionary. Each year, the court receives approximately 9,000 -- 10,000 petitions for certiorari, of which less than 1 % (approximately 80 -- 100), are granted plenary review with oral arguments, and an additional 50 to 60 are disposed of without plenary review.
The Court strictly enforces its requirements for the preparation and timely filing of certiorari petitions, in order to manage such a massive caseload. This occasionally results in harsh consequences, as Justice Thomas acknowledged in a 2007 opinion: "Just a few months ago, the Clerk, pursuant to this Court 's Rule 13.2, refused to accept a petition for certiorari submitted by Ryan Heath Dickson because it had been filed one day late... Dickson was executed on April 26, 2007, without any Member of this Court having even seen his petition for certiorari. The rejected certiorari petition was Dickson 's first in this Court, and one can only speculate as to whether denial of that petition would have been a foregone conclusion. ''
In theory, each Justice 's clerks write a brief for the Justice outlining the questions presented, and offering a recommendation as to whether certiorari should be granted; in practice, most Justices (all of the current court, except Justices Alito and Gorsuch) have their clerks participate in the cert pool.
During the Justices ' regular conference, the Justices discuss the petitions, and grant certiorari in less than five percent of the cases filed. (During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of cases accepted and decided each term approached 150 per year; more recently, the number of cases granted has averaged well under 100 annually). Before each conference, the Chief Justice prepares a list of those petitions he believes have sufficient merit to warrant discussion. Any other Justice may also add a case to the "discuss list ''; cases not designated for discussion by any Justice are automatically denied review. The Court or a Justice may also decide that a case be "re-listed '' for discussion at a later conference; this occurs, for example, where the Court decides to request input from the Solicitor General of the United States on whether a petition should be granted.
The votes of four Justices at Conference (see Rule of four) will suffice to grant certiorari and place the case on the court 's calendar. If the Supreme Court grants certiorari (or the certified question or other extraordinary writ), then a briefing schedule is arranged for the parties to submit their briefs in favor of or against a particular form of relief. During this time, an individual or group having an interest in a case but not a party to the case may submit a motion to appear before the court as amicus curiae ("friend of the court ''). Except for certain specific categories (such as lawyers for state and local governments) or where all parties to the case consent, it is in the Court 's discretion whether such motions are granted.
The grant or denial of certiorari petitions by the Court are usually issued as one - sentence orders without explanation.
Cases that fall within the Court 's original jurisdiction are initiated by filing a complaint directly with the Supreme Court, and normally are assigned to a special master appointed by the Court for the taking of evidence and making recommendations, after which the Court may accept briefs and hear oral arguments as in an appellate case.
Before oral arguments, the parties to a case file legal briefs outlining their arguments. An amicus curiae may also submit a brief in support of a particular outcome in the case if the Court grants it permission. Formal rules govern every aspect of these briefs; Chief Justice William Rehnquist described the rules thus:
Thereafter, if the Court chooses to hold a hearing, each side has thirty minutes to present its case orally. In exceptional and controversial cases, however, the time limit may be extended. In the Court 's early years, attorneys might argue a single case for hours or even days; but as the judicial workload increased, the time available for argument has been restricted. The late Chief Justice Rehnquist was noted for his especially strict enforcement of the argument time limits.
To file pleadings or to argue a case, an attorney must be a member of the bar of the Court. (The primary requirement for admission to the Bar is that the attorney must have been admitted to practice in the highest court of a state or territory for at least the past three years.) Justices are allowed to interrupt the attorney speaking in order to ask him or her questions, and particularly since the arrival of Justice Antonin Scalia in 1986, do so often.
The Court began recording Oral Arguments in October 1955. Beginning in October 2010, the Supreme Court began the practice of posting recordings and transcripts of the oral arguments made during the preceding week on Fridays on the Court 's website.
In an interview for C - SPAN, former Justice Scalia, speaking for himself, noted that by the time the Justices hear oral arguments, having read the submissions by the parties and amici, it is "very rare, though not unheard of '', for the discussion during the oral arguments to change his view of a case in which he has already made up his mind based on the submissions and his research about the case. However, he also made the point that it is "quite common '' for him to go into Oral Arguments with his mind not made up yet, as the cases are usually very hard and difficult, and that in those situations a persuasive attorney can make the difference for him.
At the end of a week in which the Court has heard oral arguments, the Justices hold a conference to discuss the cases and vote on any new petitions of certiorari. The Justices discuss the points of law at issue in the cases. No clerks are permitted to be present, which would make it exceedingly difficult for a justice without a firm grasp of the matters at hand to participate. At this conference, each justice -- in order from most to least senior -- states the basis on which he or she would decide the case, and a preliminary vote is taken.
Former Justice Scalia professed frustration that there is little substantive discussion, while former Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote that this makes the conference more efficient. The votes are tallied, and the responsibility for writing the opinion in the case is assigned to one of the justices; the most senior Justice voting in the majority (but always the Chief Justice if he is in the majority) makes the assignment, and can assign the responsibility to him - or herself.
The justice writing the opinion for the court will produce and circulate a draft opinion to the other justices. Each justice 's law clerks may be involved in this phase. In modern Supreme Court history only a few justices, such as former Justice Antonin Scalia, have regularly written their own first drafts. Once the draft opinion has been reviewed, the remaining Justices may recommend changes to the opinion. Whether these changes are accommodated depends on the legal philosophy of the drafters as well as on how strong a majority the opinion garnered at conference. A justice may instead simply join the opinion at that point without comment.
Votes at conference are preliminary; while opinions are being circulated, it is not unheard of for a justice to change sides. A justice may be swayed by the persuasiveness (or lack thereof) of the opinion or dissent, or as a result of reflection and discussion on the points of law at issue.
The evolution of the justices ' views during the circulation of draft opinions can change the outcome of the case; an opinion that begins as a majority opinion can become a dissenting opinion, and vice versa. At the conference for Planned Parenthood v. Casey, Justice Kennedy is said to have initially voted with Chief Justice Rehnquist, but then changed his mind, feeling unable to join Rehnquist 's draft opinion. While working for the Justice Department, present - day Chief Justice John Roberts -- a former Rehnquist law clerk -- wrote an analysis of Wallace v. Jaffree in which he indicated his belief (based on the length and structure) that Rehnquist 's dissent had started out as an opinion for the court, but lost its majority; similar speculation is often heard of Justice O'Connor 's dissent in Kelo v. New London. Justice Kennedy is known within the Court for changing his mind subsequent to the conference, and Justice Thomas is known for having the tendency to lose a majority. Justices may change sides at any time prior to the handing down of the Court 's opinion. Generally, the Court 's decision is the opinion which a majority (five or more) of justices have joined. In rare instances, the Court will issue a plurality opinion in which four or fewer Justices agree on one opinion, but the others are so fractured that they can not agree on a position. In this circumstance, in order to determine what the decision is lawyers and judges will analyze the opinions to determine on which points a majority agrees. An example of a case decided by a plurality opinion is Hamdi v. Rumsfeld.
A justice voting with the majority may write a concurring opinion; this is an opinion where the justice agrees with the majority holding itself, but where he or she wishes to express views on the legal elements of the case that are not encompassed in the majority opinion. Justices who do not agree with the decision made by the majority may also submit dissenting opinions, which may give alternative legal viewpoints. Dissenting opinions carry no legal weight or precedent, but they can set the argument for future cases. John Marshall Harlan 's dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson set down for the majority opinion later in Brown v. Board of Education.
After granting a writ of certiorari and accepting a case for review, the justices may decide against further review of the case. For example, the Court may feel the case presented during oral arguments did not present the constitutional issues in a clear - cut way, and that adjudication of these issues is better deferred until a suitable case comes before the court. In this event the writ of certiorari is "dismissed as improvidently granted '' (DIG) -- saying, in effect that the Court should not have accepted the case. As with the granting or denial of cert, this dismissal is customarily made using a simple per curiam decision without explanation.
Customarily, justices who were not seated at the time oral arguments were heard by the Supreme Court do not participate in the formulation of an opinion. Likewise, a justice leaving the Court prior to the handing down of an opinion does not take part in the Court 's opinion. Should the composition of the Court materially affect the outcome of a pending case, the justices will likely elect to reschedule the case for rehearing.
If not all of the nine justices vote on a case, or the Court has a vacancy, then a tied vote is possible. If this occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but the case is not considered to be binding precedent. The effect is a return to the status quo ante. No opinions (or voting alignments) are issued in such a case, only the one - sentence announcement that "(t) he judgment is affirmed by an equally divided Court. '' Omega S.A. v. Costco Wholesale Corp. is an example of such a case. The court tries to avoid such rulings when possible: After the retirement of Justice O'Connor in 2006 three cases would have ended with a tie. All cases were reargued to allow the newly appointed Samuel Alito to cast a decisive vote.
A quorum of justices to hear and decide a case is six. If, through recusals or vacancies, fewer than six justices can participate in a case, and a majority of qualified justices determines that the case can not be heard in the next term, then the decision of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been equally divided on the case. An exception exists when this situation arises in one of the now - rare cases brought directly to the Supreme Court on appeal from a United States District Court; in this situation, the case is referred to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the corresponding circuit for a final decision there by either the Court of Appeals sitting en banc, or a panel consisting of the three most senior active circuit judges.
Throughout the term, but mostly during the last months of the term -- May, June, and, if necessary, July -- the Court announces its opinions. The decision of the Court is subsequently published, first as a slip opinion, and subsequently in the United States Reports. In recent years, opinions have been available on the Supreme Court 's website and other legal websites on the morning they are announced. Since recording devices have been banned inside the courtroom, the fastest way for decisions of landmark cases to reach the press is through the Running of the Interns.
The opinion of the Court is usually signed by the author; occasionally, the Supreme Court may issue an unsigned opinion per curiam. The practice of issuing a single opinion of the Court was initiated during the tenure of Chief Justice John Marshall during the early 19th century. This custom replaced the previous practice under which each Justice, whether in the majority or the minority, issued a separate opinion. The older practice is still followed by appellate courts in many common law jurisdictions outside the United States.
Supreme Court decisions are typically cited as in the following example: "Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). '' The court citation consists of the names of the opposing parties; the volume number; "U.S. '' (signifying United States Reports, the official reporter of Supreme Court decisions); the page number on which the decision begins; and the year in which the case was decided. The names of the opposing parties are listed in the format "Petitioner v. Respondent '' or "Appellant v. Appellee. '' The Reporter of Decisions is responsible for publication of the Court 's rulings. Two other widely used citation formats exist: the Supreme Court Reporter and the Lawyers ' Edition, corresponding to two privately published collections of decisions. Citations to cases in the Supreme Court Reporter would be structured as follows: Snowden v. Hughes, 64 S. Ct. 397 (1944). Citations to cases in the Lawyers ' Edition would be as follows: Snowden v. Hughes, 88 L. Ed. 497 (1944). Judicial opinions often use the citation from all three sources (the United States Reports, Supreme Court Reporter, and Lawyers ' Edition), as seen here: Martin v. Texas, 200 U.S. 316, 26 S. Ct. 338, 50 L. Ed. 497 (1906). Since the 1930s, prior to publication of the decisions in these reporters, they are available from the United States Law Week (U.S.L.W.). In more recent years, opinions have been available electronically soon after they appeared on commercial sites such as Lexis or Westlaw, on Internet sites such as FindLaw and on the Court 's own website.
The Reporter of Decisions is the court official responsible for the publication of the Court 's opinions and orders. The current Reporter of Decisions is Christine Luchok Fallon.
Decisions of the Supreme Court are precedents that bind all lower courts, both federal and state. The Supreme Court generally respects its own precedents, but has in some cases overturned them.
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school of engg. and sciences bps mahila vishwavidyalaya khanpur kalan gohana district sonipat | Bhagat Phool Singh Mahila Vishwavidyalaya - wikipedia
Bhagat Phool Singh Mahila Vishwavidyalaya, also known as Bhagat Phool Singh Women 's University, is the first women 's only State university of Northern India established by the Government of Haryana in August 2006 at Village Khanpur Kalan, District Sonipat. The objective of the University is to provide affordable qualitative higher education to women especially belonging to rural areas.
Bhagat Phool Singh Women 's University has its origins in the ideas of the social reformer Bhagat Phool Singh. Considering educated woman as the key to social improvement, Singh established a gurukul for girls at Khanpur Kalan village in 1936. He attracted enemies for his efforts and was assassinated on 14 August 1942.
After Singh 's, his daughter, Subhashini Devi, took control of the gurukul and went on to establish Girls ' College (1967), Education College (1968), Ayurvedic College (1973), Mahila Polytechnic (1984), TIG Bhainswal Kalan (1999) and Law College (2003). Recognising her contribution, the Government of India conferred the Padma Shri on her in 1976.
The constituent institutes of the university are (incomplete list):
Bhagat Phool Singh Women University has approximately 7000 students. It provides education from nursery level through to doctorate, with many courses being of a vocational nature. Disciplines include engineering, law, management, commerce, economics, pharmacy, rural entrepreneurship development, hospitality and hotel administration, social work, education, applied sciences, various modern languages and ayurveda. Bhagat Phool Singh Women University is the first Indian university to Set up the UGC Area Study Centre for Indic and Asian Studies. In order to promote research, the university has introduced a PhD programme in various subjects.
It also has Academic Staff College which conducts Orientation and Refresher courses and Workshops for teacher participants from all over the country. So far 35 such programmes benefiting approximately 1000 teachers have been organized by the ASC.
The BPS Women University has signed MoUs for faculty, students and programme exchange with many international universities, these include, St. Catherine University, USA, Baltimore University, USA, Nottingham Trent University, UK and Kwangwoon University, South Korea. The University is regularly visited by international faculty and students for academic and cultural exchange.
Since Bhagat Phool Singh Women University is situated in rural settings, it has collaborated with the farmers of neighboring villages for developing modern techniques of farming. The university with the assistance of Haryana Government 's Indo - Israel Project has set up Front Line Demonstration Centre (FLDC).
The FLDC Centre is engaged in growing fruits and vegetables with modern techniques. As a result, the farmers are trained in getting maximum yield from their fields.
The University is well connected through road to National Highway number 01, Delhi and the neighboring towns of Rohtak, Sonipat, Panipat, Gohana and Gannaur.
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what did france want at the paris peace conference | Paris Peace Conference, 1919 - wikipedia
The Paris Peace Conference, also known as Versailles Peace Conference, was the meeting of the victorious Allied Powers following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers.
Involving diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities, the major or main decisions were the creation of the League of Nations, i.e. the five peace treaties with the defeated states; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates '', chiefly to Britain and France; reparations imposed on Germany; and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect ethnic boundaries.
The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies ''. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay (it paid only a small portion before reparations ended in 1931). The five major powers (France, Britain, Italy, Japan and the United States of America) controlled the Conference. And the "Big Four '' were the Prime Minister of France, Georges Clemenceau; the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Lloyd George; the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson; and the Prime Minister of Italy, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others. The conference began on January 18 1919 and with respect to its end date Professor Michael Neiberg has noted:
Although the senior statesmen stopped working personally on the conference in June 1919, the formal peace process did not really end until July 1923, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed ".
The conference opened on 18 January 1919. This date was symbolic, as it was the anniversary of the proclamation of William I as German Emperor in 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, shortly before the end of the Siege of Paris - a day itself imbued with significance in its turn in Germany as the anniversary of the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. Delegates from 27 nations (delegates representing 5 nationalities were for the most part ignored) were assigned to 52 commissions, which held 1,646 sessions to prepare reports, with the help of many experts, on topics ranging from prisoners of war, to undersea cables, to international aviation, to responsibility for the war. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which had 15 chapters and 440 clauses, as well as treaties for the other defeated nations.
The five major powers (France, Britain, Italy, the U.S., and Japan) controlled the Conference. Amongst the "Big Five '', in practice Japan only sent former prime minister and played a small role and the "Big Four '' leaders dominated the conference. The four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the delegations approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations.
Five major peace treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference (with, in parentheses, the affected countries):
The major decisions were the establishment of the League of Nations; the five peace treaties with defeated enemies; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates '', chiefly to members of the British Empire and to France; reparations imposed on Germany, and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies ''. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay (it paid only a small portion before reparations ended in 1931).
As the conference 's decisions were enacted unilaterally, and largely on the whims of the Big Four, for its duration Paris was effectively the center of a world government, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany 's military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on Germany 's shoulders -- the humiliation and resentment in Germany is sometimes considered one of the causes of Nazi electoral successes and indirectly a cause of World War II. The League of Nations proved controversial in the United States as critics said it subverted the powers of Congress to declare war; the U.S. Senate did not ratify any of the peace treaties and the U.S. never joined the League -- instead, the Harding administration of 1921 - 1923 concluded new treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary. Republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia (but not Communist Russia) were present. Numerous other nations did send delegations in order to appeal for various unsuccessful additions to the treaties; parties lobbied for causes ranging from independence for the countries of the South Caucasus to Japan 's unsuccessful demand for racial equality amongst the other Great Powers.
A central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. (Austria did not have colonies and the Ottoman Empire presented a separate issue.)
The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice. Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa (modern Namibia). Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence. Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category; they would be divided up between Britain and France.
The second category, comprising New Guinea, Samoa, and South West Africa, were located so close to responsible supervisors that the mandates could hardly be given to anyone except Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Finally, the African colonies would need the careful supervision as "Class B '' mandates that could only be provided by experienced colonial powers Britain, France, and Belgium; Italy and Portugal received small bits of territory. Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received "Class C Mandates '' to the colonies they wanted. Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator.
Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States; his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others. Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some memorable clashes, with the most famous being:
Wilson: "But after all, you speak for only five million people. '' Hughes: "I represent sixty thousand dead. '' (The much larger United States had suffered 50,000 deaths.)
Maintenance of the British Empire 's unity, holdings and interests were an overarching concern for the British delegates to the conference, but it entered the conference with the more specific goals of:
The Racial Equality Proposal put forth by the Japanese did not directly conflict with any of these core British interests. However, as the conference progressed the full implications of the Racial Equality Proposal, regarding immigration to the British Dominions (with Australia taking particular exception), would become a major point of contention within the delegation.
Ultimately, Britain did not see the Racial Equality proposal as being one of the fundamental aims of the conference. The delegation was therefore willing to sacrifice this proposal in order to placate the Australian delegation and thus help satisfy its overarching aim of preserving the unity of the British Empire.
Although Britain reluctantly consented to the attendance of separate Dominion delegations, the British did manage to rebuff attempts by the envoys of the newly proclaimed Irish Republic to put its case to the Conference for self - determination, diplomatic recognition and membership of the proposed League of Nations. The Irish envoys ' final "Demand for Recognition '' in a letter to Clemenceau, the Chairman, was not answered. Britain had planned to legislate for two Irish Home Rule states (without Dominion status), and did so in 1920. In 1919 Irish nationalists were unpopular with the Allies because of the Conscription Crisis of 1918.
David Lloyd George commented that he did "not do badly '' at the peace conference, "considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon. '' This was a reference to the very idealistic views of Wilson on the one hand and the stark realism of Clemenceau, who was determined to see Germany punished.
The Dominion governments were not originally given separate invitations to the conference, but rather were expected to send representatives as part of the British delegation.
Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe, its Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden, demanded that it have a separate seat at the conference. This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw a dominion delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men compared to the 50,000 American losses, at least had the right to the representation of a "minor '' power. The British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, eventually relented, and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, India, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa. They also received their own seats in the League of Nations.
Canada, although it too had sacrificed nearly 60,000 men in the war, asked for neither reparations nor mandates.
The Australian delegation, led by the Australian Prime Minister, Billy Hughes, fought hard for its demands: reparations, annexation of German New Guinea and rejection of the Japanese racial equality proposal. Hughes said that he had no objection to the equality proposal provided it was stated in unambiguous terms that it did not confer any right to enter Australia. Hughes was concerned by the rise of Japan. Within months of the declaration of the War in 1914, Japan, Australia and New Zealand had seized all German possessions in the Far East and Pacific. Though Japan occupied German possessions with the blessings of the British, Hughes was alarmed by this policy.
The French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau, controlled his delegation and his chief goal was to weaken Germany militarily, strategically and economically. Having personally witnessed two German attacks on French soil in the last forty years, he was adamant that Germany should not be permitted to attack France again. In particular, Clemenceau sought an American and British guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack.
Clemenceau also expressed scepticism and frustration with Wilson 's Fourteen Points: "Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points '', complained Clemenceau. "Why, God Almighty has only ten! '' Wilson won a few points by signing a mutual defense treaty with France, but back in Washington he did not present it to the Senate for ratification and it never took effect.
Another alternative French policy was to seek a rapprochement with Germany. In May 1919 the diplomat René Massigli was sent on several secret missions to Berlin. During his visits Massigli offered on behalf of his government to revise the territorial and economic clauses of the upcoming peace treaty. Massigli spoke of the desirability of "practical, verbal discussions '' between French and German officials that would lead to a "collaboration Franco - allemande ''. Furthermore, Massagli told the Germans that the French thought of the "Anglo - Saxon powers '', namely the United States and British Empire, to be the major threat to France in the post-war world. He argued that both France and Germany had a joint interest in opposing "Anglo - Saxon domination '' of the world and warned that the "deepening of opposition '' between the French and the Germans "would lead to the ruin of both countries, to the advantage of the Anglo - Saxon powers ''.
The Germans rejected the French offers because they considered the French overtures to be a trap to trick them into accepting the Versailles treaty "as is '' and because the German foreign minister, Count Ulrich von Brockdorff - Rantzau thought that the United States was more likely to reduce the severity of the peace terms than France. In the final event it proved to be Lloyd George who pushed for more favourable terms for Germany.
In 1914 Italy remained neutral despite its alliance with Germany and Austria. In 1915 it joined the Allies. It was motivated by gaining the territories promised by the Allies in the secret Treaty of London: the Trentino, the Tyrol as far as Brenner, Trieste and Istria, most of the Dalmatian coast except Fiume, Valona and a protectorate over Albania, Antalya in Turkey and possibly colonies in Africa or Asia.
The Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando tried therefore to get full implementation of the Treaty of London, as agreed by France and Great Britain before the war. He had popular support, for the loss of 700,000 soldiers and a budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Lire during the war made the Italian government and people feel entitled to all these territories and even more not mentioned in the Treaty of London, in particular the city of Fiume, which many Italians believed should be annexed to Italy because of the Italian population.
In the meetings of the "Big Four '', in which Orlando 's powers of diplomacy were inhibited by his lack of English, the others were only willing to offer Trentino to the Brenner, the Dalmatian port of Zara and some of the Dalmatian islands. All other territories were promised to other nations and the great powers were worried about Italy 's imperial ambitions. Even though Italy did get most of its demands, Orlando was refused Fiume, most of Dalmatia and any colonial gain, so he left the conference in a rage.
There was a general disappointment in Italy, which the nationalist and fascist parties used to build the idea that Italy was betrayed by the Allies and refused what was due (Mutilated victory). This led to the general rise of Italian fascism.
Prior to Wilson 's arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. Wilson 's Fourteen Points, of a year earlier, had helped win the hearts and minds of many as the war ended; these included Americans and Europeans generally, as well as Germany, its allies and the former subjects of the Ottoman Empire specifically.
Wilson 's diplomacy and his Fourteen Points had essentially established the conditions for the armistices that had brought an end to World War I. Wilson felt it was his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a prominent figure at the peace negotiations. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles.
Once Wilson arrived, however, he found "rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged ''. He worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French (Georges Clemenceau) and British (Lloyd George) delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East. Wilson 's attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed, after France and Britain refused to adopt some specific points and its core principles.
In Europe, several of his Fourteen Points conflicted with the other powers. The United States did not encourage or believe that the responsibility for the war that Article 231 placed on Germany was fair or warranted. It would not be until 1921 that the United States finally signed separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria and Hungary.
In the Middle East, negotiations were complicated by competing aims, claims, and the new mandate system. The United States hoped to establish a more liberal and diplomatic world, as stated in the Fourteen Points, where democracy, sovereignty, liberty and self - determination would be respected. France and Britain, on the other hand, already controlled empires, wielded power over their subjects around the world, and still aspired to be dominant colonial powers.
In light of the previously secret Sykes -- Picot Agreement, and following the adoption of the mandate system on the Arab province of the former Ottoman lands, the conference heard statements from competing Zionist and Arab claimants. President Woodrow Wilson then recommended an international commission of inquiry to ascertain the wishes of the local inhabitants. The Commission idea, first accepted by Great Britain and France, was later rejected. Eventually it became the purely American King -- Crane Commission, which toured all Syria and Palestine during the summer of 1919, taking statements and sampling opinion. Its report, presented to President Wilson, was kept secret from the public until The New York Times broke the story in December 1922. A pro-Zionist joint resolution on Palestine was passed by Congress in September 1922.
France and Britain tried to appease the American President by consenting to the establishment of his League of Nations. However, because isolationist sentiment was strong and some of the articles in the League 's charter conflicted with the United States Constitution, the United States never ratified the Treaty of Versailles nor joined the League of Nations, which President Wilson had helped create, to further peace through diplomacy rather than war and conditions which can breed it.
Under President Warren Harding the United States signed separate treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary in 1921.
Japan sent a large delegation headed by the former Prime Minister, Marquess Saionji Kinmochi. It was originally one of the "big five '' but relinquished that role because of its slight interest in European affairs. Instead it focused on two demands: the inclusion of their racial equality proposal in the League 's Covenant and Japanese territorial claims with respect to former German colonies, namely Shantung (including Kiaochow) and the Pacific islands north of the Equator (the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, the Mariana Islands, and the Carolines). Makino was de facto chief while Saionji 's role was symbolic and limited by his ill health. The Japanese delegation became unhappy after receiving only one - half of the rights of Germany, and walked out of the conference.
Japan proposed the inclusion of a "racial equality clause '' in the Covenant of the League of Nations on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21. It read:
The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality.
Because he knew that Great Britain was critical to the decision, President Wilson, as Conference chairman, ruled that a unanimous vote was required. On 11 April 1919 the commission held a final session and the proposal received a majority of votes, but Great Britain and Australia opposed it. The Australians had lobbied the British to defend Australia 's White Australia policy. The defeat of the proposal influenced Japan 's turn from cooperation with the West toward more nationalistic policies.
The Japanese claim to Shantung was disputed by the Chinese. In 1914 at the outset of World War I Japan had seized the territory granted to Germany in 1897. They also seized the German islands in the Pacific north of the equator. In 1917, Japan had made secret agreements with Britain, France and Italy that guaranteed their annexation of these territories. With Britain, there was a mutual agreement, Japan also agreeing to support British annexation of the Pacific islands south of the equator. Despite a generally pro-Chinese view on behalf of the American delegation, Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles transferred German concessions in Jiaozhou, China to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China. The leader of the Chinese delegation, Lou Tseng - Tsiang, demanded that a reservation be inserted before he would sign the treaty. The reservation was denied, and the treaty was signed by all the delegations except that of China. Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations known as the May Fourth Movement. The Pacific islands north of the equator became a class C mandate administered by Japan.
Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos took part in the Paris Peace Conference as Greece 's chief representative. President Woodrow Wilson was said to have placed Venizelos first in point of personal ability among all delegates gathered in Paris to settle the terms of Peace.
Venizelos proposed the Greek expansion Thrace and Asia Minor (lands of the defeated Kingdom of Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire), Northern Epirus, Imvros and Tenedos, aiming to the realization of the Megali Idea. He also reached an agreement with the Italians on the cession of the Dodecanese (Venizelos -- Tittoni agreement). For the Greeks of Pontus he proposed a common Pontic - Armenian State.
As a liberal politician, Venizelos was a strong supporter of the Fourteen Points and League of Nations.
The Chinese delegation was led by Lou Tseng - Tsiang, accompanied by Wellington Koo and Cao Rulin. Before the Western powers, Koo demanded that Germany 's concessions on Shandong be returned to China. He further called for an end to imperialist institutions such as extraterritoriality, legation guards, and foreign lease holds. Despite American support and the ostensible spirit of self - determination, the Western powers refused his claims, transferring the German concessions to Japan instead. This sparked widespread student protests in China on 4 May, later known as the May Fourth Movement, eventually pressuring the government into refusing to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Thus the Chinese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference was the only one not to sign the treaty at the signing ceremony.
While Russia was formally excluded from the Conference, despite having fought the Central Powers for three years, the Russian Provincial Council (chaired by Prince Lvov), the successor to the Russian Constituent Assembly and the political arm of the Russian White movement attended the conference. Represented by former Tsarist minister Sergey Sazonov who, ironically, if the Tsar had not been overthrown would most likely have attended the conference anyway. The Council maintained the position of an indivisible Russia, but some were prepared to negotiate over the loss of Poland and Finland. The Council suggested all matters relating to territorial claims, or demands for autonomy within the former Russian Empire, be referred to a new All - Russian Constituent Assembly.
Ukraine had its best opportunity to win recognition and support from foreign powers at the Conference of 1919. At a meeting of the Big Five on 16 January, Lloyd George called Ukrainian leader Symon Petliura (1874 -- 1926) an adventurer and dismissed Ukraine as an anti-Bolshevik stronghold. Sir Eyre Crowe, British undersecretary of state for foreign affairs, spoke against a union of East Galicia and Poland. The British cabinet never decided whether to support a united or dismembered Russia. The United States was sympathetic to a strong, united Russia as a counterpoise to Japan, but Britain feared a threat to India. Petliura appointed Count Tyshkevich his representative to the Vatican, and Pope Benedict XV recognized Ukrainian independence. Ukraine was effectively ignored.
A Delegation of the Belarusian Democratic Republic under Prime Minister Anton Łuckievič also participated in the conference, attempting to gain international recognition of the independence of Belarus. On the way to the conference, the delegation was received by Czechoslovak president Tomáš Masaryk in Prague. During the conference, Łuckievič had meetings with the exiled Foreign Minister of admiral Kolchak 's Russian government Sergey Sazonov and the Prime Minister of Poland Ignacy Jan Paderewski.
At the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and later by Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Estonia had already given cultural autonomy to minorities in its declaration of independence. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority rights treaty.
In Poland the key provisions were to become fundamental laws that overrode any national legal codes or legislation. The new country pledged to assure "full and complete protection of life and liberty to all individuals... without distinction of birth, nationality, language, race, or religion. '' Freedom of religion was guaranteed to everyone. Most residents were given citizenship, but there was considerable ambiguity on who was covered. The treaty guaranteed basic civil, political, and cultural rights, and required all citizens to be equal before the law and enjoy identical rights of citizens and workers. Polish was of the national language, but the treaty provided that minority languages could be freely used privately, in commerce, religion, the press, at public meetings, and before all courts. Minorities were to be permitted to establish and control at their own expense private charities, churches and social institutions, as well as schools, without interference from the government. The government was required to set up German language public schools in those districts that had been German territory before the war. All education above the primary level was to be conducted exclusively in the national language. Article 12 was the enforcement clause; it gave the Council of the League of Nations responsibility for monitoring and enforcing each treaty.
The three South Caucasian republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia as well as the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus each sent a delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Their attempts to gain protection from threats posed by the ongoing Russian Civil War largely failed as none of the major powers was interested in taking a mandate over the Caucasian territories. After a series of delays, the three South Caucasian countries ultimately gained de facto recognition from the Supreme Council of the Allied powers, but only when all European troops had been withdrawn from the Caucasus except for a British contingent in Batumi. Georgia was recognized de facto on 12 January 1920, followed by Azerbaijan on the same day and Armenia on 19 January 1920. The Allied leaders decided to limit their assistance to the Caucasian republics to arms, munitions, and food supply.
The Armenian delegation was represented by Avetis Aharonyan, Hamo Ohanjanyan, Armen Garo and others. Azerbaijan 's mission was headed by Alimardan Topchubashev. The delegation from Georgia included Nikolay Chkheidze, Irakli Tsereteli, Zurab Avalishvili, and others.
A delegation of Koreans from China and Hawaii, did make it to Paris. Included in this delegation, was a representative from the Korean Provisional Government in Shanghai, Kim Kyu - sik. They were aided by the Chinese, who were eager for the opportunity to embarrass Japan at the international forum. Several top Chinese leaders at the time, including Sun Yat - sen, told U.S. diplomats that the peace conference should take up the question of Korean independence. Beyond that, however, the Chinese, locked in a struggle against the Japanese themselves, could do little for Korea. Apart from China no nation took the Koreans seriously at the Paris conference because of its status as a Japanese colony. The failure of the Korean nationalists to gain support from the Paris Peace Conference ended the possibility of foreign support.
Following the Conference 's decision to separate the former Arab provinces from the Ottoman Empire and to apply the newly conceived mandate - system to them, the Zionist Organization submitted their draft resolutions for consideration by the Peace Conference on 3 February 1919.
The statement included five main points:
However, despite these attempts to influence the conference, the Zionists were instead constrained by Article 7 of the resulting Palestine Mandate to merely having the right of obtaining Palestinian citizenship: "The Administration of Palestine shall be responsible for enacting a nationality law. There shall be included in this law provisions framed so as to facilitate the acquisition of Palestinian citizenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in Palestine. ''
Citing the Balfour Declaration, the Zionists suggested that the British had already recognised the historic title of the Jews to Palestine in 1917. The preamble of the British Mandate of 1922, in which the Balfour Declaration was incorporated, stated: "Whereas recognition has thereby been given to the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine and to the grounds for reconstituting their national home in that country... ''.
The remaking of the world map at these conferences gave birth to a number of critical conflict - prone international contradictions, which would become one of the causes of World War II. The British historian Eric Hobsbawm claimed:
(N) o equally systematic attempt has been made before or since, in Europe or anywhere else, to redraw the political map on national lines. (...) The logical implication of trying to create a continent neatly divided into coherent territorial states each inhabited by separate ethnically and linguistically homogeneous population, was the mass expulsion or extermination of minorities. Such was and is the reductio ad absurdum of nationalism in its territorial version, although this was not fully demonstrated until the 1940s.
It has long been argued that Wilson 's Fourteen Points, in particular the principle of national self - determination, were primarily anti-Left measures, designed to tame the revolutionary fever sweeping across Europe in the wake of the October Revolution and the end of the war by playing the nationalist card.
From the other side of the political spectrum, John Lewis Gaddis likewise writes: "When Woodrow Wilson made the principle of self - determination one of this Fourteen Points his intent had been to undercut the appeal of Bolshevism '' (Gaddis 2005, p. 121).
This view has a long history, and can be summarised by Ray Stannard Baker 's famous remark that "Paris can not be understood without Moscow. '' See McFadden 1993, p. 191.
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what do south america and australia have in common | Australia -- Brazil relations - wikipedia
Australia -- Brazil relations are foreign relations between Brazil and Australia. Brazil has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate general in Sydney. Australia has an embassy in Brasília and consulates in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Brazil and Australia are the largest countries in the Southern Hemisphere.
Australia opened up its first diplomatic mission in Rio de Janeiro in 1945. Brazil opened its first in Canberra the next year.
In August 2008, the Brazilian Foreign Relations minister, Celso Amorim, visited Australia and met with Prime Minister Kevin Rudd. The two countries announced that they will negotiate joint actions in the areas of trade; investments; agriculture; mining; energy; science and technology; education; sports and culture. There are also cooperation possibilities between Brazil ' s agricultural research agency Embrapa and CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation), as well as between CNPq (technological and scientific development council) and Australian Research Council.
Trade is sizable between the two nations. Two - way merchandise trade between Australia and Brazil was A $1.98 billion in 2007 -- 08. Merchandise trade comprised exports of A $938 million to Brazil and imports of A $1,040 million from Brazil. Major exports to Brazil included coal, nickel ores and medicaments, as well as motor vehicles -- the Holden Commodore has been sold by General Motors do Brasil as the Chevrolet Omega since 1999. Major imports from Brazil included aircraft, animal feed, pulp and waste paper, fruit juices and pig iron.
The two countries are leading members of the Cairns Group and it is in this bloc, negotiations on agriculture on a world stage are done such as with the European Union, World Trade Organisation and United States.
From 2002, Brazil and Australia together with Thailand and Fiji complained to the World Trade Organisation and argued that the European Union broke WTO farm rules by exceeding limits on export subsidies laid down under the trade body 's 1994 Agreement on Agriculture. The complaint was upheld by the WTO. The decision will benefit sugar producers in the affected countries.
Brazil and Australia were among the seven key nations involved in the last WTO negotiations known as the Doha Development Round.
Brazil was the most popular South American destination for Australian travellers, with more than 60,000 people flying between the two countries in 2007. As a result, in 2008, the Australian Government agreed to new aviation agreements which meant airlines in Brazil and Australia will have their entitlements doubled to 14 weekly passenger flights and seven freight services. Transport Minister Anthony Albanese said "The removal of most restrictions on air routes between Australia and Brazil will, over time, provide more choice for travellers... and allow our airlines to take advantage of the rapidly growing economies of South America. ''
As of 2017, a total of 8 Australia -- Brazil bilateral treaties covering trade, extradition, arbitration, and visas have been agreed between the two countries.
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united states v new york telephone company case brief | United States v. New York telephone Co.. - Wikipedia
United States v. New York Telephone Co., 434 U.S. 159 (1977), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that law enforcement officials may obtain a court order forcing telephone companies to install pen registers in order to record the numbers called from a particular telephone.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation suspected that a particular location in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan homed a gambling operation, and asked the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York to order the New York Telephone Company to install a pen register. On March 19, 1976 District Court Judge Charles Henry Tenney did, finding probable cause of illegal gambling, authorized the installation of the pen register for up to twenty days, and ordered the telephone company to provide the necessary technical assistance required to install the pen register. The telephone company moved to vacate that order, arguing that a more specific wiretap order was required under Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. On April 2 Judge Tenney denied the motion, and the company assisted in the installation of the pen register, but appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.
On July 13 the Second Circuit agreed in part, holding that pen registers did n't fall under the provisions of Title III, and that the district court had the power to authorize their use under the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. However, Judges Harold Medina and Wilfred Feinberg also concluded that the district court had overstepped in ordering the company to provide technical assistance for their installation, provoking a dissent by Judge Walter R. Mansfield. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States. On October 3, 1977 the case was argued before the Supreme Court, with Deputy Solicitor General Lawrence G. Wallace appearing for the Government and George E. Ashley appearing for the respondent.
On December 7, 1977, the Court reversed the lower court. Writing for the Court, Justice Byron White first agreed that pen registers were not subject to the Title III restrictions on wiretap orders and that the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure allowed courts to use pen registers. However, the All Writs Act gave the district court the power to order assistance from the telephone company. Under the Act, issuing an extraordinary writ will be necessary or appropriate whenever it prevents the frustration of the court 's previous orders. Therefore, this power extends even to third parties if they are in a position to frustrate the court 's orders.
Ordering assistance from the telephone company was appropriate under the All Writs Act because the company was closely related to the underlying controversy, it was not in any way burdened by providing assistance, and its assistance was necessary to the surveillance. Because the gambling operation was using the telephone to place illegal bets on a continuing basis, Justice White found the company was closely related to the controversy. Justice White found the company was not in any way burdened by providing "meager assistance '' to the FBI because the company was a highly regulated public utility that regularly used pen registers, even just for billing. Finally, Justice White found the court 's order had been necessary because there was "no conceivable way '' the FBI could have successfully accomplished its investigation without assistance from the telephone company and, regardless, the company had received financial compensation.
Justice Potter Stewart wrote a concurrence in part and dissent in part to clarify that he agreed with all of the majority 's opinion except for its discussion of the All Writs Act, and that he agreed with that part of Justice Stevens dissent on the All Writs Act.
Justice John Paul Stevens, joined by Justices William J. Brennan, Jr. and Thurgood Marshall dissented from all of the majority 's opinion except for the holding that pen registers are not wiretaps. Justice Stevens believed the only precedence for the court forcing assistance from the telephone company was the reviled writ of assistance. Justice Stevens could not believe the First Congress would have granted federal courts a "roving commission '' with "the wide ranging powers of an ombudsman '' because writs of assistance were "one British practice that the Revolution was specifically intended to terminate ''.
Justice Stevens saw the "open - ended grant of authority '' in the majority 's reading of the All Writs Act as fundamentally inconsistent with federal court 's limited jurisdiction. As such, the dissenters believed the All Writs Act would only authorize a court order if its purpose is to aid the court 's exercise of jurisdiction and the means selected are analogous to a common - law writ.
Justice Stevens remained resolute in his critique; a quarter century later in Syngenta Crop Protection, Inc. v. Henson, 537 U.S. 28 (2002) he was still calling to "expressly overrule that misguided decision ''.
The Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) was passed in 1986 (Pub. L. No. 99 - 508, 100 Stat. 1848). Title III created the Pen Register Act, which included restrictions on private and law enforcement uses of pen registers.
The case has been relied on by the government in the 2016 FBI -- Apple encryption dispute, that an All Writs Act order could be granted if it followed three tests: the company 's closeness to the case; whether the government 's request places an undue burden; and whether the company 's assistance was necessary.
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who plays pam in that 70's show | List of that ' 70s show characters - Wikipedia
This is a list of characters appearing in the series That ' 70s Show.
Several characters on the series were written as recurring, but made only one appearance. Among them:
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the good place season 2 episode 14 release date | The Good Place (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the fantasy comedy television series The Good Place, created by Michael Schur, began airing September 20, 2017, on NBC in the United States. The season is produced by Fremulon, 3 Arts Entertainment, and Universal Television. The season concluded on February 1, 2018 and contained 13 episodes.
The series focuses on Eleanor Shellstrop (Kristen Bell), a deceased young woman who wakes up in the afterlife and is sent by Michael (Ted Danson) to "The Good Place '', a heaven - like utopia he designed, in reward for her righteous life. However, she quickly realizes that she was sent there by mistake, and must hide her morally imperfect behavior (past and present). William Jackson Harper, Jameela Jamil, and Manny Jacinto co-star as other residents of the Good Place, together with D'Arcy Carden as an artificial being helping the inhabitants. Each of the episodes are listed as "Chapter (xx) '' following the opening title card.
The second season has received highly positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has a rating of 100 %, based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 8.62 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "By voluntarily blowing up its premise, The Good Place sets up a second season that proves even funnier than its first. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a score of 87 out of 100, based on reviews from 10 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The Good Place ranked fifth on Metacritic 's "Best of 2017: Television Critics ' Top 10 Lists ''. The list is determined by giving a score to each show based on the number of times it appears in year - end top ten lists of various major TV critics and publications.
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when was a clean well lighted place written | A Clean, Well - Lighted Place - wikipedia
"A Clean, Well - Lighted Place '' is a short story by American author Ernest Hemingway, first published in Scribner 's Magazine in 1933; it was also included in his collection Winner Take Nothing (1933).
Late at night, a deaf old man is the sole patron in a cafe. Nearby, two waiters, one young, the other older, talk about him. When the old man orders another brandy, the young waiter purposefully overfills his glass. The waiters speculate about the old man 's recent suicide attempt. The young waiter wants the patron to go home, and complains that he never gets to bed before three o'clock, while the older waiter is more understanding of the old man 's plight. Again the old man asks for another brandy, but this time the young man tells him the cafe is closed. After he leaves, the waiters resume their discussion. The young waiter wants to hurry home to his wife; the older waiter is more thoughtful. He muses on youth and observes that he is now one "of those who like to stay late in the cafe, '' likening himself to the old man. He mentions the importance to some people of having "a clean, well - lighted place '' in which they can spend time. After the young waiter leaves, the older waiter reflects on the emptiness of his own life and returns to his home and his insomnia.
James Joyce once remarked: "He (Hemingway) has reduced the veil between literature and life, which is what every writer strives to do. Have you read ' A Clean Well - Lighted Place '?... It is masterly. Indeed, it is one of the best short stories ever written... ''
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what do the stripes mean on the united states flag | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and the Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 58 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean. Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the Company 's flag by the United States as their national flag. He said to George Washington, "While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company. '' This was a way of symbolising American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States ' aspirations to be self - governing, as was the East India Company. Some colonists also felt that the Company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government tax policies. Colonists therefore flew the Company 's flag, to endorse the Company.
However, the theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticised as lacking written evidence. On the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and a number of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company 's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule. In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Vietnam has borrowed the term for the United States, as Hoa Kỳ or 花旗 ("Flower Flag '') in Vietnamese language.
Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called flower flag ginseng (simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參) in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as Flower Flag Bank (花旗 银行).
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and on clothing ornamentation such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Reverence for the flag has at times reached religion - like fervor: in 1919 William Norman Guthrie 's book The Religion of Old Glory discussed "the cult of the flag '' and formally proposed vexillolatry.
Despite a number of attempts to ban the practice, desecration of the flag remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. Comparing practice worldwide, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
This nationalist attitude around the flag is a shift from earlier sentiments; the US flag was largely a "military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory '' that rarely appeared outside of forts, embassies, and the like until the opening of the American Civil War in April of 1861, when Major Robert Anderson was forced to surrender Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor to Confederates. Anderson was celebrated in the North as a hero and U.S. citizens throughout Northern states co-opted the national flag to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism:
For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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when does episode 13 of nanatsu no taizai come out | The Seven Deadly Sins (Manga) - wikipedia
The Seven Deadly Sins (Japanese: 七 つの 大罪, Hepburn: Nanatsu no Taizai) is a Japanese fantasy manga series written and illustrated by Nakaba Suzuki. It has been serialized in Kodansha 's Weekly Shōnen Magazine since October 2012, with the chapters collected into twenty - nine tankōbon volumes as of January 17, 2018. The manga features a setting similar to the European Middle Ages, with its titular group of knights representing the seven deadly sins.
As of January 2015, The Seven Deadly Sins had sold over 10 million copies. It was adapted into a 24 - episode anime television series by A-1 Pictures that aired from October 2014 to March 2015. The manga has been licensed by Kodansha USA for English publication in North America, while the chapters are released digitally by Crunchyroll in over 170 countries as they are published in Japan. Netflix acquired the exclusive English streaming rights for the anime series while Funimation currently has the home video rights. A second season of the anime series began airing on January 13, 2018. An anime film is scheduled to premiere on August 18, 2018.
The Seven Deadly Sins were once an active group of knights in the region of Britannia (ブリタニア, Buritania), who disbanded after they supposedly plotted to overthrow the Liones Kingdom (リオネス 王国, Rionesu Ōkoku). Their supposed defeat came at the hands of the Holy Knights, but rumors continued to persist that they were still alive. Ten years later, the Holy Knights staged a coup d'état and captured the king, becoming the new, tyrannical rulers of the kingdom. The third princess, Elizabeth, then starts out on a journey to find the Seven Deadly Sins and enlist their help in taking back the kingdom.
Written and illustrated by Nakaba Suzuki, The Seven Deadly Sins began as a one - shot pilot chapter published on November 22, 2011 in Weekly Shōnen Magazine 's 52 issue of the year. The manga started serialization in the magazine 's 45 issue of 2012, released on October 10, 2012. The chapters have been collected into 29 tankōbon volumes as of January 17, 2018. The first of three planned story arcs was completed with chapter 100 and Suzuki has projected that the series will run for 20 to 30 volumes. The series is licensed for English language release in North America by Kodansha USA, who published the first volume on March 11, 2014. As the series is published in Japan, it is also released simultaneously in English digitally by Crunchyroll in over 170 countries.
A special issue of Weekly Shōnen Magazine, published on October 19, 2013, featured a small crossover between The Seven Deadly Sins and Hiro Mashima 's Fairy Tail, where each artist drew a yonkoma (four - panel comic) of the other 's series. An actual crossover chapter between the two ran in the magazine 's combined 4 / 5 issue of 2014, which was released on December 25, 2013. Nakaba wrote a one - shot for the November 2014 issue of the shōjo manga magazine Nakayoshi, released on October 3, 2014. He also created a comedic one - shot depicting how Meliodas and Hawk first met that ran in the October 20, 2014 issue of Magazine Special. From February 24 to May 10, 2015, two more spin - off manga by Nakaba were available on the smartphone and tablet application Manga Box. Naku na, Tomo yo (泣く な 友よ, "Do Not Cry, My Friend '') is about Hendrickson and Dreyfus ' younger years, while Gilthunder no Shinjitsu (ギル サンダー の 真実, "Gilthunder 's Truth '') is set after the Vaizel Fight Festival arc and follows Gilthunder.
A comedic spinoff series by Juichi Yamaki, titled Mayoe! The Seven Deadly Sins Academy! (迷え! 七 つの 大罪 学園!, Mayoe! Nanatsu no Taizai Gakuen!) and imagining the characters as high school students, ran in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine from August 9, 2014 to October 8, 2016. It was collected into four tankōbon volumes. The Seven Deadly Sins Production (七 つの 大罪 プロダクション, Nanatsu no Taizai Purodakushon), a comedic spin - off by Chiemi Sakamoto that imagines the characters as actors performing in a live - action TV show, ran in Aria from November 28, 2015 to October 28, 2017. It was collected into four tankōbon volumes.
A comedic yonkoma titled The Seven Deadly Sins: King 's Road to Manga (七 つの 大罪 キング の 漫画 道, Nanatsu no Taizai Kingu no Manga Michi) and written by Masataka Ono that depicts King as an aspiring manga artist, began on February 20, 2016 in Magazine Special before transferring to the Manga Box app on February 1, 2017 and ending later that year. Its chapters were collected into three tankōbon volumes. A manga adaptation of Mamoru Iwasa 's novel Seven Days was serialized in Shōnen Magazine Edge from January 17 to September 2017 and shows how Ban and Elaine met in more detail. It is illustrated by Yō Kokukuji, titled The Seven Deadly Sins: Seven Days ~ The Thief and the Holy Girl ~ (七 つの 大罪 セブン デイズ ~ 盗賊 と 聖 少女 ~, Nanatsu no Taizai: Sebun Deizu ~ Tōzoku to Seishōjo ~) and was collected into two tankōbon volumes.
In April 2014, the 20th issue of Weekly Shōnen Magazine announced that The Seven Deadly Sins was being adapted into an anime television series. The series debuted on MBS and other Japan News Network stations on October 5, 2014. The staff was revealed in the combined 36 / 37 issue of the year: created by A-1 Pictures, directed by Tensai Okamura, written by Shōtarō Suga (Lagrange: The Flower of Rin - ne), with Keigo Sasaki (Blue Exorcist) providing character designs and Hiroyuki Sawano composing the music. The show 's first opening theme song is "Netsujō no Spectrum '' (熱情 の スペクトラム, Netsujō no Supekutoramu, "Spectrum of Passion '') performed by Ikimono - gakari for the first twelve episodes and the second opening theme is "Seven Deadly Sins '' performed by Man with a Mission, while the first ending theme titled "7 - Seven '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, the second ending theme from episode thirteen onwards is "Season '' the major label debut of Alisa Takigawa.
An original video animation (OVA) titled "Ban 's Additional Chapter '' (バン の 番外 編, Ban no Bangai - hen) was included with the limited edition of volume 15 of the manga, released on June 17, 2015. A second OVA composed of nine humorous shorts was shipped with the limited edition of the sixteenth volume of the manga, released on August 12, 2015.
A second anime series was confirmed on September 27, 2015 to air in 2016. This turned out to be a four - week anime television special featuring an original story by Nakaba Suzuki, titled The Seven Deadly Sins: Signs of Holy War (七 つの 大罪 聖戦 の 予兆, Nanatsu no Taizai: Seisen no Shirushi), that began airing on August 28, 2016 on MBS and TBS. The special was produced by A-1 Pictures, directed by Tomokazu Tokoro, and written by Yuniko Ayana and Yuichiro Kido, featuring character designs by Keigo Sasaki. The music was composed by Hiroyuki Sawano and Takafumi Wada. Its opening theme song is "Classic '' by the rock band Mucc and its ending theme is "Iroasenai Hitomi '' (色褪せ ない 瞳) by Alisa Takigawa. A commercial following the final episode confirmed a second anime series has been green - lit.
The first The Seven Deadly Sins anime series was licensed for English release by Netflix as its second exclusive anime, following their acquisition of Knights of Sidonia. All 24 episodes were released on November 1, 2015 in both subtitled or English dub formats. The Signs of Holy War arc, labeled as "Season 2 '', has also been licensed by Netflix and was released on February 17, 2017. On February 14, 2017, Funimation announced that they acquired the first anime for home video distribution for US and Canada and will release the series on Blu - ray and DVD later this year.
A second season, titled The Seven Deadly Sins: Revival of The Commandments (七 つの 大罪 戒め の 復活, Nanatsu no Taizai: Imashime no Fukkatsu), was announced at the "Nanatsu no Taizai FES '' event in July 2017 and premiered on January 13, 2018. Takeshi Furuta and Takao Yoshioka replaced Tensai Okamura and Shōtarō Suga as director and series composer, respectively, while the other main staff members returned from the first season to reprise their roles.
An anime film, titled The Seven Deadly Sins the Movie: Prisoners of the Sky (劇場 版 七 つの 大罪 天空 の 囚われ 人, Gekijō - ban Nanatsu no Taizai Tenkū no Torawarebito), is scheduled to premiere in Japanese theaters on August 18, 2018. It is directed by Yasuto Nishikata and written by Makoto Uezu, featuring an original story by Nakaba Suzuki and Noriyuki Abe serving as chief director. The other main staff members returned from the anime series to reprise their roles in the film. The movie features three original characters called Sorada, Elatte, and Bellion. Sorada will be voiced by Tsubasa Yonaga, Elatte by Haruka Tomatsu, and Berylion by Toshiyuki Morikawa. The movie is set to release in Japan on August 18, 2018.
Four light novels based on The Seven Deadly Sins have been published; The Seven Deadly Sins - Gaiden - The Seven Wishes of the Royal City from Old Times (七 つの 大罪 ― 外伝 ― 昔日 の 王 都 七 つの 願い, Nanatsu no Taizai - Gaiden - Sekijitsu no Ōto Nanatsu no Negai) by Shuka Matsuda on December 17, 2014; The Seven Deadly Sins: Seven Days (七 つの 大罪 セブン デイズ, Nanatsu no Taizai Sebun Deizu) by Mamoru Iwasa on December 26, 2014; The Seven Deadly Sins: Seven Scars They Left Behind (七 つの 大罪 ― 外伝 ― 彼ら が 残し た 七 つの 傷跡, Nanatsu no Taizai - Gaiden - Karera ga Nokoshita Nanatsu no Kizuato) by Shuka Matsuda on October 16, 2015; and The Seven Deadly Sins: Seven - Colored Recollections (七 つの 大罪 ― 外伝 ― 七色 の 追憶, Nanatsu no Taizai - Gaiden - Nanairo no Tsuioku) by Shuka Matsuda on October 17, 2016. Vertical released Seven Scars They Left Behind in North America in May 2017, with Seven - Colored Recollections set to follow in March 2018.
An illustration collection titled Rainbow of Sin (七色 の 罪, Nanairo no Tsumi) and an official fan book were both released on February 17, 2015, while a guidebook for the anime called Ani - Sin (アニ 罪, Ani - Tsumi) was released on April 17, 2015.
A video game titled Seven Deadly Sins: Unjust Sin (七 つの 大罪 真実 の 冤罪, Nanatsu no Taizai Shinjitsu no Enzai) was developed by Bandai Namco Entertainment and released for the Nintendo 3DS on February 11, 2015. A game titled The Seven Deadly Sins: Knights of Britannia (七 つの 大罪 ブリタニア の 旅人, Nanatsu no Taizai: Buritania no Tabibito) was developed by Bandai Namco for the PlayStation 4. It was released in North America and Europe on February 9, 2018.
As of August 2014, the collected volumes of The Seven Deadly Sins had 5 million copies in circulation. By January 2015, this number had grown to 10 million sold. The first collected volume of the series sold 38,581 copies in its first week, ranking number 13 on the Oricon manga chart. Its second volume ranked 5 selling 106,829 in its first week, while its third debuted at number 4 with 135,164 copies. The thirteenth volume had the manga 's best debut week to date, selling 442,492 for first place on the chart. The series was the ninth best - selling manga of 2014, with over 4.6 million copies sold that year. For the first half of 2015, The Seven Deadly Sins was the number one best - selling series. It finished the year in second place with over 10.3 million copies sold, behind only One Piece. It was the sixth best - selling of 2016, with over 5 million copies sold, and the seventh of 2017, with close to 3.6 million copies sold. The 2014 edition of Kono Manga ga Sugoi!, which surveys people in the manga and publishing industry, named The Seven Deadly Sins the fifth best manga series for male readers. The title was named Best Shōnen Manga at the 39th Kodansha Manga Awards alongside Yowamushi Pedal. It was also nominated for the 2014 Manga Taishō award and as Best Youth Comic at the 42nd Angoulême International Comics Festival in France.
The North American releases of volumes two and four charted on The New York Times Manga Best Seller list at number seven and nine respectively. Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network (ANN) gave the first volume a B grade, calling the art interesting and the story a "neat take on the basic knights - in - shining - armor. '' She saw influence from Akira Toriyama in Meliodas and 1970s shōjo manga in the female characters. However, Silverman felt the art had issues with perspective and commented that Elizabeth lacked character development. Both Silverman and Danica Davidson of Otaku USA warned that Meliodas ' perverted actions towards Elizabeth, which are used for comedic relief, could possibly be misinterpreted by some readers. In a brief review, Jason Thompson claimed that the series follows common shōnen manga elements, making its plot twists and dialog predictable. He did however like the art and the series ' European setting.
The first DVD volume of the anime debuted at number one on Oricon 's Japanese animation DVD chart with 3,574 copies sold. With 32,762 copies sold of the five volumes released at the time, The Seven Deadly Sins was the 30th best - selling anime of the first half of 2015. Reviewing the first anime for ANN, Theron Martin felt that the series has a slow start with generic shōnen action fare but the storytelling picks up significantly in the second half. He had strong praise for the music and enjoyed the main cast and their interactions, but not the common archetypal villains. Martin noted that the art has a "semi-cartoonish look '' that one would expect in a series that "skews a bit younger, '' but The Seven Deadly Sins ' graphic violence and minimal fan service prove its "anything but a kiddie show. ''
The novel The Seven Deadly Sins - Gaiden - Sekijitsu no Ōto Nanatsu no Negai was the 33rd best - selling light novel of the first half of 2015, with 61,939 copies sold.
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the intensity l of light from a light bulb | Incandescent light bulb - wikipedia
An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light (incandescence). The filament is protected from oxidation with a glass or fused quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or a vacuum. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is slowed by a chemical process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament, thereby extending its life.
The light bulb is supplied with electric current by feed - through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent bulb is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting.
Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than other types of electric lighting; incandescent bulbs convert less than 5 % of the energy they use into visible light, with standard light bulbs averaging about 2.2 %. The remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared with 60 lm / W for a compact fluorescent bulb or 150 lm / W for some white LED lamps.
Some applications of the incandescent bulb (such as heat lamps) deliberately use the heat generated by the filament. Such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy - Bake Oven toy. Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 30,000 hours for lighting LEDs.
Incandescent bulbs have been replaced in many applications by other types of electric light, such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high - intensity discharge lamps, and light - emitting diode lamps (LED). Some jurisdictions, such as the European Union, China, Canada and United States, are in the process of phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs while others, including Colombia, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina and Brazil, have prohibited them already.
In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. They conclude that Edison 's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.
Historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edison 's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting.
The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo generator, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel - distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of lighting.
In 1761 Ebenezer Kinnersley demonstrated heating a wire to incandescence.
In 1802, Humphry Davy used what he described as "a battery of immense size '', consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years.
Over the first three - quarters of the 19th century, many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.
In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in Dundee, Scotland. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet ''. However, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of wireless telegraphy and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented, although he is credited in Challoner et al. with being the inventor of the "Incandescent Light Bulb ''.
In 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.
In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.
In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.
In 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments. He died shortly after obtaining the patent, and his invention was never produced commercially. Little else is known about him.
In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert - Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois.
In 1859, Moses G. Farmer built an electric incandescent light bulb using a platinum filament. He later patented a light bulb which was purchased by Thomas Edison.
In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed. Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments, and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.
On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen - filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent (U.S. Patent 0,181,613) to Thomas Edison in 1879.
Heinrich Göbel in 1893 claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized bamboo filament of high resistance, platinum lead - in wires in an all - glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel anticipation, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiry date of Edison 's patent. A research work published 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is a legend.
Joseph Swan (1828 -- 1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps became available, and Swan returned to his experiments.
With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880. On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead - in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours. Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce ' parchmentised thread ' in the early 1880s and obtained British Patent 4933 that same year. From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and also the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectric power. In 1878 the home of Lord Armstrong at Cragside was also among the first houses to be lit by electricity. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. It was lit by Joseph Swan 's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879.
Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights '' on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected... to platina contact wires. '' Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways, '' Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, Columbia, became the first application for Edison 's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a dynamo).
Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro - Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company did n't make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the Columbia. Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company.
Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat - treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M '' shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons '', an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.
In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into Thorn Lighting Ltd). Edison was initially against this combination, but after Swan sued him and won, Edison was eventually forced to cooperate, and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan 's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882.
The United States Patent Office gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison 's patents were based on the prior art of William Sawyer and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison 's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance '' was valid.
In 1896 Italian inventor Arturo Malignani (1865 -- 1939) patented an evacuation method for mass production, which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours. The patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.
In 1897, German physicist and chemist Walther Nernst developed the Nernst lamp, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic globar and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas. Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments.
On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram - bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen slows down the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.
In 1906, William D. Coolidge developed a method of making "ductile tungsten '' from sintered tungsten which could be made into filaments while working for General Electric Company. By 1911 General Electric began selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire.
In 1913, Irving Langmuir found that filling a lamp with inert gas instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduction of bulb blackening.
In 1917, Burnie Lee Benbow was granted a patent for inventing the coiled coil filament. In 1921, Junichi Miura created the first double - coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for Hakunetsusha (a predecessor of Toshiba). At the time, machinery to mass - produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass - produce coiled coil filaments by 1936.
Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the Phoebus cartel attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America.
In 1925, Marvin Pipkin, an American chemist, patented a process for frosting the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them, and in 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with silica.
In 1930, Hungarian Imre Bródy filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at Ajka in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian - born physicist Egon Orowan.
By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison 's lighting system.
Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15 % with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).
Of the power consumed by typical incandescent light bulbs, 95 % or more is converted into heat rather than visible light. Other electrical light sources are more effective.
Luminous efficacy of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp. Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt '' (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm / W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye.
The luminous efficiency is defined as the ratio of the luminous efficacy to the theoretical maximum luminous efficacy of 683 lpw, and, as for luminous efficacy, is of two types, radiant luminous efficiency (LFR) and source luminous efficacy (LFS).
The chart below lists values of overall luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of general service, 120 - volt, 1000 - hour lifespan incandescent bulb, and several idealized light sources. The values for the incandescent bulbs are source efficiencies and efficacies. The values for the ideal sources are radiant efficiencies and efficacies. A similar chart in the article on luminous efficacy compares a broader array of light sources to one another.
The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye. Most of the radiation is not in the range of wavelengths to which the eye is sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid -- below 3,695 K (3,422 ° C; 6,191 ° F). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6,300 ° C (6,600 K; 11,400 ° F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt. '' No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun 's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.
Although inefficient, incandescent light bulbs have an advantage in applications where accurate color reproduction is important, since the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light - bulb filament yields near - perfect color rendition, with a color rendering index of 100 (the best possible). White - balancing is still required to avoid too "warm '' or "cool '' colors, but this is a simple process that requires only the color temperature in kelvins as input for modern, digital visual reproduction equipment such as video or still cameras unless it is completely automated. The color - rendering performance of incandescent lights can not be matched by LEDs or fluorescent lights, although they can offer satisfactory performance for non-critical applications such as home lighting. White - balancing such lights is therefore more complicated, requiring additional adjustments to reduce for example green - magenta color casts, and even when properly white - balanced, the color reproduction will not be perfect.
For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb produces more heat (and thus consumes more power) than a fluorescent lamp. In buildings where air conditioning is used, incandescent lamps ' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system. While heat from lights will reduce the need for running a building 's heating system, in general a heating system can provide the same amount of heat at a lower cost than incandescent lights.
Halogen incandescent lamps have higher efficacy, which will allow a halogen light to use less power to produce the same amount of light compared to a non-halogen incandescent light. Halogen lights produce a more constant light - output over time, without much dimming.
There are many non-incandescent light sources, such as the fluorescent lamp, high - intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps, which have higher luminous efficiency, and some have been designed to be retrofitted in fixtures for incandescent lights. These devices produce light by luminescence. These lamps produce discrete spectral lines and do not have the broad "tail '' of invisible infrared emissions. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum, the light is not ideal for applications such as photography and cinematography.
The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building 's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.
Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. In the Europe the EC has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO2 emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.
In the US, federal law has scheduled the most common incandescent light bulbs to be phased out by 2014, to be replaced with more energy - efficient light bulbs. Traditional incandescent light bulbs were phased out in Australia in November 2009.
Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.
Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007, the consumer lighting division of General Electric announced a "high efficiency incandescent '' (HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient. The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress.
US Department of Energy research at Sandia National Laboratories initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a photonic lattice filament. However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.
Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, new "hybrid '' incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver '' incandescents can produce about 23 lm / W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which it can be re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro - Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm / W. More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm / W (40 % of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof - of - concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm / W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.
Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air - tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb 's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.
An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (3,140 to 5,480 ° F), well below tungsten 's melting point of 3,695 K (6,191 ° F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off as heat in the near - infrared wavelengths.
Three - way light bulbs have two filaments and three conducting contacts in their bases. The filaments share a common ground, and can be lit separately or together. Common wattages include 30 -- 70 -- 100, 50 -- 100 -- 150, and 100 -- 200 -- 300, with the first two numbers referring to the individual filaments, and the third giving the combined wattage.
Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light. Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs '', Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green). Neodymium - containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural - appearing light.
Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts.
The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 ° C (392 and 500 ° F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.
Most modern bulbs are filled with an inert gas to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent its oxidation. The gas is at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm).
The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). It however introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss) from the filament, by heat conduction and heat convection.
Early lamps, and some small modern lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. However, the vacuum increases evaporation of the filament, albeit it eliminates the heat losses.
The most commonly used fills are:
The gas fill must be free of traces of water. In the presence of the hot filament, water reacts with tungsten forming tungsten trioxide and atomic hydrogen. The oxide deposits on the bulb inner surface and reacts with hydrogen, decomposing to metallic tungsten and water. Water then cycles back to the filament. This greatly accelerates the bulb blackening, in comparison with evaporation - only.
The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, with heat transfer occurring only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb 's envelope.
The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g., a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.
The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin - filament, low - power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated. In special cases, when rapid cooling of a filament is needed (e.g. in flashing lights), hydrogen gas fill is used.
Early lightbulbs with carbon filaments also used carbon monoxide, nitrogen, or mercury vapor. However, carbon filaments operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.
Early bulbs were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed, the cost of bulbs fell.
In manufacturing the glass bulb, a type of "ribbon machine '' is used. A continuous ribbon of glass is passed along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs are created. After the bulbs are blown, and cooled, they are cut off the ribbon machine; a typical machine of this sort produces 50,000 bulbs per hour. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is then. fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested.
The first successful light bulb filaments were made of carbon (from carbonized paper or bamboo). Early carbon filaments had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance -- as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. In the "flashing '' process, carbon filaments were heated by current passing through them while in an evacuated vessel containing hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline). The carbon deposited on the filament by this treatment improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency. A metallized or "graphitized '' filament was first heated in a high - temperature oven before flashing and lamp assembly. This transformed the carbon into graphite, which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. This also changed the filament to have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, and helped stabilize the lamp 's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage.
In 1902, the Siemens company developed a tantalum lamp filament. These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament had the property of gradually shortening in use; the filaments were installed with large loops that tightened in use. This made lamps in use for several hundred hours quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.
From 1898 to around 1905, osmium was also used as a lamp filament in Europe, and the metal was so expensive that used broken lamps could be returned for partial credit. It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits.
In 1906, the tungsten filament was introduced. Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires. Filaments made from sintered tungsten powder were quite fragile. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping '' treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.
To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a ' coiled coil '. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as ' double - coil bulbs '. For a 60 - watt 120 - volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches (580 mm), and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.046 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled - coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light - emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.
There are several different shapes of filament used in lamps, with differing characteristics. Manufacturers designate the types with codes such as C - 6, CC - 6, C - 2V, CC - 2V, C - 8, CC - 88, C - 2F, CC - 2F, C - Bar, C - Bar - 6, C - 8I, C - 2R, CC - 2R, and Axial.
Electrical filaments are also used in hot cathodes of fluorescent lamps and vacuum tubes as a source of electrons or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron - emitting electrode.
One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is filament notching due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots '' to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1 % will cause a 25 % reduction in service life. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point -- this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy - looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton. Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.
Since a filament breaking in a gas - filled bulb can form an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead - in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb. More nitrogen is used in higher - voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.
While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight is higher and also the cross sectional area is higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.
During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more - efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade - off between efficiency and longevity. The trade - off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long - life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used.
If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown tungsten nitride, brown tungsten dioxide, violet - blue tungsten pentoxide, and yellow tungsten trioxide that then deposits on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.
In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93 % or less of its initial light output at 75 % of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube.
A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this water cycle. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.
Some old, high - powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.
The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber - optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application.
A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.
Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt - amperes) are equal. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament 's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher - powered bulb gives more light.
The table shows the approximate typical output, in lumens, of standard incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of a 230 V version is usually slightly less than that of a 120 V version. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for same life expectancy, and that reduces energy efficiency. The lumen values for "soft white '' bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power.
The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten - filament lamps is about 1 / 15 the hot - filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100 - watt, 120 - volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase - control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T '' rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100 - watt, 120 - volt general - service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90 % of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.
Carbon filament bulbs have the opposite characteristic. The resistance of a carbon filament is higher when it is cold than when it is operating. In the case of a 240 Volt, 60 Watt carbon filament bulb, the resistance of the filament when at operating temperature is 960 Ohms, but rises to around 1500 Ohms when cold.
Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. The names of the shapes vary somewhat from region to regions. Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in ⁄ of an inch, or in millimeters, depending on the shape and the region. For example, 63 mm reflectors are designated R63, but in the US, they are known as R20 (2.5 in). However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38. ANSI C79. 1 - 2002, IS 14897: 2000 and JIS C 7710: 1988 cover a common terminology for bulb shapes.
Common shapes:
Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp, and can be directly soldered to a printed circuit board for connections. Some reflector - type lamps include screw terminals for connection of wires. Most lamps have metal bases that fit in a socket to support the lamp and conduct current to the filament wires. In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the Mazda trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the US, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. Today most incandescent lamps for general lighting service use an Edison screw in candelabra, intermediate, or standard or mogul sizes, or double contact bayonet base. Technical standards for lamp bases include ANSI standard C81. 67 and IEC standard 60061 - 1 for common commercial lamp sizes, to ensure interchangeablitity between different manufacturer 's products. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening due to vibration. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.
Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb.
Miniature lamps used for some automotive lamps or decorative lamps have wedge bases that have a partial plastic or even completely glass base. In this case, the wires wrap around to the outside of the bulb, where they press against the contacts in the socket. Miniature Christmas bulbs use a plastic wedge base as well.
Lamps intended for use in optical systems such as film projectors, microscope illuminators, or stage lighting instruments have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw - base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket.
Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance.
For a supply voltage V near the rated voltage of the lamp:
This means that a 5 % reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16 %. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult - to - access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long - life bulbs take advantage of this trade - off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.
The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light '' is a light bulb that is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40 - watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.
In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general - service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (6,191 ° F). A 50 - hour - life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 ° C (122 ° F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750 - hour general service lamp.
Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100 - watt, 120 - volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.
The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general - service 120 - volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for "rough service '' or "vibration service '' may have as many as five. Low - voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires.
Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts. Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals.
The Centennial Light is the longest - lasting light bulb in the world.
Various lighting spectra as viewed in a diffraction grating. Upper left: fluorescent lamp, upper right: incandescent bulb, lower left: white LED, lower right: candle flame.
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what breed of dog is turner and hooch | Dogue de Bordeaux - wikipedia
The Dogue de Bordeaux, Bordeaux mastiff, French mastiff or Bordeauxdog is a large French mastiff breed -- and one of the most ancient French dog breeds. A typical brachycephalic molossoid type breed, the Bordeaux is a very powerful dog, with a very muscular body. This brawny breed has been put to work in many different capacities, from pulling carts and hauling heavy objects, to guarding flocks and, historically, the castles of the European elite.
The Dogue de Bordeaux was known in France as early as the fourteenth century, particularly in southern France in the region around Bordeaux. Hence, the city lent its name to this large dog. A uniform breed type of the Bordeaux dog did not exist before about 1920.
The French placed emphasis on keeping the old breeding line pure. Black masks were considered an indication of the crossing in of the English mastiff. As an important indication of purity of the breed, attention was paid to the self colored (pink) nose, lighter eye color (dark amber), and red mask. They were originally bred with huge heads; a pioneer for the breed in Germany, Werner Preugschat once wrote:
What am I supposed to do with a dog that has a monstrous skull and is at most able to carry it from the food dish to its bed?
The Dogue de Bordeaux was at one time known to come in two varieties, Dogues and Doguins, the Dogue being considerably larger than the Doguin. The smaller Doguin has withered away to nothing more than a mention in breed history books, and is no longer in existence.
The history of the breed is believed to predate the bullmastiff and the bulldog. It is said that the Dogue can be found in the background of the bullmastiff, and others claim that the Dogue and bastiff breeds were both being accomplished at the same time. Another theory is the Dogue de Bordeaux originates from the Tibetan mastiff and it is also said that the Dogue is related to the Greco Roman molossoids used for war.
As there was a breed similar to the Dogue de Bordeaux in Rome at the time of Julius Caesar 's reign, possibly a cousin of the Neapolitan mastiff. Others suggest that the Dogue de Bordeaux is a descendant of a breed which existed in ancient France, the Dogues de Bordeaux of Aquitaine. Whichever theory is true, the Dogue de Bordeaux shares the same common links as all modern molossers.
The Dogue de Bordeaux was once classified into three varieties, the Parisian, the Toulouse and the Bordeaux, types which were bred depending on the region of France and the jobs it was required to do. The ancestral Dogue de Bordeaux had various coat colors, such as brindle and a majority of white markings that carried fully up the legs. It had scissor bites in some regions, undershot in others; a big head or a small head, a large body or a small body; very inconsistent in type. Another controversial aspect was the mask, red (brown), none or black. The Dogue de Bordeaux of Bordeaux of the time also sported cropped ears. Regardless, it had a general type similar to today 's Dogue de Bordeaux.
In 1863, the first canine exhibition was held at the "Jardin d'Acclimatation '' in Paris, France. The winner of the Dogue de Bordeaux was a female named Magentas. The Dogue de Bordeaux was then given the name of the capital of its region of origin, today 's Dogue de Bordeaux.
During the 1960s, a group of breeders of the Dogue de Bordeaux in France, headed by Raymond Triquet, worked on the rebuilding of the foundation of the breed. In 1970, a new standard was written for the breed, with the most recent update in 1995. This standard is the basis of the standard written for the AKC in 2005.
Although the Dogue de Bordeaux first arrived in the USA in the 1890s for the show ring, the first documented Dogues de Bordeaux of modern times appeared in 1959, Fidelle de Fenelon; and in 1968, Rugby de la Maison des Arbres. Between 1969 and 1980, imported Dogues de Bordeaux in the USA were scarce, limited to a few breeders who worked closely with the French Dogue de Bordeaux Club, the SADB. The breed was first "officially '' introduced to American purebred enthusiasts in an article written in 1982 and by the American anthropologist, Dr. Carl Semencic for "Dog World '' magazine. That article, entitled "Introducing the Dogue de Bordeaux '', was followed by chapters dedicated to the Dogue in Semencic 's books on dogs, published by T.F.H. Publications of Neptune, New Jersey. When Semencic 's first article on the breed was published, there were no Bordeaux Dogues in the United States. There were 600 examples left in the world, mostly in France, the Netherlands and East Berlin, and the breed 's numbers were on the decline. Much later, in 1989, the typical American family saw the Dogue de Bordeaux for the first time on the big screen in Touchstone 's movie Turner & Hooch about a policeman and his canine partner, although many people did not know that the massive slobbering animal was a Dogue de Bordeaux.
Since then, the Dogue de Bordeaux has taken hold in the United States and can be found in greatly increasing numbers across the country. The Dogue de Bordeaux has been supported by multiple breed clubs throughout the years, and has finally found its way to full American Kennel Club recognition through the assistance of the Dogue de Bordeaux Society of America. Since 1997, the society has helped bring the breed to the point in which full AKC recognition could be achieved.
The Dogue de Bordeaux has begun to flourish is recent years, with its introduction into more movies and even television, as well as its full recognition status by the AKC, also known as the AKC (full AKC recognition began July 2008). Its numbers are climbing, but careful attention must be paid to health in the breed if its increase in popularity is to show a positive forward motion.
The breed was first exhibited in France in 1863 after which time it gained in popularity not only in their home country but in other parts of the world. The first record of Dogue de Bordeaux in the UK can be seen in the Kennel Club Gazette in 1897. The breed was officially recognised by the Kennel Club (UK) in 1997 but it was not until 2001 that the Kennel Club (UK) accepted an interim breed standard.
The Dogue de Bordeaux is a well balanced, muscular and massive dog with a powerful build. Its size should come mostly from width and muscles, rather than height. The breed is set somewhat low to the ground and is not tall like the English mastiff. The body of the Dogue de Bordeaux is thick - set, with a top - line that has a slight dip (topline is never completely straight) and a gentle rounded croup. The front legs should be straight and heavy - boned, well up on pasterns, down to tight cat - like feet. The straight tail, beginning thickly at the base and then tapering to a point at the end, should not reach lower than the hocks, and is set and carried low. The breed is to be presented in a completely natural condition with intact ears, tail, and natural dewclaws. It should be evaluated equally for correctness in conformation, temperament, movement, and overall structural soundness.
The breed standards by European FCI and the AKC specify a minimum weight of 99 pounds (45 kg) for a female and 110 pounds (50 kg) for a male. There is no formally stated maximum weight, but dogs must be balanced with regard to their overall type and the conformation standards of the breed.
The standard states that the desirable height, at maturity, should range between 24 to 27 inches (61 to 69 cm) for male dogs and from 23 to 26 inches (58 to 66 cm) for females. Deviation from these margins is considered a fault.
The massive head is a crucial breed characteristic. The Dogue de Bordeaux is claimed to have the largest head in the canine world, in proportion to the rest of the body. For males, the circumference of the head, measured at the widest point of the skull, is roughly equal to the dog 's height at the withers (shoulders). For females, the circumference may be slightly less. When viewed from the front or from above, the head of the Dogue forms a trapezoid shape with the longer top - line of the skull, and the shorter line of the underjaw, forming the parallel sides of the trapezoid. The jaw is undershot and powerful. The Dogue should always have a black or red mask that can be distinguished from the rest of the coat around and under the nose, including the lips and eye rims. The nose colour in red - masked dogs should be brown, in black - masked dogs, it must be black. The muzzle should be at most a third of the total length of the head and no shorter than a quarter of the length of the head, the ideal being between the two extremes. The upper lip hangs thickly down over the lower jaw. The upper lips of the Dogue de Bordeaux hangs over the lower lips. The skin on the neck is loose, forming a noticeable dewlap, but should not resemble that of a Neapolitan mastiff. Small pendant ears top the head, but should not be long and hound like.
The standard specifies the coat to be ' short, fine, and soft to the touch '. Color varies from shades of fawn (light, coppery red) to mahogany (dark, brownish red) with a black, brown, or red mask, although the red mask is true to the breed. White markings are permitted on the tips of the toes and on the chest, but white on any other part of the body is considered a fault, and a disqualifying one if the pigmentation goes beyond the neck.
While larger breeds of canines tend to have shorter life expectancy, the life expectancy of the Dogue is still shorter than even breeds of comparable or larger size. According to data collected by the Dogue De Bordeaux Society of America, the average lifespan of the breed is 5 to 6 years. A veterinary database in the UK showed similar figures. In the American survey, the oldest dog in the record was 12 years old. The Society is actively recording dogs that are 7 years old or older to celebrate the longer - lived dogs.
Because of its brachycephalic head, the Dogue can be affected by breathing problems. Some may be intolerant of heat or exercise as a result. The FCI standard considers excessive shortness of breath and raspy breathing in the Dogue a severe fault. The brachycephalic head shape can also encourage ectropion -- an outward rolling of the lower eyelid -- which can lead to conjunctivitis (eye inflammation) and bacterial infections. Under the UK Kennel Club 's Breed Watch system, the Dogue is classed as a Category 3 breed (formerly High Profile Breed), meaning it is a breed "where some dogs have visible conditions or exaggerations that can cause pain or discomfort. ''
Aortic stenosis is a disease of the heart valve in which the opening of the aortic valve is narrowed. Symptoms include exercise intolerance, exertional syncope (fainting from physical exertion) and sudden death. One study suggests a high predisposition in the breed. No severe cases were found in adult dogs, and most moderate to severely affected dogs died before one year of age, leading the authors to speculate that the disease is more severe in the Dogue than in other breeds.
Another heart problem in the breed is dilated cardiomyopathy, a condition in which the heart becomes weakened and enlarged and can not pump blood efficiently. Some affected dogs may die suddenly without showing any signs of problems. Others may die from congestive heart failure after several weeks or months. Affected dogs are often euthanized at an early stage to avoid suffering.
An estimated 5 % of dogs may be affected by footpad hyperkeratosis, a thickening of the footpad and sometimes nose. X-rays submitted voluntarily to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals shows that more than 50 % of Dogues in the database are affected by hip dysplasia.
Data from the Norwegian Kennel Club indicates a mean litter size of 8.1 puppies (ranging from 2 - 17) for the breed. The breed has a high stillborn and early neonatal mortality rate, with a stillborn rate of 14.2 % and early neonatal mortality (death within 1 week from birth) of 10.4 %. The average across all breeds in the study was 4.3 % stillbirth and 3.7 % early neonatal mortality. Excluding stillborn and early deaths, the mean litter size is 6.1. UK Kennel Club data shows that 27.8 % (5 of 18) of Dogue litters were delivered by caesarean section.
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max and paddy road to nowhere full series | Max and Paddy 's road to Nowhere - wikipedia
Max and Paddy 's Road to Nowhere is a British sitcom on Channel 4 starring and written by Peter Kay and Paddy McGuinness.
All the episodes were also directed by Kay. It began on 12 November 2004 and ran for six 30 minute episodes up until 17 December 2004. This spin off from Peter Kay 's Phoenix Nights follows the two Bolton doormen / bouncers Maxwell "Max '' Bygraves (Kay) and Patrick "Paddy '' O'Shea (McGuinness) as they wind their way around Britain in their campervan. The key reason why they are on the open road is never mentioned in the series: however, they took £ 8,000 from a woman in the second series of Peter Kay 's Phoenix Nights to kill her husband, but never properly went through with the job. When she discovered this, they hit the road in the van to escape the possible consequences.
Although this series was broadcast two years after Peter Kay 's Phoenix Nights, the action seems to be set immediately afterwards. However, the Motor Home they purchased in Phoenix Nights is a Ford, and the Motor Home they use in Max and Paddy 's Road to Nowhere is actually a Fiat. Peter Kay touched on this in the DVD commentary of Phoenix Nights, saying that he should have told the production company to buy a larger Motor Home than the Ford as he was going to use it in the spin off. Max is the older and more sensible of the two, roughly 40 years old, and usually pretending to have more life experience than he has actually had, including a stint in the army. Paddy is a cheeky and likely lad obsessed with sex, pornography, food, and several strange but funny catchphrases such as, "Dink dank doo. '' Max often coldly stares at Paddy or anyone who has offended his tastes and often shouts "H - how dare you! ''. He also calls people a clown or a melon if they 've said something absurd. A second series of the show was initially planned for 2006, but Peter Kay instead confirmed a third series of Phoenix Nights (which as of November 2017, has not yet happened) However, on 27 November 2014 live shows were announced for Comic Relief, with the full cast returning.
The theme song was written by Toni Baker and Peter Kay, and borrowed heavily from the theme to the 1970s American series B.J. and the Bear. The lyrics are "Do n't know where we 're going, Got no way of knowing, Driving on the Road to Nowhere, Sponging for a living, Checkin ' out the women, Riding on the Road to Nowhere... And we do n't take shit from anyone, The only thing we wan na do is have some fun, It 's Max and Paddy, Paddy and Max, And best of all we do n't pay council tax ''.
Singer Tony Christie was to sing the show 's theme, but his version was only used once, at the very end of the final episode. Kay and McGuinness themselves sang it in the opening sequences of episodes 2 to 6.
In Dover, Max and Paddy buy a plasma television from an Irish crook called Gypsy Joe (played by Brendan O'Carroll). This leads to several arguments, especially when they realise the television does n't have any speakers. The pair thus decide to go out to a nightclub to let off some steam and forget their troubles, but Max 's uncoordinated dancing spoils the night and he ends up fighting with some sailors home on shore leave. Paddy teaches him a few cool moves the following day, and they return to the club dressed as sailors in order to blend in. Their new moves lure two local girls, Tracey and Louise, back to the campervan, only for one of them to steal Paddy 's wallet. After discovering the girls, locally known as the ' Belgrano Sisters ', are infamous for this, they get revenge by forcing them to steal some speakers for their television.
This episode had 4.2 m viewers.
After a brush with a porn film shoot (a film called Willy Wanker and the Chocolate Factory - a gay porn parody of Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory) goes wrong for Paddy (initially believing he would naturally be working in a heterosexual porn film, he finds out otherwise), the campervan breaks down in the Midlands. The pair hand it over to a local garage run by Mick Bustin, played by British rocker Noddy Holder. To kill time, Max and Paddy catch the train to Middlewood, which actually turns out to be the last one that day, so the pair are forced to go for a walk in the woods, but quickly become lost. After Max shows a bemused Paddy his notebook filled with childlike drawings of a television programme he 's invented called "Magnet and Steel '', the pair reluctantly decide to sleep rough in the woods. Paddy quickly causes ill feeling by burning Max 's book on their campfire, but Max soon comes around and begins talking, accompanied by a flashback, about his one true love: a dwarf called Tina, whom he met in 1994.
He goes on to say that the relationship abruptly ended after she overheard him and his friends making jokes about her height. The following morning, the two discover to their dismay that they were a short walk away from a Petrol Station and a Travelodge. Things get worse when Mick Bustin tries to charge them £ 500 to retrieve the campervan, causing the pair to break into Bustin 's workshop and, in a parody of The A-Team, modify the van and ' bust ' out back on to the road, only for the van to break down again miles later, Mick Bustin having never actually made any repairs.
This episode features several regulars from Peter Kay 's Phoenix Nights, and a homage to the movie Midnight Cowboy. Paddy 's full name is revealed to be Patrick O'Shea. This joke is based around the rumour that Sunderland player John O'Shea is regularly teased by team - mates for his physical resemblance to Patrick McGuinness.
This episode had 3.26 m viewers.
The pair go down to London, and immediately have a run - in with the traffic police. Later, Max spots in a local newspaper a 40th birthday message for his old school friend Kevin ' The Wolfster ' Wolfson, who had moved to London some years before. Max and Paddy turn up unannounced at his birthday party and surprise ' The Wolfster ', as well as several other old faces from home present for the party. Things turn sad though when Tina (played by Lisa Hammond), Max 's one true love mentioned in the previous episode, turns up. Max awkwardly talks to her, and things get worse when he realises that she is actually married to, and has a child with, The Wolfster.
However, the child, a 10 - year - old boy called Daniel, is actually Max 's son. Tina warns Max to stay away and not blow the secret, but the following morning he ropes Paddy in and the pair steal what they think is a school bus with young Daniel aboard. They 've got the wrong bus however, and are soon accosted by the police and sent directly to prison. The actor / comedian Reece Shearsmith turns up in this episode as one of Max 's old friends. The ' Row Row Row Your Boat ' sequence on the bus is borrowed from Dirty Harry, and in the scene where The Wolfster writes his telephone number on a beermat and hands it to Max, it is clearly a Peter Kay beermat, tying in with Kay 's TV adverts for John Smith 's bitter.
This episode had 3.01 m viewers.
The pair are now in prison together after the school bus incident. Paddy is forced to share a cell with a tennis - playing Cliff Richard impersonator who actually believes he is Cliff. After an uncomfortable first night, Paddy admits his fear of being ' bummed ' in the shower room. Max convinces him the best thing to do is make the other prisoners believe they are not just two silly doormen, but genuine big - league gangsters called ' The Phoenix Twins '. After an altercation with a camp inmate called Pepe, Max and Paddy are soon confronted by the main man of their wing, Raymond The Bastard (played by Everal Walsh), who is also Pepe 's boyfriend. Raymond is the worse of Paddy 's nightmares when Paddy drops the soap, and is eagerly commented about his manhood as "Stunning, like a young Burt Reynolds! ''. Raymond has heard about the pair 's alleged big - money heists and robberies, and wants a cut of their money. Max agrees just to get Raymond off their backs and receive preferential treatment, including access to luxury chocolates and Sky+.
Soon, their old Phoenix Club boss Brian Potter (played by Kay) unexpectedly comes to visit, along with a cake, announcing that he 's organising several events to help speed up their release. They spurn him, not wanting a high - profile campaign ruining their chances of release. Potter, as ever, fails to listen, and the whole wing later see him on the TV news talking about ' the doormen ' Max and Paddy: thus showing up their tall stories as lies. A big fight is about to break out between Raymond and his henchmen against Max and Paddy. However, the fight is prevented by a prison officer telling Max and Paddy to come with him. The episode concludes with Tina, Max 's ex-love, admitting to the authorities that Daniel is actually Max 's son and he was acting under stress when he stole the bus. The pair are released, having their sentenced reduced to community service, and get revenge on Brian Potter by informing the Home Office that there is an outbreak of anthrax at his club. We find out in this episode that Max 's full name is Maxwell Bygraves, a jokey reference to the veteran British entertainer Max Bygraves.
This episode had 3.16 m viewers.
In the countryside, Paddy is driving the van when he accidentally knocks over and kills a cow walking in the road. Tracing the cow to a nearby farm, the pair go off to find the farmer and claim expenses for the damage to the van. They come across what they assume is him: an odd, scruffy old man in a field, who instead of giving them compensation money sells them a breeder pig for £ 100. He claims they can sell it on at market for around £ 300. When Max and Paddy reach the cattle market, they discover the pig has seen better days and they 've been conned. After several unsuccessful attempts to sell the pig on to butchers shops, a supermarket, and even a Halal outlet, Max and Paddy decide to kill it themselves to get rid of the burden. They have a change of heart though and head back to the farm to reclaim their £ 100. They soon discover that the old man who sold them the pig initially was actually the drunken father - in - law of the real farmer, and their money has probably all gone to the nearest pub. Also the farmer is n't very happy about the two killing one of his cows (even though his cow should not have been on the road in the first place). Guest starring Graham Walker of The Grumbleweeds.
This episode had 3.43 m viewers.
Max and Paddy finally hit North East England to visit Max 's old doorman friend Billy ' The Butcher ' Shannon, who had previously briefly appeared in the 1994 flashback in Episode 2. They agree to let Shannon, who is looking for his estranged son, hitch a ride around. They soon discover though that he 's obsessed with Max ("Not in a gay way '' he claims), and irrationally hates Paddy. What they fail to notice at the same time is that Shannon is carrying a revolver, which he uses to force a Little Chef worker called Brenda (played by Alex Hall) to open for the trio late at night. The Little Chef is Haydock, near St Helens, Merseyside. The police are quickly on to the gang, with only Shannon aware of any crime. When the campervan stops off later down the road, Max sees a newspaper headline and realises what 's happening. Furthermore, Billy catches Paddy going through his stuff and prepares to shoot him.
A chase eventually ensues through the services and along a motorway tunnel bridge, and Shannon shoots Paddy in the bottom. He 's on the verge of firing at Max too, but Paddy quickly recovers, and bashes Shannon around the head with a traffic cone, using Peter Kay 's TV catchphrase of "' Ave It! '' in the process. With Shannon now unconscious and arrested, Max and Paddy slip away from a police telling - off - due to the fact that earlier in the episode they cut down a speed camera - and escape into the night.
This episode had 3.26 m viewers.
On 22 February 2010, Peter Kay stated to The Sun that he and Paddy McGuinness planned to do more specials of Max and Paddy 's Road To Nowhere. He wanted Phil ' The Pastie ' Murphy to play the portly soldier in love with Max 's mother. He had also stated in 2010, during an appearance on The Chris Moyles Show, that he wanted Sir Terry Wogan to play an Irish baddie when Max and Paddy go to a funeral in Ireland but, after a stag night, only have fancy dress magician clothes. Mayhem would then ensue as they tried to act appropriately in the situation, only to keep unintentionally doing magic tricks based on what they found in their outfits.
A spoof fitness DVD was released, Max & Paddy 's The Power of Two, including several gags and pieces of scenery from the main series. The DVD also included extra workout tips and a segment instructed by Brian Potter live from the Phoenix Club. On the DVD packaging, it is now referred to as "The UK 's fastest selling fitness DVD - Ever! ''. Although the main workout is shown in full, it is more intended as a spoof product than a genuine workout.
Kay and McGuinness do not provide the DVD audio commentary.
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which countries take part in the commonwealth games | Commonwealth Games - Wikipedia
The Commonwealth Games (known as the British Empire Games from 1930 -- 1950, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954 -- 1966, and British Commonwealth Games from 1970 -- 1974) is an international multi-sport event involving athletes from the Commonwealth of Nations. The event was first held in 1930, and, with the exception of 1942 and 1946, which were cancelled due to World War II, has taken place every four years since then. The most recent Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland in 2014.
The games are overseen by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF), which also controls the sporting programme and selects the host cities. The games movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), Commonwealth Games Associations (CGAs), and organising committees for each specific Commonwealth Games. There are several rituals and symbols, such as the Commonwealth Games flag and Queen 's Baton, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Over 5,000 athletes compete at the Commonwealth Games in more than 15 different sports and more than 250 events. The first, second, and third - place finishers in each event receive Commonwealth Games medals: gold, silver, and bronze, respectively. Apart from many Olympic sports, the games also include some sports that are played predominantly in Commonwealth countries, such as lawn bowls and netball.
Although there are 52 members of the Commonwealth of Nations, 70 teams participate in the Commonwealth Games, as a number of dependent territories compete under their own flags. The four Home Nations of the United Kingdom -- England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland -- also send separate teams.
Nine nations have hosted the Commonwealth Games. 18 cities in seven countries have hosted the event. Australia has hosted four Commonwealth Games (1938, 1962, 1982, 2006) and will host for the fifth time in 2018. Canada has hosted four Commonwealth Games (1930, 1954, 1978, 1994). Two cities have hosted Commonwealth Games more than one time: Auckland (1950, 1990) and Edinburgh (1970, 1986).
Only six countries have attended every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland, and Wales. Australia has been the highest achieving team for twelve games, England for seven, and Canada for one.
A sporting competition bringing together the members of the British Empire was first proposed by John Astley Cooper in 1891, when he wrote an article in The Times suggesting a "Pan-Britannic - Pan-Anglican Contest and Festival every four years as a means of increasing goodwill and good understanding of the British Empire ''. The John Astley Cooper Committees worldwide (e.g. Australia) helped Pierre de Coubertin to get his international Olympic Games off the ground. In 1911, the Festival of the Empire was held at The Crystal Palace in London to celebrate the coronation of George V. As part of the Festival of the Empire, an Inter-Empire Championships was held in which teams from Australasia, Canada, South Africa, and the United Kingdom competed in athletics, boxing, wrestling and swimming events.
The 1930 British Empire Games were the first of what later become known as the Commonwealth Games, and were held in Hamilton, in the province of Ontario in Canada from August 16 -- 23, 1930. In 1928, Melville Marks Robinson of Canada was asked to organise the first British Empire Games. Eleven countries sent a total of 400 athletes to the Hamilton Games. The opening and closing ceremonies as well as athletics took place at Civic Stadium. The participant nations were Australia, Bermuda, British Guyana, Canada, England, Northern Ireland, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. The Hamilton Games featured six sports: athletics, boxing, lawn bowls, rowing, swimming and diving and wrestling and ran at a cost of $97,973. Women competed in only the aquatic events. Canadian triple jumper Gordon Smallacombe won the first ever gold medal in the history of the Games.
The 1934 British Empire Games were the second of what is now known as the Commonwealth Games, held in London, England. The host city was London, with the main venue at Wembley Park, although the track cycling events were in Manchester. The 1934 Games had originally been awarded to Johannesburg, but were given to London instead because of the potential for prejudiced treatment of black and Asian athletes in South Africa. Seventeen national teams took part, including the Irish Free State (the only Games in which they did take part) and new participants Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Southern Rhodesia and Trinidad and Tobago.
The 1938 British Empire Games was the third British Empire Games, which were held in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. They were timed to coincide with Sydney 's sesqui - centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia). Held in the southern hemisphere for the first time, the III Games opening ceremony took place at the famed Sydney Cricket Ground in front of 40,000 spectators. Fifteen nations participated down under at the Sydney Games involving a total of 464 athletes and 43 officials. Fiji and Ceylon made their debuts. Seven sports were featured in the Sydney Games -- athletics, boxing, cycling, lawn bowls, rowing, swimming and diving and wrestling.
The 1950 British Empire Games was the fourth edition and was held in Auckland, New Zealand after a 12 - year gap from the 3rd edition of the games. The fourth games were originally awarded to Montreal, Canada and were to be held in 1942 but were cancelled due to World War II. The opening ceremony at Eden Park was attended by 40,000 spectators, whilst nearly 250,000 people attended the Auckland Games. Twelve countries sent a total of 590 athletes to Auckland. Malaya and Nigeria made their first appearances.
The 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games which were fifth edition, were held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. These were the first games since the name change from British Empire Games took effect in 1952. The 5th edition of the Games placed Vancouver on a world stage and featured memorable sporting moments as well as outstanding entertainment, technical innovation and cultural events. The ' Miracle Mile ', as it became known, saw both the gold medallist, Roger Bannister of England and silver medallist John Landy of Australia, run sub-four minute races in an event that was televised live across the world for the first time. Northern Rhodesia and Pakistan made their debuts and both performed well, winning eight and six medals respectively.
The 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Cardiff, Wales. The sixth edition of the games marked the largest sporting event ever held in Wales and it was the smallest country ever to host a British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Cardiff had to wait 12 years longer than originally scheduled to become host of the Games, as the 1946 event was cancelled because of World War II. The Cardiff Games introduced the Queen 's Baton Relay, which has been conducted as a prelude to every British Empire and Commonwealth Games ever since. Thirty - five nations sent a total of 1,122 athletes and 228 officials to the Cardiff Games and 23 countries and dependencies won medals, including for the first time, Singapore, Ghana, Kenya and the Isle of Man.
The 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Perth, Western Australia, Australia. Thirty - five countries sent a total of 863 athletes and 178 officials to Perth. Jersey was amongst the medal winners for the first time, whilst British Honduras, Dominica, Papua and New Guinea and St Lucia all made their inaugural Games appearances. Aden also competed by special invitation. Sarawak, North Borneo and Malaya competed for the last time before taking part in 1966 under the Malaysian flag. In addition, Rhodesia and Nyasaland competed in the Games as an entity for the first and only time.
The 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Kingston, Jamaica. This was the first time that the Games had been held outside the so - called White Dominions. Thirty - four nations (including South Arabia) competed in the Kingston Games sending a total of 1,316 athletes and officials.
The 1970 British Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland. This was the first time the name British Commonwealth Games was adopted, the first time metric units rather than imperial units were used in events, the first time the games were held in Scotland and also the first time that HM Queen Elizabeth II attended in her capacity as Head of the Commonwealth.
The 1974 British Commonwealth Games were held in Christchurch, New Zealand. The Games were officially named "the friendly games ''. Following the massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympics, the tenth games at Christchurch was the first multi-sport event to place the safety of participants and spectators as its uppermost requirement. Security guards surrounded the athlete 's village and there was an exceptionally high - profile police presence. Only 22 countries succeeded in winning medals from the total haul of 374 medals on offer, but first time winners included Western Samoa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
The 1978 Commonwealth Games were held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. These games was the first to bear the current day name of the Commonwealth Games and also marked a new high as almost 1,500 athletes from 46 countries took part. They were boycotted by Nigeria, in protest of New Zealand 's sporting contacts with apartheid - era South Africa, as well as by Uganda, in protest of alleged Canadian hostility towards the government of Idi Amin.
The 1982 Commonwealth Games were held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Forty - six nations participated in the Brisbane Games with a new record total of 1,583 athletes and 571 officials. As hosts, Australia headed the medal table leading the way ahead of England, Canada, Scotland and New Zealand respectively. Zimbabwe made its first appearance at the Games, having earlier competed as Southern Rhodesia and as part of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
The 1986 Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland and were the second Games to be held in Edinburgh. Participation at the 1986 Games was affected by a boycott by 32 African, Asian and Caribbean nations in protest of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher 's refusal to condemn sporting contacts of Apartheid era South Africa in 1985, but the Games rebounded and continued to grow thereafter. Twenty - six nations did attend the second Edinburgh Games and sent a total of 1,662 athletes and 461 officials.
The 1990 Commonwealth Games were held in Auckland, New Zealand. It was the fourteenth Commonwealth Games, the third to be hosted by New Zealand and Auckland 's second. A new record of 55 nations participated in the second Auckland Games sending 2,826 athletes and officials. Pakistan returned to the Commonwealth in 1989 after withdrawing in 1972, and competed in the 1990 Games after an absence of twenty years.
The 1994 Commonwealth Games were held in Victoria, in the province of British Columbia in Canada for the fourth time. The games marked South Africa 's return to the Commonwealth Games following the apartheid era, and over 30 years since the country last competed in the Games in 1958. Namibia made its Games debut. It was also Hong Kong 's last appearance at the games before the transfer of sovereignty from Britain to China. Sixty - three nations sent 2,557 athletes and 914 officials.
The 1998 Commonwealth Games were held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. For the first time in its 68 - year history, the Commonwealth Games were held in Asia. The sixteenth games were also the first Games to feature team sports - an overwhelming success that added large numbers to both participant and TV audience numbers. A new record of 70 countries sent a total of 5,065 athletes and officials to the Kuala Lumpur Games. The top five countries in the medal standing were Australia, England, Canada, Malaysia and South Africa. Nauru also achieved an impressive haul of three gold medals. Cameroon, Mozambique and Kiribati debuted.
The 2002 Commonwealth Games were held in Manchester, England. The 2002 Games were to be hosted in England to coincide with the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II, head of the Commonwealth. In terms of sports and events, the 2002 Games were until the 2010 edition the largest Commonwealth Games in history featuring 281 events across 17 sports. The final medal tally was led by Australia, followed by host England and Canada. The 2002 Commonwealth Games set a new benchmark for hosting the Commonwealth Games and for cities wishing to bid for them with a heavy emphasis on legacy.
The 2006 Commonwealth Games were held in Melbourne, Australia. The only difference between the 2006 games and the 2002 games was the absence of Zimbabwe, which withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations. For the first time in the history of the Games the Queen 's Baton visited every single Commonwealth nation and territory taking part in the Games, a journey of 180,000 km (112,500 miles). Over 4000 athletes took part in the sporting competitions. The final medal tally was led by the host Australia, followed by England and Canada.
The 2010 Commonwealth Games were held in Delhi, India. The Games cost $11 billion and are the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever. It was the first time that the Commonwealth Games were held in India and the second time they were held in Asia after Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 1998. A total of 6,081 athletes from 71 Commonwealth nations and dependencies competed in 21 sports and 272 events. The final medal tally was led by Australia. The host nation India achieved its best performance ever in any sporting event, finishing second overall. Rwanda made its Games debut.
The 2014 Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland. It was the largest multi-sport event ever held in Scotland with around 4,950 athletes from 71 different nations and territories competing in 18 different sports, outranking the 1970 and 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, capital city of Scotland. Usain Bolt competed in the 4 × 100 metres relay of the 2014 Commonwealth Games and set a Commonwealth Games record with his teammates. The Games received acclaim for their organisation, attendance, and the public enthusiasm of the people of Scotland, with Commonwealth Games Federation chief executive Mike Hooper hailing them as "the standout games in the history of the movement ''.
The 2018 Commonwealth Games will be held in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia and the host nation will be going to host the games for the fifth time. There will be an equal number of events for men and women. This marks the first time in history that a major multi-sport event will have equality in terms of events.
The three nations to have hosted the Commonwealth Games the most times are Australia (5), Canada (4) and New Zealand (3). Furthermore, six editions have taken place in the countries within the United Kingdom (Scotland (3), England (2) and Wales (1)), twice in Asia (Malaysia (1) and India (1)) and once in the Caribbean (Jamaica (1)).
The Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were an international, multi-sport event involving athletes with a disability from the Commonwealth countries. The event was sometimes referred to as the Paraplegic Empire Games and British Commonwealth Paraplegic Games. Athletes were generally those with spinal injuries or polio. The event was first held in 1962 and disestablished in 1974. The Games were held in the country hosting the Commonwealth Games for able - bodied athletes. The countries that had hosted the Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were Australia, Jamaica, Scotland and New Zealand in 1962, 1966, 1970 and 1974 respectively. Six countries -- Australia, England, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales -- had been represented at all Commonwealth Paraplegic Games. Australia and England had been the top - ranking nation two times each: 1962, 1974 and 1966, 1970 respectively.
Athletes with a disability were then first included in exhibition events at the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia, and, at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England, they were included as full members of their national teams, making them the first fully inclusive international multi-sport games. This meant that results were included in the medal count.
During the 2007 General Assembly of the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) at Colombo, Sri Lanka, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and CGF signed a co-operative agreement to ensure a formal institutional relationship between the two bodies and secure the future participation of elite athletes with a disability (EAD) in future Commonwealth Games.
IPC President Philip Craven said during the General Assembly:
The co-operation agreement outlined the strong partnership between the IPC and the CGF. It recognized the IPC as the organization for overseeing the co-ordination and delivery of the Commonwealth Games EAD sports programme and committed both organizations to work together in supporting the growth of the Paralympic and Commonwealth Games Movements.
The Commonwealth Winter Games was a multi-sport event comprising winter sports, last held in 1966. Three editions of the Games have been staged. The Winter Games were designed as a counterbalance to the Commonwealth Games, which focuses on summer sports, to accompany the Winter Olympics and Summer Olympic Games. The winter Games were founded by T.D. Richardson. The 1958 Commonwealth Winter Games were held in St. Moritz, Switzerland and was the inaugural games for the winter edition. The 1962 Games were also held in St. Moritz, complementing the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Australia, and the 1966 event was held in St. Moritz as well, following which the idea was discontinued.
The Commonwealth Youth Games is an international multi-sport event organized by the Commonwealth Games Federation. The games are held every four years with the current Commonwealth Games format. The Commonwealth Games Federation discussed the idea of a Millennium Commonwealth Youth Games in 1997. In 1998 the concept was agreed on for the purpose of providing a Commonwealth multi-sport event for young people born in the calendar year 1986 or later. The first version was held in Edinburgh, Scotland from 10 to 14 August 2000. The age limitation of the athletes is 14 to 18.
The Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) is the international organisation responsible for the direction and control of the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games, and is the foremost authority in matters relating to the games. The headquarters of CGF are located in London, England, United Kingdom.
The Commonwealth Games Movement is made of three major elements:
English is the official language of the Commonwealth. The other language used at each Commonwealth Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these two (or more) languages, or the main depending on whether the host country is an English speaking country.
The Queen 's Baton Relay, is a relay around the world held prior to the beginning of the Commonwealth Games. The Baton carries a message from the Head of the Commonwealth, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Relay traditionally begins at Buckingham Palace in London as a part of the city 's Commonwealth Day festivities. The Queen entrusts the baton to the first relay runner. At the Opening Ceremony of the Games, the final relay runner hands the baton back to the Queen or her representative, who reads the message aloud to officially open the Games. The Queen 's Baton Relay is similar to the Olympic Torch Relay.
The Relay was introduced at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff, Wales. Up until, and including, the 1994 Games, the Relay only went through England and the host nation. The Relay for the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia was the first to travel to other nations of the Commonwealth. The Gold Coast 2018 Queen 's Baton Relay is set to be the longest in Commonwealth Games history. Covering 230,000 km over 388 days, the Baton will make its way through the six Commonwealth regions of Africa, the Americas, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia and Oceania. For the first time, the Queen 's baton was presented at the Commonwealth Youth Games during its sixth edition in 2017 which were held in Nassau, Bahamas.
Various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Commonwealth Games. This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The flag of the Commonwealth Games Federation, flag of the last hosting nation and the next hosting nation are also hosted during the opening ceremony. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance and theatre representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor 's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Delhi Games reportedly cost $70 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment.
After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. The last hosting nation is traditionally the first nation to enter. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetical or continental wise with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Queen 's Baton is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final baton carrier, often a successful Commonwealth athlete from the host nation, who hands it over to the Head of the Commonwealth.
The closing ceremony of the Commonwealth Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag - bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. The president of the organizing committee and the CGF president make their closing speeches and the Games are officially closed. The CGF president also speaks about the conduct of the games. The mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers the CGF flag to the president of the CGF, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Commonwealth Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture. Many great artists and singers had performed at the ceremonies of the Commonwealth Games.
At the Closing Ceremony of every Commonwealth Games the CGF President makes an award and presents a trophy to one athlete who has competed with particular distinction and honour both in terms of athletic performance and overall contribution to his or her team. Athletes are nominated by their Commonwealth Games Association at the end of the final day of competition and the winner is selected by a panel comprising the CGF President and representatives from each of the six Commonwealth Regions. The ' David Dixon Award ' as it is called was introduced in Manchester 2002, after the late David Dixon, former Honorary Secretary of the CGF, in honour of his monumental contribution to Commonwealth sport for many years.
A medal ceremony is held after each event is concluded. The winner, second and third - place competitors or teams stand on top of a three - tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by a CGF member, the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallist 's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag - bearers.
Note: The 1911 Inter-Empire Championships held in London is seen as a precursor to the modern Commonwealth Games, but is not normally considered an official edition of the Games themselves.
There are a total of 22 sports (with three multi-disciplinary sports) and a further seven para-sports which are approved by the Commonwealth Games Federation. Core sports must be included on each programme. A number of optional sports may be picked by the host nation, which may include some team sports such as basketball.
Recognised sports are sports which have been approved by the Commonwealth Games Federation but which are deemed to need expansion; host nations may not pick these sports for their programme until the Federation 's requirements are fulfilled.
Only six teams have attended every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland and Wales. Australia has been the highest scoring team for twelve games, England for seven and Canada for one.
Participated Withdrew for political reason Not eligible to participate To be determined
Very few Commonwealth dependencies and nations have yet to take part:
The 1934 British Empire Games, originally awarded in 1930 to Johannesburg was moved to London after the (pre-apartheid) South Africa government refused to allow nonwhite participants.
Nigeria boycotted the 1978 Commonwealth Games at Edmonton in protest at New Zealand 's sporting contacts with apartheid - era South Africa.
During the 1986 Commonwealth Games at Edinburgh, majority of the Commonwealth nations staged a boycott, so that the Games appeared to be a whites - only event. Thirty two of the eligible fifty nine countries -- largely African, Asian and Caribbean states -- stayed away because of the Thatcher government 's policy of keeping Britain 's sporting links with apartheid South Africa in preference to participating in the general sporting boycott of that country. Consequently, Edinburgh 1986 witnessed the lowest number of athletes since Auckland 1950. The boycotting nations were Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Belize, Cyprus, Dominica, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, Grenada, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Sierra Leone, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Tanzania, Turks and Caicos Islands, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Bermuda was a particularly late withdrawal, as its athletes appeared in the opening ceremony and in the opening day of competition before the Bermuda Olympic Association decided to formally withdraw.
For hosting the 2010 Commonwealth Games at Delhi, the initial total budget estimated by the Indian Olympic Association in 2003 was ₹ 16.2 billion (US $250 million). In 2010, however, the official total budget soon escalated to an estimated ₹ 115 billion (US $1.8 billion), a figure which excluded non-sports - related infrastructure development. Business Today magazine estimated that the Games cost ₹ 700 billion (US $11 billion). The 2010 Commonwealth Games are reportedly the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever. Indian Businessman Azim Premji called the 2010 Commonwealth Games a "drain on public funds '' and said that hosting the high - expense Games in India is not justified given that the country had more important priorities facing it, such as education, infrastructure and public health.
Lawn bowler Willie Wood from Scotland was the first competitor to have competed in seven Commonwealth Games, from 1974 to 2002, a record equalled in 2014 by Isle of Man cyclist Andrew Roche.
Greg Yelavich, a sports shooter from New Zealand, has won 12 medals in seven games from 1986 to 2010.
Lawn Bowler Robert Weale has represented Wales in 8 Commonwealth Games, 1986 -- 2014, winning 2 gold, 3 silver and 1 bronze. He is also aiming for the selection for 9th Games in 2018.
Nauruan weightlifter Marcus Stephen won twelve medals at the Games between 1990 and 2002, of which seven gold, and was elected President of Nauru in 2007. His performance has helped place Nauru (the smallest independent state in the Commonwealth, at 21 km and with a population of fewer than 9,400 in 2011) in nineteenth place on the all - time Commonwealth Games medal table.
Ian Thorpe, Australian swimmer (now retired), has won 10 Commonwealth Games gold medals and 1 silver medal. At the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, he won 4 gold medals. At the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, he won 6 gold medals and 1 silver medal.
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what happens on pretty little liars season 7 | Pretty Little Liars (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh and final season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, was renewed on June 10, 2014, for two additional seasons, making the show Freeform 's longest running original series.
The season consisted of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes aired in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes aired from April 2017. The season 's premiere aired on June 21, 2016, on Freeform. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016, which was confirmed by showrunner I. Marlene King. The season premiere was written by I. Marlene King and directed by Ron Lagomarsino. King revealed the title of the premiere on Twitter on March 17, 2016. On August 29, 2016, it was confirmed that this would be the final season of the series.
A.D. gives the Liars 24 hours to find Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies. While discussing possible suspects, the girls ' suspicion fell on Alison. Aria suspects the red jacket blonde she saw entering the church was Alison. Emily finds the jacket in Alison 's things and Caleb gives it to A.D. Meanwhile, Hanna manages to escape. Elliot 's true motive is later revealed to Alison; she managed to use his phone to alert the girls to her location when he takes her out in his car one night. She jumps out of the car and he gives chase but Hanna accidentally runs him over and they bury him in the woods.
The Liars find out Jenna is calling Elliot as "Archer '' on his burner phone. Mona then traces most of the sent messages from a secret apartment where they find out his real name is "Archer Dunhill ''. Toby discovers this and gets the cops to release Alison who reveals that she was the red jacket blonde but only tried to comfort Charlotte. Jenna befriends Sara and Noel begins helping them. Emily confronts Jenna and Sara. Jenna reveals that she became Charlotte 's friend after feeling sympathy for her in Welby and helped Archer fake his identity to be with Charlotte. Sara reveals that they are all looking for the same thing but is killed soon after. A.D. tricks Hanna into believing Archer is alive and records her digging up his grave.
The Liars find videos in Noel 's cabin of him torturing them in the dollhouse. Hanna kidnaps Noel after negotiating with him does n't work and films an interrogation video. He manages to escape and lures the Liars to an abandoned blind school. They leave the dollhouse videos on a table and someone takes them but Noel and Jenna attempt to murder them. In the confrontation, Noel is accidentally killed, and Spencer is shot by A.D., while Jenna corners Spencer. Jenna prepares to kill Spencer, but is knocked out by Mary. She then reveals that Spencer is her second child. A.D. saves Jenna who asks if they shot Spencer.
One week later, Spencer has recovered and A.D. sends Jenna to confess to the cops that Noel wanted money Charlotte left Jenna for another eye surgery, killed Sara and tried to kill Jenna in the blind school. Peter returns and reveals that Mary is the one who killed Jessica. Hanna and Spencer follow the trail of a private investigator he hired to find Mary and bump into Ted who reveals he has been hiding her as she is his college fling with whom he conceived Charles. Mary reveals to Spencer that Peter and Jessica were planning to kill her, thus she used his pills to kill Jessica. A.D. then uses Emily 's stolen eggs to impregnate Alison, as a way to further torture the liars. Meanwhile, A.D. hires Sydney Driscoll as their helper and she fakes being A.D. to recruit Aria into joining the A.D. team. Aria is forced into playing and becomes A.D. 's new helper, destroying Emison 's baby nursery and leaving an "A '' message in Spencer 's house, until the Liars catch her in the act and she defects. Mona, who is becoming addicted to the A-game again, reveals that she tried to scare Charlotte into not resuming the A-game but Charlotte attacked her and she killed her in self - defense. Mary confesses to Rollins and Jessica 's murder. A.D. ends the game as they have finally learned that Mona was Charlotte 's killer.
One year later, Mary escapes from prison and Mona is released from Welby but rejoins the A-Team and is sent to kidnap Spencer, who comes face - to - face with A.D. - Alex Drake, her twin sister. Mary reveals she sold Alex to a London family to get out of Radley. Alex ran away and met Wren who revealed everything about Spencer to her and introduced her to Charlotte who left her everything. She became A.D. to use the Liars to find Charlotte 's killer and killed Wren as he always saw her as Alex while she wanted to become Spencer to have her "perfect life ''. She explains that Sara was looking for Charlotte 's false treasure in the Radley which was actually the secret fall and Jenna recruited Noel to look for "Charlotte 's sister ''. Jenna uses her enhanced sense of smell to figure out "Spencer 's not Spencer '' and alerts Toby who tells the others. Mona reveals to them that Wren was going to kill her but she convinced him she could get Mary out. The Liars, Toby, Mona, and Caleb come face to face with Alex and Spencer as they can not tell them apart, until Toby makes the distinction by asking what Spencer 's favorite poem from a book she gave him. Mona tracked A.D. 's location has a cop arrest her. The Liars then say goodbye to one another as Aria leaves for her honeymoon with Ezra. Mona moves to Paris and the "cop '' is revealed to be her boyfriend who has imprisoned Alex and Mary in her basement dollhouse. In the finale moment, a new set of liars are awaken to find their leader, Addison, has just gone missing.
After putting herself in danger, Hanna is rescued by Mary Drake. After Alison calls Emily about her current condition, this leads the Liars to grow suspicious of Elliott. Spencer and Caleb 's relationship is on the rocks after Hanna tells Caleb about her feelings towards him. Liam is assigned to help Aria and Ezra on their book and after Aria breaks up with him, he unleashes on Ezra. Hanna breaks off her engagement with Jordan, and later signs a contract with Lucas to construct a fashion company.
The Rosewood P.D. begin to question Elliott 's disappearance and explore the possibility of him being dead. The investigation leads the Liars to question Elliott 's murder altogether, with Hanna being conflicted about whether or not to tell the police the truth. Spencer talks with Marco in order to make things clear regarding the kiss they had in the Radley elevator. Meanwhile, Aria and Ezra struggle with their relationship after Aria turns down Ezra 's proposal because of Elliott 's murder. Emily questions the fact that Sara and Jenna have teamed up together, and finds out that Charlotte enlisted Jenna 's help to find her birth mother and make Archer the alias of Elliott Rollins in order to purposely meet Ali and take advantage of her good intentions for her eventual release. Spencer and Caleb finally have a conversation about their relationship and break up. "A.D. '' unsuccessfully attacks Alison at her house wearing a mask. After hearing everything from Aria, Ezra proposes to her again -- and, this time, she says yes. Sara is murdered by an unseen figure and her body is discovered in a bathtub at The Radley.
Jason comes back to Rosewood in order to stop Alison from becoming too close to Mary. Meanwhile, Noel Kahn 's behaviour starts to worry the girls when they find out he broke into Toby 's house to steal Mary 's Radley file. The Liars discover new information about Mary and Jessica, leading them to a secret cellar in Carol Ward 's house where they discover that Jessica had files about them and that Mary had a second child while at Radley. They then begin to think that this child, a cousin of Alison, may be behind the "A.D. '' mask, and wanting revenge for something. The cellar explodes right after the girls leave, and someone writes "I see you '' on the rear window of their car. Ezra and Aria decide to elope in Italy, but right before they are about to leave, the FBI contacts Ezra and tells him that Nicole may be alive.
The Liars, Alison, Mona, and Caleb team up with Rosewood P.D. to find Hanna. Emily and Paige continue to rebuild their friendship. Alison reveals to Emily that she 's pregnant. Spencer learns that Toby and Yvonne are planning to leave Rosewood. Aria finds out that Nicole is alive. Noel manages to escape and leads the Liars to an abandoned school for the blind where Jenna, armed with a gun, attempts to murder the Liars with Noel. However, Noel, while attacking Hanna and Emily, trips on his axe and accidentally kills himself. Jenna then shoots at the Liars and gets Spencer. Jenna corners her and is about to execute her when Mary Drake knocks her out and reveals that she is Spencer 's biological mother. While leaving town, Toby and Yvonne are in a car accident.
One week after the events of the last episode, Toby is well but Yvonne is in a coma while Spencer has recovered. Ezra arrives and reveals he has n't told Nicole about him and Aria getting married. Hanna and Caleb are back together and Mona helps her get back into the fashion business. Emily is appointed coach of the varsity swimming team and Paige is made an athletics supervisor at Rosewood High. The Liars are given a interactive board game by "A.D. '' which shows the area of notable places of Rosewood and figurines of the Liars. Spencer plays the game and receives a puzzle piece and a letter from Mary. Hanna tries to destroy the game but a video appears showing that "A.D. '' knows they killed Rollins.
After being blackmailed by "A.D. '', Aria supplies info to them about the Liars findings. Detective Furey reveals to Spencer that she used Archer 's credit card to buy drinks when they first met and she is now a suspect in Archer 's death. After some arguing, Ezra finally agrees to leave Nicole behind for Aria, while Emily encourages Ali to not get an abortion and raise her child. Paige discovers Emily is going to help Alison raise her child. That night Paige and Alison discuss Emily, while finally making up after years of hate. Realizing that Emily loves Alison, Paige leaves Rosewood and Emily for good. After learning about Lucas ' relation with Charles, Hanna sets out to prove he is innocent, but finds more evidence that he is "A.D '', when the Liars find a comic book made by Lucas and Charles, that heavily resembles the "A '' game. Hanna tells Mona about the game and tries to convince her to help. Meanwhile, "A.D. '' sends Aria to retrieve the comic book for them, and in return she is gifted the official "A '' uniform.
Spencer steals a flash drive from Marco 's apartment about Lucas ' alibi confession to the police the night Archer was killed. "A.D. '' sends Aria to destroy Alison and Emily 's nursery. In Hanna 's turn at the game, "A.D. '' makes her pick up something at the computer repair shop and bring it to Rosewood High School. The Liars have a confrontation with Lucas where he explains to them that he did n't know Charles and Charlotte were the same person, or that Charlotte was "A ''. A second comic book exists and depicts turning vengeance into a game. Aria breaks down in remorse after her plot to destroy the nursery. Meanwhile, Caleb and Hanna return to Lucas 's loft with the hard drive Hanna picked up. The audio file contains a Patsy Cline song. Hanna remembers that "A '' played a different Patsy song in the Dollhouse. Alison finally admits her feelings to Emily.
The Liars are told by Caleb that Mona has the board game and jump to conclusions that Mona is "A.D. ''. Mary meets with Spencer at Lost Woods Resort and gives her ownership of the building. Mona reveals that Charlotte never recovered and was going to resume the A-game. She confronted Charlotte and threatened to push her out the window but never planned to go through with it. When Hanna, Caleb and Spencer take Mona back to their car, the final two puzzle pieces are waiting. Later, the Liars gather in a room at the Lost Woods and put the two final puzzle pieces in. When the pieces are in place, the game says "Congratulations. Claim the grand prize '', a picture of Archer. Augmented reality shows a man walking toward Aunt Carol 's house. The Liars are arrested by Tanner at Aunt Carol 's where Archer 's body is found. Mary lies and says she killed Archer, also confessing to Jessica 's murder, saving the Liars from a murder charge. Mona reveals that after she stopped threatening her, Charlotte attacked Mona and in the struggle she accidentally killed Charlotte in self - defense.
The seventh season was ordered with the sixth season on June 10, 2014, right before the fifth - season premiere aired, which made Pretty Little Liars ABC Family 's longest running original series, surpassing The Secret Life of the American Teenager, which was ABC Family 's previous longest running original series. The season will consist of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes will air in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes beginning to air in April 2017. Charlie Craig, who served as writer / consulting producer on the second season, will return for the seventh season as executive producer / co-showrunner. I. Marlene King revealed the title of the premiere "Tick - Tock, Bitches '' on Twitter. Variety announced that season premiere would air on June 21, 2016, the latest for a season premiere in the show 's history. Additionally, series star Troian Bellisario would make her directorial debut this season. Bellisario is set to direct the fifteenth episode of the season. A promo was released on May 12, 2016. Freeform released a promotional poster for the season, on June 7, 2016. After the season premiere, Freeform released another poster which included Ashley Benson. On August 29, 2016, I. Marlene King with the principal cast of the show announced that Pretty Little Liars would end after the seventh season. King also announced that the show would start airing the second half of the season later than usual, in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two - hour episode event. It was reported on October 26, 2016, that a tell - all special will air after the series finale "Till Death Do Us Part '', where the main cast and showrunner I. Marlene King talked about the show and behind - the - scenes exclusive.
The seventh season had been speculated by both fans and the cast and crew of the show to being the final season of Pretty Little Liars ever since the show was renewed for two additional seasons. In an interview with BuzzFeed, Troian Bellisario said "This is the beginning of the end. But the best part about these last two years is that, because it 's the beginning of the end, we can actually start telling the story I think we 've been waiting to tell for a long time. '' Regarding the show 's ending, Lucy Hale said to E! News that "Seven seasons will definitely end the show. '' Showrunner I. Marlene King commented on these rumors to TVLine as she said "We have enough story to take us to the end of Season 7, and we 're going to let the fans tell us if they 're ready to say goodbye to this world and these characters. '' She confirmed to being open for an eighth season and a movie and a new book.
In an interview with Variety regarding the five - year time - jump, King said "I think that this story when we 're back will end next year at the end of Season 7 ''. She later took to Twitter where she confirmed that the current storyline that began in the second half of the sixth season would end after the seventh season, but would not necessarily mean that the show would end after the seventh season. Hale said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that the show was ending after the seventh season. Bellisario 's fiancé Patrick J. Adams said in June 2016, that the show was ending in 2017, as the couple has decided to get married after the show ends. Freeform gave out a statement not long after saying that "There has been no official decision made for PLL beyond a season 7. '' It was announced on August 29, 2016, the day before the mid-season finale would air, that Pretty Little Liars will end after the seventh season.
Production began on February 1, 2016, when King announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing brainstorming and mapping the seventh season. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 and officially wrapped up in October 2016.
The seventh season has nine roles receiving star billing, with eight of them returning from the previous season, six of which was part of the original cast from the first season. The season saw the four protagonists of the series continue the roles as they try to take down the new ' A '. Troian Bellisario played Spencer Hastings, who has relationship problems with Caleb, while Ashley Benson played Hanna Marin, who was kidnapped at the end of last season. Lucy Hale continued her role as Aria Montgomery as she is set in a love triangle with Ezra and her boyfriend Liam. Shay Mitchell portrayed Emily Fields who begins to rekindle her relationship with Alison. Sasha Pieterse continued to portray Alison DiLaurentis as Alison struggles with being in a psych - ward. Janel Parrish returned as Mona Vanderwaal who seems to be finally on their side. Tyler Blackburn continues to play Caleb Rivers and Ian Harding also continued his role as Ezra Fitz. Andrea Parker was added as a series regular, playing Jessica DiLaurentis ' twin sister Mary Drake.
After the sixth - season finale, it was announced that Andrea Parker would return to the show as Mary Drake, Jessica DiLaurentis ' identical twin sister and biological mother to Charlotte DiLaurentis. TVLine later confirmed that Parker was added as a series regular for the upcoming season. Deadline reported on May 10, 2016, that actor Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Detective Vic Furey, a character who will oversee the Rosewood Police Department. The character was later renamed Det. Marco Furey. Tammin Sursok announced that she will return to the show as Jenna Marshall after last appearing in the fifth - season episode "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas ''. On June 2, 2016, Variety reported that Brant Daugherty would be returning as Noel Kahn; Brant has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the fifth season.
On June 10, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lindsey Shaw would be returning as Paige McCullers after leaving in the fifth season mid-season premiere. The actress playing Sydney Driscoll, Chloe Bridges, posted an image on social media, confirming that she would return to the show after last appearing in the Christmas special episode. On July 28, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shane Coffey would be returning as Holden Strauss; Shane has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the third season. It was announced on August 8, 2016, that Ava Allan will appear on the show, and will first appear in the second half of the season as Addison. On August 17, 2016, TVLine reported that Edward Kerr would be returning to the show as Pastor Ted Wilson in the second half of the season. Kerr had not been on the show since towards the end of the fifth season.
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investment in is the largest investment for many firms | Investment management - wikipedia
Investment management is the professional asset management of various securities (shares, bonds and other securities) and other assets (e.g., real estate) in order to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of the investors. Investors may be institutions (insurance companies, pension funds, corporations, charities, educational establishments etc.) or private investors (both directly via investment contracts and more commonly via collective investment schemes e.g. mutual funds or exchange - traded funds).
The term asset management is often used to refer to the investment management of collective investments, while the more generic fund management may refer to all forms of institutional investment as well as investment management for private investors. Investment managers who specialize in advisory or discretionary management on behalf of (normally wealthy) private investors may often refer to their services as money management or portfolio management often within the context of so - called "private banking ''.
The provision of investment management services includes elements of financial statement analysis, asset selection, stock selection, plan implementation and ongoing monitoring of investments. Coming under the remit of financial services many of the world 's largest companies are at least in part investment managers and employ millions of staff. It remains unclear if professional investment managers can reliably enhance risk adjusted returns by an amount that exceeds fees and expenses of investment management.
The term fund manager (or investment advisor in the United States) refers to both a firm that provides investment management services and an individual who directs fund management decisions.
According to a Boston Consulting Group study, the assets managed professionally for fees reached an all - time high of US $62.4 trillion in 2012, after remaining flat - lined since 2007. Furthermore, these industry assets under management were expected to reach US $70.2 trillion at the end of 2013 as per a Cerulli Associates estimate.
The global investment management industry is highly concentrated in nature, in a universe of about 70,000 funds roughly 99.7 % of the US fund flows in 2012 went into just 185 funds. Additionally, a majority of fund managers report that more than 50 % of their inflows go to only three funds.
The business of investment has several facets, the employment of professional fund managers, research (of individual assets and asset classes), dealing, settlement, marketing, internal auditing, and the preparation of reports for clients. The largest financial fund managers are firms that exhibit all the complexity their size demands. Apart from the people who bring in the money (marketers) and the people who direct investment (the fund managers), there are compliance staff (to ensure accord with legislative and regulatory constraints), internal auditors of various kinds (to examine internal systems and controls), financial controllers (to account for the institutions ' own money and costs), computer experts, and "back office '' employees (to track and record transactions and fund valuations for up to thousands of clients per institution).
Key problems include:
Institutions often control huge shareholdings. In most cases they are acting as fiduciary agents rather than principals (direct owners). The owners of shares theoretically have great power to alter the companies via the voting rights the shares carry and the consequent ability to pressure managements, and if necessary out - vote them at annual and other meetings.
In practice, the ultimate owners of shares often do not exercise the power they collectively hold (because the owners are many, each with small holdings); financial institutions (as agents) sometimes do. There is a general belief that shareholders -- in this case, the institutions acting as agents -- could and should exercise more active influence over the companies in which they hold shares (e.g., to hold managers to account, to ensure Board 's effective functioning). Such action would add a pressure group to those (the regulators and the Board) overseeing management.
However, there is the problem of how the institution should exercise this power. One way is for the institution to decide, the other is for the institution to poll its beneficiaries. Assuming that the institution polls, should it then: (i) Vote the entire holding as directed by the majority of votes cast? (ii) Split the vote (where this is allowed) according to the proportions of the vote? (iii) Or respect the abstainers and only vote the respondents ' holdings?
The price signals generated by large active managers holding or not holding the stock may contribute to management change. For example, this is the case when a large active manager sells his position in a company, leading to (possibly) a decline in the stock price, but more importantly a loss of confidence by the markets in the management of the company, thus precipitating changes in the management team.
Some institutions have been more vocal and active in pursuing such matters; for instance, some firms believe that there are investment advantages to accumulating substantial minority shareholdings (i.e. 10 % or more) and putting pressure on management to implement significant changes in the business. In some cases, institutions with minority holdings work together to force management change. Perhaps more frequent is the sustained pressure that large institutions bring to bear on management teams through persuasive discourse and PR. On the other hand, some of the largest investment managers -- such as BlackRock and Vanguard -- advocate simply owning every company, reducing the incentive to influence management teams. A reason for this last strategy is that the investment manager prefers a closer, more open and honest relationship with a company 's management team than would exist if they exercised control; allowing them to make a better investment decision.
The national context in which shareholder representation considerations are set is variable and important. The USA is a litigious society and shareholders use the law as a lever to pressure management teams. In Japan it is traditional for shareholders to be low in the ' pecking order, ' which often allows management and labor to ignore the rights of the ultimate owners. Whereas US firms generally cater to shareholders, Japanese businesses generally exhibit a stakeholder mentality, in which they seek consensus amongst all interested parties (against a background of strong unions and labour legislation).
Conventional assets under management of the global fund management industry increased by 10 % in 2010, to $79.3 trillion. Pension assets accounted for $29.9 trillion of the total, with $24.7 trillion invested in mutual funds and $24.6 trillion in insurance funds. Together with alternative assets (sovereign wealth funds, hedge funds, private equity funds and exchange traded funds) and funds of wealthy individuals, assets of the global fund management industry totalled around $117 trillion. Growth in 2010 followed a 14 % increase in the previous year and was due both to the recovery in equity markets during the year and an inflow of new funds.
The US remained by far the biggest source of funds, accounting for around a half of conventional assets under management or some $36 trillion. The UK was the second largest centre in the world and by far the largest in Europe with around 8 % of the global total.
The 3 - P 's (Philosophy, Process and People) are often used to describe the reasons why the manager is able to produce above average results.
At the heart of the investment management industry are the managers who invest and divest client investments.
A certified company investment advisor should conduct an assessment of each client 's individual needs and risk profile. The advisor then recommends appropriate investments.
The different asset class definitions are widely debated, but four common divisions are stocks, bonds, real estate and commodities. The exercise of allocating funds among these assets (and among individual securities within each asset class) is what investment management firms are paid for. Asset classes exhibit different market dynamics, and different interaction effects; thus, the allocation of money among asset classes will have a significant effect on the performance of the fund. Some research suggests that allocation among asset classes has more predictive power than the choice of individual holdings in determining portfolio return. Arguably, the skill of a successful investment manager resides in constructing the asset allocation, and separate individual holdings, so as to outperform certain benchmarks (e.g., the peer group of competing funds, bond and stock indices).
It is important to look at the evidence on the long - term returns to different assets, and to holding period returns (the returns that accrue on average over different lengths of investment). For example, over very long holding periods (e.g. 10 + years) in most countries, equities have generated higher returns than bonds, and bonds have generated higher returns than cash. According to financial theory, this is because equities are riskier (more volatile) than bonds which are themselves more risky than cash.
Against the background of the asset allocation, fund managers consider the degree of diversification that makes sense for a given client (given its risk preferences) and construct a list of planned holdings accordingly. The list will indicate what percentage of the fund should be invested in each particular stock or bond. The theory of portfolio diversification was originated by Markowitz (and many others). Effective diversification requires management of the correlation between the asset returns and the liability returns, issues internal to the portfolio (individual holdings volatility), and cross-correlations between the returns.
There are a range of different styles of fund management that the institution can implement. For example, growth, value, growth at a reasonable price (GARP), market neutral, small capitalisation, indexed, etc. Each of these approaches has its distinctive features, adherents and, in any particular financial environment, distinctive risk characteristics. For example, there is evidence that growth styles (buying rapidly growing earnings) are especially effective when the companies able to generate such growth are scarce; conversely, when such growth is plentiful, then there is evidence that value styles tend to outperform the indices particularly successfully.
Large asset managers are increasingly profiling their equity portfolio managers to trade their orders more effectively. While this strategy is less effective with small - cap trades, it has been effective for portfolios with large - cap companies.
Fund performance is often thought to be the acid test of fund management, and in the institutional context, accurate measurement is a necessity. For that purpose, institutions measure the performance of each fund (and usually for internal purposes components of each fund) under their management, and performance is also measured by external firms that specialize in performance measurement. The leading performance measurement firms (e.g. Frank Russell in the US or BI-SAM (1) in Europe) compile aggregate industry data, e.g., showing how funds in general performed against given indices and peer groups over various time periods.
In a typical case (let us say an equity fund), then the calculation would be made (as far as the client is concerned) every quarter and would show a percentage change compared with the prior quarter (e.g., + 4.6 % total return in US dollars). This figure would be compared with other similar funds managed within the institution (for purposes of monitoring internal controls), with performance data for peer group funds, and with relevant indices (where available) or tailor - made performance benchmarks where appropriate. The specialist performance measurement firms calculate quartile and decile data and close attention would be paid to the (percentile) ranking of any fund.
Generally speaking, it is probably appropriate for an investment firm to persuade its clients to assess performance over longer periods (e.g., 3 to 5 years) to smooth out very short - term fluctuations in performance and the influence of the business cycle. This can be difficult however and, industry wide, there is a serious preoccupation with short - term numbers and the effect on the relationship with clients (and resultant business risks for the institutions).
An enduring problem is whether to measure before - tax or after - tax performance. After - tax measurement represents the benefit to the investor, but investors ' tax positions may vary. Before - tax measurement can be misleading, especially in regimens that tax realised capital gains (and not unrealised). It is thus possible that successful active managers (measured before tax) may produce miserable after - tax results. One possible solution is to report the after - tax position of some standard taxpayer.
Performance measurement should not be reduced to the evaluation of fund returns alone, but must also integrate other fund elements that would be of interest to investors, such as the measure of risk taken. Several other aspects are also part of performance measurement: evaluating if managers have succeeded in reaching their objective, i.e. if their return was sufficiently high to reward the risks taken; how they compare to their peers; and finally whether the portfolio management results were due to luck or the manager 's skill. The need to answer all these questions has led to the development of more sophisticated performance measures, many of which originate in modern portfolio theory. Modern portfolio theory established the quantitative link that exists between portfolio risk and return. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) developed by Sharpe (1964) highlighted the notion of rewarding risk and produced the first performance indicators, be they risk - adjusted ratios (Sharpe ratio, information ratio) or differential returns compared to benchmarks (alphas). The Sharpe ratio is the simplest and best known performance measure. It measures the return of a portfolio in excess of the risk - free rate, compared to the total risk of the portfolio. This measure is said to be absolute, as it does not refer to any benchmark, avoiding drawbacks related to a poor choice of benchmark. Meanwhile, it does not allow the separation of the performance of the market in which the portfolio is invested from that of the manager. The information ratio is a more general form of the Sharpe ratio in which the risk - free asset is replaced by a benchmark portfolio. This measure is relative, as it evaluates portfolio performance in reference to a benchmark, making the result strongly dependent on this benchmark choice.
Portfolio alpha is obtained by measuring the difference between the return of the portfolio and that of a benchmark portfolio. This measure appears to be the only reliable performance measure to evaluate active management. In fact, we have to distinguish between normal returns, provided by the fair reward for portfolio exposure to different risks, and obtained through passive management, from abnormal performance (or outperformance) due to the manager 's skill (or luck), whether through market timing, stock picking, or good fortune. The first component is related to allocation and style investment choices, which may not be under the sole control of the manager, and depends on the economic context, while the second component is an evaluation of the success of the manager 's decisions. Only the latter, measured by alpha, allows the evaluation of the manager 's true performance (but then, only if you assume that any outperformance is due to skill and not luck).
Portfolio return may be evaluated using factor models. The first model, proposed by Jensen (1968), relies on the CAPM and explains portfolio returns with the market index as the only factor. It quickly becomes clear, however, that one factor is not enough to explain the returns very well and that other factors have to be considered. Multi-factor models were developed as an alternative to the CAPM, allowing a better description of portfolio risks and a more accurate evaluation of a portfolio 's performance. For example, Fama and French (1993) have highlighted two important factors that characterize a company 's risk in addition to market risk. These factors are the book - to - market ratio and the company 's size as measured by its market capitalization. Fama and French therefore proposed three - factor model to describe portfolio normal returns (Fama -- French three - factor model). Carhart (1997) proposed to add momentum as a fourth factor to allow the short - term persistence of returns to be taken into account. Also of interest for performance measurement is Sharpe 's (1992) style analysis model, in which factors are style indices. This model allows a custom benchmark for each portfolio to be developed, using the linear combination of style indices that best replicate portfolio style allocation, and leads to an accurate evaluation of portfolio alpha.
Increasingly, international business schools are incorporating the subject into their course outlines and some have formulated the title of ' Investment Management ' or ' Asset Management ' conferred as specialist bachelor 's degrees (e.g. Cass Business School, London). Due to global cross-recognition agreements with the 2 major accrediting agencies AACSB and ACBSP which accredit over 560 of the best business school programs, the Certification of MFP Master Financial Planner Professional from the American Academy of Financial Management is available to AACSB and ACBSP business school graduates with finance or financial services - related concentrations. For people with aspirations to become an investment manager, further education may be needed beyond a bachelors in business, finance, or economics. Designations, such as the Chartered Investment Manager (CIM) in Canada, are required for practitioners in the investment management industry. A graduate degree or an investment qualification such as the Chartered Financial Analyst designation (CFA) may help in having a career in investment management.
There is no evidence that any particular qualification enhances the most desirable characteristic of an investment manager, that is the ability to select investments that result in an above average (risk weighted) long - term performance. The industry has a tradition of seeking out, employing and generously rewarding such people without reference to any formal qualifications.
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