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when do monica and chandler start dating episode | Friends - wikipedia
Friends is an American television sitcom, created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994 to May 6, 2004, lasting ten seasons. With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox (who became Courteney Cox Arquette partway through the series ' run), Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, the show revolves around six 20 -- 30 - something friends living in Manhattan. The series was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright, Marta Kauffman, and David Crane.
Kauffman and Crane began developing Friends under the title Insomnia Cafe between November and December 1993. They presented the idea to Bright, and together they pitched a seven - page treatment of the show to NBC. After several script rewrites and changes, including a title change to Six of One, and, Friends Like Us, the series was finally named Friends.
Filming of the show took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. All ten seasons of Friends ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings; ultimately reaching the number one spot in its eighth season. The series finale, aired on May 6, 2004, was watched by around 52.5 million American viewers, making it the fifth most - watched series finale in television history, and the most - watched television episode of the 2000s decade.
Friends received acclaim throughout its run, becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time. The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning the Outstanding Comedy Series award in 2002 for its eighth season. The show ranked no. 21 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and no. 7 on Empire magazine 's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 1997, the episode "The One with the Prom Video '' was ranked no. 100 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All - Time. In 2013, Friends ranked no. 24 on the Writers Guild of America 's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time, and no. 28 on TV Guide 's 60 Best TV Series of All Time.
Rachel Green flees her wedding day and finds childhood friend Monica Geller, a New York City chef. They become roommates, and Rachel joins Monica 's social circle of single people in their mid-20s: struggling actor Joey Tribbiani, business professional Chandler Bing, masseuse and musician Phoebe Buffay, and newly divorced palaeontologist Ross Geller, Monica 's older brother. To support herself, Rachel becomes a waitress at Central Perk, a Manhattan coffeehouse where the group often hangs out; when not there, the six are usually at Monica and Rachel 's nearby West Village apartment, or Joey and Chandler 's across the hall.
Episodes depict the friends ' comedic and romantic adventures and career issues, such as Joey auditioning for roles or Rachel seeking jobs in the fashion industry. The six characters each have many dates and serious relationships, such as Monica with Richard Burke and Ross with Emily Waltham. Ross and Rachel 's intermittent relationship is the most often - recurring storyline; during the ten seasons of the show they repeatedly date and break up, even while Ross briefly marries Emily, he and Rachel have a child, Chandler and Monica date and marry each other, and Phoebe marries Mike Hannigan. Other frequently recurring characters include Ross and Monica 's parents in Long Island, Ross 's ex-wife and their son, Central Perk barista Gunther, Chandler 's ex-girlfriend Janice, and Phoebe 's twin sister Ursula.
In their original contracts for the first season, cast members were paid $22,500 per episode. The cast members received different salaries in the second season, beginning from the $20,000 range to $40,000 per episode. Before their salary negotiations for the third season, the cast decided to enter collective negotiations, despite Warner Bros. ' preference for individual deals. The actors were given the salary of the least - paid cast member, meaning Aniston and Schwimmer had their salaries reduced. The stars were paid $75,000 per episode in season three, $85,000 in season four, $100,000 in season five, $125,000 in season six, $750,000 in seasons seven and eight, and $1 million in seasons nine and ten, making Aniston, Cox, and Kudrow the highest - paid TV actresses of all time. The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations. At the time, that financial benefit of a piece of the show 's lucrative back - end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show, like Jerry Seinfeld and Bill Cosby.
Series creator David Crane wanted all six actors to be equally prominent, and the series was lauded as being "the first true ' ensemble ' show. '' The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate; they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards, opted for collective salary negotiations, and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season. The cast members also became best friends off - screen, so much so that recurring guest star Tom Selleck reported that he sometimes felt left out.
The cast remained good friends after the series run, most notably Cox and Aniston, with Aniston being godmother to Cox and David Arquette 's daughter, Coco. In the official farewell commemorative book Friends ' Til the End, each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family.
The first season introduces the six main characters: Rachel, Monica, Phoebe, Joey, Chandler, and Ross. Rachel arrives at Central Perk after running away from her wedding to her fiancé Barry and moves into an apartment with her friend Monica from high school. Ross, who has had a crush on Rachel since the two of them were in high school, constantly attempts to tell her how he feels about her. However, many obstacles stand in his way, such as the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex-wife, Carol. Joey is shown to be a bachelor and struggling actor, while Phoebe works as a masseuse and portrays a sort of "crazy '' attribute to her personality based on her troubles as a child after her mother committed suicide. However, the rest of the group loves her regardless. Chandler breaks up with girlfriend Janice (Maggie Wheeler), who frequently returns in later seasons. Carol delivers a baby boy who is named Ben. At the end of the season, Chandler accidentally reveals that Ross loves Rachel, who realizes that she feels the same way. The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross ' arrival from a trip.
The second season begins with Rachel waiting at the gate for Ross to declare her love for him. However, she discovers that he is dating Julie (Lauren Tom), someone he knew from graduate school. Rachel 's attempts to tell Ross she likes him mirror his failed attempts in the first season, although the characters eventually begin a relationship. Joey gets cast in a part in a fictional version of the soap opera Days of Our Lives, but his character is killed off after conflicts with the show 's writers, claiming that he writes many of his own lines. Chandler gets back with Janice, his ex-girlfriend from season one. Monica begins dating Richard (Tom Selleck), a recently divorced family friend and 21 years her senior but they eventually break up.
Season three takes on a significantly greater serialized format. Rachel begins working at Bloomingdale 's, an upscale department store chain, and Ross becomes jealous of her colleague, Mark. Rachel decides to take a break from their relationship; and Ross, hurt and drunk sleeps with Chloe, the hot girl from the Xerox place, causing Rachel to break up with him. In the meantime, Chandler has a hard time dealing with their breakup because it reminds him of his parents ' divorce. After believing she has no family except her twin sister Ursula (Lisa Kudrow), Phoebe becomes acquainted with her half - brother (Giovanni Ribisi) and birth mother (Teri Garr). Joey develops a relationship with his acting partner Kate (Dina Meyer), and Monica begins a relationship with millionaire Pete Becker (Jon Favreau) which ends because of the disagreements between the two.
In the fourth - season premiere, Ross and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him, but continues to insist that the two were on a break so they break up again. Joey dates Kathy (Paget Brewster), a girl that Chandler has a crush on. Kathy and Chandler later kiss, which causes drama between Chandler and Joey. Joey forgives Chandler only after he spends a day in a box as punishment. Phoebe becomes a surrogate mother for her brother and his wife Alice (Debra Jo Rupp). Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game, but manage to switch back by bribing them with Knicks season tickets and a one - minute kiss (off - screen) between the girls. Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily (Helen Baxendale), and the season finale features their wedding in London. Chandler and Monica sleep together, and Rachel decides to attend Ross and Emily 's wedding. While saying his vows, Ross uses the wrong name at the altar (Rachel 's), to the shock of his bride and the guests.
Season five starts with Ross and Emily 's wedding in London. The season features Monica and Chandler trying to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends. Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show 's 100th episode. She gives birth to a boy, Frank Jr. Jr., and two girls: Leslie and Chandler. Emily states that the only condition in which she would remain married to Ross is if he stops all communication with Rachel. Ross agrees, but during a last dinner with all six main characters together, Emily phones Ross and, upon discovering Rachel is there, realizes she does not trust him, which ends the marriage. Phoebe begins a relationship with a police officer, Gary (Michael Rapaport), after finding his badge and using it as her own. Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship, to the surprise and happiness of their friends. They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas, but change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumble out of the wedding chapel.
In the sixth - season premiere, Ross and Rachel 's marriage is established to be a drunken mistake. Ross and Rachel try to get an annulment because he does not want to have three divorces. However, he realizes he could not do so and tries to keep their wedding a secret from Rachel. Nonetheless, they divorce several episodes later. Monica and Chandler move in together, causing Rachel to move in with Phoebe. Joey lands a role on a cable television series called Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E., where he stars alongside a robot. Ross gets a job lecturing at New York University and starts dating one of his students, Elizabeth (Alexandra Holden). The relationship ends because of their maturity differences. Phoebe and Rachel 's apartment catches fire, and Rachel moves in with Joey, while Phoebe moves in with Chandler and Monica. Chandler proposes to Monica, who says yes even though her ex-boyfriend Richard confesses his love for her.
The seventh season mainly follows the various antics of Monica and Chandler, who begin to plan their wedding and run into financial problems which are quickly fixed by Chandler 's secret funds. Joey 's television series Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E is cancelled, but he is offered his job back on Days of Our Lives. Meanwhile, Ross tries to introduce Ben to Hanukkah with the help of an Armadillo costume. Phoebe 's apartment is fixed, but it is rebuilt with only one large bedroom instead of the original two, so Rachel decides to stay with Joey. The season ends just prior to Monica and Chandler 's wedding, with Phoebe and Rachel finding a positive pregnancy test in the bathroom at Monica and Chandler 's apartment.
In the eighth season, it is revealed at Monica and Chandler 's wedding reception that the positive pregnancy test found in the bathroom at Monica and Chandler 's apartment belongs to Rachel. Rachel takes another pregnancy test, which Phoebe at first claims is negative, in order to find Rachel 's real emotions on the realization of being pregnant. Rachel projects feelings of sadness when she thinks she 's not pregnant, so Phoebe tells her the truth. The two of them and Monica then rejoice in the bathroom. The season revolves around Rachel 's pregnancy; Ross is revealed to be the father after an investigation involving a red sweater. Rachel and Ross decide to have the baby but do not resume their romantic relationship. Joey develops romantic feelings for Rachel, but she does not reciprocate them. Rachel gives birth to baby Emma in the season finale. At the hospital, Ross 's mother offers him an engagement ring because she wants him to marry Rachel. Ross does not intend to ask Rachel to marry him, but he takes the ring anyway and puts it in his jacket pocket. Meanwhile, in the post-delivery room, Joey looks for some tissue for an upset Rachel, picks up Ross 's jacket, and the ring falls to the floor. He kneels to pick it up and turns to Rachel, still on his knees and still holding the ring. Rachel accepts what she thinks is his proposal of marriage.
Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel living together as roommates with their daughter Emma. Monica and Chandler try to conceive a baby of their own but find out that they are unable to, due to health restrictions. Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan (Paul Rudd), and chooses to be with him over her ex-boyfriend David (Hank Azaria). Rachel and Emma move in with Joey in the middle of the season, and Rachel develops infatuation towards him, while the rest of the "friends '' try hard to get Ross and Rachel back together. The group travels to Barbados in the finale to hear Ross give a keynote speech at a palaeontology conference, where they stay at a hotel. Joey and his girlfriend Charlie (Aisha Tyler) break up, and she begins a relationship with Ross. Upon seeing Ross and Charlie kiss each other, Joey goes to Rachel 's hotel room, and the finale ends with them kissing.
The tenth season closes several long - running storylines. Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex-boyfriend. Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross ' feelings about them being together and decide it would be best to remain friends. Phoebe and Mike get married mid-season outside the Central Perk coffee house. Monica and Chandler apply to adopt a child and are chosen by Erica (Anna Faris). In the series finale, Erica gives birth to twins, to the surprise of Monica and Chandler -- a boy and a girl. Monica and Chandler prepare to move to the suburbs, and Joey becomes upset with the changes in his life. Rachel gets fired from her job and accepts a new offer in Paris. Ross tries to get her job back by secretly meeting her boss but eventually gives up after realizing Paris job is her dream job. Rachel says a tearful goodbye to everyone but Ross. A hurt and angry Ross confronts Rachel, and they end up sleeping together. Rachel leaves, and Ross, realizing he loves her, chases after her to the airport. Rachel realizes she loves him too, and cancels her flight to Paris, agreeing to stay with him. The series ends with all friends plus Monica and Chandler 's new babies leaving the apartment, heading to Central Perk for a final cup of coffee. The finale dialogue used in this series is by Chandler, making a joke for the last time. The camera 's last view is of all of the characters ' keys to the apartment on the counter table, finishing with a shot of the apartment 's purple door.
David Crane and Marta Kauffman began developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcom Family Album was cancelled by CBS in 1993. Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about "six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan '' to NBC, since they thought it would fit best there. Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partner Kevin Bright, who had served as executive producer on their HBO series Dream On. The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was "more of a question mark. '' They found the concept to be interesting, as they believed "everybody knows that feeling '', and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time. The team titled the series Insomnia Cafe, and pitched the idea as a seven - page treatment to NBC in December 1993.
At the same time, Warren Littlefield, the then - president of NBC Entertainment, was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses. Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends, who had become "new, surrogate family members. '' However, Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life, and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible. When Kauffman, Crane and Bright pitched Insomnia Cafe, Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were. NBC bought the idea as a put pilot, meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed. Kauffman and Crane took three days to write the pilot script for a show they titled Friends Like Us. Littlefield wanted the series to "represent Generation X and explore a new kind of tribal bonding '', but the rest disagreed. Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation, and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching. NBC liked the script and ordered the series. They changed the title to Six of One, mainly because they felt Friends Like Us was to similar to the ABC sitcom These Friends of Mine.
Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC, Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town, wanting their client to be a part of the series. Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles. The casting director shortlisted 1,000 actors who had applied for each role down to 75. Those who received a callback read again in front of Crane, Kauffman and Bright. At the end of March, the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part, and were asked to read for Les Moonves, then - president of Warner Bros. Television.
Having worked with David Schwimmer in the past, the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast. Cox wanted to play the role of Monica, but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her "cheery, upbeat energy '', which was not how they envisioned Monica; after Cox 's audition, though, Kauffman agreed with Cox, and she got the role. When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey, he put a "different spin '' on the character. He played Joey more simple - minded than intended and gave the character heart. Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time, they were told by the network to cast him. Jennifer Aniston, Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions.
More changes occurred to the series ' storylines during the casting process. The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors, and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season. Kauffman acknowledged that Joey 's character became "this whole new being '', and that "it was n't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica 's neuroses are. ''
In the weeks after NBC 's pick up of Friends, Crane, Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent - in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series, mainly unproduced Seinfeld episodes. Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because "When you 're 40, you ca n't do it anymore. The networks and studios are looking for young people coming in out of college. '' The creators felt that using six equal characters, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for "myriad storylines and give the show legs. '' The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers, although the actors added ideas. Although the writers originally planned the big love story to be between Joey and Monica, the idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script.
During the production of the pilot, NBC requested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones, but the writers refused, wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight. NBC also wanted the writers to include an older character to balance out the young ones. Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured "Pat the Cop. '' who would be used to provide advice to the other characters. Crane found the storyline to be terrible, and Kauffman joked, "You know the kids book, Pat the Bunny? We had Pat the Cop. '' NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea.
Each summer (June, July, and August in the US), the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season. Before an episode went into production, Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer, mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign. Unlike other storylines, the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season. The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon, and while looking for a romantic impediment, a writer suggested Joey 's romantic interest in Rachel. The storyline was incorporated into the season; However, when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable, the storyline was wrapped up, until it again resurfaced in the season 's finale. For the ninth season, the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel 's baby, as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none. Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season, which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season. Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season, even if all the cast members had wanted to continue.
The episode title format -- "The One... '' -- was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits, and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience. Episode titles officially begin with "The One... '' except the title of the pilot episode and the series finale "The Last One. ''
The first season was shot on Stage 5 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. NBC executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner, but eventually consented to the coffee house concept. The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at the Warner Bros. Ranch at 4: 00 am, while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning. At the beginning of the second season, production moved to the larger Stage 24, which was renamed "The Friends Stage '' after the series finale. Filming for the series began during the summer (June, July, and August in the US) of 1994 in front of a live audience, who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters; a hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes. Each 22 - minute episode took six hours to film -- twice the length of most sitcom tapings -- mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script.
Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location, Friends was never shot in New York. Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny, even when shooting on the lot outside, and that the live audience was an integral part of the series. When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York, with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments, Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras, lighting, and "for the audience to be able to see what 's going on ''; the apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the funny scripts. The fourth - season finale was shot on location in London because the producers were aware of the series ' popularity in the UK. The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people. These were the show 's largest audiences throughout its run. The fifth - season finale, set in Las Vegas, was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios, although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location.
The series ' creators completed the first draft of the hour - long finale in January 2004, four months before its original airing. Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode 's outline, paying attention to what worked and what did not. They liked the ones that stayed true to the series, citing the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show as the gold standard. Crane, Kauffman, and Bright had difficulty writing the finale. They did not want to do "something high concept, or take the show out of the show. '' The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience, and with a minimum number of crew members. The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly:
It 's exactly what I had hoped. We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters.
NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of media hype. Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S., including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen. The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC, a weekly television newsmagazine, one of which ran for two hours. A one - hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before to the airing of the episode. Following the finale, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk coffee house, which featured the series ' cast as guests. The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time, breaking the record held by the Seinfeld finale at $1.7 million.
In the U.S., 52.5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6, 2004, making it the most - watched entertainment telecast since the Seinfeld finale in 1998. Although it was not the series ' most - watched episode, the finale was the fourth most - watched series finale in television history, only behind the finales of M * A * S * H, Cheers and Seinfeld, which were respectively watched by 105, 80.4 and 76.2 million viewers. The retrospective episode was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most - watched television broadcast of the year, only behind the Super Bowl. Following the finales of Friends and Frasier, media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre. Expressed opinions varied between a signalling of the end of the sitcom genre, a small decline in the large history of the genre, and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows.
Early reviews of the series were mixed; and it holds a Metacritic score of 59 out of 100, based on 20 sampled reviews, indicating "mixed to average reviews. '' Tom Feran of The Plain Dealer wrote that the series traded "vaguely and less successfully on the hanging - out style of Seinfeld '', while Ann Hodges of the Houston Chronicle called it "the new Seinfeld wannabe, but it will never be as funny as Seinfeld. '' In the Los Angeles Daily News, Ray Richmond named the series as "one of the brighter comedies of the new season '', and the Los Angeles Times called it "flat - out the best comedy series of the new season. ''
Chicago Sun - Times ' Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel 's characteristics to be underdeveloped, while Richmond commended the cast as a "likeable, youth ensemble '' with "good chemistry. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today was complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him "terrific. '' He also praised the female leads, but was concerned that Perry 's role as Chandler was "undefined '' and that LeBlanc was "relying too much on the same brain - dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it. '' The authors of Friends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends thought that the cast was "trying just a little too hard '', in particular, Perry and Schwimmer.
As the series progressed, reviews became more positive, and Friends became one of the most popular sitcoms of its time. It is now often ranked among the all - time best TV shows. Critics commended the series as having consistently sharp writing and the chemistry between the main actors. Noel Holston of Newsday, who had dismissed the pilot as a "so - so Seinfeld wannabe '' in 1994, repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode, and felt like writing an apology to the writers. Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com thought that the series "hit its stride '' in the second season. Havrilesky found the character - specific jokes and situations "could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode '', and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be "original and innovative. '' Bill Carter of The New York Times called the eighth season a "truly stunning comeback. '' Carter found that by "generating new hot storylines and high - decibel laughs '', the series made its way "back into the hearts of its fans. '' However, Liane Bonin of Entertainment Weekly felt that the direction of the ninth season was a "disappointing buzzkill '', criticizing it for the non-stop celebrity guest spots and going into jump the shark territory. Although disappointed with the season, Bonin noted that "the writing (was) still sharp. '' Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was "alarmingly awful, far worse than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be. '' Friends was featured on Time 's list of "The 100 Best TV Shows of All - Time '', saying, "the well - hidden secret of this show was that it called itself Friends, and was really about family. ''
Reviews of the series finale were mixed. USA Today 's Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying, and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars. Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters ' reunion was "a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted. '' Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be "surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters. '' Ken Parish Perkins, writing for Fort Worth Star - Telegram, pointed out that the finale was "more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms of closure than knee - slappingly funny. ''
To maintain the series ' ensemble format, the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for awards. Beginning with the series ' eighth season, the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting, rather than in the supporting actor fields. The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning six. Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy, while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated. The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2002, receiving nominations in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000, and 2003. The series also won an American Comedy Award, one GLAAD Media Award, one Golden Globe Award, three Logie Awards, six People 's Choice Awards, one Satellite Award, and one Screen Actors Guild Award.
The table below shows the ratings of Friends in the United States, where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings. "Rank '' refers to how well Friends rated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season. It is shown in relation to the total number of series airing on the then - six major English - language networks in a given season. "Viewers '' refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes, broadcast during the television season in the series ' regular timeslot. The "season premiere '' is the date that the first episode of the season aired, and the "season finale '' is the date that the final episode of the season aired. So far, Friends has been the last sitcom to reach the no. 1 spot on television, as its successors were CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, American Idol, NBC Sunday Night Football and NCIS.
Because of syndication revenue, Friends continues to generate approximately $1 billion each year for Warner Bros. That translates into about $20 million in annual residuals each for Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, who each get 2 % of syndication income for Friends. The series has a syndication deal through multiple networks including Nickelodeon, TBS, and Paramount (formerly known as Spike).
Although the producers thought of Friends as "only a TV show '', numerous psychologists investigated the cultural impact of Friends during the series ' run. Aniston 's hairstyle was nicknamed "The Rachel '', and copied around the world. Joey 's catchphrase, "How you doin '? '', became a popular part of Western English slang, often used as a pick - up line or when greeting friends. The series also influenced the English language, according to a study by the University of Toronto that found that the characters used the emphasized word "so '' to modify adjectives more often than any other intensifier. Although the preference had already made its way into the American vernacular, usage on the series may have accelerated the change. Chandler 's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers ' speech. Following the September 11 attacks, ratings increased 17 % over the previous season.
Friends is parodied in the twelfth season Murder, She Wrote episode "Murder Among Friends. '' In the episode, amateur sleuth Jessica Fletcher (Angela Lansbury) investigates the murder of a writer for Buds, a fictional television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends. The episode was devised after CBS moved Murder, She Wrote from its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly opposite Friends on NBC; Angela Lansbury was quoted by Bruce Lansbury, her brother and Murder, She Wrote 's supervising producer, as having "a bit of an attitude '' about the move to Thursday, but he saw the plot as "a friendly setup, no mean - spiritedness. '' Jerry Ludwig, the writer of the episode, researched the "flavor '' of Buds by watching episodes of Friends.
The Central Perk coffee house, one of the principal settings of the series, has inspired various imitations worldwide. In 2006, Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perk franchise, registering the name in 32 countries. The decor of the coffee houses is inspired by Friends, featuring replica couches, counters, neon signage and bricks. The coffee houses also contain paintings of the various characters from the series, and televisions playing Friends episodes. James Michael Tyler, who plays the Central Perk manager in the series, Gunther, attended the grand opening of the Dubai cafe, where he worked as a waiter. Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios, and was shown on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in October 2008. Jennifer Aniston revisited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004. From September 24 to October 7, 2009, a Central Perk replica was based at Broadwick Street, Soho, London. The coffee house sold real coffee to customers and featured a display of Friends memorabilia and props, such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode "The One with the Football. '' In Beijing, business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010. In India, there are six Friends themed cafes, located in Chandigarh (named Central Perk), Kolkata (named F.R.I.E.N.D.S. Cafe) which features many icons from the original T.V. series for example, Chandler and Joey 's ugly dog statue, the orange sofa, the purple door of Monica and Rachel 's apartment and Phoebe 's pink bicycle. The other three cafes are located in Delhi, Gurgaon, Bhubaneswar and Pune. There are two Friends themed cafes in Pakistan as well -- one in Lahore known as "Friends Cafe '' and the other in Peshawar called "Central Perk ''. Both of those cafes have an iconic couch, a guitar and foosball table, quotes from the show on the walls and even episode reruns on a projector. They 're also planning to have their own Gunther at the bar.
Friends has also developed an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people that live unconventional domestic lives. It presents the idea that "all you need is good friends '' and can construct families through choice. The audience is able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes. It portrays a new way of living life and developing relationships which are not normally seen in conventional society. According to a pop - culture expert at the University at Buffalo, Friends is "one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture. '' The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centres around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other.
The Guardian 's TV and radio blog stated that Friends has impacted the creation of other television shows such as How I Met Your Mother. The similarities between the two consist of both sitcoms taking place in Manhattan, a group of white adults who are funny and have similar character traits.
Readers of TV Guide voted the cast of Friends their Best Comedy cast of all time, ranking at 29 % of the votes, beating Seinfeld, which registered 18 %. A poll undertaken by 60 Minutes and Vanity Fair named Friends the third greatest sitcom of all time. In 2014, the series was ranked by Mundo Estranho the Best TV Series of All Time.
After the produced pilot lived up to NBC 's hopes, the series premiered with the name Friends on September 22, 1994, in the coveted Thursday 8: 30 p.m. timeslot. The pilot aired between Mad About You and Seinfeld, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers. The series was a huge success throughout its run, and was a staple of NBC 's Thursday night line - up, dubbed by the network as Must See TV. When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility, critics believed that he was posturing, and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season. When it was confirmed that Friends would return for a ninth season, the news was mainly about the amount of money -- $7 million per episode -- that it took to bring the series back for another season.
After year - long expectations that the ninth season would be the series ' last, NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season. The series ' creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year, and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth - season episodes and a potential series finale. NBC agreed to pay $10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth - season episode, the highest price in television history for a 30 - minute series. Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs, the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule, which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series. The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects.
In fall 2001, Warner Bros. Domestic Cable made a deal with sister network TBS (both are owned by Time Warner) to air the series in rerun syndication. Warner Bros. Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights to Friends to Nick at Nite which began airing in the fall of 2011 (unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings, Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series, which began airing as part of a seven - night launch marathon on September 5, 2011, replace the end credit tag scenes with marginalized credits featuring promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs). Warner Bros. was expected to make $200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal. Nick at Nite paid $500,000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 p.m. ET for six years through fall 2017. In syndication until 2005, Friends had earned $4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $944 million.
Beginning on March 5, 2012, high definition versions of all 236 Friends episodes were made available to local broadcast stations, starting with the pilot episode. For the remastered episodes, Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen, using the original 35 mm film source, to use the entire 16: 9 widescreen frame. These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011. Netflix added all ten seasons of Friends in high definition to their streaming service in the United States on January 1, 2015.
Friends has aired on different channels in the UK in their original, unedited international versions prior to their being re-edited for US broadcast and syndication. These versions, with additional footage not seen domestically, have aired on such stations as Channel 4, Sky1, E4, and Comedy Central UK. On September 4, 2011, Friends officially ended on E4 after the channel re-ran the series since 2004. Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011. In the Republic of Ireland, each season of the show made its European debut on RTÉ2. After 2004 RTÉ2 began to repeat the series from the start before moving over to TV3 and its digital channel 3e in 2010. As of February 2015, repeats of the show have returned to RTÉ2 while also broadcasting on Comedy Central Ireland.
Friends has aired in Australia on the Seven Network (season 1 only), Nine Network (season 2 -- 10), Network Ten (2007 -- 09, repeats), on GEM (a sub-channel of the Nine Network), and on pay TV channel TV Hits formerly aired on Arena, 111 Hits. The show is broadcast on TV2 in New Zealand.
In Canada, the series was broadcast on Global. In later years, it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks, including Slice, DTour, and TVTropolis, its previous incarnation.
In India, the show is broadcast by Comedy Central at various times. It is the most - watched English language show in the country.
In the Philippines, τhe show aired on ABC - 5 (now TV5)
In Greece, the show was broadcast on Star Channel. In Cyprus, Friends aired on CyBC 2 while reruns air on TVOne.
In October 2014, Warner Brothers CEO Kevin Tsujihara announced that the company had licensed the North American streaming rights of all ten seasons of Friends to Netflix, in a deal said to be worth around $500,000 an episode, or about $120 million in total. The show became available on Netflix from January 1, 2015. The Netflix airings are in the versions as aired on NBC rather than the longer international versions, as discussed below.
All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set. Each Region 1 season release contains special features and are presented in their aforementioned original international broadcast versions, although Region 2 releases are as originally aired domestically. For the first season, each episode is updated with color correction and sound enhancement. A wide range of Friends merchandise has been produced by various companies. In September 1995, WEA Records released the first album of music from Friends, the Friends Original TV Soundtrack, containing music featured in previous and future episodes. The soundtrack debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 46, and sold 500,000 copies in November 1995. In 1999, a second soundtrack album entitled Friends Again was released. Other merchandise includes a Friends version of the DVD game "Scene It? '', and a quiz video game for PlayStation 2 and PC entitled Friends: The One with All the Trivia. On September 28, 2009, a box set was released in the UK celebrating the series ' 15th anniversary. The box set contained extended episodes, an episode guide, and original special features.
Warner Home Video released a complete series collection on Blu - ray on November 13, 2012. The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases, and are therefore presented in their NBC broadcast versions.
After the series finale in 2004, LeBlanc signed on for the spin - off series, Joey, following Joey 's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career. Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin - off, although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg - Meehan. NBC heavily promoted Joey and gave it Friends ' Thursday 8: 00 pm timeslot. The pilot was watched by 18.60 million American viewers, but ratings continually decreased throughout the series ' two seasons, averaging 10.20 million viewers in the first season and 7.10 million in the second. The final broadcast episode on March 7, 2006, was watched by 7.09 million viewers; NBC cancelled the series on May 15, 2006, after two seasons. Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives, the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series:
On Friends, Joey was a womanizer, but we enjoyed his exploits. He was a solid friend, a guy you knew you could count on. Joey was deconstructed to be a guy who could n't get a job, could n't ask a girl out. He became a pathetic, mopey character. I felt he was moving in the wrong direction, but I was not heard.
Articles concerning the cultural influence of the programme:
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where did most of the reconstruction funds come from | Marshall Plan - wikipedia
The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave over $12 billion (nearly $100 billion in 2016 US dollars) in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II. The plan was in operation for four years beginning on April 3, 1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war - torn regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, improve European prosperity, and prevent the spread of Communism. The Marshall Plan required a lessening of interstate barriers, a dropping of many regulations, and encouraged an increase in productivity, trade union membership, as well as the adoption of modern business procedures.
The Marshall Plan aid was divided amongst the participant states roughly on a per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral. The largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom (receiving about 26 % of the total), followed by France (18 %) and West Germany (11 %). Some eighteen European countries received Plan benefits. Although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits, and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as Hungary and Poland. The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not part of the Marshall Plan.
However, its role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way. The Marshall Plan 's accounting reflects that aid accounted for less than 3 % of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951, which means an increase in GDP growth of only 0.3 %.
After World War II, in 1947, industrialist Lewis H. Brown wrote at the request of General Lucius D. Clay, A Report on Germany, which served as a detailed recommendation for the reconstruction of post-war Germany, and served as a basis for the Marshall Plan. The initiative was named after United States Secretary of State George Marshall. The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress and the Democrats controlled the White House with Harry S. Truman as President. The Plan was largely the creation of State Department officials, especially William L. Clayton and George F. Kennan, with help from the Brookings Institution, as requested by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the economic recovery of nations after WWII and to reduce the influence of Communist parties within them. To combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic plan, known as the Molotov Plan, in spite of the fact that large amounts of resources from the Eastern Bloc countries to the USSR were paid as reparations, for countries participating in the Axis Power during the war.
The phrase "equivalent of the Marshall Plan '' is often used to describe a proposed large - scale economic rescue program.
The reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5, 1947. It offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies, but they refused to accept it, as doing so would allow a degree of US control over the communist economies. In fact, the Soviet Union prevented its satellite states (i.e., East Germany, Poland, etc.) from accepting. Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe.
President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3, 1948, granting $5 billion in aid to 16 European nations. During the four years the plan was in effect, the United States donated $17 billion (equivalent to $193.53 billion in 2017) in economic and technical assistance to help the recovery of the European countries that joined the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation. The $17 billion was in the context of a US GDP of $258 billion in 1948, and on top of $17 billion in American aid to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the Plan that is counted separately from the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951; that new plan gave away about $7 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program.
The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery. The plan looked to the future and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. Much more important were efforts to modernize European industrial and business practices using high - efficiency American models, reducing artificial trade barriers, and instilling a sense of hope and self - reliance.
By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels; for all Marshall Plan recipients, output in 1951 was at least 35 % higher than in 1938. Over the next two decades, Western Europe enjoyed unprecedented growth and prosperity, but economists are not sure what proportion was due directly to the ERP, what proportion indirectly, and how much would have happened without it. A common American interpretation of the program 's role in European recovery was expressed by Paul Hoffman, head of the Economic Cooperation Administration, in 1949, when he told Congress Marshall aid had provided the "critical margin '' on which other investment needed for European recovery depended. The Marshall Plan was one of the first elements of European integration, as it erased trade barriers and set up institutions to coordinate the economy on a continental level -- that is, it stimulated the total political reconstruction of western Europe.
Belgian economic historian Herman Van der Wee concludes the Marshall Plan was a "great success ''
It gave a new impetus to reconstruction in Western Europe and made a decisive contribution to the renewal of the transport system, the modernization of industrial and agricultural equipment, the resumption of normal production, the raising of productivity, and the facilitating of intra-European trade.
By the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated. Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, and industrial facilities were especially hard - hit. The region 's trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted; millions were in refugee camps living on aid from United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies. Food shortages were severe, especially in the harsh winter of 1946 -- 47. From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan. It amounted to one - sixth of the American food supply and provided 35 trillion calories, enough to provide 400 calories a day for one year to 300 million people.
Especially damaged was transportation infrastructure, as railways, bridges, and docks had been specifically targeted by airstrikes, while much merchant shipping had been sunk. Although most small towns and villages had not suffered as much damage, the destruction of transportation left them economically isolated. None of these problems could be easily remedied, as most nations engaged in the war had exhausted their treasuries in the process.
The only major powers whose infrastructure had not been significantly harmed in World War II were the United States and Canada. They were much more prosperous than before the war but exports were a small factor in their economy. Much of the Marshall Plan aid would be used by the Europeans to buy manufactured goods and raw materials from the United States and Canada
Europe 's economies were recovering slowly, as unemployment and food shortages led to strikes and unrest in several nations. In 1947 the European economies were still well below their pre-war levels and were showing few signs of growth. Agricultural production was 83 % of 1938 levels, industrial production was 88 %, and exports only 59 %. In Britain the situation was not as severe.
In Germany in 1945 -- 46 housing and food conditions were bad, as the disruption of transport, markets, and finances slowed a return to normality. In the West, bombing had destroyed 5,000,000 houses and apartments, and 12,000,000 refugees from the east had crowded in. Food production was only two - thirds of the pre-war level in 1946 -- 48, while normal grain and meat shipments no longer arrived from the East. The drop in food production can be attributed to a drought that killed a major portion of the wheat crop while a severe winter destroyed the majority of the wheat crop the following year. This caused most Europeans to rely on a 1,500 calorie per day diet. Furthermore, the large shipments of food stolen from occupied nations during the war no longer reached Germany. Industrial production fell more than half and reached pre-war levels only at the end of 1949.
While Germany struggled to recover from the destruction of the War, the recovery effort began in June 1948, moving on from emergency relief. The currency reform in 1948 was headed by the military government and helped Germany to restore stability by encouraging production. The reform revalued old currency and deposits and introduced new currency. Taxes were also reduced and Germany prepared to remove economic barriers.
During the first three years of occupation of Germany, the UK and US vigorously pursued a military disarmament program in Germany, partly by removal of equipment but mainly through an import embargo on raw materials, part of the Morgenthau Plan approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Nicholas Balabkins concludes that "as long as German industrial capacity was kept idle the economic recovery of Europe was delayed. '' By July 1947 Washington realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base, deciding that an "orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. '' In addition, the strength of Moscow - controlled communist parties in France and Italy worried Washington.
In the view of the State Department under President Harry S Truman, the United States needed to adopt a definite position on the world scene or fear losing credibility. The emerging doctrine of containment (as opposed to rollback) argued that the United States needed to substantially aid non-communist countries to stop the spread of Soviet influence. There was also some hope that the Eastern Bloc nations would join the plan, and thus be pulled out of the emerging Soviet bloc, but that did not happen.
In January 1947, Truman appointed retired General George Marshall as Secretary of State. In July 1947 Marshall scrapped Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive 1067 implemented as part of the Morgenthau Plan under the personal supervision of Roosevelt 's treasury secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr., which had decreed "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany (or) designed to maintain or strengthen the German economy. '' Thereafter, JCS 1067 was supplanted by JCS 1779, stating that "an orderly and prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. '' The restrictions placed on German heavy industry production were partly ameliorated; permitted steel production levels were raised from 25 % of pre-war capacity to a new limit placed at 50 % of pre-war capacity.
With a communist insurgency threatening Greece, and Britain financially unable to continue its aid, the President announced his Truman Doctrine on March 12, 1947, "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures '', with an aid request for consideration and decision, concerning Greece and Turkey. Also in March 1947, former US President Herbert Hoover, in one of his reports from Germany, argued for a change in US occupation policy, among other things stating:
There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a ' pastoral state ' (Morgenthau 's vision). It can not be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.
Hoover further noted that, "The whole economy of Europe is interlinked with German economy through the exchange of raw materials and manufactured goods. The productivity of Europe can not be restored without the restoration of Germany as a contributor to that productivity. '' Hoover 's report led to a realization in Washington that a new policy was needed; "almost any action would be an improvement on current policy. '' In Washington, the Joint Chiefs declared that the "complete revival of German industry, particularly coal mining '' was now of "primary importance '' to American security.
The United States was already spending a great deal to help Europe recover. Over $14 billion was spent or loaned during the postwar period through the end of 1947 and is not counted as part of the Marshall Plan. Much of this aid was designed to restore infrastructure and help refugees. Britain, for example, received an emergency loan of $3.75 billion.
The United Nations also launched a series of humanitarian and relief efforts almost wholly funded by the United States. These efforts had important effects, but they lacked any central organization and planning, and failed to meet many of Europe 's more fundamental needs. Already in 1943, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was founded to provide relief to areas liberated from Germany. UNRRA provided billions of dollars of rehabilitation aid and helped about 8 million refugees. It ceased operation of displaced persons camps in Europe in 1947; many of its functions were transferred to several UN agencies.
After Marshall 's appointment in January 1947, administration officials met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and others to press for an economically self - sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets in their occupied zone. Molotov refrained from supplying accounts of Soviet assets. The Soviets took a punitive approach, pressing for a delay rather than an acceleration in economic rehabilitation, demanding unconditional fulfillment of all prior reparation claims, and pressing for progress toward nationwide socioeconomic transformation.
After six weeks of negotiations, Molotov rejected all of the American and British proposals. Molotov also rejected the counter-offer to scrap the British - American "Bizonia '' and to include the Soviet zone within the newly constructed Germany. Marshall was particularly discouraged after personally meeting with Stalin to explain that the United States could not possibly abandon its position on Germany, while Stalin expressed little interest in a solution to German economic problems.
After the adjournment of the Moscow conference following six weeks of failed discussions with the Soviets regarding a potential German reconstruction, the United States concluded that a solution could not wait any longer.
To clarify the US 's position, a major address by Secretary of State George Marshall was planned. Marshall gave the address to the graduating class of Harvard University on June 5, 1947. Standing on the steps of Memorial Church in Harvard Yard, he offered American aid to promote European recovery and reconstruction. The speech described the dysfunction of the European economy and presented a rationale for US aid.
The modern system of the division of labor upon which the exchange of products is based is in danger of breaking down... Aside from the demoralizing effect on the world at large and the possibilities of disturbances arising as a result of the desperation of the people concerned, the consequences to the economy of the United States should be apparent to all. It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health to the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is not directed against any country, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Any government that is willing to assist in recovery will find full co-operation on the part of the United States. Its purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist.
Marshall was convinced that economic stability would provide political stability in Europe. He offered aid, but the European countries had to organize the program themselves.
The speech, written by Charles Bohlen, contained virtually no details and no numbers. More a proposal than a plan, it was a challenge to European leaders to cooperate and coordinate. It asked Europeans to create their own plan for rebuilding Europe, indicating the United States would then fund this plan. The administration felt that the plan would likely be unpopular among many Americans, and the speech was mainly directed at a European audience. In an attempt to keep the speech out of American papers, journalists were not contacted, and on the same day, Truman called a press conference to take away headlines. In contrast, Dean Acheson, an Under Secretary of State, was dispatched to contact the European media, especially the British media, and the speech was read in its entirety on the BBC.
People 's Socialist Republic of Albania (to 1961)
World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)
British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin heard Marshall 's radio broadcast speech and immediately contacted French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault to begin preparing a quick European response to (and acceptance of) the offer, which led to the creation of the Committee of European Economic Co-operation. The two agreed that it would be necessary to invite the Soviets as the other major allied power. Marshall 's speech had explicitly included an invitation to the Soviets, feeling that excluding them would have been a sign of distrust. State Department officials, however, knew that Stalin would almost certainly not participate and that any plan that would send large amounts of aid to the Soviets was unlikely to get Congressional approval.
Speaking at the Paris Peace Conference on October 10, 1946 Molotov had already stated Soviet fears: "If American capital was given a free hand in the small states ruined and enfeebled by the war (it) would buy up the local industries, appropriate the more attractive Rumanian, Yugoslav (...) enterprises and would become the master in these small states. '' While the Soviet ambassador in Washington suspected that the Marshall Plan could lead to the creation of an anti-Soviet bloc, Stalin was open to the offer. He directed that -- in negotiations to be held in Paris regarding the aid -- countries in the Eastern Bloc should not reject economic conditions being placed upon them. Stalin only changed his outlook when he learned that (a) credit would only be extended under conditions of economic cooperation and, (b) aid would also be extended to Germany in total, an eventuality which Stalin thought would hamper the Soviets ' ability to exercise influence in western Germany.
Initially, Stalin maneuvered to kill the Plan, or at least hamper it by means of destructive participation in the Paris talks regarding conditions. He quickly realized, however, that this would be impossible after Molotov reported -- following his arrival in Paris in July 1947 -- that conditions for the credit were non-negotiable. Looming as just as large a concern was the Czechoslovak eagerness to accept the aid, as well as indications of a similar Polish attitude.
Stalin suspected a possibility that these Eastern Bloc countries might defy Soviet directives not to accept the aid, potentially causing a loss of control of the Eastern Bloc. In addition, the most important condition was that every country choosing to take advantage of the plan would need to have its economic situation independently assessed -- a level of scrutiny to which the Soviets could not agree. Bevin and Bidault also insisted that any aid be accompanied by the creation of a unified European economy, something incompatible with the strict Soviet command economy.
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov left Paris, rejecting the plan. Thereafter, statements were made suggesting a future confrontation with the West, calling the United States both a "fascizing '' power and the "center of worldwide reaction and anti-Soviet activity, '' with all U.S. - aligned countries branded as enemies. The Soviets also then blamed the United States for communist losses in elections in Belgium, France and Italy months earlier, in the spring of 1947. It claimed that "marshallization '' must be resisted and prevented by any means, and that French and Italian communist parties were to take maximum efforts to sabotage the implementation of the Plan. In addition, Western embassies in Moscow were isolated, with their personnel being denied contact with Soviet officials.
On July 12, a larger meeting was convened in Paris. Every country of Europe was invited, with the exceptions of Spain (a World War II neutral that had sympathized with Axis powers) and the small states of Andorra, San Marino, Monaco, and Liechtenstein. The Soviet Union was invited with the understanding that it would likely refuse. The states of the future Eastern Bloc were also approached, and Czechoslovakia and Poland agreed to attend. In one of the clearest signs and reflections of tight Soviet control and domination over the region, Jan Masaryk, the foreign minister of Czechoslovakia, was summoned to Moscow and berated by Stalin for considering Czechoslovakia 's possible involvement with and joining of the Marshall Plan. The prime minister of Poland, Józef Cyrankiewicz, was rewarded by Stalin for his country 's rejection of the Plan, which came in the form of the Soviet Union 's offer of a lucrative trade agreement lasting for a period of five years, a grant amounting to the approximate equivalent of $450 million (in 1948; the sum would have been $4.4 billion in 2014) in the form of long - term credit and loans and the provision of 200,000 tonnes of grain, heavy and manufacturing machinery and factories and heavy industries to Poland.
The Marshall Plan participants were not surprised when the Czechoslovakian and Polish delegations were prevented from attending the Paris meeting. The other Eastern Bloc states immediately rejected the offer. Finland also declined, to avoid antagonizing the Soviets (see also Finlandization). The Soviet Union 's "alternative '' to the Marshall plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with western Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan, and later, the Comecon. In a 1947 speech to the United Nations, Soviet deputy foreign minister Andrei Vyshinsky said that the Marshall Plan violated the principles of the United Nations. He accused the United States of attempting to impose its will on other independent states, while at the same time using economic resources distributed as relief to needy nations as an instrument of political pressure.
Although all other Communist European Countries had deferred to Stalin and rejected the aid, the Yugoslavs, led by Josip Broz (Tito), at first went along and rejected the Marshall Plan. However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues, making Yugoslavia an independent communist state. Yugoslavia requested American aid. American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949, and on a much larger scale in 1950 - 53. The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan.
In late September, the Soviet Union called a meeting of nine European Communist parties in southwest Poland. A Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) report was read at the outset to set the heavily anti-Western tone, stating now that "international politics is dominated by the ruling clique of the American imperialists '' which have embarked upon the "enslavement of the weakened capitalist countries of Europe ''. Communist parties were to struggle against the US presence in Europe by any means necessary, including sabotage. The report further claimed that "reactionary imperialist elements throughout the world, particularly in the United States, in Britain and France, had put particular hope on Germany and Japan, primarily on Hitlerite Germany -- first as a force most capable of striking a blow at the Soviet Union ''.
Referring to the Eastern Bloc, the report stated that "the Red Army 's liberating role was complemented by an upsurge of the freedom - loving peoples ' liberation struggle against the fascist predators and their hirelings. '' It argued that "the bosses of Wall Street '' were "tak (ing) the place of Germany, Japan and Italy ''. The Marshall Plan was described as "the American plan for the enslavement of Europe ''. It described the world now breaking down "into basically two camps -- the imperialist and antidemocratic camp on the one hand, and the antiimperialist and democratic camp on the other ''.
Although the Eastern Bloc countries except Czechoslovakia had immediately rejected Marshall Plan aid, Eastern Bloc communist parties were blamed for permitting even minor influence by non-communists in their respective countries during the run up to the Marshall Plan. The meeting 's chair, Andrei Zhdanov, who was in permanent radio contact with the Kremlin from whom he received instructions, also castigated communist parties in France and Italy for collaboration with those countries ' domestic agendas. Zhdanov warned that if they continued to fail to maintain international contact with Moscow to consult on all matters, "extremely harmful consequences for the development of the brother parties ' work '' would result.
Italian and French communist leaders were prevented by party rules from pointing out that it was actually Stalin who had directed them not to take opposition stances in 1944. The French communist party, as others, was then to redirect its mission to "destroy capitalist economy '' and that the Soviet Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) would take control of the French Communist Party 's activities to oppose the Marshall Plan. When they asked Zhdanov if they should prepare for armed revolt when they returned home, he did not answer. In a follow - up conversation with Stalin, he explained that an armed struggle would be impossible and that the struggle against the Marshall Plan was to be waged under the slogan of national independence.
Congress, under the control of conservative Republicans, agreed to the program for multiple reasons. The 20 - member conservative isolationist Senate wing of the party, based in the rural Midwest and led by Senator Kenneth S. Wherry (R - Nebraska), was outmaneuvered by the emerging internationalist wing, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg (R - Michigan). The opposition argued that it would be "a wasteful ' operation rat - hole ' ''; that it made no sense to oppose communism by supporting the socialist governments in Western Europe; and that American goods would reach Russia and increase its war potential. Vandenberg, assisted by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. (R - Massachusetts) admitted there was no certainty that the plan would succeed, but said it would halt economic chaos, sustain Western civilization, and stop further Soviet expansion. Senator Robert A. Taft (R - Ohio) hedged on the issue. He said it was without economic justification; however, it was "absolutely necessary '' in "the world battle against communism. '' In the end, only 17 senators voted against it on March 13, 1948 A bill granting an initial $5 billion passed Congress with strong bipartisan support. Congress would eventually allocate $12.4 billion in aid over the four years of the plan.
Congress reflected public opinion, which resonated with the ideological argument that communism flourishes in poverty. Truman 's own prestige and power had been greatly enhanced by his stunning victory in the 1948 election. Across America, multiple interest groups, including business, labor, farming, philanthropy, ethnic groups, and religious groups, saw the Marshall Plan as an inexpensive solution to a massive problem, noting it would also help American exports and stimulate the American economy as well. Major newspapers were highly supportive, including such conservative outlets as Time Magazine. Vandenberg made sure of bipartisan support on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The Solid Democratic South was highly supportive, the upper Midwest was dubious, but heavily outnumbered. The plan was opposed by conservatives in the rural Midwest, who opposed any major government spending program and were highly suspicious of Europeans. The plan also had some opponents on the left, led by Henry A. Wallace, the former Vice President. He said the Plan was hostile to the Soviet Union, a subsidy for American exporters, and sure to polarize the world between East and West. However, opposition against the Marshall Plan was greatly reduced by the shock of the Communist coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948. The appointment of the prominent businessman Paul G. Hoffman as director reassured conservative businessmen that the gigantic sums of money would be handled efficiently.
Turning the plan into reality required negotiations among the participating nations. Sixteen nations met in Paris to determine what form the American aid would take, and how it would be divided. The negotiations were long and complex, with each nation having its own interests. France 's major concern was that Germany not be rebuilt to its previous threatening power. The Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxemburg), despite also suffering under the Nazis, had long been closely linked to the German economy and felt their prosperity depended on its revival. The Scandinavian nations, especially Sweden, insisted that their long - standing trading relationships with the Eastern Bloc nations not be disrupted and that their neutrality not be infringed.
The United Kingdom insisted on special status as a longstanding belligerent during the war, concerned that if it were treated equally with the devastated continental powers it would receive virtually no aid. The Americans were pushing the importance of free trade and European unity to form a bulwark against communism. The Truman administration, represented by William L. Clayton, promised the Europeans that they would be free to structure the plan themselves, but the administration also reminded the Europeans that implementation depended on the plan 's passage through Congress. A majority of Congress members were committed to free trade and European integration, and were hesitant to spend too much of the money on Germany. However, before the Marshall Plan was in effect, France, Austria, and Italy needed immediate aid. On December 17, 1947, the United States agreed to give $40 million to France, Austria, China, and Italy.
Agreement was eventually reached and the Europeans sent a reconstruction plan to Washington, which was formulated and agreed upon by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947. In the document, the Europeans asked for $22 billion in aid. Truman cut this to $17 billion in the bill he put to Congress. On March 17, 1948, Truman addressed European security and condemned the Soviet Union before a hastily convened Joint Session of Congress. Attempting to contain spreading Soviet influence in Eastern Bloc, Truman asked Congress to restore a peacetime military draft and to swiftly pass the Economic Cooperation Act, the name given to the Marshall Plan. Of the Soviet Union Truman said, "The situation in the world today is not primarily the result of the natural difficulties which follow a great war. It is chiefly due to the fact that one nation has not only refused to cooperate in the establishment of a just and honorable peace but -- even worse -- has actively sought to prevent it. ''
Members of the Republican - controlled 80th Congress (1947 -- 1949) were skeptical. "In effect, he told the Nation that we have lost the peace, that our whole war effort was in vain. '', noted Representative Frederick Smith of Ohio. Others thought he had not been forceful enough to contain the USSR. "What (Truman) said fell short of being tough '', noted Representative Eugene Cox, a Democrat from Georgia, "there is no prospect of ever winning Russian cooperation. '' Despite its reservations, the 80th Congress implemented Truman 's requests, further escalating the Cold War with the USSR.
Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act into law on April 3, 1948; the Act established the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program. ECA was headed by economic cooperation administrator Paul G. Hoffman. In the same year, the participating countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States) signed an accord establishing a master financial - aid - coordinating agency, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (later called the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development or OECD), which was headed by Frenchman Robert Marjolin.
The first substantial aid went to Greece and Turkey in January 1947, which were seen as the front line of the battle against communist expansion, and were already receiving aid under the Truman Doctrine. Initially, Britain had supported the anti-communist factions in those countries, but due to its dire economic condition it decided to pull out and in February 1947 requested the US to continue its efforts. The ECA formally began operation in July 1948.
The ECA 's official mission statement was to give a boost to the European economy: to promote European production, to bolster European currency, and to facilitate international trade, especially with the United States, whose economic interest required Europe to become wealthy enough to import US goods. Another unofficial goal of ECA (and of the Marshall Plan) was the containment of growing Soviet influence in Europe, evident especially in the growing strength of communist parties in Czechoslovakia, France, and Italy.
The Marshall Plan money was transferred to the governments of the European nations. The funds were jointly administered by the local governments and the ECA. Each European capital had an ECA envoy, generally a prominent American businessman, who would advise on the process. The cooperative allocation of funds was encouraged, and panels of government, business, and labor leaders were convened to examine the economy and see where aid was needed.
The Marshall Plan aid was mostly used for the purchase of goods from the United States. The European nations had all but exhausted their foreign exchange reserves during the war, and the Marshall Plan aid represented almost their sole means of importing goods from abroad. At the start of the plan, these imports were mainly much - needed staples such as food and fuel, but later the purchases turned towards reconstruction needs as was originally intended. In the latter years, under pressure from the United States Congress and with the outbreak of the Korean War, an increasing amount of the aid was spent on rebuilding the militaries of Western Europe. Of the some $13 billion allotted by mid-1951, $3.4 billion had been spent on imports of raw materials and semi-manufactured products; $3.2 billion on food, feed, and fertilizer; $1.9 billion on machines, vehicles, and equipment; and $1.6 billion on fuel.
Also established were counterpart funds, which used Marshall Plan aid to establish funds in the local currency. According to ECA rules, recipients had to invest 60 % of these funds in industry. This was prominent in Germany, where these government - administered funds played a crucial role in lending money to private enterprises which would spend the money rebuilding. These funds played a central role in the reindustrialization of Germany. In 1949 -- 50, for instance, 40 % of the investment in the German coal industry was by these funds.
The companies were obligated to repay the loans to the government, and the money would then be lent out to another group of businesses. This process has continued to this day in the guise of the state - owned KfW bank, (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, meaning Reconstruction Credit Institute). The Special Fund, then supervised by the Federal Economics Ministry, was worth over DM 10 billion in 1971. In 1997 it was worth DM 23 billion. Through the revolving loan system, the Fund had by the end of 1995 made low - interest loans to German citizens amounting to around DM 140 billion. The other 40 % of the counterpart funds were used to pay down the debt, stabilize the currency, or invest in non-industrial projects. France made the most extensive use of counterpart funds, using them to reduce the budget deficit. In France, and most other countries, the counterpart fund money was absorbed into general government revenues, and not recycled as in Germany.
The Netherlands received US aid for economic recovery in the Netherlands Indies. However, in January 1949, the American government suspended this aid in response to the Dutch efforts to restore colonial rule in Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution, and it implicitly threatened to suspend Marshall aid to the Netherlands if the Dutch government continued to oppose the independence of Indonesia.
At the time the United States was a significant oil producing nation -- one of the goals of the Marshall Plan was for Europe to use oil in place of coal, but the Europeans wanted to buy crude oil and use the Marshall Plan funds to build refineries instead. However, when independent American oil companies complained, the ECA denied funds for European refinery construction.
The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) contributed heavily to the success of the Technical Assistance Program. The United States Congress passed a law on June 7, 1940 that allowed the BLS to "make continuing studies of labor productivity '' and appropriated funds for the creation of a Productivity and Technological Development Division. The BLS could then use its expertise in the field of productive efficiency to implement a productivity drive in each Western European country receiving Marshall Plan aid. Counterpart funds were used to finance large - scale tours of American industry. France, for example, sent 500 missions with 4700 businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores, and offices. They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how they could purchase an inexpensive new automobile for nine months work, compared to 30 months in France.
By implementing technological literature surveys and organized plant visits, American economists, statisticians, and engineers were able to educate European manufacturers in statistical measurement. The goal of the statistical and technical assistance from the Americans was to increase productive efficiency of European manufacturers in all industries.
To conduct this analysis, the BLS performed two types of productivity calculations. First, they used existing data to calculate how much a worker produces per hour of work -- the average output rate. Second, they compared the existing output rates in a particular country to output rates in other nations. By performing these calculations across all industries, the BLS was able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each country 's manufacturing and industrial production. From that, the BLS could recommend technologies (especially statistical) that each individual nation could implement. Often, these technologies came from the United States; by the time the Technical Assistance Program began, the United States used statistical technologies "more than a generation ahead of what (the Europeans) were using ''.
The BLS used these statistical technologies to create Factory Performance Reports for Western European nations. The American government sent hundreds of technical advisers to Europe to observe workers in the field. This on - site analysis made the Factory Performance Reports especially helpful to the manufacturers. In addition, the Technical Assistance Program funded 24,000 European engineers, leaders, and industrialists to visit America and tour America 's factories, mines, and manufacturing plants. This way, the European visitors would be able to return to their home countries and implement the technologies used in the United States. The analyses in the Factory Performance Reports and the "hands - on '' experience had by the European productivity teams effectively identified productivity deficiencies in European industries; from there, it became clearer how to make European production more effective.
Before the Technical Assistance Program even went into effect, United States Secretary of Labor Maurice Tobin expressed his confidence in American productivity and technology to both American and European economic leaders. He urged that the United States play a large role in improving European productive efficiency by providing four recommendations for the program 's administrators:
The effects of the Technical Assistance Program were not limited to improvements in productive efficiency. While the thousands of European leaders took their work / study trips to the United States, they were able to observe a number of aspects of American society as well. The Europeans could watch local, state, and federal governments work together with citizens in a pluralist society. They observed a democratic society with open universities and civic societies in addition to more advanced factories and manufacturing plants. The Technical Assistance Program allowed Europeans to bring home many types of American ideas.
Another important aspect of the Technical Assistance Program was its low cost. While $19.4 billion was allocated for capital costs in the Marshall Plan, the Technical Assistance Program only required $300 million. Only one - third of that $300 million cost was paid by the United States.
Even while the Marshall Plan was being implemented, the dismantling of ostensibly German industry continued; and in 1949 Konrad Adenauer, an opponent to Hitler 's regime and the head of the Christian Democratic Union, wrote to the Allies requesting the end of industrial dismantling, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories, and also the unpopularity of the policy. Adenauer had been released from prison, only to discover that the Soviets had effectively divided Europe with Germany divided even further. Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the Petersberg Agreement of November 1949 greatly reduced the levels of deindustrialization, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The first "level of industry '' plan, signed by the Allies on March 29, 1946, had stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50 % of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed manufacturing plants. Marshall Plan played a huge role in post-war recovery for Europe in general. 1948, conditions were improving, European workers exceeded by 20 percent from the earning from the west side. Thanks to the Plan, during 1952, it went up 35 percent of the industrial and agricultural.
In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production. The maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25 % of the pre-war production level. The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the US, France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Steel plants thus made redundant were to be dismantled. Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the Great Depression (1932). Consequently, car production was set to 10 % of pre-war levels, and the manufacture of other commodities was reduced as well.
The first "German level of industry '' plan was subsequently followed by a number of new ones, the last signed in 1949. By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered - down "level of industry '' plans, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants in western Germany and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons. Vladimir Petrov concludes that the Allies "delayed by several years the economic reconstruction of the war - torn continent, a reconstruction which subsequently cost the United States billions of dollars. '' In 1951 West Germany agreed to join the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) the following year. This meant that some of the economic restrictions on production capacity and on actual production that were imposed by the International Authority for the Ruhr were lifted, and that its role was taken over by the ECSC.
The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral. The exception was Iceland, which had been neutral during the war, but received far more on a per capita basis than the second highest recipient. The table below shows Marshall Plan aid by country and year (in millions of dollars) from The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later. There is no clear consensus on exact amounts, as different scholars differ on exactly what elements of American aid during this period were part of the Marshall Plan.
The Marshall Plan, just as GARIOA, consisted of aid both in the form of grants and in the form of loans. Out of the total, 1.2 billion USD were loan - aid.
Ireland which received 146.2 million USD through the Marshall Plan, received 128.2 million USD as loans, and the remaining 18 million USD as grants. By 1969 the Irish Marshall Plan debt, which was still being repaid, amounted to 31 million pounds, out of a total Irish foreign debt of 50 million pounds.
The UK received 385 million USD of its Marshall Plan aid in the form of loans. Unconnected to the Marshall Plan the UK also received direct loans from the US amounting to 4.6 billion USD. The proportion of Marshall Plan loans versus Marshall Plan grants was roughly 15 % to 85 % for both the UK and France.
Germany, which up until the 1953 Debt agreement had to work on the assumption that all the Marshall Plan aid was to be repaid, spent its funds very carefully. Payment for Marshall Plan goods, "counterpart funds '', were administered by the Reconstruction Credit Institute, which used the funds for loans inside Germany. In the 1953 Debt agreement, the amount of Marshall plan aid that Germany was to repay was reduced to less than 1 billion USD. This made the proportion of loans versus grants to Germany similar to that of France and the UK. The final German loan repayment was made in 1971. Since Germany chose to repay the aid debt out of the German Federal budget, leaving the German ERP fund intact, the fund was able to continue its reconstruction work. By 1996 it had accumulated a value of 23 billion Deutsche Mark.
The Central Intelligence Agency received 5 % of the Marshall Plan funds (cca 685 million USD), which it used to finance secret operations abroad. Through the Office of Policy Coordination, headed by Frank Wisner, the money was directed towards covert operations that entailed the creation of false front organizations to manipulate the affairs of foreign countries, including by initiating propaganda campaigns against governments, creating illegal underground opposition groups, and infiltrating local organizations, such as labor unions.
Marshall Plan funds were also used to support a Ukrainian right - wing guerilla group called Nightingale. The Nightingale battalion (Nachtigall Battalion) had been established by the invading Nazis in Spring 1941 to create a common front with Ukrainian fascists and other right - wing radical Ukrainian nationalists of the Ukrainian National Organization against the Soviets. The US point - person for Nightingale was Mykola Lebed (sometimes spelled Mikola Lebed), founder of the terrorist arm of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, which had murdered thousands of Jewish people, Russians and Poles during WWII. Starting in September 1949, the US began parachuting Ukrainian militants into Ukraine, an operation that continued for five years. The aim of the CIA infiltration operation, ultimately unsuccessful, was to dislodge Moscow 's control over Ukraine.
The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953. Any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the Korean War and rearmament. American Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections, and conservative opposition to the plan was revived. Thus the plan ended in 1951, though various other forms of American aid to Europe continued afterwards.
The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35 %. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels. The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically. Additionally, the long - term effect of economic integration raised European income levels substantially, by nearly 20 percent by the mid-1970s. There is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the Marshall Plan. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. Most believe that the Marshall Plan sped this recovery, but did not initiate it. Many argue that the structural adjustments that it forced were of great importance. Economic historians J. Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen call it "history 's most successful structural adjustment program. '' One effect of the plan was that it subtly "Americanized '' European countries, especially Austria, through new exposure to American popular culture, including the growth in influence of Hollywood movies and rock n ' roll.
The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as important as the economic ones. Marshall Plan aid allowed the nations of Western Europe to relax austerity measures and rationing, reducing discontent and bringing political stability. The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly reduced, and throughout the region, communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the Marshall Plan. The trade relations fostered by the Marshall Plan helped forge the North Atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the Cold War in the form of NATO. At the same time, the nonparticipation of the states of the Eastern Bloc was one of the first clear signs that the continent was now divided.
The Marshall Plan also played an important role in European integration. Both the Americans and many of the European leaders felt that European integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to foster integration. In some ways, this effort failed, as the OEEC never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation. Rather, it was the separate European Coal and Steel Community, which notably excluded Britain, that would eventually grow into the European Union. However, the OEEC served as both a testing and training ground for the structures that would later be used by the European Economic Community. The Marshall Plan, linked into the Bretton Woods system, also mandated free trade throughout the region.
While some historians today feel some of the praise for the Marshall Plan is exaggerated, it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world. After the fall of communism, several proposed a "Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe '' that would help revive that region. Others have proposed a Marshall Plan for Africa to help that continent, and US Vice President Al Gore suggested a Global Marshall Plan. "Marshall Plan '' has become a metaphor for any very large - scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social problem. It is usually used when calling for federal spending to correct a perceived failure of the private sector.
The Marshall Plan money was in the form of grants from the U.S. Treasury that did not have to be repaid. The Organisation for European Economic Co-operation took the leading role in allocating funds, and the OEEC arranged for the transfer of the goods. The American supplier was paid in dollars, which were credited against the appropriate European Recovery Program funds. The European recipient, however, was not given the goods as a gift but had to pay for them (usually on credit) in local currency. These payments were kept by the European government involved in a special counterpart fund. This counterpart money, in turn, could be used by the government for further investment projects. Five percent of the counterpart money was paid to the US to cover the administrative costs of the ERP. In addition to ERP grants, the Export - Import Bank (an agency of the US government) at the same time made long - term loans at low interest rates to finance major purchases in the US, all of which were repaid.
In the case of Germany, there also were 16 billion marks of debts from the 1920s which had defaulted in the 1930s, but which Germany decided to repay to restore its reputation. This money was owed to government and private banks in the US, France, and Britain. Another 16 billion marks represented postwar loans by the US. Under the London Debts Agreement of 1953, the repayable amount was reduced by 50 % to about 15 billion marks and stretched out over 30 years, and compared to the fast - growing German economy were of minor impact.
Large parts of the world devastated by World War II did not benefit from the Marshall Plan. The only major Western European nation excluded was Francisco Franco 's Spain, which was highly unpopular in Washington. With the escalation of the Cold War, the United States reconsidered its position, and in 1951 embraced Spain as an ally, encouraged by Franco 's aggressive anti-communist policies. Over the next decade, a considerable amount of American aid would go to Spain, but less than its neighbors had received under the Marshall Plan.
The Soviet Union had been as badly affected as any part of the world by the war. The Soviets imposed large reparations payments on the Axis allies that were in its sphere of influence. Austria, Finland, Hungary, Romania, and especially East Germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the USSR. These reparation payments meant the Soviet Union itself received about the same as 16 European countries received in total from Marshall Plan aid.
In accordance with the agreements with the USSR, shipment of dismantled German industrial installations from the west began on March 31, 1946. Under the terms of the agreement, the Soviet Union would in return ship raw materials such as food and timber to the western zones. In view of the Soviet failure to do so, the western zones halted the shipments east, ostensibly on a temporary basis, although they were never resumed. It was later shown that the main reason for halting shipments east was not the behavior of the USSR but rather the recalcitrant behavior of France. Examples of material received by the USSR were equipment from the Kugel - Fischer ballbearing plant at Schweinfurt, the Daimler - Benz underground aircraft - engine plant at Obrigheim, the Deschimag shipyards at Bremen - Weser, and the Gendorf powerplant.
The USSR did establish COMECON as a riposte to the Marshall Plan to deliver aid for Eastern Bloc countries, but this was complicated by the Soviet efforts to manage their own recovery from the war. The members of Comecon looked to the Soviet Union for oil; in turn, they provided machinery, equipment, agricultural goods, industrial goods, and consumer goods to the Soviet Union. Economic recovery in the East was much slower than in the West, resulting in the formation of the shortage economies and a gap in wealth between East and West. Finland, which the USSR forbade to join the Marshall Plan and which was required to give large reparations to the USSR, saw its economy recover to pre-war levels in 1947. France, which received billions of dollars through the Marshall Plan, similarly saw its average income per person return to almost pre-war level by 1949. By mid-1948 industrial production in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia had recovered to a level somewhat above pre-war level.
From the end of the war to the end of 1953, the US provided grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially China / Taiwan ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.44 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan.
Canada, like the United States, was damaged little by the war and in 1945 was one of the world 's richest economies. It operated its own aid program. In 1948, the US allowed ERP aid to be used in purchasing goods from Canada. Canada made over a billion dollars in sales in the first two years of operation.
The total of American grants and loans to the world from 1945 to 1953 came to $44.3 billion.
Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was "History 's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program. '' They state:
It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe 's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies '' with more "market '' and less "controls '' in the mix.
Jacob Magid argues:
There is little evidence that direct economic effects account for the Marshall Plan 's success. Instead, the indirect economic effects, particularly in the implementation of liberal capitalistic policies, and the political effects, particularly the ideal of European integration and government - business partnerships, are the major reasons for Europe 's unsurpassed growth.
Prior to passing and enacting the Marshall Plan, President Truman and George Marshall started a domestic overhaul of public opinion from coast to coast. The purpose of this campaign was to sway public opinion in their direction and to inform the common person of what the Marshall Plan was and what the Plan would ultimately do. They spent months attempting to convince Americans that their cause was just and that they should embrace the higher taxes that would come in the foreseeable future.
A copious amount of propaganda ended up being highly effective in swaying public opinion towards supporting the Marshall Plan. During the nationwide campaign for support, "more than a million pieces of pro-Marshall Plan publications - booklets, leaflets, reprints, and fact sheets, '' were disseminated. Truman and Marshall 's efforts proved to be effective. In a Gallup Poll taken between the months of July and December 1947, it shows the percentage of Americans unaware of the Marshall Plan fell from 51 % to 36 % nationwide. By the time the Marshall Plan was ready to be implemented, there was a general consensus throughout the American public that this was the right policy for both America, and the countries who would be receiving aid.
During the period leading up to World War II, Americans were highly isolationist, and many called The Marshall Plan a "milestone '' for American ideology. By looking at polling data over time from pre-World War II to post-World War II, one would find that there was a change in public opinion in regards to ideology. Americans swapped their isolationist ideals for a much more global internationalist ideology after World War II.
In a National Opinion Research Center (NORC) poll taken in April 1945, a cross-section of Americans were asked, "If our government keeps on sending lendlease materials, which we may not get paid for, to friendly countries for about three years after the war, do you think this will mean more jobs or fewer jobs for most Americans, or wo n't it make any difference? '' 75 % said the same or more jobs; 10 % said fewer.
Before proposing anything to Congress in 1947, the Truman administration made an elaborate effort to organize public opinion in favor of the Marshall Plan spending, reaching out to numerous national organizations representing business, labor, farmers, women, and other interest groups. Political scientist Ralph Levering points out that:
Mounting large public relations campaigns and supporting private groups such as the Citizens Committee for the Marshall Plan, the administration carefully built public and bipartisan Congressional support before bringing these measures to a vote.
Public opinion polls in 1947 consistently showed strong support for the Marshall plan among Americans. Furthermore, Gallup polls in England, France, and Italy showed favorable majorities over 60 %
Initial criticism of the Marshall Plan came from a number of economists. Wilhelm Röpke, who influenced German Minister for Economy Ludwig Erhard in his economic recovery program, believed recovery would be found in eliminating central planning and restoring a market economy in Europe, especially in those countries which had adopted more fascist and corporatist economic policies. Röpke criticized the Marshall Plan for forestalling the transition to the free market by subsidizing the current, failing systems. Erhard put Röpke 's theory into practice and would later credit Röpke 's influence for West Germany 's preeminent success.
Henry Hazlitt criticized the Marshall Plan in his 1947 book Will Dollars Save the World?, arguing that economic recovery comes through savings, capital accumulation, and private enterprise, and not through large cash subsidies. Ludwig von Mises criticized the Marshall Plan in 1951, believing that "the American subsidies make it possible for (Europe 's) governments to conceal partially the disastrous effects of the various socialist measures they have adopted ''. Some critics and Congressmen at the time believed that America was giving too much aid to Europe. America had already given Europe $9 billion in other forms of help in previous years. The Marshall Plan gave another $13 billion, equivalent to about $100 billion in 2010 value.
However, its role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. The Marshall Plan grants were provided at a rate that was not much higher in terms of flow than the previous UNRRA aid and represented less than 3 % of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951, which would mean an increase in GDP growth of only 0.3 %. In addition, there is no correlation between the amount of aid received and the speed of recovery: both France and the United Kingdom received more aid, but West Germany recovered significantly faster.
Criticism of the Marshall Plan became prominent among historians of the revisionist school, such as Walter LaFeber, during the 1960s and 1970s. They argued that the plan was American economic imperialism and that it was an attempt to gain control over Western Europe just as the Soviets controlled the Eastern Bloc. In a review of West Germany 's economy from 1945 to 1951, German analyst Werner Abelshauser concluded that "foreign aid was not crucial in starting the recovery or in keeping it going ''. The economic recoveries of France, Italy, and Belgium, Cowen argues, began a few months before the flow of US money. Belgium, the country that relied earliest and most heavily on free - market economic policies after its liberation in 1944, experienced swift recovery and avoided the severe housing and food shortages seen in the rest of continental Europe.
Former US Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan gives most credit to German Chancellor Ludwig Erhard for Europe 's economic recovery. Greenspan writes in his memoir The Age of Turbulence that Erhard 's economic policies were the most important aspect of postwar Western European recovery, even outweighing the contributions of the Marshall Plan. He states that it was Erhard 's reductions in economic regulations that permitted Germany 's miraculous recovery, and that these policies also contributed to the recoveries of many other European countries. Its recovery is attributed to traditional economic stimuli, such as increases in investment, fueled by a high savings rate and low taxes. Japan saw a large infusion of US investment during the Korean War.
Noam Chomsky said the Marshall Plan "set the stage for large amounts of private U.S. investment in Europe, establishing the basis for modern transnational corporations ''.
Alfred Friendly, press aide to the US Secretary of Commerce W. Averell Harriman, wrote a humorous operetta about the Marshall Plan during its first year; one of the lines in the operetta was: "Wines for Sale; will you swap / A little bit of steel for Chateau Neuf du Pape? ''
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The New Zealand Parliament (Māori: Pāremata Aotearoa) is the legislature of New Zealand, consisting of the Queen of New Zealand (Queen - in - Parliament) and the New Zealand House of Representatives. The Queen is usually represented by a governor - general. Before 1951, there was an upper chamber, the New Zealand Legislative Council. The Parliament was established in 1854 and is one of the oldest continuously functioning legislatures in the world.
The House of Representatives has met in the Parliament Buildings located in Wellington, the capital city of New Zealand, since 1865. It normally consists of 120 Members of Parliament (MPs), though sometimes more due to overhang seats. 71 MPs are elected directly in electorate seats and the remainder are filled by list MPs based on each party 's share of the party vote. Māori were represented in Parliament from 1867, and in 1893 women gained the vote. New Zealand does not allow sentenced prisoners to vote. Although elections can be called early, each three years the House is dissolved and goes up for reelection.
The Parliament is closely linked to the executive. The New Zealand Government comprises a prime minister (head of government) and other ministers. In accordance with the principle of responsible government, these individuals are always drawn from the House of Representatives, and are held accountable to it.
Neither the Queen nor her governor - general participates in the legislative process, save for signifying the Queen 's approval to a bill passed by the House, known as the granting of Royal Assent, which is necessary for a bill to be enacted as law.
The New Zealand Parliament was created by the British New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 which established a bicameral legislature officially called the "General Assembly '', but usually referred to as Parliament. It was based on the Westminster model (that is, the model of the British Parliament) and had a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the Legislative Council. The members of the House of Representatives were elected under the first - past - the - post (FPP) voting system, while those of the Council were appointed by the Governor. Originally Councillors were appointed for life, but later their terms were fixed at seven years. This change, coupled with responsible government (whereby the Premier advised the Governor on Council appointments) and party politics, meant that by the 20th century, the government usually controlled the Council as well as the House, and the passage of bills through the Council became a formality. In 1951, the Council was abolished altogether, making the New Zealand legislature unicameral.
Under the Constitution Act, legislative power was also conferred on New Zealand 's provinces (originally six in number), each of which had its own elected Legislative Council. These provincial legislatures were able to legislate for their provinces on most subjects. However, New Zealand was never a federal dominion like Canada or Australia; Parliament could legislate concurrently with the provinces on any matter, and in the event of a conflict, the law passed by Parliament would prevail. Over a twenty - year period, political power was progressively centralised, and the provinces were abolished altogether in 1876.
Four Māori electorates were created in 1867 during the term of the 4th Parliament. The Māori electorates have lasted far longer than the intended five years. In 2002, the seats increased in number to seven.
Originally the New Zealand Parliament remained subordinate to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire British Empire. The New Zealand Parliament received progressively more control over New Zealand affairs through the passage of Imperial (British) laws such as the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865, constitutional amendments, and an increasingly hands - off approach by the British government. Finally, in 1947, the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act gave Parliament full power over New Zealand law, and the British New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act 1947 allowed Parliament to regulate its own composition. In 1986 a new Constitution Act was passed, restating the few remaining provisions of the 1852 Act, consolidating the legislation establishing Parliament and officially replacing the name "General Assembly '' with "Parliament ''.
One historical speciality of the New Zealand Parliament was the country quota, which gave greater representation to rural politics. From 1889 on (and even earlier in more informal forms), districts were weighted according to their urban / rural split (with any locality of less than 2,000 people considered rural). Those districts which had large rural proportions received a greater number of nominal votes than they actually contained voters -- as an example, in 1927, Waipawa, a district without any urban population at all, received an additional 4,153 nominal votes to its actual 14,838 -- having the maximum factor of 28 % extra representation. The country quota was in effect until it was abolished in 1945 by a mostly urban - elected Labour government, which went back to a one person, one vote system.
The New Zealand Parliament is sovereign (supreme) with no institution able to over-ride its decisions. The ability of Parliament to act is, legally, unimpeded. For example, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 is a normal piece of legislation, it is not superior law as codified constitutions are in some other countries.
The House of Representatives has the exclusive power to regulate its own procedures. The House has "entrenched '' certain issues relating to elections. These include the length of a parliamentary term, deciding on who can vote, how they vote (via secret ballot), how the country should be divided into electorates, and the make up of the Representation Commission which decides on these electorates. These issues require either 75 % of all MPs to support the bill or a referendum on the issue.
The Queen of New Zealand is one of the components of Parliament -- formally called the Queen - in - Parliament. This results from the role of the monarch (or their vice-regal representative, the Governor - General) to sign into law (give Royal Assent) the bills that have been passed by the House of Representatives.
Members of Parliament must express their loyalty to the Queen and defer to her authority, as the Oath of Allegiance must be recited by all new parliamentarians before they may take their seat, and the official opposition is traditionally dubbed as Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition.
The House of Representatives was established as a lower house and has been the Parliament 's sole chamber since 1951. It is democratically elected every three years and consists of single member electorates of roughly the same population. The members assemble to represent the people, pass laws and supervise the work of government. Members also form the eighteen select committees, appointed to deal with particular areas or issues.
Ministers of the New Zealand Government are always drawn from amongst the members of the House of Representatives (before 1951, there were also ministers who sat in the Legislative Council). The government of the day, and by extension the Prime Minister, must achieve and maintain the support of the House in order to gain and remain in power. The government is dependent on Parliament to implement its legislative agenda, and has always required the House 's approval to spend money.
The Parliament does not currently have an upper house; there was an upper house up to 1951, and there have been occasional suggestions to create a new one.
The Legislative Council chamber continues to be used during the State Opening of Parliament, and is where the Governor - General delivers his speech from the throne to the Members of Parliament. This is in keeping with the British tradition in which the monarch is barred from entering the lower house. Similar to the British counterpart, the Black Rod is sent to the House of Representatives to summon the members to the Legislative Council chamber for the Governor - General 's speech. On occasion, the monarch may open Parliament and deliver the speech herself. For example, the Queen attended the State Opening of Parliament in 1954.
The Legislative Council was the first legislature of New Zealand, established by the Charter for Erecting the Colony of New Zealand on 16 November 1840, which saw New Zealand established as a Crown colony separate from New South Wales on 1 July 1841. Originally, the Legislative Council consisted of the Governor, Colonial Secretary and Colonial Treasurer (who consisted the Executive Council) and three justices of the peace appointed by the Governor. The Legislative Council had the power to issue Ordinances, statutory instruments.
With the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the Legislative Council became the upper house of the General Assembly. The Legislative Council was intended to scrutinise and amend bills passed by the House of Representatives, although it could not initiate legislation or amend money bills. Despite occasional proposals for an elected Council, Members of the Legislative Council (MLCs) were appointed by the Governor, generally on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. At first, MLCs were appointed for life, but a term of seven years was introduced in 1891. It was eventually decided that the Council was having no significant impact on New Zealand 's legislative process; its final sitting was on 1 December 1950. At the time of its abolition it had fifty - four members, including its own Speaker.
In September 1950, the National government of Sidney Holland set up a constitutional reform committee to consider an alternative second chamber, chaired by Ronald Algie. A report produced by the committee in 1952 proposed a nominated Senate, with 32 members, appointed by leaders of the parties in the House of Representatives, according to the parties ' strength in that House. Senators would serve for three - year - terms, and be eligible for reappointment. The Senate would have the power to revise, initiate or delay legislation, to hear petitions, and to scrutinise regulations and Orders in Council, but the proposal was rejected by the Prime Minister and by the Labour opposition, which had refused to nominate members to the committee.
The National government of Jim Bolger proposed the establishment of an elected Senate when it came to power in 1990, thereby reinstating a bicameral system, and a Senate Bill was drafted. Under the Bill, the Senate would have 30 members, elected by STV, from six senatorial districts, four in the North Island and two in the South Island. Like the old Legislative Council, it would not have powers to amend or delay money bills. The House of Representatives would continue to be elected by FPP.
The intention was to include a question on a Senate in the second referendum on electoral reform. Voters would be asked, if they did not want a new voting system, whether or not they wanted a Senate. However, following objections from the Labour opposition, which derided it as a red herring, and other supporters of the mixed - member proportional (MMP) representation system, the Senate question was removed by the Select Committee on Electoral Reform.
In 2010, the New Zealand Policy Unit of the Centre for Independent Studies proposed a Senate in the context of the 2011 referendum on MMP. They proposed a proportionally - elected upper house made up 31 seats elected using a proportional list vote by region, with the House of Representatives elected by FPP and consisting of 79 seats.
Before any law is passed, it is first introduced in Parliament as a draft known as a bill. The majority of bills are promulgated by the government of the day. It is rare for government bills to be defeated (the first to be defeated in the twentieth century was in 1998) It is also possible for individual MPs to promote their own bills, called member 's bills; these are usually put forward by opposition parties, or by MPs who wish to deal with a matter that parties do not take positions on. All bills must go through three readings in the House of Representatives before it can receive Royal Assent to become an Act of Parliament (statutory law).
Each bill goes through several stages before it becomes a law. The first stage is a mere formality known as the first reading, where it is introduced without a debate. This is followed by the second reading, where MPs debate on the general principles of the bill. If the House opposes the bill, it may vote to reject the bill.
If the bill goes through the second reading, the bill is sent to a Select Committee where every clause in the bill is examined. Members of Parliament who support the bill in principle but do not agree with certain clauses can propose amendments to those clauses at this stage. Following its report back to the House, the bill will go through its third reading where only minor amendments will be allowed before it is passed.
If a bill passes its third reading, it is passed by the Clerk of the House of Representatives to the Governor - General, who will (assuming constitutional conventions are followed) grant Royal Assent as a matter of course. Some constitutional lawyers, such as Professor Philip Joseph, believe the Governor - General does retain the power to refuse Royal Assent to bills in exceptional circumstances -- specifically if democracy were to be abolished. Others, such as former law professor and Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Palmer and Matthew Palmer argue any refusal of Royal Assent would lead to a constitutional crisis.
Parliament is currently in its 51st term.
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where was the first mother's day service held | Mother 's Day (United States) - wikipedia
Mother 's Day in the United States is an annual holiday celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother 's Day recognizes mothers, motherhood and maternal bonds in general, as well as the positive contributions that they make to society. It was established by Anna Jarvis, with the first official Mother 's Day was celebrated at St. Andrew 's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia, on May 10, 1908. In the United States, Mother 's Day complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Father 's Day, Siblings Day and Grandparents Day.
Internationally, there are a large variety of Mother 's Day celebrations with different origins and traditions, with some now also having been influenced by this more recent American tradition.
During the 19th century, women 's peace groups in the United States tried to establish holidays and regular activities in favor of peace and against war. A common early activity was the meeting of groups of mothers whose sons had fought or died on opposite sides of the American Civil War.
In 1868, Ann Jarvis, mother of Anna Jarvis, created a committee to establish a "Mother 's Friendship Day '', the purpose of which was "to reunite families that had been divided during the Civil War. '' Jarvis -- who had previously organized "Mother 's Day Work Clubs '' to improve sanitation and health for both Union and Confederate encampments undergoing a typhoid outbreak -- wanted to expand this into an annual memorial for mothers, but she died in 1905 before the celebration became popular. Her daughter, who became almost obsessed with her, would continue her mother 's efforts.
There were several limited observances in the 1870s and the 1880s but none achieved resonance beyond the local level. At the time, Protestant schools in the United States already held many celebrations and observations such as Children 's Day, Temperance Sunday, Roll Call Day, Decision Day, Missionary Day and others. In New York City, Julia Ward Howe led a "Mother 's Day for Peace '' anti-war observance on June 2, 1872, which was accompanied by a "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world '' (nowadays known as Mother 's Day Proclamation). The observance continued in Boston for about 10 years under Howe 's personal sponsorship, then died out. In these celebrations, mothers all around the world would work towards world peace.
Several years later a Mother 's Day observance on May 13, 1877 was held in Albion, Michigan over a dispute related to the temperance movement. According to local legend, Albion pioneer Juliet Calhoun Blakeley stepped up to complete the sermon of the Rev. Myron Daughterty who was distraught because an anti-temperance group had forced his son and two other temperance advocates at gunpoint to spend the night in a saloon and become publicly drunk. From the pulpit Blakeley called on other mothers to join her. Blakeley 's two sons, both traveling salesmen, were so moved that they vowed to return each year to pay tribute to her and embarked on a campaign to urge their business contacts to do likewise. At their urging, in the early 1880s, the Methodist Episcopal Church in Albion set aside the second Sunday in May to recognize the special contributions of mothers.
Frank E. Hering, alumnus and administrator at the University of Notre Dame and President of the Fraternal Order of Eagles, made a plea for "setting aside one day in the year as a nationwide memorial to the memories of Mothers and motherhood '' in 1904. After observing a class of Notre Dame students sending home penny postcards to their mothers, Hering went on to be a vocal advocate for a national Mother 's Day for the next decade. As Hering stated in a 1941 issue of Scholastic: "Throughout history the great men of the world have given their credit for their achievements to their mothers. (The) Holy Church recognizes this, as does Notre Dame especially, and Our Lady who watches over our great institution. ''
In its present form, Mother 's Day was established by Anna Jarvis with the help of Philadelphia merchant John Wanamaker following the death of her mother, Ann Jarvis, on May 9, 1905. Jarvis never mentioned Howe or Mothering Sunday, and she never mentioned any connection to the Protestant school celebrations, always claiming that the creation of Mother 's Day was hers alone.
A small service was held on May 12, 1907 in the Andrew 's Methodist Episcopal Church in Grafton, West Virginia, where Anna 's mother had been teaching Sunday school. The first "official '' service was on May 10, 1908, in the same church, accompanied by a larger ceremony in the Wanamaker Auditorium in the Wanamaker 's store in Philadelphia. The next year the day was reported to be widely celebrated in New York.
Jarvis then campaigned to establish Mother 's Day first as a U.S. national holiday and then later as an international holiday. The holiday was declared officially by the state of West Virginia in 1910, and the rest of the states followed quickly.
On May 10, 1913, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution calling on all federal government officials (from the president down) to wear a white carnation the following day in observance of Mother 's Day. On May 8, 1914, the U.S. Congress passed a law designating the second Sunday in May as Mother 's Day and requesting a proclamation. The next day, President Woodrow Wilson issued a proclamation declaring the first national Mother 's Day as a day for American citizens to show the flag in honor of those mothers whose sons had died in war. In 1934, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a stamp commemorating the holiday.
In May 2008, the U.S. House of Representatives voted twice on a resolution commemorating Mother 's Day, the first one being passed without a dissenting vote (21 members not voting). The Grafton church, where the first celebration was held, is now the International Mother 's Day Shrine and is a National Historic Landmark.
Traditions on Mother 's Day include churchgoing, the distribution of carnations, and family dinners. Mother 's Day is the third largest holiday in the United States for sending cards. According to the greeting card industry, it is estimated that more than 50 percent of American households send greeting cards on this holiday. The holiday has been heavily commercialized by advertisers and retailers, and has been criticized by some as a Hallmark Holiday.
Carnations have come to represent Mother 's Day since Anna Jarvis delivered 500 of them at the first celebration in 1908. Many religious services held later adopted the custom of giving away carnations. This also started the custom of wearing a carnation on Mother 's Day. The founder, Anna Jarvis, chose the carnation because it was the favorite flower of her mother. In part due to the shortage of white carnations, and in part due to the efforts to expand the sales of more types of flowers in Mother 's Day, florists invented the idea of wearing a pink carnation if your mother was living, or a white one if she was dead; this was tirelessly promoted until it made its way into the popular observations at churches. Other less traditional flower options may include a live blooming plant, flower leis, or a bouquet of a variety of different flowers.
The commercialization of the American holiday began very early, and only nine years after the first official Mother 's Day it had become so rampant that Anna Jarvis herself became a major opponent of what the holiday had become, spending all her inheritance and the rest of her life fighting what she saw as an abuse of the celebration. She decried the practice of purchasing greeting cards, which she saw as a sign of being too lazy to write a personal letter. She was arrested in 1948 for disturbing the peace while protesting against the commercialization of Mother 's Day, and she finally said that she "... wished she would have never started the day because it became so out of control... '' She died later that year.
Mother 's Day is now one of the most commercially successful American occasions, having become the most popular day of the year to dine out at a restaurant in the United States and generating a significant portion of the U.S. jewelry industry 's annual revenue, from custom gifts like mother 's rings. Americans spend approximately $2.6 billion on flowers, $1.53 billion on pampering gifts -- like spa treatments -- and another $68 million on greeting cards.
Commercialization has ensured that the holiday has continued, while other holidays from the same time, such as Children 's Day and Temperance Sunday, are no longer celebrated.
From 2005 to 2013, the Southern 500 auto race was held on Saturday of Mother 's Day weekend. Since 2014, the NASCAR Cup Series hosts the KC Masterpiece 400 at Kansas on Saturday of Mother 's Day weekend. Also, the IndyCar Grand Prix has been held on Saturday of Mother 's Day weekend since 2014.
Since 2007, The Players Championship men 's golf tournament is held on Mother 's Day weekend, except when May 1 falls on a Sunday, when it is held the next weekend. Previously, the Kingsmill Championship women 's golf tournament was played on Mother 's Day weekend from 2004 to 2009.
Professional sports players often wear pink clothing accessories on Mother 's Day weekend.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who plays the toilet in bob's burgers | O.T.: the Outside toilet - wikipedia
"O.T.: The Outside Toilet '' is the 15th episode of the third season of the animated comedy series Bob 's Burgers and the overall 37th episode, and is written by Lizzie and Wendy Molyneux and directed by Anthony Chun. It aired on Fox in the United States on March 3, 2013.
The episode starts with a crate falling off from a truck and into a cliff, where the wooden crate breaks and its contents start to glow. Bob has to go to court to contest a parking ticket, and borrows one of Mort 's client 's suit that was left behind in the funeral home. Meanwhile, Gene, who is demoralized when already failing a health assignment, discovers a talking toilet in the woods -- capable of warming the seat and telling jokes, among other things -- as he is on his way home. Gene shows his siblings the toilet, where he finds out that its battery is almost drained and needs charging.
The driver of the truck finds and tracks Gene back to the restaurant, where Bob and Linda are on their way to celebrate the dismissal of his ticket, mostly due to how "rich '' he looks in the said suit. The truck driver, who introduces himself as Max Flush, announces that his toilet costs $14,000 and that he 's very motivated to locate it. When Gene refuses to tell him the location of the toilet, he stakes outside the restaurant. The kids enlist the help of the Pesto children and Zeke to transfer the toilet in a safer place. Meanwhile, Bob and Linda go to a fancy restaurant where Bob and "his suit '' are being sent free drinks by the other patrons, and gets drunk to the point that they have forgotten how to order food. They find Gene and the battery - drained toilet on the road and they go to a coffee shop, where Max Flush finds them and is revealed to be a toilet thief. The toilet is brought back to its owner in King 's Head Island after a tearful goodbye with Gene.
Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave the episode a A --, saying "Everything worked about "O.T. the Outside Toilet. '' I 'm not sure I want Bob 's Burgers to always remind me so much of The Simpsons, but I could be persuaded if it was always this good. '' Ross Bonaime of Paste gave the episode an 8.4, saying "The two stories combine in a perfect way, with the drunk Belcher parents helping Gene with his toilet friend, but they 're too drunk to quite comprehend what 's going on, and Gene eventually has to say goodbye to his best toilet / friend. It 's all insane, but kind of sweet too, especially when Bob has an awkward heart - to - heart with Gene, and the entire family rises up to help Gene in his time of need. Once again, Bob 's Burgers gets some of the best voice acting on TV as well, as Hamm is great as the toilet, constantly misunderstanding Gene 's commands, like when Gene tells him "I love you, '' and Hamm responds, "you have to throw up? '' It 's the perfect balance of weirdness and heart that Bob 's Burgers excels at. ''
The episode received a 1.7 rating and was watched by a total of 3.67 million people. This made it the fourth most watched show on Animation Domination that night, beating The Cleveland Show but losing to The Simpsons.
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who does the mom marry in mamma mia | Mamma Mia! (Film) - wikipedia
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Mamma Mia! The Movie) is a 2008 jukebox musical romantic comedy film directed by Phyllida Lloyd and written by Catherine Johnson based on the 1999 musical of the same name, also written by Johnson, which itself is based on the songs of pop group ABBA, including the title song, with additional music composed by ABBA member Benny Andersson. The film features an ensemble cast, including Meryl Streep, Pierce Brosnan, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård, Julie Walters, Dominic Cooper, Amanda Seyfried and Christine Baranski. The plot follows a young bride - to - be who invites three men to her upcoming wedding, each one with the possibility of being her father. The film was an international co-production between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and was co-produced by Relativity Media, Playtone and Littlestar Productions.
Principal photography primarily took place on the island of Skopelos, Greece from August to September 2007. The film was distributed by Universal Pictures. Mamma Mia! held its world premiere on June 30, 2008 at Leicester Square in London and premiered on July 4, 2008 in Stockholm, Sweden, with Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog in attendance. The film was released theatrically on July 10 in the United Kingdom, on July 17 in Germany and on July 18 in the United States. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the musical numbers and production values, but criticized the plot and casting of inexperienced singers, in particular Brosnan and Skarsgård. Nonetheless, the film grossed $615 million worldwide on a $52 million budget, becoming the fifth highest - grossing film of 2008. A sequel, titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, was released on July 20, 2018, with much of the main cast returning.
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, 20 - year - old bride - to - be Sophie Sheridan reveals to her bridesmaids, Ali and Lisa, that she has secretly invited three men to her wedding without telling her mother, Donna. They are the men that her mother 's diary reveals could have been her father: Irish - American architect Sam Carmichael, Swedish adventurer and writer Bill Anderson, and British banker Harry Bright. She dreams of being given away by her father at her wedding, and believes that after she spends time with them she will know which is her father.
Sophie 's mother Donna, who owns a villa and runs it not very successfully as a hotel, is ecstatic to reunite with her former Dynamos bandmates, wisecracking author Rosie Mulligan and wealthy multiple divorcée Tanya Chesham - Leigh, and reveals her bafflement at her daughter 's desire to get married. Donna shows off the villa to Rosie and Tanya. The three men arrive and Sophie smuggles them to their room. She does n't reveal that she believes one of them is her father, but does explain that she and not her mother sent the invitations. She begs them to hide so Donna will be surprised by the old friends of whom she "so often '' favorably speaks. They overhear Donna working and swear not to reveal Sophie 's secret.
Donna spies them and is dumbfounded to find herself facing former lovers, demanding they leave. She confides in Tanya and Rosie that she truly does not know which of the three fathered Sophie. Tanya and Rosie rally her spirits by getting her to dance with an all female ensemble of staff and islanders. Sophie finds the men aboard Bill 's yacht, and they sail around Kalokairi, telling stories of Donna 's carefree youth. Sophie plans to tell her fiancé Sky about her ploy, but loses her nerve. Sky and Sophie sing to each other, but Sky is abducted for his bachelor party.
At Sophie 's bachelorette party, Donna, Tanya, and Rosie perform. When Sam, Bill, and Harry arrive, Sophie decides to talk with each of them alone. While her girlfriends dance with the men, Sophie learns from Bill that Donna received the money for her villa from his great - aunt Sofia. Sophie guesses she must be Sofia 's namesake. She asks him to give her away and keep their secret until the wedding. Sophie 's happiness is short - lived as Sam and Harry each pull her aside to tell her they are her father and will give her away. Sophie, overwhelmed by the consequences of raising the hopes of all three "fathers '', faints.
In the morning, Rosie and Tanya assure Donna they will take care of the men. Bill and Harry intend to tell each other what they learned the previous night, but Rosie interrupts them. Donna confronts Sophie, believing Sophie wants the wedding stopped. Sophie says that all she wants is to avoid her mother 's mistakes. Sam accosts Donna, concerned about Sophie getting married so young. Donna confronts him and they realize they still have feelings for each other. Tanya and young Pepper continue flirtations from the previous night. Sophie confesses to Sky and asks for his help. He reacts angrily to Sophie 's deception and she turns to her mother for support. As Donna helps her daughter dress for the wedding, their rift is healed and Donna reminisces about Sophie 's childhood. Donna admits her mother disowned her when she became pregnant. Sophie asks Donna to give her away. As the bridal party walks to the chapel, Sam intercepts Donna, who reveals the pain she felt over losing him.
Sophie and Donna walk down the aisle as the band plays. Donna tells Sophie and all gathered that her father could be any of the three men. Sam reveals that while he left Donna to get married, he did not go through with it, but returned to find Donna with another man. The men do not want paternity confirmed, each agreeing to be one - third of a father for Sophie. She tells Sky they should postpone their wedding and travel the world. Sam proposes to Donna. She accepts and they are married. At the reception, Sam sings to Donna and Rosie makes a play for Bill. The couples proclaim their love. Sophie and Sky sail away.
A soundtrack album was released on July 7, 2008 by Decca and Polydor in the United States and internationally, respectively. The recording was produced by Benny Andersson. The album features sixteen musical numbers within the film, including a hidden track. The album was nominated at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The deluxe edition of the soundtrack album was released on November 25, 2008.
Most of the outdoor scenes were filmed on location at the small Greek island of Skopelos (during August / September 2007), and the seaside hamlet of Damouchari in the Pelion area of Greece. On Skopelos, Kastani beach on the south west coast was the film 's main location site. The producers built a beach bar and jetty along the beach, but removed both set pieces after production wrapped. A complete set for Donna 's Greek villa was built at the 007 stage at Pinewood Studios and most of the film was shot there. Real trees were utilised for the set, watered daily through an automated watering system and given access to daylight in order to keep them growing.
The part of the film where Brosnan 's character, Sam, leaves his New York office to go to the Greek Island was actually filmed at the Lloyd 's Building on Lime Street in the City of London. He dashes down the escalators and through the porte - cochere, where yellow cabs and actors representing New York mounted police were used for authenticity.
The Fernando, Bill Anderson 's yacht (actually a ketch) in the film was the Tai - Mo - Shan built in 1934 by H.S. Rouse at the Hong Kong and Whampoa dockyards.
Meryl Streep took opera singing lessons as a child, and as an adult, she previously sang in several films, including Postcards from the Edge, Silkwood, Death Becomes Her, and A Prairie Home Companion. She was a fan of the stage show Mamma Mia! after seeing it on Broadway in September 2001, when she found the show to be an affirmation of life in the midst of the destruction of 9 / 11.
Though the world premiere of the film occurred elsewhere, most of the media attention was focused on the Swedish premiere, where Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog joined Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson with the cast at the Rival Theatre in Mariatorget, Stockholm, owned by Andersson, on July 4, 2008. It was the first time all four members of ABBA had been photographed together since 1986.
In November 2008, Mamma Mia! became the fastest - selling DVD of all time in the UK, according to Official UK Charts Company figures. It sold 1,669,084 copies on its first day of release, breaking the previous record (held by Titanic) by 560,000 copies. By the end of 2008, the Official UK Charts Company declared that it had become the biggest selling DVD ever in the UK, with one in every four households owning a copy (over 5 million copies sold). The record was previously held by Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl with sales of 4.7 million copies.
In the United States, the DVD made over $30 million on its first day of release. By December 31, 2008, Mamma Mia! became the best - selling DVD of all time in Sweden with 545,000 copies sold.
Mamma Mia! grossed $144.1 million in the United States and $471.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $615.7 million, against a production budget of $52 million. It became the highest grossing live - action musical of all time, until it was surpassed by Bill Condon 's Beauty and the Beast in 2017. It was also the highest - grossing movie directed by a woman, until it was surpassed by Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman in 2017. It is the third highest - grossing film of 2008 internationally (i.e., outside North America) with an international total of $458.4 million and the thirteenth highest gross of 2008 in North America (the US and Canada) with $144.1 million.
In the United Kingdom, Mamma Mia! has grossed £ 69.2 million as of January 23, 2009, and is the ninth highest - grossing film of all time at the UK box office. The film opened at # 1 in the U.K, taking £ 6.6 million on 496 screens. It managed to hold onto the top spot for 2 weeks, narrowly keeping Pixar 's WALL - E from reaching # 1 in its second week.
When released on July 3 in Greece, the film grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 1 at the Greek box office.
The film made $9.6 million in its opening day in the United States and Canada, and $27.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 2 at the box office, behind The Dark Knight. At the time, it made Mamma Mia! the record - holder for the highest grossing opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical, surpassing Hairspray 's box office record in 2007 and later surpassed by Into the Woods.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 54 % based on 179 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "This jukebox musical is full of fluffy fun but rough singing voices and a campy tone might not make you feel like ' You Can Dance ' the whole 90 minutes. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
BBC Radio 5 Live 's film critic Mark Kermode admitted to enjoying the film, despite describing the experience as ' the closest you get to see A-List actors doing drunken karaoke '. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was more negative, giving it one star, and expressed a "need to vomit ''. Bob Chipman of Escape to the Movies said it was "so base, so shallow and so hinged on meaningless spectacle, it 's amazing it was n't made for men ''. The Daily Telegraph stated that it was enjoyable but poorly put together: "Finding the film a total shambles was sort of a shame, but I have a sneaking suspicion I 'll go to see it again anyway. '' Angie Errigo of Empire said it was "cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine and toe tappers. ''
The casting of actors not known for their singing abilities led to some mixed reviews. Variety stated that "some stars, especially the bouncy and rejuvenated Streep, seem better suited for musical comedy than others, including Brosnan and Skarsgård. '' Brosnan, especially, was savaged by many critics: his singing was compared to "a water buffalo '' (New York Magazine), "a donkey braying '' (The Philadelphia Inquirer) and "a wounded raccoon '' (The Miami Herald), and Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing Charlotte said he "looks physically pained choking out the lyrics, as if he 's being subjected to a prostate exam just outside of the camera 's eye. ''
Because of the film 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, the co-chairman of Universal Studios, said that it would take a while, but there would be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there were still plenty of ABBA songs to use. Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018. It was written and directed by Ol Parker. It was announced that Seyfried, Cooper, Streep, Firth and Brosnan would be returning. In July 2017, Lily James was confirmed to portray young Donna.
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where is the oldest light bulb that is still working | Longest - lasting light bulbs - wikipedia
This is a list of the longest lasting incandescent light bulbs.
The world 's longest lasting light bulb is the Centennial Light located at 4550 East Avenue, Livermore, California. It is maintained by the Livermore - Pleasanton Fire Department. The fire department claims that the bulb is at least 116 years old (installed 1901) and has only been turned off a handful of times. The bulb has been noted by The Guinness Book of World Records, Ripley 's Believe It or Not!, and General Electric as being the world 's longest - lasting light bulb.
While it might seem astonishing that so many longest - lasting light bulbs have been so infrequently turned off, this is the precise reason for their longevity. Most of the wear and tear that leads to burnouts in incandescent light bulbs is caused by turning them on and off, not by burning them. Each time the bulb is turned on and off, the filament is heated and cooled. This causes the material of the filament to expand and contract, in turn causing micro stress cracks to develop. The more the light is turned on and off, the larger these cracks grow, until eventually the filament breaks at some point, in non-spectacular fashion, thus causing the light to burn out. Another reason for the longevity of bulbs is the size, quality and material of the filament.
The second longest - lasting light bulb is in Fort Worth, Texas. The bulb, known as the Eternal Light, was credited as being the longest - lasting bulb in the 1970 edition of the The Guinness Book of World Records, two years before the discovery of the Livermore bulb. It was originally at the Byers Opera House, and was installed by a stage - hand, Barry Burke, on September 21, 1908, above the backstage door. The theater was demolished in 1977 and the bulb was transported to a museum located in the Livestock Exchange Building. Since its installation in the museum, it has only been turned off once -- by accident -- before being put on its own, unswitched, circuit.
There is another working 1908 lightbulb in Norway, in the "Kongevognen '' (King 's wagon) from Thamshavnsbanen railway in Trøndelag, Norway. The bulb is one of the original bulbs of the wagon that was ordered built by Christian Thams in 1908, and was delivered by the Edison factory in the United States. The wagon is now part of a museum, and the light bulb is in use several times per week.
The third longest - lasting light bulb was above the back door of Gasnick Supply, a New York City hardware store on Second Avenue, between 52nd and 53rd Streets. It was installed in 1912, according to store owner Jack Gasnick. Apparently Gasnick tried several times to discredit the Centennial Light in Livermore. In 1981 he wrote to Dear Abby and claimed that the Livermore bulb had burned out, although it had not. In 1983, he wrote to Guinness and claimed that the Livermore bulb was a fraud. In his opinion as a trained electrical technician, the socket for the bulb was incorrect for its age. He also pointed out that there were no carbon deposits on the inside of the glass, unlike his bulb, which was filthy. He then declared his bulb to be the world 's oldest, seemingly unaware of the bulb in Fort Worth.
It is not known what happened to Gasnick and his bulb. The store, and the entire half - block on which it stood, were torn down in 2003.
The fourth longest - lasting light bulb is located in a fire house in Mangum, Oklahoma. The bulb is not attached to any special electrical supply, and when the power goes off, so does the bulb. The firefighters in Mangum are willing to show people the bulb as long as they 're not busy with something else.
The fifth longest - lasting light bulb was in a washroom at the Martin & Newby Electrical Shop in Ipswich, England. Given its shape and design, it was thought to date from the 1930s. It burned out in January 2001.
Thomas Edison designed a bulb that was supposed to last forever, called the Eternal Light, and turned it on on October 22, 1929. The bulb is located in the Memorial Tower at the Edison Memorial Museum in Menlo Park, New Jersey. The tower fell down in 1937, but the bulb 's power was supposedly uninterrupted, according to General Electric, and the bulb continued to burn while a second tower was constructed. However, according to museum curator Jack Stanley, the bulb is fake, consisting of a hollow bulb illuminated by a series of automobile headlights mounted in the display 's base.
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who dies in season 8 of grey's anatomy finale | Flight (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Flight '' is the twenty - fourth and final episode of the eighth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 172nd episode overall. It was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes, and directed by Rob Corn. The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 17, 2012. In the episode, six doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital who are victims of an aviation accident fight to stay alive, but Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) ultimately dies. Other storylines occur in Seattle where Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) plans his annual dinner for the departing residents, Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) fires Dr. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) gets engaged.
The episode marked Leigh 's final appearance in the series and Raver 's last until late in the fourteenth season. Exterior filming of the accident took place at Big Bear Lake, California. Jason George reprised his role as a guest star, whereas James LeGros made his first appearance. The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics, with some criticizing the death of Lexie, but praising Leigh 's performance, in addition to Ellen Pompeo (Dr. Meredith Grey) 's and Eric Dane (Dr. Mark Sloan) 's. "Flight '' earned Rhimes an NAACP Image Award nomination and it was also nominated under several categories of Entertainment Weekly 's finale awards. Upon its initial airing, the episode was viewed in the United States by 11.44 million people, garnered a 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fourth for the night in terms of viewership, and registering as Thursday 's highest - rated drama.
After their plane crashes in the woods, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Dr. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) desperately fight to stay alive. Meredith is relatively unscathed, while the rest have serious injuries: the pilot, Jerry (James LeGros), has a major spine injury, and Yang dislocates her arm. Robbins ' femur is broken and sticking through the skin, Sloan has serious internal injuries; though initially adrenaline keeps him on his feet. Shepherd is sucked out the side of the plane and awakens alone in the wood; his mangled hand having been pushed through the door of the plane. However, none are in as bad shape as Lexie, who is crushed under a piece of the plane. While Meredith searches for Shepherd, Yang and Sloan try to move the debris off Lexie. Eventually, the two realize that they can not save her, so Sloan holds her hand while she dies, telling her that he loves her. As Sloan tells her of the life the two were meant to have together, Lexie dies with a smile on her face just as Meredith and Yang are approaching.
Lexie 's death devastates Meredith, who is still desperately trying to find her husband. Eventually, she and Shepherd reunite and they fix his hand as best as they can. Meanwhile, back at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, no one is aware of what has happened to the other doctors. Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) prepares the annual dinner for the departing residents, which Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), Dr. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), and Dr. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) are dreading. Avery makes the choice to take a job offer at Tulane Medical Center, and he and Kepner share a moment. Dr. Ben Warren (Jason George) and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) decide to get married, even though Warren is going to start his surgical internship in Los Angeles. After realizing Dr. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) was offered a chief position at United States Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) and is refusing to leave Seattle out of loyalty, Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), the chief of surgery, fires her to free her from the hospital where her husband died. As the episode ends, Hunt picks up his messages to discover the surgical team never made it to Boise. The residents, finally excited to celebrate at Webber 's dinner, are left waiting for their stranded friends. The remaining crash survivors are left struggling to stay awake as their last match goes out. In the closing monologue, Meredith repeats the opening to the speech that Webber gave in the pilot episode of the series.
-- Oh 's impressions on shooting in the mountains
The episode was written by Shonda Rhimes, and directed by Rob Corn. Featured music included The Paper Kites ' "Featherstone '' and Feist 's ' Graveyard ". Filming took place in Big Bear Lake, California, a location previously used in the seventh season for Yang and Shepherd 's fishing trip. Commenting on the filming conditions, Leigh said: "It would rain and be sunny and hot. I never died before (on camera). That sounds funny saying that. I think everyone has an emotional wellspring and that happened to be a moment where I was sprung. Everybody was very accommodating -- the crew, cast. And I opted to stay underneath (the wreckage) for the most part over two days rather than trying to get in and out. ''
In regard to the episode, Rhimes commented before it originally aired that it was difficult to write, largely because of the death of a main character. She compared it to writing the season six finale, by explaining that the former was "more painful '' to write. After the episode aired, Rhimes repeated in a tweet that it was hard for her to write the finale, adding: "I did not enjoy it. It made me sick and it made me sad. '' Rhimes also explained the departure of Leigh, whose character died after the plane crash, by saying that the two came to an agreement on the decision to kill Lexie, after extensive discussion. Speaking of Raver 's departure whose character left Seattle Grace for MEDCOM, Rhimes elaborated that Raver was offered a contract renewal, but declined.
The episode received mixed reviews among television critics, and it outperformed the previous episode in terms of both viewership and ratings. "Flight '' was originally broadcast on May 17, 2012 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The episode was watched in the United States by a total of 11.44 million people, a 16.5 % (1.62 million) increase from the previous episode "Migration '', which garnered 9.82 million viewers. In terms of viewership, "Flight '' ranked fourth for the night, behind the season finales of Fox 's American Idol, and CBS 's Person of Interest and The Mentalist. In terms of Grey 's Anatomy 's other season finales, the episode was the show 's second least - viewed finale, just behind the seventh season 's, which garnered 9.89 million viewers. The episode did not rank in the top three for viewership, but its 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9: 00 Eastern time - slot and second for the night, registering the show as Thursday 's No. 1 drama, for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 -- 49 demographic. Its rating lost to American Idol, but beat out CBS 's The Big Bang Theory, Person of Interest, and The Mentalist. In addition to its rating being in the top rankings for the night, it was an increase from the previous episode, which netted a 3.5 / 10 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The episode also showed an increase in ratings in comparison to the previous year 's finale, which attained a 3.6 / 9 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic.
Poptimal 's Tanya Lane wrote, "Wow... just wow. Grey 's Anatomy has once again managed to shock with its season finale. '' While she appreciated the "realism and authenticity that Grey 's is known for '', she found the episode was "almost too much '' as it was "extremely gory and difficult to watch, initially because of the grisly wounds '' but later because of the "heavy and emotional things that transpired ''. She thought Pompeo gave one of her best performances when her character learned that her sister was dead. Digital Spy 's Ben Lee found Leigh 's and Dane 's performances "phenomenal '' and added that he had probably never seen a better performance from Dane. He described the moment the two actors shared as "truly poignant ''. To him, Lexie 's death felt like a finale, which was thus too early. As for what was happening in Seattle Grace, he thought it was "a bit pointless '' and "uninteresting '' except Altman 's departure, which he deemed "the most significant moment at the hospital ''. Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky commented of Lexie 's death: "It was an intense death. I mean, how awful was it to watch one of Grey 's longest - running characters pass away so quickly -- and rather unceremoniously? I get that Ms. Rhimes had to do what she had to do -- and every show needs to be shaken up once in a while -- but I do n't love that Lexie was the one to die. Could it have been someone less important somehow? I guess it would have been too obvious to do Kepner. And you probably just do n't kill off a hottie like Mark Sloan, right? '' Stransky also complained about Robbins ' screams at the beginning of the episode, but enjoyed Bailey 's story.
In an Entertainment Weekly poll that judged all the television season finales of the year, Lexie 's death was voted the "Top Tissue Moment '', while Robbins ' injured leg and Shepherd 's mangled hand were voted the "Most Disturbing Image ''. The ending of the episode was also considered as the "Best Ending to an Otherwise So - So Season ''. Lexie 's death was also nominated under the "Best (Presumed) Death '' category, while the plane crash 's aftermath was nominated as the "Best Non-romantic Cliffhanger '', and the episode in entirety was nominated for the special award for "Biggest Regret That I Did n't See It, I Just Heard or Read About It ''. Entertainment Weekly later named the scene where Meredith is crying one of the best crying scenes of 2012. In TVLine 's review of 2012, Lexie 's death was runner - up for "Biggest Tearjerker ''. The episode is nominated at the NAACP Image Awards under the Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series category for Rhimes.
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who owns the stanley hotel in estes park | The Stanley Hotel - wikipedia
The Stanley Hotel is a 142 - room Colonial Revival hotel in Estes Park, Colorado. Approximately five miles from the entrance to Rocky Mountain National Park, the Stanley offers panoramic views of Lake Estes, the Rockies and especially Long 's Peak. It was built by Freelan Oscar Stanley of Stanley Steamer fame and opened on July 4, 1909, catering to the American upper class at the turn of the century. The hotel and its surrounding structures are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The Stanley Hotel hosted the horror novelist Stephen King, serving as inspiration for the Overlook Hotel in his 1977 bestseller The Shining and its 1980 film adaption of the same name, as well as the location for the 1997 miniseries. Today, it includes a restaurant, spa, and bed - and - breakfast and provides guided tours which feature the history and alleged paranormal activity of the site.
Freelan Oscar Stanley (1849 - 1940) and his twin brother Francis Edgar (1849 - 1918) were born in Kingfield, Maine. In 1876, he married Flora Jane Record Tileston. Although he began his career as a teacher, in 1881 he contracted tuberculosis and resolved to adopt a more active career. From 1885 to 1904, he was co-owner with his brother at the Stanley Dry Plate Company and, from before 1900 until 1917, they operated the Stanley Motor Carriage Company earning them minor places in the early history of both photography and the automobile. F.O. Stanley was also a maker of concert - quality violins and a pioneer of reinforced concrete construction. From 1890, he and his brother were residents of the upper - class Hunnewell Hill neighborhood in Newton, Massachusetts, where they founded the Hunnewell Social Club.
In 1903, Freelan Oscar Stanley was stricken with a life - threatening resurgence of tuberculosis. The most highly recommended treatment of the day was fresh, dry air with lots of sunlight and a hearty diet. Therefore, like many "lungers '' of his day, Stanley resolved to take the curative air of Rocky Mountain Colorado. He and Flora arrived in Denver in March and, in June, decided to spend the rest of the summer in the mountains, in Estes Park. Over the course of the season, Stanley 's health improved dramatically. Impressed by the beauty of the valley and grateful for his recovery, he decided to return every year. He lived to the ripe age of 91, dying of a heart attack in Newton, Massachusetts, one year after his wife, in 1940.
By 1907, Stanley had all but recovered and he returned to Newton for the winter rather than Denver. However, not content with the rustic accommodations, lazy pastimes and relaxed social scene of their new summer home, Stanley resolved to turn Estes Park into a resort town. In 1907, construction began on the Hotel Stanley, a 48 - room grand hotel that catered to the class of wealthy urbanites who composed the Stanleys ' social circle in Newton.
The land was acquired officially in 1908 through the representatives of the 4th Earl of Dunraven, an Anglo - Irish peer. Lord Dunraven first came to the area in 1872 while on a hunting trip with guide Texas Jack Omohundro. By stretching the provisions of the Homestead Act and pre-emption rights, Dunraven claimed 15,000 acres (61 km) of the Estes Valley in an unsuccessful attempt to create a private hunting preserve, making him one of the largest foreign holders of American lands. Unpopular with the local ranchers and farmers, Dunraven left the area in 1884 relegating the ranch to the management of his employee, Theodore Whyte. Dunraven 's presence in Colorado had become so well known in the United States that his situation was parodied in Charles King 's novel Dunraven Ranch (1892) as well as James A. Michener 's Centennial (1974). His reputation was such that, when Stanley suggested "The Dunraven '' as a name for his new hotel, 180 people signed a buckskin petition requesting that he name it for himself instead.
The structure was completed in 1909 and featured a hydraulic elevator, dual electric and gas lighting, running water, a telephone in every guest room and a fleet of specially - designed Stanley "Model Z '' Mountain Wagons to bring guests from the train depot twenty miles away; all of this at a time when Estes Park was little more than a locale for hunters and naturalists. The hotel was not equipped with heat until 1983 and closed for the winter every year. The presence of the hotel and Stanley 's own involvement greatly contributed to the growth of Estes Park (incorporated in 1917) and the creation of the Rocky Mountain National Park (established in 1915).
Stanley operated the hotel almost as a pastime remarking once that he spent more money than he made each summer. In 1926, he sold the Stanley to a private company incorporated for the sole purpose of running it. The venture failed and, in 1929, Stanley purchased his property out of foreclosure selling it again, in 1930, to fellow auto and hotel magnate Roe Emery. During Emery 's tenure as owner, the structures were painted white inside and out and most of the original electro - gas fixtures were replaced.
The Stanley Hotel National Register District contains eleven contributing buildings including the main hotel, a concert hall, carriage house and The Lodge, a smaller bed - and - breakfast originally called Stanley Manor. The buildings were designed by F.O. Stanley with the professional assistance of Denver architect T. Robert Wieger and contractor Frank Kirchoff. The site was chosen for its vantage overlooking the Estes valley and Long 's Peak within the National Park. The main building is a steel - frame structure with wood cladding resting upon a granite masonry foundation. Wood for flooring, clapboarding and finishing was brought by wagon from Kirchoff 's Denver Lumberyard and the Bluff City Lumber Company of Pine Bluff, Arkansas. The Griffith sawmill near Bierstadt Lake and Stanley 's own Hidden Valley lumber operation, located in the future national park, supplied framing material. The building of the hotel brought about the construction of a hydroelectric power plant which brought electricity to Estes Park for the first time in 1909. Drinking water was supplied by the Black Canyon Creek which was dammed in 1906.
The style of the campus is Colonial Revival, a mode of design that recalls the 18th - Century American colonial interpretations of works by the Georgian British architects Robert Adam, James Gibbs and their contemporaries and successors. Although rare in the western United States, F.O. Stanley chose the Colonial Revival for its fashionable popularity in New England where he had already designed his own home and a social club in the style. The hotel 's clientele would presumably, like the Stanleys, have identified the style with New England respectability and sophistication in contrast to the rusticity of the surrounding town. At one time, Stanley planned to build another, more economical hotel in Estes Park as well as a headquarters and residence for the superintendent of the Rocky Mountain National Park that would harmonize with his grand hotel. The Stanley displays all the chief hallmarks of Georgian architecture from the staunch symmetry of the south elevation to the fan - windows, scroll brackets and "swan 's neck '' pediments that articulate the exterior.
The floor plan of the main hotel building was laid out to accommodate the various activities popular with the American upper class at the turn of the twentieth century and the spaces are decorated accordingly. The music room, for instance, with its cream - colored walls (originally green and white), large windows and fine, classical plaster - work was designed for letter - writing and journaling during the day and chamber music at night - cultured pursuits perceived as feminine. On the other hand, the smoking lounge (today the Piñon Room) and adjoining billiard room, with their dark stained - wood elements and granite fireplace were designated for use by male guests.
The layout was also determined by air circulation. The window at the top of the grand stair provides a pleasant breeze across the lobby, French doors in the state rooms open onto shaded verandas and the two curving staircases connecting the guest corridors prevent stagnant air in the upper floors. Although the hotel was finally updated with central heating in 1983, guests still depend on Rocky Mountain breezes for cooling in the summer. Also completed in 1983, the hotel 's service tunnel connects the basement level to the staff entrance. It is cut directly through the granite on which the hotel sits.
The concert hall, east of the hotel, was built by Stanley in 1909 with the assistance of Henry "Lord Cornwallis '' Rogers, the same architect who designed his summer cottage. According to popular legend, it was built as a gift for Flora Stanley who was an avid pianist despite her failing eyesight. The interior is decorated in the same manner as the smaller music room and somewhat resembles that of the Boston Symphony Hall (McKim, Mead & White, 1900) with which the Stanleys may have been familiar. The stage features a trap door, used for theatrical entrances and exits. The lower level once housed a bowling alley. This feature has long since disappeared but it possibly resembled the one at the Stanley 's Hunnewell Club in Newton, pictures of which have been preserved by the Newton Free Library. The hall underwent extensive repair and renovation in the 2000s.
Once called Stanley Manor, this smaller hotel between the main structure and the concert hall is a 2: 3 scaled - down version of the main hotel. Unlike its model, the manor was fully heated from completion in 1910 which may indicate that Stanley planned to use it as a winter resort when the main building was closed for the season. However, unlike many other Colorado mountain towns now famous for their winter sports, Estes Park never attracted off - season visitors in Stanley 's day and the manor remained empty for much of the year. Today it is called The Lodge and serves as a bed - and - breakfast off - limits to the public.
In 2015, the open area in front of the hotel, originally a driveway for Stanley Steamers and a promenade for guests to enjoy mountain views, was replaced with a hedge maze. This non-historic feature was added to evoke the hotel 's connection to The Shining. The design was the result of a competition, chosen from amongst 300 entrants from across the globe. The winning submission was designed by New York architect Mairim Dallaryan Standing. It is interesting to note that although a hedge maze features prominently in Stanley Kubrick 's version of The Shining, no such feature can be found in Stephen King 's novel. The lawn of the Overlook Hotel, as King imagined it, was adorned with topiary animals and it was set that way for the shooting of the miniseries in 1996. Historically, neither feature existed at the Stanley. In 2016, John Cullen, owner of the Stanley Hotel, announced a competition for a sculpture to be the centerpiece of the terrace in front of the hotel. Sculptors Sutton Betti and Daniel Glanz won the competition with a sculpture of F.O. Stanley holding one of his violins. The sculpture was installed and dedicated on September 29, 2016.
In 1974, horror writer Stephen King spent one night at the Stanley Hotel which provided the inspiration for the fictional Overlook Hotel in his novel The Shining. King and his wife Tabitha had been living in Boulder, Colorado and were driving through Estes Park when they happened upon the Stanley. They decided to book a room and, upon checking in, discovered that they were the only overnight guests. "(The hotel staff) were just getting ready to close for the season, and we found ourselves the only guests in the place -- with all those long, empty corridors '' He and his wife were served dinner in an empty dining room accompanied by canned orchestral music. "Except for our table all the chairs were up on the tables. So the music is echoing down the hall, and, I mean, it was like God had put me there to hear that and see those things. '' The Kings were shown to Room 217. That night, a dream struck King with inspiration for his next book. "I dreamed of my three - year - old son running through the corridors, looking back over his shoulder, eyes wide, screaming. He was being chased by a fire - hose. I woke up with a tremendous jerk, sweating all over, within an inch of falling out of bed. I got up, lit a cigarette, sat in a chair looking out the window at the Rockies, and by the time the cigarette was done, I had the bones of (The Shining) firmly set in my mind. '' According to King in later interviews, the Stanley served as his model for the Overlook Hotel, the ominous setting of the novel. The hotel in King 's book is an evil entity haunted by its many victims. Room 217 of the Overlook Hotel features prominently in the novel, having been the room at the Stanley where King spent the night.
In 1980, The Shining became the basis for a film adaptation directed by Stanley Kubrick. Kubrick 's vision for the movie differed from King 's significantly in many ways, including the portrayal of the Overlook Hotel. The exteriors of Kubrick 's Overlook were supplied by the Timberline Lodge on the slopes of Mt. Hood in Oregon. Inspiration for the interior sets (erected at Elstree Studios in England) came from the 1927 Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite National Park.
In 1997 The Shining TV series was produced, with The Stanley Hotel as the primary shooting location.
The Hotel has also been used as a filming location for other movies and TV shows; most notably, as the fictional "Hotel Danbury '' of Aspen, CO, in the 1994 film Dumb and Dumber,
From 2013 to 2015, the hotel property hosted the Stanley Film Festival, an independent horror film festival operated by the Denver Film Society, held in early May. The festival featured screenings, panels, student competitions, audience awards and receptions. The Stanley Film Festival was put on hiatus in 2016, and canceled for 2017.
The historic Stanley Concert Hall serves as venue for various musical groups such as country - punk band Murder By Death which has performed a Shining - themed series of concerts in the space two years in a row.
Despite a peaceful early history, in the years following the publication of The Shining, The Stanley Hotel has gained a reputation among paranormal investigators for frequent activity. The hotel offers guided "Ghost Tours '' to guests and visitors which feature spaces reputed to be exceptionally active. The hotel has also served as a location for numerous paranormal investigation shows such as Ghost Hunters and Ghost Adventures.
South elevation
Lobby looking east
An antique Chickering piano
Music room
Stanley Hotel at night
February 2011
June 2008
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who is given credit for creating the linux kernel back in 1991 | History of Linux - wikipedia
The history of Linux began in 1991 with the commencement of a personal project by Finnish student Linus Torvalds to create a new free operating system kernel. Since then, the resulting Linux kernel has been marked by constant growth throughout its history. Since the initial release of its source code in 1991, it has grown from a small number of C files under a license prohibiting commercial distribution to the 4.15 version in 2018 with more than 23.3 million lines of source code without comments under the GNU General Public License v2.
After AT&T had dropped out of the Multics project, the Unix operating system was conceived and implemented by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie (both of AT&T Bell Laboratories) in 1969 and first released in 1970. Later they rewrote it in a new programming language, C, to make it portable. The availability and portability of Unix caused it to be widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses.
In 1977, the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) was developed by the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) from UC Berkeley, based on the 6th edition of Unix from AT&T. Since BSD contained Unix code that AT&T owned, AT&T filed a lawsuit (USL v. BSDi) in the early 1990s against the University of California. This strongly limited the development and adoption of BSD.
In 1983, Richard Stallman started the GNU project with the goal of creating a free UNIX - like operating system. As part of this work, he wrote the GNU General Public License (GPL). By the early 1990s, there was almost enough available software to create a full operating system. However, the GNU kernel, called Hurd, failed to attract enough development effort, leaving GNU incomplete.
In 1985, Intel released the 80386, the first x86 microprocessor with a 32 - bit instruction set and a memory management unit with paging.
In 1986, Maurice J. Bach, of AT&T Bell Labs, published The Design of the UNIX Operating System. This definitive description principally covered the System V Release 2 kernel, with some new features from Release 3 and BSD.
In 1987, MINIX, a Unix - like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted. In addition, MINIX 's 16 - bit design was not well adapted to the 32 - bit features of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers. In the early nineties a commercial UNIX operating system for Intel 386 PCs was too expensive for private users.
These factors and the lack of a widely adopted, free kernel provided the impetus for Torvalds ' starting his project. He has stated that if either the GNU Hurd or 386BSD kernels had been available at the time, he likely would not have written his own.
In 1991, while studying computer science at University of Helsinki, Linus Torvalds began a project that later became the Linux kernel. He wrote the program specifically for the hardware he was using and independent of an operating system because he wanted to use the functions of his new PC with an 80386 processor. Development was done on MINIX using the GNU C Compiler. The GNU C Compiler is still the main choice for compiling Linux today, but can be built with other compilers, such as the Intel C Compiler.
As Torvalds wrote in his book Just for Fun, he eventually ended up writing an operating system kernel. On 25 August 1991, he (at age 21) announced this system in a Usenet posting to the newsgroup "comp. os. minix. '':
Hello everybody out there using minix -
I 'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, wo n't be big and professional like gnu) for 386 (486) AT clones. This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready. I 'd like any feedback on things people like / dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file - system (due to practical reasons) among other things).
I 've currently ported bash (1.08) and gcc (1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I 'll get something practical within a few months, and I 'd like to know what features most people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I wo n't promise I 'll implement them:-)
Linus ([email protected])
According to Torvalds, Linux began to gain importance in 1992 after the X Window System was ported to Linux by Orest Zborowski, which allowed Linux to support a GUI for the first time.
Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention Freax, a portmanteau of "free '', "freak '', and "x '' (as an allusion to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, he stored the files under the name "Freax '' for about half of a year. Torvalds had already considered the name "Linux, '' but initially dismissed it as too egotistical.
In order to facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke at Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax '' was a good name. So, he named the project "Linux '' on the server without consulting Torvalds. Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux ''.
To demonstrate how the word "Linux '' should be pronounced ((ˈliːnɵks)), Torvalds included an audio guide (listen (help info)) with the kernel source code.
Torvalds first published the Linux kernel under its own licence, which had a restriction on commercial activity.
The software to use with the kernel was software developed as part of the GNU project licensed under the GNU General Public License, a free software license. The first release of the Linux kernel, Linux 0.01, included a binary of GNU 's Bash shell.
In the "Notes for linux release 0.01 '', Torvalds lists the GNU software that is required to run Linux:
Sadly, a kernel by itself gets you nowhere. To get a working system you need a shell, compilers, a library etc. These are separate parts and may be under a stricter (or even looser) copyright. Most of the tools used with linux are GNU software and are under the GNU copyleft. These tools are n't in the distribution - ask me (or GNU) for more info.
In 1992, he suggested releasing the kernel under the GNU General Public License. He first announced this decision in the release notes of version 0.12. In the middle of December 1992 he published version 0.99 using the GNU GPL. Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system. Torvalds has stated, "making Linux GPL 'd was definitely the best thing I ever did. ''
Around 2000 Torvalds clarified that the used license for the linux kernel is exactly the GPLv2, without the common "or later clause ''.
In 2007, after years of draft discussions, the GPLv3 was released and Torvalds and the majority of kernel developers decided against adopting the new license for the linux kernel.
The designation "Linux '' was initially used by Torvalds only for the Linux kernel. The kernel was, however, frequently used together with other software, especially that of the GNU project. This quickly became the most popular adoption of GNU software. In June 1994 in GNU 's bulletin, Linux was referred to as a "free UNIX clone '', and the Debian project began calling its product Debian GNU / Linux. In May 1996, Richard Stallman published the editor Emacs 19.31, in which the type of system was renamed from Linux to Lignux. This spelling was intended to refer specifically to the combination of GNU and Linux, but this was soon abandoned in favor of "GNU / Linux ''.
This name garnered varying reactions. The GNU and Debian projects use the name, although most people simply use the term "Linux '' to refer to the combination.
Torvalds announced in 1996 that there would be a mascot for Linux, a penguin. This was due to the fact when they were about to select the mascot, Torvalds mentioned he was bitten by a little penguin (Eudyptula minor) on a visit to the National Zoo & Aquarium in Canberra, Australia. Larry Ewing provided the original draft of today 's well known mascot based on this description. The name Tux was suggested by James Hughes as derivative of Torvalds ' UniX, along with being short for tuxedo, a type of suit with color similar to that of a penguin.
The largest part of the work on Linux is performed by the community: the thousands of programmers around the world that use Linux and send their suggested improvements to the maintainers. Various companies have also helped not only with the development of the kernels, but also with the writing of the body of auxiliary software, which is distributed with Linux. As of February 2015, over 80 % of Linux kernel developers are paid.
It is released both by organized projects such as Debian, and by projects connected directly with companies such as Fedora and openSUSE. The members of the respective projects meet at various conferences and fairs, in order to exchange ideas. One of the largest of these fairs is the LinuxTag in Germany, where about 10,000 people assemble annually, in order to discuss Linux and the projects associated with it.
The Open Source Development Lab (OSDL) was created in the year 2000, and is an independent nonprofit organization which pursues the goal of optimizing Linux for employment in data centers and in the carrier range. It served as sponsored working premises for Linus Torvalds and also for Andrew Morton (until the middle of 2006 when Morton transferred to Google). Torvalds worked full - time on behalf of OSDL, developing the Linux kernels.
On 22 January 2007, OSDL and the Free Standards Group merged to form The Linux Foundation, narrowing their respective focuses to that of promoting Linux in competition with Microsoft Windows. As of 2015, Torvalds remains with the Linux Foundation as a Fellow.
Despite being freely available, companies profit from Linux. These companies, many of which are also members of the Linux Foundation, invest substantial resources into the advancement and development of Linux, in order to make it suited for various application areas. This includes hardware donations for driver developers, cash donations for people who develop Linux software, and the employment of Linux programmers at the company. Some examples are Dell, IBM and Hewlett - Packard, which validate, use and sell Linux on their own servers, and Red Hat and SUSE, which maintain their own enterprise distributions. Likewise, Digia supports Linux by the development and LGPL licensing of Qt, which makes the development of KDE possible, and by employing some of the X and KDE developers.
KDE was the first advanced desktop environment (version 1.0 released in July 1998), but it was controversial due to the then - proprietary Qt toolkit used. GNOME was developed as an alternative due to licensing questions. The two use a different underlying toolkit and thus involve different programming, and are sponsored by two different groups, German nonprofit KDE e.V. and the United States nonprofit GNOME Foundation.
As of April 2007, one journalist estimated that KDE had 65 % of market share versus 26 % for GNOME. In January 2008, KDE 4 was released prematurely with bugs, driving some users to GNOME. GNOME 3, released in April 2011, was called an "unholy mess '' by Linus Torvalds due to its controversial design changes.
Dissatisfaction with GNOME 3 led to a fork, Cinnamon, which is developed primarily by Linux Mint developer Clement LeFebvre. This restores the more traditional desktop environment with marginal improvements.
The relatively well - funded distribution, Ubuntu, designed (and released in June 2011) another user interface called Unity which is radically different from the conventional desktop environment and has been criticized as having various flaws and lacking configurability. The motivation was a single desktop environment for desktops and tablets, although as of November 2012 Unity has yet to be used widely in tablets. However, the smartphone and tablet version of Ubuntu and its Unity interface was unveiled by Canonical Ltd in January 2013.
In 1992, Andrew S. Tanenbaum, recognized computer scientist and author of the Minix microkernel system, wrote a Usenet article on the newsgroup comp. os. minix with the title "Linux is obsolete '', which marked the beginning of a famous debate about the structure of the then - recent Linux kernel. Among the most significant criticisms were that:
Tanenbaum 's prediction that Linux would become outdated within a few years and replaced by GNU Hurd (which he considered to be more modern) proved incorrect. Linux has been ported to all major platforms and its open development model has led to an exemplary pace of development. In contrast, GNU Hurd has not yet reached the level of stability that would allow it to be used on a production server. His dismissal of the Intel line of 386 processors as ' weird ' has also proven short - sighted, as the x86 series of processors and the Intel Corporation would later become near ubiquitous in personal computers and servers.
In his unpublished book Samizdat, Kenneth Brown claims that Torvalds illegally copied code from MINIX. In May 2004, these claims were refuted by Tanenbaum, the author of MINIX:
(Brown) wanted to go on about the ownership issue, but he was also trying to avoid telling me what his real purpose was, so he did n't phrase his questions very well. Finally he asked me if I thought Linus wrote Linux. I said that to the best of my knowledge, Linus wrote the whole kernel himself, but after it was released, other people began improving the kernel, which was very primitive initially, and adding new software to the system -- essentially the same development model as MINIX. Then he began to focus on this, with questions like: "Did n't he steal pieces of MINIX without permission. '' I told him that MINIX had clearly had a huge influence on Linux in many ways, from the layout of the file system to the names in the source tree, but I did n't think Linus had used any of my code.
The book 's claims, methodology and references were seriously questioned and in the end it was never released and was delisted from the distributor 's site.
Although Torvalds has said that Microsoft 's feeling threatened by Linux in the past was of no consequence to him, the Microsoft and Linux camps had a number of antagonistic interactions between 1997 and 2001. This became quite clear for the first time in 1998, when the first Halloween document was brought to light by Eric S. Raymond. This was a short essay by a Microsoft developer that sought to lay out the threats posed to Microsoft by free software and identified strategies to counter these perceived threats.
Competition entered a new phase in the beginning of 2004, when Microsoft published results from customer case studies evaluating the use of Windows vs. Linux under the name "Get the Facts '' on its own web page. Based on inquiries, research analysts, and some Microsoft sponsored investigations, the case studies claimed that enterprise use of Linux on servers compared unfavorably to the use of Windows in terms of reliability, security, and total cost of ownership.
In response, commercial Linux distributors produced their own studies, surveys and testimonials to counter Microsoft 's campaign. Novell 's web - based campaign at the end of 2004 was entitled "Unbending the truth '' and sought to outline the advantages as well as dispelling the widely publicized legal liabilities of Linux deployment (particularly in light of the SCO v IBM case). Novell particularly referenced the Microsoft studies in many points. IBM also published a series of studies under the title "The Linux at IBM competitive advantage '' to again parry Microsoft 's campaign. Red Hat had a campaign called "Truth Happens '' aimed at letting the performance of the product speak for itself, rather than advertising the product by studies.
In the autumn of 2006, Novell and Microsoft announced an agreement to co-operate on software interoperability and patent protection. This included an agreement that customers of either Novell or Microsoft may not be sued by the other company for patent infringement. This patent protection was also expanded to non-commercial free software developers. The last part was criticized because it only included non-commercial free software developers.
In July 2009, Microsoft submitted 22,000 lines of source code to the Linux kernel under the GPLV2 license, which were subsequently accepted. Although this has been referred to as "a historic move '' and as a possible bellwether of an improvement in Microsoft 's corporate attitudes toward Linux and open - source software, the decision was not altogether altruistic, as it promised to lead to significant competitive advantages for Microsoft and avoided legal action against Microsoft. Microsoft was actually compelled to make the code contribution when Vyatta principal engineer and Linux contributor Stephen Hemminger discovered that Microsoft had incorporated a Hyper - V network driver, with GPL - licensed open source components, statically linked to closed - source binaries in contravention of the GPL licence. Microsoft contributed the drivers to rectify the licence violation, although the company attempted to portray it as a charitable act, rather than one to avoid legal action against it. In the past Microsoft had termed Linux a "cancer '' and "communist ''.
By 2011, Microsoft had become the 17th largest contributor to the Linux kernel. As of February 2015, Microsoft was no longer among the top 30 contributing sponsor companies.
In March 2003, the SCO Group accused IBM of violating their copyright on UNIX by transferring code from UNIX to Linux. SCO claims ownership of the copyrights on UNIX and a lawsuit was filed against IBM. Red Hat has countersued and SCO has since filed other related lawsuits. At the same time as their lawsuit, SCO began selling Linux licenses to users who did not want to risk a possible complaint on the part of SCO. Since Novell also claims the copyrights to UNIX, it filed suit against SCO.
SCO has since filed for bankruptcy.
In 1994 and 1995, several people from different countries attempted to register the name "Linux '' as a trademark. Thereupon requests for royalty payments were issued to several Linux companies, a step with which many developers and users of Linux did not agree. Linus Torvalds clamped down on these companies with help from Linux International and was granted the trademark to the name, which he transferred to Linux International. Protection of the trademark was later administered by a dedicated foundation, the non-profit Linux Mark Institute. In 2000, Linus Torvalds specified the basic rules for the assignment of the licenses. This means that anyone who offers a product or a service with the name Linux must possess a license for it, which can be obtained through a unique purchase.
In June 2005, a new controversy developed over the use of royalties generated from the use of the Linux trademark. The Linux Mark Institute, which represents Linus Torvalds ' rights, announced a price increase from 500 to 5,000 dollars for the use of the name. This step was justified as being needed to cover the rising costs of trademark protection.
In response to this increase, the community became displeased, which is why Linus Torvalds made an announcement on 21 August 2005, in order to dissolve the misunderstandings. In an e-mail he described the current situation as well as the background in detail and also dealt with the question of who had to pay license costs:
(...) And let 's repeat: somebody who does n't want to _protect_ that name would never do this. You can call anything "MyLinux '', but the downside is that you may have somebody else who _did_ protect himself come along and send you a cease - and - desist letter. Or, if the name ends up showing up in a trademark search that LMI needs to do every once in a while just to protect the trademark (another legal requirement for trademarks), LMI itself might have to send you a cease - and - desist - or - sublicense it letter.
At which point you either rename it to something else, or you sublicense it. See? It 's all about whether _you_ need the protection or not, not about whether LMI wants the money or not.
The Linux Mark Institute has since begun to offer a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.
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when does the story the cask of amontillado take place | The Cask of Amontillado - wikipedia
"The Cask of Amontillado '' (sometimes spelled "The Casque of Amontillado '' (a. mon. ti. ˈʝa. ðo)) is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, first published in the November 1846 issue of Godey 's Lady 's Book. The story, set in an unnamed Italian city at carnival time in an unspecified year, is about a man taking fatal revenge on a friend who, he believes, has insulted him. Like several of Poe 's stories, and in keeping with the 19th - century fascination with the subject, the narrative revolves around a person being buried alive -- in this case, by immurement. As in "The Black Cat '' and "The Tell - Tale Heart '', Poe conveys the story from the murderer 's perspective.
The story 's narrator, Montresor, tells an unspecified person, who knows him very well, of the day he took his revenge on Fortunato (Italian for "the fortunate one ''), a fellow nobleman. Angry over numerous injuries and some unspecified insult, Montresor plots to murder his "friend '' during Carnival, while the man is drunk, dizzy, and wearing a jester 's motley.
Montresor lures Fortunato into a private wine - tasting excursion by telling him he has obtained a pipe (about 130 gallons, 492 litres) of what he believes to be a rare vintage of Amontillado. He proposes obtaining confirmation of the pipe 's contents by inviting a fellow wine aficionado, Luchesi, for a private tasting. Montresor knows Fortunato will not be able to resist demonstrating his discerning palate for wine and will insist that he taste the amontillado rather than Luchesi who, as he claims, "can not tell Amontillado from Sherry ''. Fortunato goes with Montresor to the wine cellars of the latter 's palazzo, where they wander in the catacombs. Montresor offers wine (first Médoc, then De Grave) to Fortunato in order to keep him inebriated. Montresor warns Fortunato, who has a bad cough, of the dampness, and suggests they go back, but Fortunato insists on continuing, claiming that he "shall not die of a cough ''. During their walk, Montresor mentions his family coat of arms: a golden foot in a blue background crushing a snake whose fangs are embedded in the foot 's heel, with the motto Nemo me impune lacessit ("No one attacks me with impunity '').
At one point, Fortunato makes an elaborate, grotesque gesture with an upraised wine bottle. When Montresor appears not to recognize the gesture, Fortunato asks, "You are not of the masons? '' Montresor says he is, and when Fortunato, disbelieving, requests a sign, Montresor displays a trowel he had been hiding. When they come to a niche, Montresor tells his victim that the Amontillado is within. Fortunato enters drunk and unsuspecting and therefore, does not resist as Montresor quickly chains him to the wall. Montresor then declares that, since Fortunato wo n't go back, Montresor must "positively leave '' him there.
Montresor reveals brick and mortar, previously hidden among the bones nearby, and proceeds to wall up the niche using his trowel, entombing his friend alive. At first, Fortunato, who sobers up faster than Montresor anticipated, shakes the chains, trying to escape. Fortunato then screams for help, but Montresor mocks his cries, knowing nobody can hear them. Fortunato laughs weakly and tries to pretend that he is the subject of a joke and that people will be waiting for him (including the Lady Fortunato). As Montresor finishes the topmost row of stones, Fortunato wails, "For the love of God, Montresor! '' to which Montresor replies, "Yes, for the love of God! '' He listens for a reply but hears only the jester 's bells ringing. Before placing the last stone, he drops a burning torch through the gap. He claims that he feels sick at heart, but dismisses this reaction as an effect of the dampness of the catacombs.
In the last few sentences, Montresor reveals that 50 years later, Fortunato 's body still hangs from its chains in the niche where he left it. The murderer concludes: In pace requiescat! ("May he rest in peace! '').
"The Cask of Amontillado '' was first published in the November 1846 issue of Godey 's Lady 's Book, which was, at the time, the most popular periodical in America. The story was only published one additional time during Poe 's life.
Although the subject matter of Poe 's story is a murder, "The Cask of Amontillado '' is not a tale of detection like "The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' or "The Purloined Letter ''; there is no investigation of Montresor 's crime and the criminal himself explains how he committed the murder. The mystery in "The Cask of Amontillado '' is in Montresor 's motive for murder. Without a detective in the story, it is up to the reader to solve the mystery.
Montresor never specifies his motive beyond the vague "thousand injuries '' and "when he ventured upon insult '' to which he refers. Some context is provided, including Montresor 's observation that his family once was great (but no longer so), and Fortunato 's belittling remarks about Montresor 's exclusion from Freemasonry. Many commentators conclude that, lacking significant reason, Montresor must be insane, though even this is questionable because of the intricate details of the plot.
There is also evidence that Montresor is almost as clueless about his motive for revenge as his victim. In his recounting of the murder, Montresor notes, "A wrong is unredressed when retribution overtakes its redresser. It is equally unredressed when the avenger fails to make himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong ''. After Fortunato is chained to the wall and nearly entombed alive, Montresor merely mocks and mimics him, rather than disclosing to Fortunato the reasons behind his exacting revenge. Montresor may not have been entirely certain of the exact nature of the insults for which he expected Fortunato to atone.
Additional scrutiny into the vague injuries and insults may have to do with a simple matter of Montresor 's pride and not any specific words from Fortunato. Montresor comes from an established family. His house had once been noble and respected, but has fallen slightly in status. Fortunato, as his name would seem to indicate, has been blessed with good fortune and wealth and is, therefore, viewed as unrefined by Montresor; however, this lack of refinement has not stopped Fortunato from surpassing Montresor in society, which could very well be the "insult '' motive for Montresor 's revenge.
There is indication that Montresor blames his unhappiness and loss of respect and dignity within society on Fortunato. It is easy to ascertain that Fortunato is a Freemason, while Montresor is not, which could be the source of Fortunato 's recent ascension into upper class society. Montresor even imparts this blame to Fortunato when he states, "You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as once I was ''. This interchanging of fortunes is a suggestion that, since the names Montresor and Fortunato mirror one another, there is a psychological reciprocal identification between victim and executioner. This identification reciprocity is further suggested when one takes into consideration that Montresor entombs Fortunato in the Montresor family catacombs rather than dispatching him elsewhere in the city amidst the chaos of the Carnival. It is with this converging of the two characters that one is able to see the larger symbolism of the Montresor crest -- the foot steps on the serpent while the serpent forever has his fangs embedded in the heel.
Upon further investigation into the true nature of character, double meaning can be derived from the Montresor crest. It is the position of Montresor to view himself as the owner of the righteous foot that is crushing the insolent Fortunato serpent and his "thousand injuries '' that progress into insult. A more allegoric meaning of Poe 's places the actors in reverse. The blind oaf Fortunato has unintentionally stepped upon the snake in the grass -- the sneaky and cunning Montresor -- who, as a reward for this accidental bruising, sinks his fangs deep into the heel of his offender, forever linking them in a form of mutual existence.
Though Fortunato is presented as a connoisseur of fine wine, L. Moffitt Cecil of Texas Christian University argues that his actions in the story make that assumption questionable. For example, Fortunato comments on another nobleman being unable to distinguish amontillado from sherry when amontillado is in fact a type of sherry, and treats De Grave, an expensive French wine, with very little regard by drinking it in a single gulp. Cecil also states that a true wine connoisseur would never sample wine while intoxicated and describes Fortunato as merely an alcoholic. Cecil also suggests that some people might feel Fortunato deserved to be buried alive for wasting a bottle of fine wine.
Immurement, a form of imprisonment, usually for life, in which a person is placed within an enclosed space with no exit, is featured in other works by Poe, including "The Fall of the House of Usher '', "The Premature Burial '', "The Black Cat '', and "Berenice ''.
An apocryphal legend holds that the inspiration for "The Cask of Amontillado '' came from a story Poe had heard at Castle Island (South Boston), Massachusetts, when he was a private stationed at Fort Independence in 1827. According to this legend, while stationed at Castle Island in 1827 he saw a monument to Lieutenant Robert Massie. Massie had been killed in a sword duel on Christmas Day 1817 by Lieutenant Gustavus Drane, following a dispute during a card game. According to the legend, other soldiers then took revenge on Drane by getting him drunk, luring him into the dungeon, chaining him to a wall, and sealing him in a vault. This version of Drane 's demise is false; Drane was courtmartialled for the killing and acquitted, and lived until 1846. A report of a skeleton discovered on the island may be a confused remembering of Poe 's major source, Joel Headley 's "A Man Built in a Wall '', which recounts the author 's seeing an immured skeleton in the wall of a church in Italy. Headley 's story includes details very similar to "The Cask of Amontillado ''; in addition to walling an enemy into a hidden niche, the story details the careful placement of the bricks, the motive of revenge, and the victim 's agonized moaning. Poe may have also seen similar themes in Honoré de Balzac 's La Grande Bretèche (Democratic Review, November 1843) or his friend George Lippard 's The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall (1845). Poe may have borrowed Montresor 's family motto Nemo me impune lacessit from James Fenimore Cooper, who used the line in The Last of the Mohicans (1826).
Poe wrote his tale, however, as a response to his personal rival Thomas Dunn English. Poe and English had several confrontations, usually revolving around literary caricatures of one another. Poe thought that one of English 's writings went a bit too far, and successfully sued the other man 's editors at The New York Mirror for libel in 1846. That year English published a revenge - based novel called 1844, or, The Power of the S.F. Its plot was convoluted and difficult to follow, but made references to secret societies and ultimately had a main theme of revenge. It included a character named Marmaduke Hammerhead, the famous author of "The Black Crow '', who uses phrases like "Nevermore '' and "lost Lenore '', referring to Poe 's poem "The Raven ''. This parody of Poe was depicted as a drunkard, liar, and an abusive lover.
Poe responded with "The Cask of Amontillado '', using very specific references to English 's novel. In Poe 's story, for example, Fortunato makes reference to the secret society of Masons, similar to the secret society in 1844, and even makes a gesture similar to one portrayed in 1844 (it was a signal of distress). English had also used an image of a token with a hawk grasping a snake in its claws, similar to Montresor 's coat of arms bearing a foot stomping on a snake -- though in this image, the snake is biting the heel. In fact, much of the scene of "The Cask of Amontillado '' comes from a scene in 1844 that takes place in a subterranean vault. In the end, then, it is Poe who "punishes with impunity '' by not taking credit for his own literary revenge and by crafting a concise tale (as opposed to a novel) with a singular effect, as he had suggested in his essay "The Philosophy of Composition ''.
Poe may have also been inspired, at least in part, by the Washingtonian movement, a fellowship that promoted temperance. The group was made up of reformed drinkers who tried to scare people into abstaining from alcohol. Poe may have made a promise to join the movement in 1843 after a bout of drinking with the hopes of gaining a political appointment. "The Cask of Amontillado '' then may be a "dark temperance tale '', meant to shock people into realizing the dangers of drinking.
Poe scholar Richard P. Benton has stated his belief that "Poe 's protagonist is an Englished version of the French Montrésor '' and has argued forcefully that Poe 's model for Montresor "was Claude de Bourdeille, comte de Montrésor (Count of Montrésor), the 17th - century political conspirator in the entourage of King Louis XIII 's weak - willed brother, Gaston d'Orléans ''. The "noted intriguer and memoir - writer '' was first linked to "The Cask of Amontillado '' by Poe scholar Burton R. Pollin.
Further inspiration for the method of Fortunato 's murder comes from the fear of live burial. During the time period of this short story some coffins were given methods of alerting the outside in the event of live entombment. Items such as bells tied to the limbs of a corpse to signal the outside were not uncommon. This theme is evident in Fortunato 's costume of a jester with bells upon his hat, and his situation of live entombment within the catacombs.
Poe may have known bricklaying through personal experience. Many periods in Poe 's life lack significant biographical details, including what he did after leaving the Southern Literary Messenger in 1837. Poe biographer John H. Ingram wrote to Sarah Helen Whitman that someone named "Allen '' said that Poe worked "in the brickyard ' late in the fall of 1834 ' ''. This source has been identified as Robert T.P. Allen, a fellow West Point student during Poe 's time there.
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when was the monarchy abolished and france declared a republic | Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy - wikipedia
During the French Revolution, the proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy (French: Proclamation de l'abolition de la royauté) was a proclamation by the National Convention of France announcing that it had abolished the French monarchy on 21 September 1792.
The Convention 's députés were instructed to put an end to the crisis that had broken out since the prevented flight to Varennes of Louis XVI (June 1791) and the bloody capture of the Tuileries (10 August 1792). Their middle - class origin and their political activity meant that most of them bore no sympathy for the monarchy, and the victory at the battle of Valmy on 20 September (the revolution 's first military success) occurred on the same day as their meeting, thus confirming their convictions.
When the député for Paris, Jean - Marie Collot d'Herbois, proposed abolition he met with little resistance; at most, Claude Basire, friend of Georges Jacques Danton, tried to temper the enthusiasm, recommending a discussion before any decision. However, abbé Henri Grégoire, constitutional bishop of Blois, replied strongly to any suggestion of discussion:
Jean - François Ducos supported him in affirming that any discussion would be useless "after the lights spread by 10 August ''. The summary argument served as a debate and the decision taken was unanimous, giving birth to the First French Republic.
In the wake of the proclamation, efforts grew to eliminate the vestiges of the ancien regime. As the date of the Republic 's first anniversary approached, the Convention passed a set of laws replacing many familiar ancien systems of order and measurement, including the old Christian calendar. This dramatic change was powerful encouragement to the growing wave of anticlericalism which sought a dechristianisation of France. The new French Republican Calendar discarded all Christian reference points and calculated time from the Republic 's first full day after the monarchy, 22 September 1792, the first day of Year One.
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which of the following is a pure substance made entirely of one type of atom | Chemical substance - wikipedia
A chemical substance, also known as a pure substance, is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It can not be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys.
Chemical substances are often called ' pure ' to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical.
Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions.
Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, and are thus not "substances '' in this regard.
A chemical substance may well be defined as "any material with a definite chemical composition '' in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a pure chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition; a pure substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition. Non-stoichiometric compounds are a special case (in inorganic chemistry) that violates the law of constant composition, and for them, it is sometimes difficult to draw the line between a mixture and a compound, as in the case of palladium hydride. Broader definitions of chemicals or chemical substances can be found, for example: "the term ' chemical substance ' means any organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity, including -- (i) any combination of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature ''.
In geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures (aggregates) of several minerals (different substances) are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a single rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are a common example: anorthoclase is an alkali aluminum silicate, where the alkali metal is interchangeably either sodium or potassium.
In law, "chemical substances '' may include both pure substances and mixtures with a defined composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines "monoconstituent substances '', "multiconstituent substances '' and "substances of unknown or variable composition ''. The latter two consist of multiple chemical substances; however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is an extremely complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the exact chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures.
Polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a known precursor or reaction (s) and the molar mass distribution. For example, polyethylene is a mixture of very long chains of - CH - repeating units, and is generally sold in several molar mass distributions, LDPE, MDPE, HDPE and UHMWPE.
The concept of a "chemical substance '' became firmly established in the late eighteenth century after work by the chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure chemical compounds such as basic copper carbonate. He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in the compound. '' This is now known as the law of constant composition. Later with the advancement of methods for chemical synthesis particularly in the realm of organic chemistry; the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of analytical chemistry used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led to the establishment of modern chemistry, the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because the large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed.
Isomerism caused much consternation to early researchers, since isomers have exactly the same composition, but differ in configuration (arrangement) of the atoms. For example, there was much speculation for the chemical identity of benzene, until the correct structure was described by Friedrich August Kekulé. Likewise, the idea of stereoisomerism - that atoms have rigid three - dimensional structure and can thus form isomers that differ only in their three - dimensional arrangement - was another crucial step in understanding the concept of distinct chemical substances. For example, tartaric acid has three distinct isomers, a pair of diastereomers with one diastereomer forming two enantiomers.
An element is a chemical substance made up of a particular kind of atom and hence can not be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a different element, though it can be transmuted into another element through a nuclear reaction. This is so, because all of the atoms in a sample of an element have the same number of protons, though they may be different isotopes, with differing numbers of neutrons.
As of 2012, there are 118 known elements, about 80 of which are stable -- that is, they do not change by radioactive decay into other elements. Some elements can occur as more than a single chemical substance (allotropes). For instance, oxygen exists as both diatomic oxygen (O) and ozone (O). The majority of elements are classified as metals. These are elements with a characteristic lustre such as iron, copper, and gold. Metals typically conduct electricity and heat well, and they are malleable and ductile. Around a dozen elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, are classified as non-metals. Non-metals lack the metallic properties described above, they also have a high electronegativity and a tendency to form negative ions. Certain elements such as silicon sometimes resemble metals and sometimes resemble non-metals, and are known as metalloids.
A pure chemical compound is a chemical substance that is composed of a particular set of molecules or ions. Two or more elements combined into one substance through a chemical reaction form a chemical compound. All compounds are substances, but not all substances are compounds.
A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals in which atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice. Compounds based primarily on carbon and hydrogen atoms are called organic compounds, and all others are called inorganic compounds. Compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal are called organometallic compounds.
Compounds in which components share electrons are known as covalent compounds. Compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions are known as ionic compounds, or salts.
In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same composition and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers. Isomers usually have substantially different chemical properties, may be isolated and do not spontaneously convert to each other. A common example is glucose vs. fructose. The former is an aldehyde, the latter is a ketone. Their interconversion requires either enzymatic or acid - base catalysis. However, there are also tautomers, where isomerization occurs spontaneously, such that a pure substance can not be isolated into its tautomers. A common example is glucose, which has open - chain and ring forms. One can not manufacture pure open - chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the hemiacetal form. Materials may also comprise other entities such as polymers. These may be inorganic or organic and sometimes a combination of inorganic and organic.
All matter consists of various elements and chemical compounds, but these are often intimately mixed together. Mixtures contain more than one chemical substance, and they do not have a fixed composition. In principle, they can be separated into the component substances by purely mechanical processes. Butter, soil and wood are common examples of mixtures.
Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed together in any ratio to form a yellow - grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and the material can be identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be separated by a mechanical process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away from the sulfur.
In contrast, if iron and sulfur are heated together in a certain ratio (1 atom of iron for each atom of sulfur, or by weight, 56 grams (1 mol) of iron to 32 grams (1 mol) of sulfur), a chemical reaction takes place and a new substance is formed, the compound iron (II) sulfide, with chemical formula FeS. The resulting compound has all the properties of a chemical substance and is not a mixture. Iron (II) sulfide has its own distinct properties such as melting point and solubility, and the two elements can not be separated using normal mechanical processes; a magnet will be unable to recover the iron, since there is no metallic iron present in the compound.
While the term chemical substance is a precise technical term that is synonymous with chemical for chemists, the word chemical is used in general usage in the English speaking world to refer to both (pure) chemical substances and mixtures (often called compounds), and especially when produced or purified in a laboratory or an industrial process. In other words, the chemical substances of which fruits and vegetables, for example, are naturally composed even when growing wild are not called "chemicals '' in general usage. In countries that require a list of ingredients in products, the "chemicals '' listed are industrially produced "chemical substances ''. The word "chemical '' is also often used to refer to addictive, narcotic, or mind - altering drugs.
Within the chemical industry, manufactured "chemicals '' are chemical substances, which can be classified by production volume into bulk chemicals, fine chemicals and chemicals found in research only:
The cause of the difference in production volume is the complexity of the molecular structure of the chemical. Bulk chemicals are usually much less complex. While fine chemicals may be more complex, many of them are simple enough to be sold as "building blocks '' in the synthesis of more complex molecules targeted for single use, as named above. The production of a chemical includes not only its synthesis but also its purification to eliminate by - products and impurities involved in the synthesis. The last step in production should be the analysis of batch lots of chemicals in order to identify and quantify the percentages of impurities for the buyer of the chemicals. The required purity and analysis depends on the application, but higher tolerance of impurities is usually expected in the production of bulk chemicals. Thus, the user of the chemical in the US might choose between the bulk or "technical grade '' with higher amounts of impurities or a much purer "pharmaceutical grade '' (labeled "USP '', United States Pharmacopeia). "Chemicals '' in the commercial and legal sense may also include mixtures of highly variable composition, as they are products made to a technical specification instead of particular chemical substances. For example, gasoline is not a single chemical compound or even a particular mixture: different gasolines can have very different chemical compositionsl, as "gasoline '' is primarily defined through source, properties and octane rating.
Every chemical substance has one or more systematic names, usually named according to the IUPAC rules for naming. An alternative system is used by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS).
Many compounds are also known by their more common, simpler names, many of which predate the systematic name. For example, the long - known sugar glucose is now systematically named 6 - (hydroxymethyl) oxane - 2, 3, 4, 5 - tetrol. Natural products and pharmaceuticals are also given simpler names, for example the mild pain - killer Naproxen is the more common name for the chemical compound (S) - 6 - methoxy - α - methyl - 2 - naphthaleneacetic acid.
Chemists frequently refer to chemical compounds using chemical formulae or molecular structure of the compound. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of chemical compounds being synthesized (or isolated), and then reported in the scientific literature by professional chemists around the world. An enormous number of chemical compounds are possible through the chemical combination of the known chemical elements. As of May 2011, about sixty million chemical compounds are known. The names of many of these compounds are often nontrivial and hence not very easy to remember or cite accurately. Also it is difficult to keep the track of them in the literature. Several international organizations like IUPAC and CAS have initiated steps to make such tasks easier. CAS provides the abstracting services of the chemical literature, and provides a numerical identifier, known as CAS registry number to each chemical substance that has been reported in the chemical literature (such as chemistry journals and patents). This information is compiled as a database and is popularly known as the Chemical substances index. Other computer - friendly systems that have been developed for substance information, are: SMILES and the International Chemical Identifier or InChI.
Often a pure substance needs to be isolated from a mixture, for example from a natural source (where a sample often contains numerous chemical substances) or after a chemical reaction (which often give mixtures of chemical substances).
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where did easy company land on d day | E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment (United States) - Wikipedia
E Company, 2nd Battalion of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment of the 101st Airborne Division, the "Screaming Eagles '', is a well known company in the United States Army. The experiences of its members during World War II are the subject of the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers based on the book of the same name by historian Stephen Ambrose.
The 506th PIR was an experimental airborne regiment created in 1942 at Camp Toccoa, Georgia. E Company missions were to involve being parachuted from C - 47 transport airplanes into hostile territory.
Major Richard Winters described the original organization of E Company as follows:
"(Easy) company included three rifle platoons and a headquarters section. Each platoon contained three twelve - man rifle squads and a six - man mortar team squad. Easy also had one machine gun attached to each of its rifle squads, and a 60mm mortar in each mortar team. ''
Before attending paratrooper training, the unit had to perform the standard battle drills and physical training that comes with being in the parachute infantry. One of the exercises was the regular running of Currahee, a large, steep hill. The phrase "3 miles up, 3 miles down '' was derived from this run. E Company, while training at Toccoa, was under the command of Herbert Sobel, who was known for his extreme strictness.
Also as part of their physical training, the members of E Company performed formation runs in three - four column running groups. This innovative type of training was adopted by the Army in the 1960s.
For Operation Overlord, E Company 's mission was to capture the entrances to and clear any obstacles around "Causeway 2 '', a pre-selected route off Utah Beach for the Allied forces landing from the sea a few hours later. The company departed from Upottery airbase in Devon, England, and dropped over the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy, France in the early hours of the morning of 6 June 1944.
After assembling on the ground, the men of E Company disabled a battery of four German heavy guns on D - Day that threatened forces coming along Causeway 2. A town in France called Carentan was crucial for American soldiers to capture because it would link Omaha and Utah beaches together so the soldiers could move equipment through. The Germans knew that so they wanted to keep the town out of allied hands. In one of Donald Malarkey 's articles he stated that Lieutenant Winters made him mortar sergeant of second platoon. E Company, along with Dog and Fox Companies, were walking down the road to Carentan when they came to an intersection and one or two German machine gun teams suddenly started firing on them. Mortars and tanks soon joined the fight. The American soldiers all jumped into ditches for cover. Winters saw this and as Malarkey states, Winters "got hotter than I 've ever seen him. '' It was a fast attack, at the end of which Malarkey states that he could hear moans and groans of wounded soldiers and occasional gun shots. Also at the end of the battle Winters was slightly wounded in his lower right leg by a ricocheting bullet fragment. The Germans mounted a counterattack, but 2nd battalion held onto Carentan. By the time the company was pulled off the line, they had taken 65 casualties including 24 KIA, 17 of which including their CO and 1stSgt, who were killed on D - day when their plane was shot down.
E Company was assigned to support the British forces around Eindhoven, by defending the roads and bridges, so that the British armored divisions could advance into Arnhem and force a crossing over the major bridge across the Rhine River in September 1944. The story of the ill - fated Operation Market Garden is told in the book A Bridge Too Far by Cornelius Ryan.
E Company landed on its designated drop zone in the Sonsche Forest, north west of Son and marched down the road into Son behind the 2nd Battalion 's other two companies. When the 2nd Battalion reached the Son Bridge they were met by enemy harassing fire whilst the bridge was destroyed by the Germans. After the Regiment 's engineers constructed a makeshift crossing, E and the rest of the 506th moved out for Eindhoven. These events were omitted from the Band of Brothers series, with E having been portrayed as landing in the Netherlands and then marching into Eindhoven to join up with the British Army advancing from the south.
On 19 September, the company departed for Helmond accompanied by six Cromwell tanks of the British 11th Armoured Division. Their advance was halted by the German 107th Panzer Brigade outside Nuenen and they were forced to retreat to Tongelre. During the days following the link up, E Company successfully defended the towns of Veghel and Uden until XXX Corps infantry took up the task of defending the area. As Market Garden progressed, the company and the rest of the 101st joined the 82nd Airborne on "the island '' north of Nijmegen.
At the conclusion of Market Garden, the company relieved the British 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division in Zetten. On 5 October 1944, 1st platoon fought in the battle of "the island '' that lay between the Lower Rhine and the Waal river. Along with a platoon from Fox Company and support from the Royal Artillery, they routed two Waffen - SS companies on 5 October 1944. Colonel Sink issued a general order citing the company 's 1st platoon for gallantry in action, describing their attack a "daring act and skillful maneuver against a numerically superior force ''.
E Company was involved in the rescue of over 100 British troops trapped outside Arnhem. Operation Pegasus was a military operation carried out on the Lower Rhine near the village of Renkum, close to Arnhem in the Netherlands. Overnight on 22 -- 23 October 1944, the Allies evacuated a large group of men trapped in German occupied territory who had been in hiding since the Battle of Arnhem. On the south bank of a Dutch river, Canadian engineers and a patrol of E Company observed the signal and immediately launched their boats, but the British were some 500 - 800m upriver of the crossing point. Upon reaching the north bank E Company established a small perimeter while men headed east to locate the evaders. The men quickly moved downstream and in the next 90 minutes all of them were evacuated, with the exception of a Russian who was captured by the Germans. The Germans opened fire sporadically and some mortar rounds fell near the crossing, but the fire was inaccurate. Once on the other side the escapees were led to a farmhouse for refreshments, before being driven to Nijmegen where Dobie had arranged a party and champagne. The men were later flown back to the UK, rejoining the men who had escaped in Operation Berlin. Nine members of E company were killed in action in Holland with at least 40 wounded.
During December 1944 and January 1945, E Company and the rest of the 101st Airborne Division fought in Belgium in the Battle of the Bulge. The 101st was in France in December when the Germans launched their offensive in the Ardennes. They were told to hold the vital cross-roads at Bastogne and were soon encircled by the Germans. E Company fought in cold weather under German artillery fire without winter clothing and with limited rations and ammunition.
Between the days of 1 to 13 January, the company took control of the Bois Jacques woods in Belgium, between the town of Foy and Bizory. E Company was assigned to capture the town of Foy.
Division Headquarters ordered the attack to begin at 0900 hours. During the assault, newly appointed company commander Lieutenant Norman Dike led E Company forward, then ordered 1st platoon (led by Lieutenant Jack Foley) to the left and lost contact with them. Dike ordered the remainder of the company to take cover after coming under fire. With the unit unable to proceed, he was informed by his subordinates that they would get killed if they did n't advance into the town, as they were now unprotected from enemy fire. At the same time, Captain Richard Winters, former company commander and now battalion executive officer, radioed to Dike, telling him the same thing. Dike ordered 1st platoon on a flanking mission around the town, and then found cover and froze, ignoring Winters ' orders. As Carwood Lipton, first sergeant at the time, later put it: "He fell apart. ''
According to Clancy Lyall, Dike stopped because he had been wounded in the right shoulder (which Lyall saw), not because he had panicked.
In either case, Dike was immediately relieved by First Lieutenant Ronald Speirs under orders from Captain Winters. To countermand Dike 's previous orders, Speirs himself ran through the town and German lines (as 1st platoon had no radio), linked up with the Item Company soldiers and relayed the order. Having completed this, he then ran back through the German - occupied town. Carwood Lipton later stated that "the Germans were so shocked at seeing an American soldier running through their lines - they forgot to shoot! '' Speirs was reassigned as commanding officer of E Company and remained in that position for the rest of the war.
With the capture of Foy, the Allies defeated the German line in Bastogne. Afterward, E Company and the rest of the 506th PIR moved into Germany. The 101st Airborne Division was awarded a unit citation for holding the line at Bastogne. E Company suffered 82 casualties including 15 killed in action.
Toward the end of the war, E Company was assigned to occupation duty in Germany, specifically to Berchtesgaden, which was home to Adolf Hitler 's famous Eagle 's Nest. Following Berchtesgaden, the company moved into Austria for further occupation duty. The company mostly attended to various patrols, awaiting the end of the war.
E Company and the rest of the 506th PIR was disbanded in November 1945 and reactivated in 1954 as a training unit. Under the Combat Arms Regimental System and U.S. Army Regimental System, the lineage of E Company is inactive, but the 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment, a unit that officially traces its lineage to the World War II B Company, 506th PIR maintains an unofficial link to E Company 's heritage.
One hundred forty men formed the original E Company in Camp Toccoa, Georgia. Three hundred sixty - six men are listed as having belonged to the company by the war 's end, due to transfers and replacements. Forty - nine men of E Company were killed in action.
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who sang lead vocals on take it to the limit | Take it to the Limit (Eagles song) - wikipedia
"Take It to the Limit '' is a song by the Eagles from their fourth album One of These Nights from which it was issued as the third single on November 15, 1975. It reached No. 4 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and was also the Eagles ' greatest success to that point in the UK, going to No. 12 on the charts. Billboard ranked it as the No. 25 song for 1976.
The song was written by Eagles ' members Randy Meisner, Don Henley and Glenn Frey. Meisner, who sang lead on it, says the song began as his solo composition. As it remained unfinished when time came for the One of These Nights album to be recorded, Henley and Frey assisted Meisner in completing it. Meisner 's performance of the song was popular with the audience in Eagles ' concerts, but disputes over his reluctance to perform it would also directly lead to Meisner 's departure from the band.
According to Meisner, he wrote the first few lines of the song one night while playing an acoustic guitar after returning from the Troubadour; however he was not able to finish the song by the time they were close to recording it, and Frey and Henley then helped him with the lyrics. Meisner later said of how he would usually write songs with the Eagles: "I 'd get a verse or two, and I 'm done, and they would help fill in the blanks ''
On the meaning of the song, Meisner said in the documentary History of the Eagles: "The line ' take it to the limit ' was to keep trying before you reach a point in your life where you feel you 've done everything and seen everything, sort of feeling, you know, part of getting old. And just to take it to the limit one more time, like every day just keep, you know, punching away at it... That was the line, and from there the song took a different course. ''
Meisner sings lead on "Take it to the Limit '' and the song was released as the third single from the album One of These Nights. It is the first and only Eagles single where Meisner sings lead.
"Take It to the Limit '' is unique in the canon of the band 's singles, being the sole A-side on which Randy Meisner sang lead, as well as the first A-side Eagles single on which neither Henley nor Frey sang lead. It was also the last Eagles single to feature founding member Bernie Leadon before he was replaced by guitarist Joe Walsh. The single version of the song is 3: 48 in length, almost a minute shorter than the album version. "Take It to the Limit '' is one of few Eagles ' tracks written in waltz time. (Other notable waltzes performed by the Eagles are "Hollywood Waltz ''; the Meisner / Henley / Frey waltz "Saturday Night '' (co-written with Leadon) from the 1973 Desperado album; Frey 's "Most of Us are Sad '' from their self - titled debut album; Frey / Henley / JD Souther 's hard - rocking "Teenage Jail '' from 1979 's "The Long Run '' album; and Walsh 's "Pretty Maids All in a Row '' on the 1976 album Hotel California.)
A live performance by Meisner from 1976, recorded at The Forum, Inglewood, California, is included in the album Eagles Live, which was released in 1980 after the band had effectively broken up.
The song was rerecorded on Meisner 's first solo album (Randy Meisner) released in 1978. The song was performed with piano and acoustic guitar accompaniment, and 1970s teen idol David Cassidy singing in the backing vocals.
According to Frey, fans of the band loved Meisner 's performance of his signature song "Take It to the Limit '' at concert. As Henley puts it: "They went crazy when Randy hit those high notes ''. Meisner, however, was concerned about not being able to hit the high notes, but Frey was insistent that Meisner should perform the song in concert for the fans, and live performances of the song then became a source of great contention between Frey and Meisner, and would eventually become one reason for Meisner leaving the band.
Meisner had been struggling to hit the crucial high notes in the song during the Hotel California tour. According to Joe Walsh, Meisner could perform the song, but would become nervous when told he had to sing it. By the time they had reached Knoxville, Tennessee in June 1977, the band was feeling the strain of a long tour, with Meisner unhappy and suffering from a stomach ulcer. Meisner decided not to sing the song for an encore because he had been up late and caught the flu, Frey and Meisner then became involved in an angry physical confrontation backstage over Meisner 's refusal to perform the song. After the altercation, Meisner was frozen out from the band and he decided to leave. He left the band at the end of their tour in September 1977 and was replaced by Timothy B. Schmit, coincidentally the same bassist who had replaced him in Poco.
The song was revived for the Eagles ' late 1999 shows at Los Angeles ' Staples Center and at those shows, as well as the Eagles ' Farewell 1 Tour in 2004 and 2005 and on subsequent tours, the song was sung by Frey. Originally in B major, the song was transposed down to G major to accommodate for Frey 's vocal range. For the band 's 2017 shows, lead vocals were taken by Vince Gill and was again transposed to A major.
The song was covered by country musicians Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings as the title track of their duet album, Take It to the Limit, which was released in 1983.
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who was affected by the great depression in america | Great Depression in the United States - wikipedia
The Great Depression began in August 1929, when the United States economy first went into an economic recession. Although the country spent two months with declining GDP, it was not until the Wall Street Crash in October 1929 that the effects of a declining economy were felt, and a major worldwide economic downturn ensued. The market crash marked the beginning of a decade of high unemployment, poverty, low profits, deflation, plunging farm incomes, and lost opportunities for economic growth and personal advancement. Although its causes are still uncertain and controversial, the net effect was a sudden and general loss of confidence in the economic future.
The usual explanations include numerous factors, especially high consumer debt, ill - regulated markets that permitted overoptimistic loans by banks and investors, and the lack of high - growth new industries, all interacting to create a downward economic spiral of reduced spending, falling confidence and lowered production.
Industries that suffered the most included construction, agriculture as dust - bowl conditions persisted in the agricultural heartland, shipping, mining, and logging as well as durable goods like automobiles and appliances that could be postponed. The economy reached bottom in the winter of 1932 -- 33; then came four years of very rapid growth until 1937, when the Recession of 1937 brought back 1934 levels of unemployment.
The Depression caused major political changes in America. Three years into the depression, President Herbert Hoover, widely blamed for not doing enough to combat the crisis, lost the election of 1932 to Franklin Delano Roosevelt in a landslide. Roosevelt 's economic recovery plan, the New Deal, instituted unprecedented programs for relief, recovery and reform, and brought about a major realignment of American politics.
The Depression also resulted in an increase of emigration of people for the first time in American history. For example, some immigrants went back to their native countries, and some native US citizens went to Canada, Australia, and South Africa. It also resulted in the mass migration of people from badly hit areas in the Great Plains and the South to places such as California and the North, respectively (see Okies and the Great Migration of African Americans). Racial tensions also increased during this time. By the 1940s immigration had returned to normal, and emigration declined. A well - known example of an emigrant was Frank McCourt, who went to Ireland, as recounted in his book Angela 's Ashes.
The memory of the Depression also shaped modern theories of economics and resulted in many changes in how the government dealt with economic downturns, such as the use of stimulus packages, Keynesian economics, and Social Security. It also shaped modern American literature, resulting in famous novels such as John Steinbeck 's The Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men.
There are multiple originating issues: what factors set off the first downturn in 1929, what structural weaknesses and specific events turned it into a major depression, how the downturn spread from country to country, and why the economic recovery was so prolonged.
Banks began to fail in October 1930 (one year after the crash) when farmers defaulted on loans. There was no federal deposit insurance during that time as bank failures were considered quite common. This worried depositors that they might have a chance of losing all their savings, therefore, people started to withdraw money and changed it into currency. As deposits taken out from the bank increased, the money supply decreased because the money multiplier worked in reverse, forcing banks to liquidate assets (such as call in loans rather than create new loans.) This caused the money supply to shrink and the economy to contract and a significant decrease in aggregate investment. The decreased money supply further aggravated price deflation, putting further pressure on already struggling businesses.
The US government 's commitment to the gold standard prevented it from engaging in expansionary monetary policy. High interest rates needed to be maintained, in order to attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold. However, the high interest also inhibited domestic business borrowing. The US interest rates were also affected by France 's decision to raise their interest rates to attract gold to their vaults. In theory, the U.S. would have two potential responses to that: Allow the exchange rate to adjust, or increase their own interest rates to maintain the gold standard. At the time, the U.S. was pegged to the gold standard. Therefore, Americans converted their dollars into francs to buy more French assets, the demand for the U.S. dollar fell, and the exchange rate increased. The only thing the US could do to get back into equilibrium was increase interest rates.
The Stock Market Crash of 1929 is often cited as the beginning of the Great Depression. It began on October 24, 1929, and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States. Much of the stock market crash can be attributed to exuberance and false expectations. In the years leading up to 1929, the rising stock market prices had created vast sums of wealth for those invested, in turn encouraging borrowing to further buy more stock. However, on October 24 (Black Thursday), share prices began to fall and panic selling caused prices to fall sharply. On October 29 (Black Tuesday), share prices fell by $14 billion in a single day, more than $30 billion in the week. The value that evaporated the week was 10x more than the entire federal budget and more than all of what the U.S. spent on World War I. By 1930 the value of shares had fallen by 90 %.
Since many banks had also invested their clients ' savings in the stock market, these banks were forced to close when the stock market crashed. After the stock market crash and the bank closures, people were too afraid to lose more money. Because of the fears of further economic challenge, individuals from all classes stopped purchasing and consuming. Thousands of individual investors who believed they could get rich by investing on margin lost everything they had. The stock market crash severely impacted American economy.
A large contribution to the recession is due to the closure and suspension of thousands of banks across the country. The causation of these failing financial institutions come from several reasons including unregulated lending procedures, confidence in the Gold standard, consumer confidence in future economics, and agricultural defaults on outstanding loans. With these compacting issues the banking system struggled to keep up with the high demand of cash withdraws from the public. This impact overall decreased the money supply and forced the banks to result to short sale (real estate) and liquidation of existing loans. In the race to liquidate assets the banking system began to fail on a wide scale. In November 1930 the first major banking crisis begun with over 800 banks closing their doors by January 1931; over 2100 banks will be suspended by October 1931, with the highest suspension rate recorded in the St. Louis Federal Reserve District with 2 out of every 5 banks suspended. The economy in whole experienced a massive reduction in banking footholds across the country amounting to more than nine thousand closed banks by 1933.
The closures resulted in a massive withdraw of deposits by millions of Americans estimated near 6.8 billion dollars (equivalent to around 60 billion dollars in today 's dollars). During this time the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was not in place resulting in a loss of roughly 1.36 billion dollars (or 20 %) of the total 6.8 billion accounted for within the failed banks. These losses will come directly from everyday individuals savings, investments, and daily banking accounts. GDP will fall as a result from the high seven - hundreds in 1929 to the low mid six - hundreds in 1933 before seeing any recovery for the first time in nearly 4 years. Federal leadership intervention is highly debated on its effectiveness and overall participation. The Federal Reserve Act could not effectively tackle the banking crisis as state bank and trust companies were not compelled to be a member, paper eligible discount member banks heavily restricted access to the fed, power between the twelve federal reserve banks was decentralized and federal level leadership were ineffective, inexperienced, and weak.
Throughout the early 1900s banking regulations were extremely lax if not non-existent. The Currency Act of 1900 lowered the required capital of investors from 50,000 to 25,000 to create a national bank. As a result of this change nearly two thirds of the banks formed over the next ten years were quite small, averaging just above the 25,000 in required capital. The number of banks will nearly double (number of banks divided by Real GDP) from 1890 to 1920 due to the lack of oversight and qualification when banking charters were being issued in the first two decades of the 1900s.
The unregulated growth of small rural banking institutions can be partially attributed to the rising cost of agriculture especially in the Corn Belt and Cotton Belt. Throughout the corn and cotton belts real estate increases drove the demand for more local funding to continue to supply rising agricultural economics. The rural banking structures would supply the needed capital to meet the farm commodity market, however, this came with a price of reliability and low risk lending. Economic growth was promising during the period of 1887 - 1920 with an on average of 6 percent growth in (GDP). In particular the participation in World War I (1917 - 1918) drove a booming agricultural market that drove optimism at the consumer and lending level, which in turn, resulted in a laxer approach in the lending process. Overbanked conditions existed which pressured struggling banking locations to increase their services (specifically to the agricultural customers) without any additional regulatory oversight or qualifications. This dilemma introduced several high risk and marginal business returns to the banking market. Banking growth would continue through the first two decades well outside of previous trends disregarding the current economic and population standards. Banking profitability and loan standards begin to deteriorate as early as 1900 as a result; adding to the agriculture shock and Great Depression to follow.
Crop failures beginning in 1921 began to impact this poorly regulated system, the expansion areas of corn and cotton suffered the largest due to the dust bowl era resulting in real estate value reductions. In addition, the year 1921 was the peak for banking expansion with roughly 31,000 banks in activity, however, with the failures at the agricultural level 505 banks would close between 1921 - 1930 marking the largest banking system failure on record. Regulatory questions began to hit the debating table around banking qualifications as a result; discussions would continue into the (Great Depression) as not only were banks failing but some would disappear altogether with no rhyme or reason. The panic of financial crisis would increase in the Great Depression due to the lack of confidence in the regulatory and recovery displayed during the 1920s, this ultimately drove a nation of doubts, uneasiness, and lack of consumer confidence in the banking system.
With a lack of consumer confidence in the economic direction given by the federal government panic started to spread across the country shortly after the Wall Street Crash of 1929. President Hoover retained the Gold Standard as the country 's currency gauge throughout the following years. As a result, the American shareholders with the majority of the gold reserves began to grow wary of the value of gold in the near future. Europe 's decision to move away from the Gold Standard caused individuals to start to withdraw gold shares and move the investments out of the country or began to horde gold for future investment. The market continued to suffer due to these reactions, and in result caused several of the everyday individuals to speculate on the economy in the coming months. Rumors of market stability and banking conditions began to spread, consumer confidence continued to drop and panic begin to set in. Contagion spread like wild fire pushing Americans all over the country to withdraw their deposits in mass. This idea would continue from 1929 - 1933 causing the greatest financial crisis ever seen at the banking level pushing the economic recovery efforts further from resolution. An increase in the currency - deposit ratio and a money stock determinant forced money stock to fall and income to decline. This panic - induced banking failure took a mild recession to a major recession.
Whether this caused the Great Depression is still heavily debated due to many other attributing factors. However, it is evident that the banking system suffered massive reductions across the country due to the lack of consumer confidence. As withdraw requests would exceed cash availability banks began conducting steed discount sales such as fire sales and short sales. Due to the inability to immediately determine current value worth these fire sales and short sales would result in massive losses when recuperating any possible revenue for outstanding and defaulted loans. This would allow healthy banks to take advantage of the struggling units forcing additional losses resulting in banks not being able to deliver on depositor demands and creating a failing cycle that would become wide spread. Investment would continue to stay low through the next half decade as the private sector would horde savings due to uncertainty of the future. The federal government would run additional policy changes such as the Check tax, monetary restrictions (including reduction of money supply by burning), High Wage Policy, and The New Deal through the Hoover and Roosevelt administration.
One visible effect of the depression was the advent of Hoovervilles, which were ramshackle assemblages on vacant lots of cardboard boxes, tents, and small rickety wooden sheds built by homeless people. Residents lived in the shacks and begged for food or went to soup kitchens. The term was coined by Charles Michelson, publicity chief of the Democratic National Committee, who referred sardonically to President Herbert Hoover whose policies he blamed for the depression.
Unemployment reached 25 percent in the worst days of 1932 - 33, but it was unevenly distributed. Job losses were less severe among women, workers in nondurable industries (such as food and clothing), services and sales workers, and those employed by the government. Unskilled inner city men had much higher unemployment rates. Age also played a factor: young people had a hard time getting their first job, and men over the age of 45, if they lost their job, would rarely find another one because employers had their choice of younger men. Millions were hired in the Great Depression, but men with weaker credentials were never hired, and fell into a long - term unemployment trap. The migration that brought millions of farmers and townspeople to the bigger cities in the 1920s suddenly reversed itself, as unemployment made the cities unattractive, and the network of kinfolk and more ample food supplies made it wise for many to go back. City governments in 1930 - 31 tried to meet the depression by expanding public works projects, as president Herbert Hoover strongly encouraged. However, tax revenues were plunging, and the cities as well as private relief agencies were totally overwhelmed by 1931; no one was able to provide significant additional relief. People fell back on the cheapest possible relief, soup kitchens which provided free meals for anyone who showed up. After 1933 new sales taxes and infusions of federal money helped relieve the fiscal distress of the cities, but the budgets did not fully recover until 1941.
The federal programs launched by Hoover and greatly expanded by President Roosevelt 's New Deal used massive construction projects to try to jump start the economy and solve the unemployment crisis. The alphabet agencies ERA, CCC, FERA, WPA and PWA built and repaired the public infrastructure in dramatic fashion, but did little to foster the recovery of the private sector. FERA, CCC and especially WPA focused on providing unskilled jobs for long - term unemployed men.
The Democrats won easy landslide victories in 1932 and 1934, and an even bigger one in 1936; the hapless Republican Party seemed doomed. The Democrats capitalized on the magnetic appeal of Roosevelt to urban America. The key groups were low skilled ethnics, especially Catholic, Jewish, and black people. The Democrats promised and delivered in terms of political recognition, labor union membership, and relief jobs. The cities ' political machines were stronger than ever, for they mobilized their precinct workers to help families who needed help the most navigate the bureaucracy and get on relief. FDR won the vote of practically every demographic in 1936, including taxpayers, small business and the middle class. However, the Protestant middle class voters turned sharply against him after the recession of 1937 - 38 undermined repeated promises that recovery was at hand. Historically, local political machines were primarily interested in controlling their wards and citywide elections; the smaller the turnout on election day, the easier it was to control the system. However, for Roosevelt to win the presidency in 1936 and 1940, he needed to carry the electoral college and that meant he needed the largest possible majorities in the cities to overwhelm rural voters. The machines came through for him. The 3.5 million voters on relief payrolls during the 1936 election cast 82 % percent of their ballots for Roosevelt. The rapidly growing, energetic labor unions, chiefly based in the cities, turned out 80 % for FDR, as did Irish, Italian and Jewish communities. In all, the nation 's 106 cities over 100,000 population voted 70 % for FDR in 1936, compared to his 59 % elsewhere. Roosevelt worked very well with the big city machines, with the one exception of his old nemesis, Tammany Hall in Manhattan. There he supported the complicated coalition built around the nominal Republican Fiorello La Guardia, and based on Jewish and Italian voters mobilized by labor unions.
In 1938, the Republicans made an unexpected comeback, and Roosevelt 's efforts to purge the Democratic Party of his political opponents backfired badly. The conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats took control of Congress, outvoted the urban liberals, and halted the expansion of New Deal ideas. Roosevelt survived in 1940 thanks to his margin in the Solid South and in the cities. In the North the cities over 100,000 gave Roosevelt 60 % of their votes, while the rest of the North favored Willkie 52 % - 48 %.
With the start of full - scale war mobilization in the summer of 1940, the economies of the cities rebounded. Even before Pearl Harbor, Washington pumped massive investments into new factories and funded round - the - clock munitions production, guaranteeing a job to anyone who showed up at the factory gate. The war brought a restoration of prosperity and hopeful expectations for the future across the nation. It had the greatest impact on the cities of the West Coast, especially Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Portland and Seattle.
Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929 - 1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide, and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.
The Great Depression began in the United States of America and quickly spread worldwide. It had severe effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, consumption, industrial output, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50 %. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25 %, and in some countries rose as high as 33 %.
Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by approximately 60 %. Facing plummeting demand with few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as grain farming, mining and logging, as well as construction, suffered the most.
Most economies started to recover by 1933 -- 34. However, in the U.S. and some others the negative economic impact often lasted until the beginning of World War II, when war industries stimulated recovery.
There is little agreement on what caused the Great Depression, and the topic has become highly politicized. At the time the great majority of economists around the world recommended the "orthodox '' solution of cutting government spending and raising taxes. However, British economist John Maynard Keynes advocated large - scale government deficit spending to make up for the failure of private investment. No major nation adopted his policies in the 1930s.
The stock market crash in the 1929 not only affected the business community and the public 's economic confidence, but also it led to the banking system soon after the turmoil. The boom of the US economy in the 1920s was based on high indebtedness, and the rupture of the debt chain caused by the collapse of the bank had produced widespread and far - reaching adverse effects. It is precisely because of the shaky banking system, the United States was using monetary policy to save the economy that had been severely constrained. The American economist Kindleberger of long - term studying of the Great Depression pointed out that in the 1929, before and after the collapse of the stock market, the Fed lowered interest rates, tried to expand the money supply and eased the financial market tensions for several times, however they were not successful, the fundamental reason was that the relationship between various credit institutions and the community was in a drastic adjustment process, the normal supply channels for money supply were blocked. Later, some economists argued that the Fed should do a large - scale opening market business at that time, but the essence of the statement was that the US government should be quick to implement measures to expand fiscal spending and fiscal deficits, whereas, the essence of this argument was that the US government should be promptly implemented to expand the fiscal spending and the fiscal deficits measures.
Between the 1920s and 1930s, The United States began to try the tight money policy to promote economic growth. In terms of the fiscal policy, the US government failed to reach a consensus on the fiscal issue. President Hoover began to expand federal spending, he set up a governmental financial revitalization company to provide emergency assistance to banks and financial institutions that were on the verge of bankruptcy. Hoover 's fiscal policy had accelerated the recession. In December 1929, as means of showing government confidence of the economy, Hoover reduced all income tax rates by 1 % of 1929 due to the continuing budget surplus. By 1930, the surplus turned into a fast - growing deficit of economic contraction. In 1931, the US federal fiscal revenue and expenditure changed from the financial surplus to deficit for the first time (the deficit was less than 2.8 % of GDP). By the end of 1931, Hoover had decided to recommend a large increase in taxes to balance the budget; in addition, Congress approved the tax increase in 1932, a substantial reduction in personal immunity to increase the number of taxpayers, and the interest rates had risen sharply, the lowest marginal rate rose from 25 % on taxable income in excess of $100,000 to 63 % on taxable income in excess of $1 million as the rates were made much more progressive. Hoover changed his approach to fighting the Depression. He justified his call for more federal assistance by noting that "We used such emergency powers to win the war; we can use them to fight the Depression, the misery, and suffering from which are equally great. '' This new approach embraced a number of initiatives. Unfortunately for the President, none proved especially effective. Just as important, with the presidential election approaching, the political heat generated by the Great Depression and the failure of Hoover 's policies grew only more withering.
In terms of the financial reform, since the recession, Hoover had been trying to repair the economy. He founded government agencies to encourage labor harmony and support local public works aid which promoted cooperation of government and business, stabilize prices, and strive to balance the budget. His work focused on indirect relief from individual countries and the private sector, which was reflected in the letter emphasizing "more effective supporting for each national committee '' and volunteer service - '' appealing for funding '' from outside the government. The commitment to maintain the gold standard system prevented the Federal Reserve expanded its money supply operations in 1930 and 1931, and it promoted Hoover 's destructive balancing budgetary action to avoid the gold standard system overwhelming the dollar. As the Great Depression became worse, the call raised for increasing in federal intervention and spending. But Hoover refused to allow the federal government to force fixed prices, control the value of the business or manipulate the currency, in contrast, he started to control the dollar price. For official dollar prices, he expanded the credit base through free market operations in federal reserve system to ensure the domestic value of the dollar. He also tended to provide indirect aid to banks or local public works projects, refused to use federal funds to give aid to citizens directly, which will reduce public morale. Instead, he focused on volunteering to raise money. Even though Hoover was a philanthropist before becoming president, his opponents regarded him as not responsible for the citizens. During the administration of Hoover, the US economic policies had moved to activism and interventionism. In his re-election campaign, Hoover tried to persuade the Americans to claim that the measures they requested seemed to be helpful in the short term, but it would be devastating in the long run. Eventually, he was defeated by Franklin Roosevelt in 1932.
At the beginning of 1933, the last few weeks of Hoover 's term, the American financial system was paralyzed. The Great Depression was extended by the interventionist policy for four years. Bank crisis caused the serious deflationary pressures. For this phenomenon, Hoover still wanted to stop it. In fact, the worst period of 1932 -- the Great Depression had passed, but the recovery was slow and weak. During the financial crisis of 1933 that culminated in the banking holiday in March 1933, a lot of gold flowed out from the Fed, some of them flow out to individuals and companies in the United States. This domestic loss occurred because individuals and businesses like to deposit metal gold into bank deposits or banknotes, some gold flows to foreign countries, and this external loss occurred because foreign investors were worried about the depreciation of the dollar. Roosevelt understands that the traditional political and financial policy can not save the United States from the "disaster years '', he pursued the "New Deal '' to attempt to make up for the United States by administrative means. In the spring and summer of 1933, the Roosevelt government suspended the gold standard. The Emergency Banking Act gave the President the power to control international and domestic gold sports. It also gave the treasury secretary the power to surrender of gold coins and certificates. On April 20, President Roosevelt issued a formal announcement of the moratorium on the gold standard. The announcement prohibited gold exports, and prohibited financial institutions from converting money and deposits into gold coins and ingots. The action prevented the gold outflow. Soon, the Roosevelt government weakened the connection with gold once again. Thomas amendment to the Agricultural Relief Act to the gave to the President power to reduce the dollar 's gold content by as much as 50 %. The President Roosevelt also used the silver standard instead of gold to exchange dollars, it determined by the price of the bank. In April 1933, Roosevelt decided to abolish the gold standard through the New Deal. He abandoned this traditional monetary policy is mainly due to the big crisis to the original monetary policy failure. And the purpose of his action is to prohibit all exports of gold except for foreign countries, so that the United States can maintain an equal monetary base with the vast majority of countries. The Hoover government stubbornly insisted on using the "sound money '' policy who against deficit spending and state relief that only make the economic crisis worsen. Because of this situation Roosevelt forced the implementation of inflation, and used the federal deficit spending to promote employment to enforce relief. The abandon of the gold standard made the Wall Street stock prices quickly increased, Wall Street 's stock trading was exceptionally active, with a total of 5 million shares delivered on a day, which is the most active day in the past six months.
The Hoover Administration attempted to correct the economic situation quickly, but was unsuccessful. Throughout Hoover 's presidency, businesses were encouraged to keep wage rates high. President Hoover and many academics believed that high wage rates would maintain a steady level of purchasing power, keeping the economy turning. In December 1929, after the beginning phases of the depression had begun, President Hoover continued to promote high wages. It was n't until 1931 that business owners began reducing wages in order to stay afloat. Later that year, The Hoover Administration created the Check Tax to generate extra government funding. The tax added a two cent tax to the purchase of all bank checks, directly affecting the common person. This additional cost pushed people away from using checks, so instead the majority of the population increased their usage of cash. Banks had already closed due to cash shortage, but this reaction to the Check Tax rapidly increased the pace.
In the "First New Deal '' of 1933 -- 34, A wide variety of programs were targeted toward the depression and agriculture in rural areas, in the banking industry, and for the economy as a whole. Relief programs were set up for the long - term unemployed who are routinely passed over whenever new jobs did open up. The most popular program was the Civilian Conservation Corps the put young men to work in construction jobs, especially in rural areas. Prohibition was repealed, the filling a campaign pledge and generating new tax revenues for local and state government. A series of relief programs were designed to provide jobs, in cooperation with local governments. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief through increased government spending. To end Deflation the Gold standard was suspended and a series of panels comprising business leaders in each industry set regulations which ended what was called "cut - throat competition, '' believed to be responsible for forcing down prices and profits nationwide. Several Hoover agencies were continued, most notably the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which provided large - scale financial aid to banks, railroads, and other agencies. Reforms that had never been enacted in the 1920s now took center stage, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) designed to electrify and modernize a very poor, mountainous region in Appalachia.
In 1934 -- 36, came the much more controversial "Second New Deal. '' It featured social security; the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a Very large relief agency for the unemployed run by the federal government; the National Labor Relations Board, Which operated as a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions. Unemployment fell by 2⁄3 in Roosevelt 's first term (from 25 % to 9 %, 1933 -- 1937). The second set of reforms launched by the Roosevelt Administration during the same period, which is a responsibility for social welfare with the main legislation -- -- Social Security Act in 1935. Insurance and poor relief ("public assistance '' or "welfare '') are constituent parts of the legislation that provided pensions to the aged, benefit payments to dependent mothers, crippled children and blind people, and unemployment insurance. The Social Security Act still plays a significant role of the American health and human service system so far. Much of the economy had recovered by 1936, but persistent, long - term unemployment lasted until rearmament began for World War II in 1940.
The New Deal was, and still is, sharply debated. The business community, with considerable support from such conservative Democrats as Al Smith, Launched a crusade against the new deal, warning that dangerous man had seized control of the economy and threatened America 's conservative traditions. Scholars remain divided as well. When asked whether "as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression, '' 74 % of American university professors specializing in economic history disagreed, 21 % agreed with provisos, and 6 % fully agreed. Among respondents who taught or studied economic theory, 51 % disagreed, 22 % agreed with provisos, and 22 % fully agreed. Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions, '' Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 139 -- 154 in JSTOR see also the summary at "EH. R: FORUM: The Great Depression ''. Eh.net. Archived from the original on 2008 - 06 - 16. Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 11. < / ref >
By 1936, all the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high. In 1937, the American economy unexpectedly fell, lasting through most of 1938. Production declined sharply, as did profits and employment. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in 1937 to 19.0 % in 1938. A contributing factor to the Recession of 1937 was a tightening of monetary policy by the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve doubled reserve requirements between August 1936 and May 1937 leading to a contraction in the money supply.
The Roosevelt Administration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the depression, and appointing Thurman Arnold to break up large trusts; Arnold was not effective, and the campaign ended once World War II began and corporate energies had to be directed to winning the war. By 1939, the effects of the 1937 recession had disappeared. Employment in the private sector recovered to the level of the 1936 and continued to increase until the war came and manufacturing employment leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943.
Another response to the 1937 deepening of the Great Depression had more tangible results. Ignoring the pleas of the Treasury Department, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938 in an effort to increase mass purchasing power.
Business - oriented observers explained the recession and recovery in very different terms from the Keynesian economists. They argued the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935 -- 37. They said it had encouraged massive strikes which had a negative impact on major industries and had threatened anti-trust attacks on big corporations. But all those threats diminished sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long - term growth.
On the other hand, according to economist Robert Higgs, when looking only at the supply of consumer goods, significant GDP growth only resumed in 1946. (Higgs does not estimate the value to consumers of collective goods like victory in war) To Keynesians, the war economy showed just how large the fiscal stimulus required to end the downturn of the Depression was, and it led, at the time, to fears that as soon as America demobilized, it would return to Depression conditions and industrial output would fall to its pre-war levels. The incorrect prediction by Alvin Hansen and other Keynesians that a new depression would start after the war failed to take account of pent - up consumer demand as a result of the Depression and World War.
The government began heavy military spending in 1940, and started drafting millions of young men that year. By 1945, 17 million had entered service to their country, but that was not enough to absorb all the unemployed. During the war, the government subsidized wages through cost - plus contracts. Government contractors were paid in full for their costs, plus a certain percentage profit margin. That meant the more wages a person was paid the higher the company profits since the government would cover them plus a percentage.
Using these cost - plus contracts in 1941 -- 1943, factories hired hundreds of thousands of unskilled workers and trained them, at government expense. The military 's own training programs concentrated on teaching technical skills involving machinery, engines, electronics and radio, preparing soldiers and sailors for the post-war economy.
Structural walls were lowered dramatically during the war, especially informal policies against hiring women, minorities, and workers over 45 or under 18. (See FEPC) Strikes (except in coal mining) were sharply reduced as unions pushed their members to work harder. Tens of thousands of new factories and shipyards were built, with new bus services and nursery care for children making them more accessible. Wages soared for workers, making it quite expensive to sit at home. Employers retooled so that unskilled new workers could handle jobs that previously required skills that were now in short supply. The combination of all these factors drove unemployment below 2 % in 1943.
Roosevelt 's declining popularity in 1938 was evident throughout the US in the business community, the press, and the Senate and House. Many were labeling the recession the "Roosevelt Recession ''. In late December 1938, Roosevelt looked to gain popularity with the American people, and try to regain the nation 's confidence in the economy. His decision that December to name Harry Hopkins as Secretary of Commerce was an attempt to achieve the confidence he so badly needed. The appointment came as a surprise to most because of Hopkins ' lack of business experience, but proved to be vastly important in shaping the years following the recession.
Hopkins made it his mission to strengthen ties between the Roosevelt administration and the business community. While Roosevelt believed in complete reform (The New Deal), Hopkins took a more administrative position; he felt that recovery was imperative and that The New Deal would continue to hinder recovery. With support from Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace and Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr, popular support for recovery, rather than reform, swept the nation. By the end of 1938 reform had been struck down, as no new reform laws were passed.
The economy in America was now beginning to show signs of recovery and the unemployment rate was lowering following the abysmal year of 1938. The biggest shift towards recovery, however, came with the decision of Germany to invade France at the beginning of WWII. After France had been defeated, the U.S. economy would skyrocket in the months following. France 's defeat meant that Britain and other allies would look to the U.S. for large supplies of materials for the war.
The need for these war materials created a huge spurt in production, thus leading to promising amount of employment in America. Moreover, Britain chose to pay for their materials in gold. This stimulated the gold inflow and raised the monetary base, which in turn, stimulated the American economy to its highest point since the summer of 1929 when the depression began.
By the end of 1941, before American entry into the war, defense spending and military mobilization had started one of the greatest booms in American history thus ending the last traces of unemployment.
Effects of depression in the U.S.:
General:
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the cma examination is offered by which organization | Certified Management Accountant - wikipedia
IMA 's CMA (Certified Management Accountant) certification is a professional certification credential in the management accounting and financial management fields. The certification signifies that the person possesses knowledge in the areas of financial planning, analysis, control, decision support, and professional ethics. The CMA is a U.S. - based, globally recognized certification offered by the Institute of Management Accountants.
CMA - certified professionals work inside organizations of all sizes, industries, and types, including manufacturing and services, public and private enterprises, not - for - profit organizations, academic institutions, government entities, and multinational corporations. To date, more than 50,000 CMAs have been certified in more than 100 countries. To obtain certification, candidates must pass a rigorous exam, meet an educational requirement, experience requirement, and demonstrate a commitment to continuous learning through continuing professional education (CPE).
Part 1 -- Financial Reporting, Planning, Performance, and Control
Part 2 -- Financial Decision Making
The Certified Management Accountant Exam is a two part exam that must be passed as a prerequisite to earning the CMA designation... Candidates are given three years from registering to pass both parts of the exam. The exams are given during three testing window periods: January / February, May / June and September / October at Prometric centers.
Prior to 2010, the CMA exam was organized into four parts: Business Analysis, Management Accounting and Reporting, Strategic Management. Since 2010, the exam has been condensed into two four - hour parts, covering largely the same material as the former four part exam with added emphasis on financial planning, analysis, control, and decision support; see aside.
Each exam consists of descriptive questions and two 30 - minute essay questions. Candidates are given 3 hours to complete the multiple choice section and one hour to complete the essays. Candidates must show their work for the essay questions in order to receive credit. Parts 1 and 2 of the CMA exam are scored on a scale of 0 - 500 with a candidate 's raw score converted to a uniform scaled score against all exam candidates. On this scale, a score of 360 represents the minimum passing scaled score.
The exam is considered very rigorous and pass rates for the CMA exam have historically been low for both parts. Worldwide, the exam had a pass rate of 35 % for Part 1 and 49 % for Part 2 in 2014. Pass rates for the two part exam are as follows:
In addition to successfully passing the exams, CMA candidates must fulfill education and experience requirements in order to be certified:
1. Bachelor 's degree from an accredited college or university
2. Two continuous years of professional experience employing the principles of management accounting and financial management including:
3. For certified CMAs, 30 hours of CPE credits, including two hours of ethics, and annual IMA Membership are required to maintain active status.
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who did andy murray beat at the olympics | Andy Murray - Wikipedia
US $ 60,931,985
Sir Andrew Barron Murray OBE (born 15 May 1987) is a British professional tennis player from Scotland currently ranked No. 382 in men 's singles as of 27 August 2018. Murray represents Great Britain in his sporting activities and is a three - time Grand Slam tournament winner, two - time Olympic champion, Davis Cup champion, winner of the 2016 ATP World Tour Finals and former world No. 1.
Murray defeated Novak Djokovic in the 2012 US Open final, becoming the first British player since 1977, and the first British man since 1936, to win a Grand Slam singles tournament. Murray is also the first British man to win more than one Wimbledon singles title since Fred Perry in 1935.
Murray is the men 's singles 2012 and 2016 Olympic gold medallist, making him the only tennis player, male or female, to have won two Olympic singles titles. He featured in Great Britain 's Davis Cup - winning team in 2015, going 11 -- 0 in his matches (8 singles and 3 doubles) as they secured their first Davis Cup title since 1936.
Andy Murray was born in Glasgow, Scotland, the son of Judy Murray (née Erskine) and William Murray. His maternal grandfather, Roy Erskine, was a professional footballer in the late 1950s. Murray is a supporter of Hibernian Football Club, one of the teams his grandfather represented.
Murray began playing tennis at the age of three when his mother Judy took him to play on the local courts. He played in his first competitive tournament at age five and by the time he was eight he was competing with adults in the Central District Tennis League. Murray 's elder brother, Jamie, is also a professional tennis player, playing on the doubles circuit, and became a multiple Grand Slam winner in the discipline (both men 's and mixed).
Murray grew up in Dunblane and attended Dunblane Primary School. He and his brother were present during the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, when Thomas Hamilton killed 16 children and a teacher before shooting himself; Murray took cover in a classroom. Murray says he was too young to understand what was happening and is reluctant to talk about it in interviews, but in his autobiography Hitting Back he states that he attended a youth group run by Hamilton and his mother gave Hamilton lifts in her car. Murray later attended Dunblane high school.
Murray 's parents split up when he was 10, with the boys living with their father while being mentored in tennis by their mother. He believes the impact this had on him could be the reason behind his competitive spirit. At 15, he was asked to train with Rangers Football Club at their School of Excellence, but declined, opting to focus on his tennis career instead. He then decided to move to Barcelona, Spain. There he studied at the Schiller International School and trained on the clay courts of the Sánchez - Casal Academy, coached by Pato Alvarez. Murray described this time as "a big sacrifice ''. His parents had to find £ 40,000 to pay for his 18 - month stay there. In Spain, he trained with Emilio Sánchez, former world No. 1 doubles player.
Murray was born with a bipartite patella, where the kneecap remains as two separate bones instead of fusing together in early childhood, but was not diagnosed until the age of 16. He has been seen holding his knee due to the pain caused by the condition and has pulled out of events because of it.
In February 2013, Murray bought Cromlix House hotel near Dunblane, where his brother Jamie had celebrated his wedding in 2010 but which had since ceased trading, for £ 1.8 million; the venue re-opened as a 15 - room five - star hotel in April 2014. Later that month Murray was awarded freedom of Stirling and received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Stirling in recognition of his services to tennis.
Murray began dating Kim Sears, daughter of player - turned - coach Nigel Sears, in 2005. Their engagement was announced in November 2014, and they married on 11 April 2015 at Dunblane Cathedral in his home town, with the reception at his Cromlix House hotel (Murray 's father also remarried at the venue the following year). The couple live in Oxshott, Surrey with their two daughters. He identifies himself as a feminist.
Andy has injected cash into some UK tech startup and fin - tech companies. He has invested in more than 30 UK businesses using Seedrs, a crowdfunding platform.
Leon Smith, Murray 's tennis coach from 11 to 17, described Murray as "unbelievably competitive '', while Murray attributes his abilities to the motivation gained from losing to his older brother Jamie. In 1999, at the age of 12, Murray won his age group at the Orange Bowl, a prestigious event for junior players. He won it again at the age of 14, and is one of only nine tennis players to win the Junior Orange Bowl championship twice in its 70 - year history, alongside the likes of Jimmy Connors, Jennifer Capriati, Monica Seles, and Yishai Oliel.
In July 2003, Murray started out on the Challenger and Futures circuit. In his first tournament, he reached the quarter - finals of the Manchester Challenger. In September, Murray won his first senior title by taking the Glasgow Futures event. He also reached the semi-finals of the Edinburgh Futures event.
For the first six months of 2004, Murray had a knee injury and could n't play.
In July 2004, Murray played a Challenger event in Nottingham, where he lost to future Grand Slam finalist Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in the second round. Murray then went on to win Futures events in Xàtiva and Rome.
In September 2004, he won the Junior US Open and was selected for the Davis Cup World Group play - off match against Austria later that month; however, he was not selected to play. Later that year, he won BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year.
As a junior, Murray reached as high as No. 6 in the world in 2003 (& No. 8 in doubles). In the 2004 - instated combined rankings, he reached No. 2 in the world.
Junior Slam results: Australian Open: - French Open: SF (2005) Wimbledon: 3R (2004) US Open: W (2004)
Murray began 2005 ranked No. 407, but when he was in South America in January, he hurt his back and had to take three months off.
In March, he became the youngest Briton to play in the Davis Cup. Murray turned professional in April and was given a wild card entry to a clay - court tournament in Barcelona, the Open SEAT, where he lost in three sets to Jan Hernych. In April, Murray parted acrimoniously from his coach Pato Alvarez, complaining about his negative attitude. Murray then reached the semi-finals of the boys ' French Open, where he lost in straight sets to Marin Čilić.
Mark Petchey agreed to coach Murray for four weeks until the end of Wimbledon, but it metamorphosed into a full - time position. Given a wild card to Queen 's, Murray progressed past Santiago Ventura in straight sets for his first ATP match win. Following a second - round win against Taylor Dent, he played former Australian Open champion Thomas Johansson in the third round, losing in three sets after cramping and twisting his ankle. Following his performance at Queen 's, Murray received a wild card for Wimbledon. Ranked No. 312, Murray became the first Scot in the Open Era to reach the third round of the men 's singles tournament at Wimbledon. In the third round, Murray lost to 2002 Wimbledon finalist David Nalbandian due to cramping and fatigue, having led two sets to love.
Following Wimbledon, Murray won Challenger events on the hard courts of Aptos and Binghamton, New York. He then experienced his first Masters event at Cincinnati, where he beat Taylor Dent, before losing in three sets to then - No. 4, Marat Safin. With a wild card entry, Murray played Andrei Pavel in the opening round of the US Open, where he recovered from down two sets to one to win his first five - set match. However, he lost in the second round to Arnaud Clément in another five - set contest. Murray was again selected for the Davis Cup match against Switzerland. He was picked for the opening singles rubbers, losing in straight sets to Stanislas Wawrinka. Murray made his first ATP final at the Thailand Open where he faced No. 1 Roger Federer. Murray lost in straight sets.
Murray beat Tim Henman in their first meeting, at the Basel Swiss Indoors in the first round, and eventually reached the quarter - finals.
In November, Murray captained Scotland at the inaugural Aberdeen Cup against England led by Greg Rusedski. This was an exhibition tournament and the only event where Murray played Rusedski, they never met on the Tour. Rusedski beat Murray in the first match, but Murray won the second. This was also the first time that Andy and his brother Jamie Murray played doubles as seniors. Scotland defeated England 41⁄2 -- 21⁄2. He completed the year ranked No. 64 and was named the 2005 BBC Scotland Sports Personality of the Year.
The 2006 season saw Murray compete on the full circuit for the first time and split with his coach Mark Petchey and team up with Brad Gilbert.
On 27 February, Murray became the British No. 1, ending Tim Henman 's seven - year run. Murray was now world No. 42, Greg Rusedski No. 43, and Tim Henman No. 49. Rusedski regained his British No. 1 status on 15 May for eight weeks, after which Murray became No. 1 again on 10 July.
Murray suffered a straight sets defeat at the Australian Open, to Argentine Juan Ignacio Chela in the first round and to Gaël Monfils at the French Open, in five sets. Murray did reach the fourth round for the first time at both Wimbledon (beating 3rd seed Andy Roddick in the 3rd round) and the US Open.
Murray played in Davis Cup ties against Serbia, Israel and Ukraine. Murray missed the opening singles matches before losing the doubles as Britain lost their tie against Serbia. During the tie with Israel, Murray won his rubber and lost the doubles before pulling out with a neck injury before the reverse singles, as Britain lost the tie. Against Ukraine, Murray won both his singles rubbers, but lost the doubles, as Britain won the tie.
At the Masters, Murray lost in the first round in Miami, Monte Carlo and Rome. Murray went out of the tournaments in Indian Wells and Hamburg in the second round. Murray reached his first Masters semi-final in Toronto at the Rogers Cup, losing to Richard Gasquet.
At Cincinnati, Murray became only one of two players, alongside Rafael Nadal, to defeat Roger Federer in 2006, breaking the Swiss star 's 55 match winning streak on hard courts. He lost two rounds later to Andy Roddick, but broke into the top 20 for the first time. In the final two Masters events in Madrid and Paris, Murray exited both tournaments at the last - 16 stage ending his season, with losses to Novak Djokovic and Dominik Hrbatý. When the tour reached San Jose, California; Murray defeated a top ten player for the first time, Andy Roddick. Murray went on to claim the SAP Open title defeating No. 11 Lleyton Hewitt. Murray was a finalist at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic. Playing doubles with his brother in Bangkok the pair reached the final. After the French Open, where Murray was injured again, he revealed that his bones had n't fully grown, causing him to suffer from cramps and back problems.
In November, the Aberdeen Cup was held for the second time, with Murray leading team Scotland and Greg Rusedski captaining England. Scotland won 61⁄2 -- 1.
Murray reached the fourth round of the Australian Open, where he lost a five - set match against No. 2, Rafael Nadal.
Following the Miami Masters, where he reached the semi-finals, Murray reached the No. 10 ranking on 16 April.
The British No. 1 sustained tendon damage during his first round match at the German Open in Hamburg. Murray was up 5 -- 1 when he hit a forehand from the back of the court and snapped the tendons in his wrist, leaving him out of action from 15 May until 7 August, thereby missing Wimbledon. During this rest period, Murray rose to No. 8, but by 7 August, he had dropped to No. 14.
Murray suffered a third round loss at the US Open. At the Masters tournaments, Murray reached the semi-finals of Indian Wells and Miami. At Rome and Cincinnati, Murray exited in the first round whilst going out in the second in Canada. In the final two masters tournaments, Murray exited in the third round in Madrid and he went out in the quarter - finals of Paris. Murray won titles in San Jose and St. Petersburg. He also reached the final of tournaments in Doha and Metz, finishing the season ranked 11th in the world.
In November, Murray split with his coach Brad Gilbert and added a team of experts along with Miles Maclagan, his main coach.
In 2008, Murray suffered a first round loss at the Australian Open to eventual runner - up Jo - Wilfried Tsonga, and a third round loss at the French Open to Nicolás Almagro. Murray then made his first Grand Slam quarter - final at Wimbledon before making his first final at the US Open. During the tournament in New York, Murray claimed his first win over Nadal. That victory meant that he 'd become the first player from Britain since Greg Rusedski in 1997 to reach a major final. In his first Grand Slam final Murray suffered a straight sets loss to Federer. At the Beijing Olympics, Murray suffered one of the worst defeats of his career, losing his first round singles match to No. 77 Yen - hsun Lu of Taiwan in straight sets. That abject defeat was still on his mind in a BBC interview five years later -- despite an intervening Olympic gold medal and a head - to - head win -- when he met the same player (now ranked No. 75) in the second round of Wimbledon 2013.
In the Masters tournaments Murray went out in round four in Indian Wells and the first round of Miami. In the clay Masters Murray made the third round of Monte Carlo and Hamburg and the second of Rome. On the American hard court swing Murray made the semi-finals of Toronto before winning his first Masters shield in Cincinnati. He added another shield to his collection in Madrid; before losing in the quarter - finals of Paris. Now at No. 4 in the world, Murray qualified for the first time for the Masters Cup. He played well in defeating an injured Federer but lost to Davydenko in the semi-finals. Murray ended 2008 ranked No. 4. Murray also won tournaments in Doha, Marseille and St Petersburg.
Murray opened the 2009 season with a successful defence of his title at the Qatar Open in Doha, defeating Andy Roddick in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Murray made it to the fourth round, losing to Fernando Verdasco. Murray won his eleventh career title in Rotterdam, defeating No. 1, Nadal in three sets. Murray next went to Dubai but withdrew before the quarter - finals with a re-occurrence of a virus that had affected him at the Australian Open. The virus caused Murray to miss a Davis Cup tie in Glasgow. Murray then lost in the finals to Nadal at Indian Wells, but won a week later in Miami over Djokovic for another masters title.
In the lead - up to the French Open, Murray beat No. 9, Nikolay Davydenko at the Monte Carlo Masters, the first time he had beaten a top ten player on clay, though he lost to Nadal in the semi-finals. Murray was upset in round two of the Rome Masters by qualifier Juan Mónaco, and he reached the quarter - finals of the Madrid Masters, losing to Juan Martín del Potro. During this time Murray achieved the highest ever ranking of a British male in the Open Era when he reached the No. 3 ranking on 11 May 2009. Murray reached the quarter - finals of the French Open, but was defeated by Fernando González in four sets.
Murray won for the first time on grass at Queen 's and became the first British winner of the tournament since 1938. In the final Murray defeated American James Blake. At Wimbledon, against Stanislas Wawrinka, Murray 's fourth round match was the first match to be played entirely under Wimbledon 's retractable roof. This also enabled it to be the then latest finishing match ever at Wimbledon, a record he would go on to eclipse three years later in a second round match against Marcos Baghdatis. However Murray lost a tight semi-final to Andy Roddick.
Murray returned to action in Montreal, defeating del Potro in three sets to take the title. After this victory, he overtook Nadal in the rankings and held the number two position until the start of the US Open. Murray followed the Masters win playing at the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost to Federer. At the US Open, Murray was hampered by a wrist injury and suffered a straight - sets loss to Čilić. Murray won both his singles matches, and lost at doubles in the Davis Cup against Poland, but was then forced to miss six weeks with a wrist injury.
In November, Murray won at Valencia, but bowed out in round two of the Paris Masters. To end the season, Murray did not make it out of the round robin at the World Tour Finals in London.
Andy Murray during his runner 's up speech at the 2010 Australian Open.
Murray and Laura Robson represented Britain at the Hopman Cup. The pair progressed to the final, where they were beaten by Spain. At the Australian Open Murray beat Nadal and Čilić before losing in the final to No. 1 Roger Federer. At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray reached the quarter - finals, losing to Robin Söderling in straight sets. Murray next played at the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open, but lost his first match of the tournament to Mardy Fish, afterwards saying that his mind had n't been fully on tennis. At the Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters, Murray suffered another first match loss, this time to Philipp Kohlschreiber. He entered the doubles competition with Ross Hutchins; the duo lost to the Bryan Brothers on a champions tie - breaker. Murray reached the third round in the Rome Masters, and the quarter - finals at the Madrid Masters, losing both times to David Ferrer.
After playing an exhibition match, Murray started the French Open with three tough wins, before losing in straight sets to Tomáš Berdych in the fourth round. In London, Murray progressed to the third round, where he faced Mardy Fish. At 3 -- 3 in the final set with momentum going Murray 's way (he had just come back from 3 -- 0 down), the match was called off for bad light, leaving Murray fuming. Coming back the next day, Murray was edged out by the eventual finalist in a tie - breaker for his second defeat by him in the year. At Wimbledon, Murray progressed to the semi-finals, losing to Nadal in straight sets. On 27 July 2010, Murray and his coach Maclagan split, and Murray replaced him with Àlex Corretja.
Starting the US hard - court season with the 2010 Farmers Classic, Murray reached the final but lost against Sam Querrey in three sets. This was his first loss to Querrey in five career meetings. In Canada, Murray became the first player since Andre Agassi in 1995 to defend the Canadian Masters. Murray defeated Nadal and then Federer in straight sets, ending his eight - month title drought. At the Cincinnati Masters, Murray first complained about the speed of the court, and then in a quarter - final match with Fish, Murray complained that the organisers refused to put the match on later in the day With temperatures reaching 33 ° C in the shade, Murray won the first set in a tie - breaker but began to feel ill. The doctor was called on court to actively cool Murray down. Murray said after the match that he had considered retiring. He lost the second set, but forced a final - set tie - breaker, before Fish won. After losing to Stanislas Wawrinka in the third round of the US Open, questions about Murray 's conditioning arose, as he called the trainer out twice during the match.
His next event was the China Open in Beijing, where Murray reached the quarter - finals, losing to Ivan Ljubičić. Murray then won the Shanghai Rolex Masters dismissing Roger Federer in straight sets. He did not drop a single set throughout the event. Murray returned to Spain to defend his title at the Valencia Open 500 but lost in the second round to Juan Mónaco. However, in doubles, Murray partnered his brother Jamie Murray to the final, where they defeated Mahesh Bhupathi and Max Mirnyi. The victory was Murray 's first doubles title and the second time he had reached a final with his brother.
Murray reached the quarter - finals at the BNP Paribas Masters losing to Gaël Monfils in three sets. Combined with his exit and Söderling 's taking the title, Murray found himself pushed down a spot in the rankings, to No. 5 from No. 4. At the Tour finals in London, Murray went 2 -- 1 in round robin play before facing Nadal in the semi-final. They battled for over three hours, before Murray fell to the Spaniard in a final - set tie - breaker, bringing an end to his season.
Murray and Laura Robson lost in the round - robin stage 2011 Hopman Cup, losing all three ties even though Murray won all of his singles matches. Then Murray, along with other stars such as Federer, Nadal, and Djokovic, participated in the Rally for Relief event to help raise money for the flood victims in Queensland.
Seeded fifth in the 2011 Australian Open, Murray met former champion Novak Djokovic in the final and was defeated in straight sets. In Rotterdam, he was defeated by Marcos Baghdatis in the first round. Murray reached the semi-finals of the doubles tournament with his brother Jamie. Murray lost to qualifiers in the first rounds at the Masters Series events in Indian Wells and Miami, after which he split with coach Àlex Corretja.
Murray returned to form at the Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters, but lost to Nadal in the semi-finals. Murray sustained an elbow injury before the match and subsequently withdrew from the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell due to the injury. Murray lost in the third round at the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, but made it to the semi-finals of the Rome Masters, where he lost to Novak Djokovic.
At the French Open, Murray won two tough early matches, before losing in his first semi-final at Roland Garros, against Rafael Nadal.
Murray defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga to win his second Queen 's Club title. At Wimbledon, Murray lost in the semi-final to Nadal, despite taking the first set. At the Davis Cup tie between Great Britain and Luxembourg, Murray led the British team to victory. Murray was the two - time defending 2011 Rogers Cup champion, but lost in the second round to South African Kevin Anderson. However, the following week, he won the 2011 Western & Southern Open after Novak Djokovic retired due to injury. At the 2011 US Open, Murray battled from two sets down to win a five - set second - round encounter with Robin Haase, but lost in the semi-finals to Rafael Nadal in four sets.
Murray easily won the small 250 - class Thailand Open, and the following week he won his third title in four tournaments at the Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships. His opponent in the final was Rafael Nadal, whom he beat for the first time in the year in three sets. Murray then won the doubles with his brother Jamie Murray, becoming the first person in the 2011 season to capture both singles and doubles titles at the same tournament. Murray then successfully defended his Shanghai Masters crown with a straight - sets victory over David Ferrer in the final. At the ATP World Tour Finals, Murray lost to David Ferrer in straight sets and withdrew from the tournament after the loss with a groin pull. Murray ended the year as No. 4 behind Djokovic, Nadal, and Federer.
With Ivan Lendl as his new full - time coach, Murray began the season by playing in the 2012 Brisbane International. He overcame a slow start in his first two matches to win his 22nd title by beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the final. In doubles, he lost in the quarter - finals against second seeds Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner in a tight match. After an exhibition tournament, Murray made it to the semi-finals of the 2012 Australian Open, where he was defeated by Djokovic in a four - hour - and 50 - minute match.
At the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships, Murray defeated Djokovic in the semi-finals, but lost in the final to Roger Federer. After an early defeat at the BNP Paribas Open, Murray made the final of the Miami Masters, losing to Djokovic. Murray then had quarter - final losses at the Monte Carlo Masters and Barcelona Open, and a third round loss at the Italian Open. Murray battled back spasms throughout the French Open, and in the quarter - finals, he was beaten by David Ferrer.
Murray lost in the opening round of the Queen 's Club Championships to No. 65 Nicolas Mahut. At Wimbledon, Murray set the then record for the latest finish at the championships when he completed a four - set victory over Marcos Baghdatis at 23: 02 BST, which was eclipsed by the 2018 Wimbledon men 's singles semi-finals which saw play being completed at 23: 03 BST. Murray beat Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in the semi-final in four sets to become the first male British player to reach the final of Wimbledon since Bunny Austin in 1938. In the final, he faced Federer, but after taking the first set, he lost the match in four sets.
Murray next competed at the London 2012 Summer Olympics in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles. He partnered his brother Jamie Murray in doubles and suffered a first - round exit to Austria (Jürgen Melzer and Alexander Peya) in three sets. In the mixed doubles, Murray was partnered by Laura Robson. They made it all the way to the finals where they lost to the Belarusian top seeds (Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi) in three sets, settling for the silver medal. In singles, Murray lost only one set on his way to the finals where he met Federer, defeating him in straight sets, for the loss of just 7 games. By winning the Olympic gold medal, Murray became the first British man to win the Olympic singles gold medal in tennis since Josiah Ritchie in 1908, and only the 7th man in the open era to win two medals at the same Olympic Games. Murray retired early in the Rogers Cup due to a knee injury, and was beaten by unseeded Jérémy Chardy at the Cincinnati Masters in straight sets.
He next competed in the final major of the season at the US Open. He cruised through his opening two rounds in straight sets against Alex Bogomolov and Ivan Dodig, before facing a tough four - set battle with Feliciano López, where Murray had to win three tie - breakers. In the fourth round, he defeated the Canadian Milos Raonic in straight sets, and then in the quarter - finals, had to come from a set and two breaks down against Marin Čilić to prevail in four. In the semi-finals, he defeated Tomáš Berdych in a long - fought match that lasted almost four hours, to reach his second consecutive Grand Slam final. Murray defeated Djokovic in five sets, becoming the first British man to win a Grand Slam final since Fred Perry in 1936, and the first Scottish - born player to win a Grand Slam final since Harold Mahony in 1896. The win would also set several records for Murray: it involved the longest tiebreak in US Open final history at 12 -- 10 in the first set, it made Murray the first man ever to win an Olympic gold medal and the US Open in the same year, and it tied with the 1988 US Open final (in which Murray 's coach Lendl competed) as the longest final in the tournament 's history. By defeating Djokovic in the final, Murray achieved his 100th Grand Slam match win of his career. The victory made Murray part of the "Big Four '' according to many pundits and contemporaries, including Novak Djokovic.
In his first tournament after the US Open, Murray reached the semi-finals of the Rakuten Japan Open after entering as defending champion. He was beaten by Milos Raonic in a close three - set match. He was defending champion in the doubles with his brother Jamie. However, they were knocked out in the quarter - finals by top seeds Leander Paes and Radek Štěpánek. At the penultimate Masters 1000 tournament of the year in Shanghai, after receiving a bye into round two, Murray 's first match was due to be played against Florian Mayer. However, Mayer had to pull out due to injury, giving Murray a walkover into round three. After beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the third round, he then overcame Radek Štěpánek in a three - set quarter - final. Murray next faced Roger Federer in the semi-finals, whom he defeated in straight sets to set up a second consecutive final against Djokovic, and his third consecutive Shanghai final. After failing to capitalise on five match points, Murray eventually lost in three sets, bringing to an end his 12 -- 0 winning streak at the competition. When Nadal pulled out of both the Paris Masters and the Year - End Championships, Murray finished the year at No. 3, after four years at No. 4. This was the first time Murray had finished the year higher than No. 4. At the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Murray found himself voted third overall, ahead of Mo Farah. Murray won the World Breakthrough of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards.
Murray was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to tennis.
Murray began his 2013 season by retaining his Brisbane International title, defeating Grigor Dimitrov in the final in straight sets. Trying to win his second Major in a row, he began the 2013 Australian Open well with a straight sets victory over Dutchman Robin Haase. He followed this up with straight set victories over João Sousa, practice partner Ričardas Berankis and French No. 14 seed Gilles Simon. In the quarter - finals he cruised past Jérémy Chardy in straight sets to set up a semi-final clash with Roger Federer. After exchanging sets, Murray eventually prevailed in 5 sets, recording his first Grand Slam tournament triumph over Federer. With this victory, each member of the ATP 's most dominant quartet of the previous four years (Federer, Nadal, Djokovic and Murray) had beaten the other three at the Majors. This victory set up Murray 's third consecutive Major final appearance, and second in a row against Djokovic. After taking the first set in a tiebreak, Murray was eventually defeated in four sets. His defeat in this final meant that Murray became only the second man in the Open Era to achieve three runner - up finishes at the Australian Open, the other being Stefan Edberg.
At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray lost at the quarter - final stage to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets. At the Miami Masters, Murray made it through his first four matches without dropping a set, and after overcoming Richard Gasquet in the semi-finals, faced David Ferrer in the final. After losing the first set, and facing match point in the decider at 5 -- 6, Murray eventually took the match in a third - set tiebreaker to win his second Miami Masters title, and leapfrog Roger Federer into second place in the rankings, ending a near - decade long time period in which neither Federer or Rafael Nadal were ranked in the top two. Murray briefly fell back to No. 3, following a third round defeat by Stanislas Wawrinka in Monte - Carlo, but reclaimed the No. 2 ranking as a result of Federer failing to defend his title at the Mutua Madrid Open. Later, Murray lost at the quarter - final stage to Tomáš Berdych in straight sets.
At the Rome Masters, Murray retired due to a hip injury during his second round match against Marcel Granollers on his 26th birthday. Murray had just battled back to tie the match at one set all after winning the second set on a tiebreak. This left Murray with only eleven days to be fit for the start of the French Open.
Speaking at a press conference after the match, Murray said, "As it is, I 'd be very surprised if I was playing in Paris. I need to make a plan as to what I do. I 'll chat with the guys tonight and make a plan for the next few days then make a decision on Paris after the next five days. '' He would go on to withdraw from Roland Garros later, citing a back injury. After a four - week break due to injury, Murray made his comeback at the 2013 Aegon Championships, where he was the top seed. After a rain delayed first day, Murray had to complete his second round match against Nicolas Mahut, and his subsequent match against Marinko Matosevic on the same day, both of which he won in straight sets. After beating Benjamin Becker in the quarter - finals, Murray next faced his first top ten opponent since losing to Tomáš Berdych in Madrid, taking on Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in the semi-finals. After dropping the first set against the Frenchman, Murray eventually raised his level and won in three to set up a final against Marin Čilić of Croatia, his third consecutive final on grass courts. He came from behind again to beat Čilić in three sets to claim his third title at Queen 's Club.
Going into Wimbledon, Murray had not lost a match on grass since the previous year 's final, and was on a winning streak of 11 matches on grass. In the first two rounds, Murray faced Benjamin Becker and Yen - hsun Lu respectively, defeating both in straight sets. His third round match was against 32nd seed Tommy Robredo, and despite a tour comeback over the past year, Murray overcame the Spaniard in straight sets to set up a clash with Mikhail Youzhny, the highest seed left in Murray 's half following the unexpectedly early exits of Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. Despite facing a fightback in the second set, Murray won in straight sets to make it through to his tenth consecutive Grand Slam quarter - final, in which he was to play Fernando Verdasco, the first left - handed player Murray had faced since the 2012 US Open. For the seventh time in his career, Murray had to come back from a deficit of two sets to ultimately come through in five, setting up a semi-final clash with 24th seed Jerzy Janowicz, the Polish player who beat Murray in their previous encounter. After Murray failed to break Janowicz 's serve, the Pole took the opening set in the tiebreak, following a double fault from Murray. However Murray managed to up his level of play, and won the next three sets, making it through to his second consecutive Wimbledon final, and third consecutive major final against Novak Djokovic.
Despite the Serb being the favourite to win the title throughout the Championships, Murray overcame Djokovic in a straight sets match that lasted over three hours, to become the first British winner of the men 's singles title since Fred Perry in 1936, the first Scot of either sex to win a Wimbledon singles title since Harold Mahony in 1896, and to extend his winning streak on grass to 18 matches. With the win, he also became only the second man in the open era after Rafael Nadal to hold the Olympic singles gold medal and Wimbledon title simultaneously.
At the US Open, Murray entered a Grand Slam tournament as defending champion for the first time, and started strongly with a straight sets win against Michaël Llodra. He backed this up with wins over Leonardo Mayer, Florian Mayer and Denis Istomin to reach the quarter - finals at a major for the 11th straight tournament. In the last 8, Murray faced Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland, but lost in straight sets, ending Murray 's streak of four consecutive major finals. Following his disappointing run of form on hard courts, Murray next joined the Great Britain Davis Cup team in their World Group Play - off tie on clay against Croatia, where he played in two singles and the doubles rubbers. After defeating 16 - year - old Borna Ćorić in straight sets, Murray teamed up with Colin Fleming to defeat Croatian number 1 Ivan Dodig and Mate Pavić in the doubles, and take a 2 -- 1 lead in the tie. Murray then sealed Britain 's return to the World Group by defeating Dodig in straight sets.
Following the Davis Cup, Murray 's season was cut short by his decision to undergo surgery, in order to sort out the lower back problems that had caused him problems since the early stages of the previous season. After being forced to withdraw from the French Open in May, the injury flared up again during the US Open and later during the Davis Cup World Group Play - offs, Murray made the decision that surgery was the best way to sort the problem out for the long - term. Following the conclusion of the 2013 season, Murray was voted the 2013 BBC Sport Personality of the Year, after having been heavy favourite since the nominees were announced.
Murray started his season at the Qatar Open in Doha. In the first round, he defeated Mousa Shanan Zayed in straight sets in 37 minutes without dropping a single game, but was defeated in three sets by No. 40 Florian Mayer in the second round, despite being a set and a break up three games into the second set. He then played a warm - up match at the 2014 AAMI Classic in Kooyong against No. 43 Lleyton Hewitt, losing in two close tiebreaks.
He next headed to Melbourne for the 2014 Australian Open, where he drew the No. 112, Go Soeda of Japan. Despite worries that he was not match - fit, Murray got off to a strong start, dispatching the Japanese number 2 in under 90 minutes, losing just 5 games in the process. He next went on to defeat Vincent Millot and Feliciano López respectively in straight sets. In the fourth round, Murray dropped his first set of the tournament on his way to beating Stephane Robert in four sets to set up a meeting with long - standing rival Roger Federer in the quarter - finals. Despite saving two match points to take the third set, he ultimately went out in four, ending his streak of four consecutive Australian Open semi-finals. As a result of losing before the final, Murray fell to No. 6, falling out of the top 5 for the first time since 2008.
He next headed to the United States to compete in the Davis Cup World Group first round with Great Britain, who went into the tie as outsiders. Murray won both of his ties against Donald Young and Sam Querrey respectively, helping Britain to their first Davis Cup quarter - final since 1986. Murray 's next tournament was the Rotterdam Open after receiving a late wild card, however he lost to Marin Čilić in straight sets in the quarter - finals. His following competition, the Mexican Open in Acapulco, ended in a semi-final defeat by Grigor Dimitrov in a thrilling three - setter that required two tiebreakers to decide the final two sets.
At Indian Wells, Murray struggled in his first two matches against Lukáš Rosol and Jiří Veselý respectively, overcoming both in close three - set encounters to set up a fourth round clash with Canadian Milos Raonic, which he lost in three sets. Murray offered to play with 2012 Wimbledon Doubles champion Jonathan Marray, because Marray was unable to convince anyone to join him on court. For Murray and Marray 's first competitive match together, they won a doubles clash against Gaël Monfils and Juan Mónaco only to lose in the second round to the No 2 seeds Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares.
In March, Murray split with coach Ivan Lendl, who had been widely praised for helping Murray achieve his goal of winning Grand Slam titles. At the 2014 Miami Masters, Murray defeated Matthew Ebden, Feliciano López and Jo Wilfried Tsonga but lost to Djokovic in the quarter - finals. In the Davis Cup quarter - finals against Italy, he beat Andreas Seppi in his first rubber, then teamed up with Colin Fleming to win the doubles rubber. Murray had only beaten one top ten player on clay, Nikolay Davydenko, back in 2009, and so in his final singles match, was stunned by Fabio Fognini in straight sets, which took Great Britain to the deciding final rubber. However, in this match his compatriot, James Ward was defeated by Andreas Seppi, also in straight sets, knocking Murray and Great Britain out of the Davis Cup.
Murray next competed at the Madrid Open and following his opening win, over Nicolas Almagro, he dedicated the victory to former player Elena Baltacha. He then lost to qualifier Santiago Giraldo in the following round. Murray then reached the quarter - finals of the Rome Masters where he lost to No. 1 Rafael Nadal in a tight match in which he had been up a break in the final set. At the French Open, Murray defeated Andrey Golubev and Marinko Matosevic before edging out 28th seed Philipp Kohlschreiber 12 -- 10 in the final set. This was the first time Murray had ever gone beyond 7 -- 5 in a deciding set. He followed this up with a straight sets win over Fernando Verdasco and then recorded a five set victory over Frenchman Gaël Monfils in the quarter - final, which saw Murray rise to No. 5 and equal his best ever French Open by reaching the semi-finals. However, he subsequently lost to Nadal in straight sets, winning only 6 games in the match. After losing the 2014 French Open semi-finals to Nadal, Murray appointed former women 's world No. 1, and two - times slam titlist, Amélie Mauresmo as his coach in a ' historic move ' which made Mauresmo the first woman to coach a top male tennis player.
After strong grass court seasons in 2012 and 2013, Murray was seeded third for the 2014 Wimbledon Championship, behind Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal, who were seeded first and second respectively. He began his title defence with straight sets wins over David Goffin and Blaž Rola, defeating the latter for the loss of just two games. Murray continued his good form, defeating Roberto Bautista Agut and Kevin Anderson, the 27th and 20th seeds, again in straight sets to reach his seventh consecutive Wimbledon quarter - final. Murray 's defence then came to a halt as Grigor Dimitrov ended his 17 match winning - streak on the grass of Wimbledon (this includes the 2012 Olympics) with a straight sets win, meaning Murray failed to reach the semi-finals for the first time since 2008. After his defeat at the Championships, Murray dropped to No. 10, his lowest ranking since 2008.
Prior to the North American hard court swing, Murray announced he was extending his partnership with Amélie Mauresmo until the end of the US Open, but was ideally looking for a long - term deal. He also revealed he had only just returned to a full training schedule following his back surgery last September. Murray reached back - to - back quarter - finals at the Canadian Open and Cincinnati Masters, losing to eventual champions Jo Wilfried Tsonga, after being a break up in the decider, and Roger Federer, after being two breaks up in the second set, respectively. He made it to the quarter - finals of the 2014 US Open, losing to Novak Djokovic, after earning his first top ten win of the year in the previous round against Jo Wilfried Tsonga. This was the first season since 2009 where Murray failed to reach a grand slam final. As a consequence Murray fell outside of the top 10 ranking places for the first time since June 2008.
Murray took a wildcard into the inaugural Shenzhen Open in China, entering as the number 2 seed. Victories over Somdev Devvarman, Lukáš Lacko and Juan Mónaco saw Murray reach his first final of the season, breaking a drought of 14 months following his title at Wimbledon. In the final he faced Tommy Robredo of Spain, the second final between the two. After saving five championship points in the second set tie break, Murray went on to win the title in three sets, Robredo 's drop in fitness ultimately proving decisive. He then took his good form into Beijing, where he reached the semi-finals before losing to Djokovic in straight sets, however he lost in the third round at the Shanghai Masters to David Ferrer despite being a set up. Following his early exit in Shanghai, Murray took a wildcard into the Vienna Open in an attempt to claim a place at the ATP World Tour Finals. He reached the final, where he once again faced Ferrer, and triumphed in three sets for his second title of the season, and the 30th of his career. Murray defeated Ferrer again in the semi-finals of the Valencia Open to move into his third final in five weeks, and further strengthen his bid for a place at the season finale in London. In a repeat of the Shenzhen Open final, Murray again saved five championship points as he overcame Tommy Robredo in three sets. Murray then went on to reach the quarter - finals of the Paris Masters, where he was eliminated by Djokovic in what was his 23rd match in the space of only 37 days. However, his win over Dimitrov in the third round had already guaranteed him a spot at the ATP World Tour Finals.
At the ATP World Tour Finals, Murray lost his opening round robin match to Kei Nishikori but won his second match against Milos Raonic. However, he lost his final group match against Federer in straight sets and only managed to win one game against him, marking his worst defeat since losing to Djokovic in the 2007 Miami Masters, eliminating him from the tournament.
Following the conclusion of the season, Murray mutually agreed a split with long - term backroom staff, training partner Dani Vallverdu and fitness coach Jez Green. They had been with him for five and seven years respectively but were both reported to have been unhappy at the lack of consultation they had been given about the appointment of Mauresmo. Murray also took part in the inaugural season of the International Premier Tennis League, representing the Manila Mavericks, who had drafted him as an icon player in February. Murray took part in the first three matches of the tournament which were all played in Manila.
Murray began his year by winning an exhibition event in Abu Dhabi. He then played the Hopman Cup with Heather Watson and, despite winning all his singles matches in straight sets, they finished second in their group behind Poland.
His first competitive tournament of the year was the Australian Open. He won his opening three matches in straight sets before defeating 11th seed Grigor Dimitrov to reach the quarter - final. Wins over Nick Kyrgios and Tomáš Berdych followed as Murray reached his fourth final at the tournament (three of which were against Djokovic) and the eighth grand slam final of his career. He lost the final to Novak Djokovic in four sets, however his run to the final saw his return to the top four in the world rankings for the first time in 12 months.
Murray next participated in the Rotterdam Open as the top seed, but he lost in the quarter - finals to Gilles Simon who ended a 12 match losing streak against Murray. Murray then played in the Dubai Championships but suffered another quarter - final defeat to 18 - year - old Borna Ćorić and as a result, Murray slipped to No. 5 behind Rafael Nadal and Kei Nishikori. Afterwards, Murray played the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow against the United States. He won both his matches against Donald Young and John Isner, allowing Great Britain to progress to the quarter - finals for the second consecutive time with a 3 -- 2 lead over the United States.
Murray then reached the semi-finals of the 2015 Indian Wells, overtaking Tim Henman 's record of 496 career wins to have the most career wins for a British man in the Open Era. However, he suffered a 6th consecutive defeat to Djokovic in straight sets. Murray then reached the final of the 2015 Miami Open, recording his 500th career win along the way to become the first British player to have 500 or more wins in the Open Era. He went on to lose the final to Djokovic, this time in three sets. Murray added Jonas Björkman to his coaching staff in March initially on a five - week trail to help out in periods when Mauresmo was unavailable as she only agreed to work with him for 25 weeks. However, at the end of the Australian Open, Mauresmo had informed Murray that she was pregnant and he announced at the end of April, that Björkman would be his main coach for all of the grass court season and all of the US hard court swing, while Mauresmo would only be with the team for Wimbledon.
Murray won his first ATP clay court title at the 2015 BMW Open. He defeated German Philipp Kohlschreiber in three close sets to become the first Briton since Buster Mottram in 1976 to win a tour level clay court event. The following week he reached his second final on clay, at the Madrid Open after recording only his second and third victories over top 10 opposition on clay, against Raonic and Nishikori. In the final, he defeated Rafael Nadal in straight sets for his first Madrid title on clay, and first ever clay court Masters 1000 title. The win was Murray 's first over Nadal, Federer or Djokovic since Wimbledon 2013, and his first over Nadal on a clay court.
Murray continued his winning streak at the Italian Open, beating Jeremy Chardy in straight sets in his opening match, but then withdrew due to fatigue after having played nine matches in the space of 10 days. Murray then reached his third semi-final at the French Open, but lost to Djokovic in five sets after threatening a comeback from two sets to love down, ending his 15 match winning streak on clay.
To start his grass court campaign, Murray went on to win a record tying fourth Queen 's Club title, defeating the big serving South African Kevin Anderson in straight sets in the final. At the third grand slam of the year, the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, Murray dropped only two sets on his way to setting up a semi-final clash with Roger Federer. Murray lost to the Swiss veteran in straight sets, gaining only one break point in the entire match.
After Wimbledon, Murray returned to Queen 's Club, to play for Great Britain against France in their Davis Cup quarter - final tie. Great Britain went 1 -- 0 down when James Ward lost to Gilles Simon in straight sets, however Murray levelled the tie with a victory against Jo - Wilfried Tsonga. Murray then teamed up with his brother Jamie to win the doubles rubber, coming back from a set down to defeat Tsonga and Nicolas Mahut in four sets, giving Britain a crucial 2 -- 1 lead going into the final day. He then faced Simon in the fourth rubber and after initially being a set and a break down, he suddenly found his form again towards the end of the second set and eventually won in four sets, winning 12 of the last 15 games in the process (with Simon struggling from an ankle injury). With a 3 -- 1 lead over France, this resulted in Great Britain reaching their first Davis Cup semi-final since 1981.
Murray next participated at the Citi Open (for the first time since 2006), as the top seed and favourite to win the tournament. However, he suffered a defeat in his first match, losing to No. 53 Teymuraz Gabashvili in a final set tiebreak, despite serving for the match. In doubles, he partnered Daniel Nestor, however they lost in the first round to the fourth seeds, Rohan Bopanna and Florin Mergea, also in three sets.
He bounced back from this defeat by winning the Montreal Masters Rogers Cup, defeating Tsonga and Nishikori in the quarter - finals and semi-finals respectively. He then prevailed in the final against Djokovic in three sets. This broke his eight - match, two - year losing streak against Djokovic (his last win against him being in the final of Wimbledon in 2013). In winning the title he also surpassed Federer in terms of ranking, becoming the world No. 2 for the first time in over two years. In doubles, he partnered Leander Paes and they won their first match against Chardy and Anderson, but were then defeated by Murray 's brother Jamie and John Peers in two sets -- the first time the Murray brothers had competed against each other in a Tour - level match, a situation which Andy described as "awkward '' and Jamie as "a bit weird ''.
In the second Master Series tournament of the US Hard Court season, the Cincinnati Masters, Murray defeated veteran Mardy Fish in the second round, and then beat both Grigor Dimitrov and Richard Gasquet in three - set matches, having to come from a set down on both occasions, while Dimitrov had served for the match in the deciding set. In the semi-final, he lost to defending champion Roger Federer in straight sets, and after Federer went on to win the tournament, this result saw Murray return to the No. 3 ranking and seeding for the US Open. At the US Open, Murray beat Nick Kyrgios in four sets before beating Adrian Mannarino in five sets after being two sets down, equaling Federer for winning eight matches from two sets to love down. He then beat Thomaz Bellucci in straight sets but suffered a defeat in the fourth round to Kevin Anderson in four sets. This ended Murray 's five - year run of 18 consecutive Grand Slam quarter - finals (not counting his withdrawal from the 2013 French Open) since his third round loss to Stan Wawrinka in the 2010 US Open.
Playing against Australia in the semi-finals of the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow, Murray won both his singles rubbers in straight sets, against Thanasi Kokkinakis and Bernard Tomic. He also partnered his brother Jamie, and they won in five sets against the pairing of Sam Groth and Lleyton Hewitt, the results guiding Great Britain to the Davis Cup final for the first time since 1978 with a 3 -- 2 lead over Australia.
After losing in the semi-finals of the Shanghai Masters to Djokovic in straight sets, Murray reached the finals of the Paris Masters for the lost of just one set, with victories against Borna Ćorić, David Goffin and David Ferrer. After a three set win over Richard Gasquet, he joined Novak Djokovic, Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal as the only players to reach the semi-finals (or better) at all nine of the ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournaments, and also ensured that he compiled his best match record in a single season. He then lost the final to Djokovic again in straight sets.
As the world No. 2, Murray participated in the ATP World Tour Finals in London, and was drawn into the Ilie Năstase group with David Ferrer, Rafael Nadal and Stan Wawrinka. He went out in the round - robin stage, after defeating Ferrer and losing to Nadal and Wawrinka. However, after Federer failed to win the tournament, he finished the season ranked No. 2 for the first time.
In the Davis Cup final, Murray 's victory over Ruben Bemelmans in straight sets pulled Great Britain level in the final after Kyle Edmund had lost the first singles rubber in five sets, played on indoor clay courts at Ghent. He then partnered his brother Jamie in a four - set victory over the pairing of Steve Darcis and David Goffin, before defeating Goffin again in the reverse singles on Sunday, thus ensuring a 3 -- 1 victory for Great Britain, their first Davis Cup title since 1936 and their tenth overall. Murray also became only the third person since the current Davis Cup format was introduced to win all eight of his singles rubbers in a Davis Cup season, after John McEnroe and Mats Wilander.
Murray began his 2016 season by playing in the Hopman Cup, pairing up with Heather Watson again. However, they finished second in their group after losing their tie to eventual champions Nick Kyrgios and Daria Gavrilova from Australia.
Murray played his first competitive tournament of 2016 at the Australian Open where he was aiming to win his first title there after four runner - up finishes. He went on to reach his fifth Australian Open final with victories over Alexander Zverev, Sam Groth, João Sousa, Bernard Tomic, David Ferrer and Milos Raonic, dropping four sets along the way. However, in a rematch of the previous year final, he was unable to win his first title as he lost in the final to an in - form Novak Djokovic (who won a record - equalling sixth title) in straight sets. He became the second man in the Open Era (after Ivan Lendl) to lose five Grand Slam finals at one event, and the only one not to have won the title. Subsequently, in February, Murray appointed Jamie Delgado as an assistant coach.
Murray then played at 2016 Davis Cup defeating Taro Daniel in straight sets and Kei Nishikori in five sets. Murray then competed at the first Masters 1000 of the year at the 2016 Indian Wells Masters. He defeated Marcel Granollers in the second round in straight sets but had an early loss to Federico Delbonis in the third round. Murray then played at the 2016 Miami Open as the 2nd seed. He defeated Denis Istomin in the second round in straight sets but had another early loss, to 26th seed Grigor Dimitrov, despite taking the first set.
Murray began his clay court season at the 2016 Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters as the 2nd seed. Murray struggled in his second round match against Pierre - Hugues Herbert but Murray came through in 3 sets. Murray struggled again in his third round match against 16th seed Benoît Paire as Murray was down a set and two breaks. Paire also served for the match in the third set but Murray still came through in 3 sets. Murray then defeated 10th seed Milos Raonic in straight sets in the quarter - finals. In the semi-finals Murray lost to 5th seed and eventual champion Rafael Nadal despite winning the first set. Murray then played at the 2016 Mutua Madrid Open as the 2nd seed and the defending champion. Murray defeated qualifier Radek Štěpánek in three sets. He then proceeded to the semi-finals after defeating 16th seed Gilles Simon and 8th seed Tomáš Berdych both in straight sets. In the semi-finals Murray defeated Nadal in straight sets who Murray had lost to earlier in the year. In the final Murray lost to number 1 seed Novak Djokovic in three sets. This loss dropped Murray from second to third in the ATP Rankings. Shortly afterwards Mauresmo and Murray issued a joint statement announcing that they had "mutually agreed '' to end their coaching partnership.
Murray regained his number two ranking after he won the 2016 Internazionali BNL d'Italia for his 1st title of the season and 36th overall. He defeated Mikhail Kukushkin, Jérémy Chardy, 12th seed David Goffin, Lucas Pouille, and number 1 seed Djokovic all in straight sets. This was his first win over Djokovic on clay and became the first British player since Virginia Wade in 1971 to win the title and the first British man since George Patrick Hughes in 1931. Murray then moved on to the French Open where he struggled in the opening rounds coming through two five - set matches against Štěpánek and French wildcard Mathias Bourgue. He came through in straight sets against big servers Ivo Karlović and John Isner to reach the quarter - finals where he beat home favourite Richard Gasquet in four sets to set up a semi-final clash against defending champion Stanislas Wawrinka. Murray defeated Wawrinka in four sets to become the first male British player since Bunny Austin in 1937, to reach a French Open final. He was unable to win his maiden French Open final, losing to Djokovic in four sets.
In June 2016, Ivan Lendl agreed to return to his former role as Murray 's coach. Murray started his grass season at the 2016 Aegon Championships as the 1st seed and the defending champion. Murray defeated Nicolas Mahut in straight sets despite facing a set point in the first set and three set points in the second set. He then defeated his countryman Aljaž Bedene in straight sets. He then had three set wins over Kyle Edmund, another countryman, and No. 5 seed Marin Čilić. In the final he was down a set and a break to 3rd seed Milos Raonic. Murray still managed to come back and win a record 5th Queen 's Club Championships and it was also his 2nd title in 2016. Murray then played at the third major of the year at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships as the 2nd seed. Murray had straight set wins over Liam Broady, Lu Yen - hsun, John Millman, and Nick Kyrgios in the first four rounds. Murray then defeated 12th seed Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in five sets in the quarter - final and 10th seed Tomáš Berdych in straight sets to reach his third straight major final. In the final on 10 July, Murray defeated Raonic in straight sets to win his second Wimbledon title and third Major title overall. His Wimbledon crown was his 3rd title of the season and 38th career Tour title.
Murray next played at the Rio Olympic Games. He became the first player, male or female, to win two gold medals in the tennis singles events by defeating Juan Martín del Potro in the final, which lasted over four hours. The win was his 3rd consecutive title and 4th title of the season. Murray then entered the US Open and beat Lukas Rosol, Marcel Granollers, Paolo Lorenzi and Grigor Dimitrov in the first four rounds. However his run came to an end when he lost to sixth seed Kei Nishikori in five sets despite holding a two sets to one lead.
His next activity was the 2016 Davis Cup semi-final in Glasgow against Argentina. He lost the opening rubber against Juan Martín del Potro in five sets. After Great Britain lost the second rubber as well, he teamed up with his brother Jamie to beat del Potro and Leonardo Mayer in the third rubber in four sets. He then won the fourth rubber against Guido Pella in straight sets, though Great Britain eventually lost the tie. Murray then won the China Open for his fifth title of 2016 and 40th career tour title. He defeated Andreas Seppi, Andrey Kuznetsov, Kyle Edmund, David Ferrer, and Grigor Dimitrov all in straight sets. Murray then backed this up with a tournament win at the Shanghai Rolex Masters defeating Steve Johnson, Lucas Pouille, David Goffin, Gilles Simon, and Roberto Bautista Agut all in straight sets to capture his 13th masters title and 3rd title in Shanghai. This marked his 6th title of 2016 and drew him even with former No. 1 Stefan Edberg at No. 15 on the Open Era titles list with 41 Tour titles each.
Murray brought his win streak to 15 consecutive match wins by winning the Erste Bank Open for his seventh tour title of the 2016 season. His tournament started slowly with three - set wins over Martin Klizan and Gilles Simon in the first two rounds. However, a decisive win over John Isner in the quarter - final and a walkover due to David Ferrer 's withdrawal with a leg injury saw Murray reach the final. There he defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga, for his third title in succession. The result saw Murray win seven titles in a single season for the first time in his career, and move to solo 15th on the all - time list of singles titles in the Open Era, breaking a tie with former world No. 1 Stefan Edberg.
Murray entered the Paris Masters knowing that in the event of Djokovic not reaching the final, winning the title would be enough to see him crowned world No. 1 for the first time. After reaching the quarter - finals, courtesy of wins over Fernando Verdasco and Lucas Pouille, Murray faced Berdych for a place in the semi-finals, winning in straight sets. Meanwhile, Djokovic lost to Marin Cilic, meaning that Murray would replace Djokovic at the top of the rankings should he reach the final. He was due to face Milos Raonic in the semi-finals. However, Raonic withdrew prior to the start of the match, giving Murray a walkover. As a result, Murray became the first British man to reach No. 1 since the introduction of the rankings in 1973. Murray then defeated John Isner in the final in 3 sets to win his fourth consecutive tournament and first Paris Masters title. In November 2016, Murray reached the final of the ATP World Tour Finals for the first time before winning against Novak Djokovic in two sets, thus reaching year - end No. 1 and in doing so, becoming the first player to win a Grand Slam, the ATP World Tour Finals, the men 's singles at the Olympic Games and a Masters 1000 title in the same calendar year. The International Tennis Federation recognised Murray as their men 's 2016 ITF men 's world champion, the first time Murray had achieved this honour.
Murray was knighted in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to tennis and charity. He opened the season with a loss in the semi-finals of the Mubadala World Tennis Championship, to David Goffin, following which he won against Milos Raonic in the third - place play - off.
Murray then reached the final of the Qatar Open, which he lost in the final to Novak Djokovic in three sets despite saving three championship points. At the Australian Open he lost in the fourth round against Mischa Zverev in four sets.
Murray returned to action at the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships event in February. He won the tournament beating Fernando Verdasco in two sets, despite almost losing in the quarter - finals to Philipp Kohlschreiber where Murray had to save seven match points.
The next week, Murray lost in the second round of the Indian Wells Masters to Vasek Pospisil.
After missing a month due to an elbow injury, Murray returned to compete in the Monte - Carlo Masters in April, losing out in the third round to Albert Ramos - Vinolas. He then competed in Barcelona where he was beaten by Dominic Thiem in the semi-finals. Murray continued to struggle in his next two tournaments, losing to Borna Coric in the third round of Madrid, and to Fabio Fognini in second round of Rome, where he was defending champion. In both these defeats he failed to win a set.
At the 2017 French Open following tough four - set victories over Andrey Kuznetsov and Martin Kližan in the opening rounds, Murray defeated Juan Martín del Potro and Karen Khachanov in straight sets. In the quarter - finals he defeated Kei Nishikori in four sets, but lost in the semi-finals to Stan Wawrinka in five sets.
As the five - time champion at Queens, he pledged his prize money to the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire however he was defeated in straight sets by Jordan Thompson in the first round.
Despite concerns over a lingering hip injury, Murray returned to Wimbledon as the defending champion and progressed to the third round with straight set wins against Alexander Bublik and Dustin Brown. He dropped his first set of the tournament to Fabio Fognini but proceeded to the fourth round in four sets. Murray continued to the quarter final with a straight set victory against Benoit Paire. However, he was defeated in the quarter - final by Sam Querrey in five sets. The hip injury later forced him to miss the Canadian Open and the Cincinnati Masters, which led to him losing his No. 1 ranking to Rafael Nadal. His injury then forced him to withdraw from the 2017 US Open two days before the start of the tournament, making it the first Grand Slam tournament he had missed since the 2013 French Open. Murray then withdrew from the Asian hard court swing and said it was "most likely '' that he would not play in a professional tournament again in 2017. Ultimately he did indeed not play again, withdrawing from Paris which left him unable to qualify for the 2017 ATP Finals; as a result of his inactivity, in November his ranking fell to No. 16, his lowest ranking since May 2008. Murray returned to the court to play a charity match against Federer in Glasgow and expressed his hope to return to the tour in Brisbane. The following week, he and Ivan Lendl announced that they had mutually ended their coaching arrangement for a second time.
Murray withdrew from the Brisbane International and Australian Open due to hip injury. In a post on Instagram, Murray explained that rehab was one option for recovery. He added that hip surgery was also an option but that the chances of a successful outcome were not as high. On 8 January, Murray announced on Instagram he had undergone hip surgery.
In March, Murray lost his British No. 1 ranking to Kyle Edmund for the first time since 2006. Later that month, Murray said he was making progress after several days of playing at the Mouratoglou Academy in Nice after posting pictures of himself practising against Aidan McHugh, a British junior player, on Instagram. He then announced he would play his first ATP tournament since hip surgery at the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships in June, although he later withdrew saying he was not quite ready and wanted to be 100 %. However, he later announced he would make his return at the Queen 's Club Championships. He subsequently lost to Nick Kyrgios in the first round in three sets. He was given a wildcard for the Eastbourne International, where he beat Stan Wawrinka in the first round before losing to Kyle Edmund in the second. He withdrew from Wimbledon with a "heavy heart '' a day before the tournament, saying it was too soon to play five - set matches. As a result of this withdrawal, he dropped to 839th in the ATP rankings.
He then entered the Washington Open, where he won his first round match against Mackenzie McDonald in three sets. He then faced Kyle Edmund, who had dealt him his last defeat at Eastbourne, overcoming him in three sets. His next match, a dramatic three - set victory over Marius Copil in the third round, lasted until just past 3: 00 AM local time; Murray wept after the conclusion of the match, overcome with emotion. He then withdrew from the tournament and the Canadian Open the following week to continue his recovery and to focus on the Cincinnati Masters for which he was awarded a wildcard. He eventually lost in the first round to France 's Lucas Pouille in three sets.
Murray made his grand slam return at the US Open where he defeated the Australian James Duckworth in four sets. He faces Fernando Verdasco in the second round.
Novak Djokovic and Murray have met 36 times with Djokovic leading 25 -- 11. Djokovic leads 5 -- 1 on clay, 20 -- 8 on hard courts, and Murray leads 2 -- 0 on grass. The two are almost exactly the same age, with Murray being only a week older than Djokovic. They went to training camp together, and Murray won the first match they ever played as teenagers. The pair have met 19 times in finals, with Djokovic leading 11 -- 8. Ten of the finals were at ATP Masters 1000 events, and they are tied at 5 -- 5. They have met in seven Major finals: The 2011 Australian Open, the 2012 US Open, the 2013 Australian Open, the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, the 2015 Australian Open, the 2016 Australian Open, and the 2016 French Open. Djokovic has won in Australia four times and their single French open final, Murray emerged as the victor at the US Open and Wimbledon. The former of Murray 's victories was the longest ever final at the US Open, tying with the 1988 final played between Ivan Lendl and Mats Wilander at 4 hours and 53 minutes, while the latter was notable for being the first home triumph in men 's singles at Wimbledon since 1936.
They also played a nearly five - hour long semi-final match in the 2012 Australian Open, which Djokovic won 7 -- 5 in the fifth set after Murray led 2 sets to 1. Murray and Djokovic met again in 2012 at the London 2012 Olympic Games, with Murray winning in straight sets. During the final of the 2012 Shanghai Masters, Murray held five championship points in the second set, however Djokovic saved each of them, forcing a deciding set. He eventually prevailed to win his first Shanghai Masters title, ending Murray 's 12 -- 0 winning streak at the event. The three set matches they played in Rome and Shanghai in 2011 and 2012 respectively were voted the ATP World Tour Match of the Year for each respective season. Due to the tight competition between 2008 and 2013, many saw this as the emerging rivalry. Djokovic went on to dominate the rivalry after the 2013 Wimbledon final, winning 13 of their last 16 matches. In 2016, Murray suffered his 4th loss (his 5th total) in the final of the Australian Open from Djokovic, then the Serbian defeated the British player in four sets in the Roland Garros final, where Djokovic won his first Roland Garros title and completed the Career Grand Slam. Murray and Djokovic met in the final at the year 's end final of the ATP World Tour Finals for the first time in their rivalry, where the winner would be granted the Year - end No. 1 status. Djokovic, dropped only one set en route to the final at the ATP World Tour Finals, but lost in straight sets to Murray, who finished the year at No. 1 and became the first British player to achieve this feat.
Murray and Roger Federer have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 -- 11. Federer leads 12 -- 10 on hard courts, 2 -- 1 on grass, and they have never met on clay. After Federer won the first professional match they played, Murray dominated the first half of the rivalry, winning 8 of their first 13 matches from 2005 until 2010. The second half of the rivalry has been dominated by Federer, who since won 9 of their last 12 matches from 2010, and has led their rivalry since the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals. Federer leads 5 -- 3 in finals, having won each of their Grand Slam Final meetings at the 2008 US Open and 2010 Australian Open, both of which Federer won in straight sets, and the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, where Murray took the first set, but ended up losing in 4 sets. Murray leads 6 -- 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments and 2 -- 0 in finals. They have met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals, with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 and Federer coming out victorious in London in 2009, 2010, 2012, and in 2014.
In August 2012, Murray met Federer in the final of the London 2012 Olympics at Wimbledon Centre Court, just four weeks after the 2012 Wimbledon Final, in which Federer had defeated Murray to win his record - tying 7th title at the All - England Club. Murray defeated Federer in straight sets to win the gold medal, denying Federer a Career Golden Slam. In 2013 Murray beat Federer for the first time in a Major in the semi-finals of the Australian Open, prevailing in five sets after Federer had come back twice from a set down. Their last grand slam meeting was at the 2015 Wimbledon Championships semi-finals, where a dominant Federer defeated Murray in straight sets, earning a place in his 10th Wimbledon final. Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer, the other two being Nadal and Djokovic. Their most recent meeting took place at the 2015 Cincinnati Masters semi-finals, with Federer winning the match in two close sets, recording his fifth consecutive victory over Murray.
Murray has played against Rafael Nadal on 24 occasions since 2007, with Nadal leading 17 -- 7. Nadal leads 7 -- 2 on clay, 3 -- 0 on grass and 7 -- 5 on hard courts. The pair regularly meet at Grand Slam level, with nine out of their twenty - four meetings coming in slams, with Nadal leading 7 -- 2 (3 -- 0 at Wimbledon, 2 -- 0 at the French Open, 1 -- 1 at the Australian Open and 1 -- 1 at the US Open). Eight of these nine appearances have been at quarter - final and semi-final level. They have never met in a Slam final, however, Murray leads 3 -- 1 in ATP finals, with Nadal winning at Indian Wells in 2009 and Murray winning in Rotterdam the same year, Tokyo in 2011, and at Madrid in 2015.
Murray lost three consecutive Grand Slam semi-finals to Nadal in 2011 from the French Open to the US Open. The pair had not met for three years since the final of the 2011 Japan Open until the quarter - finals of the 2014 Rome Masters, although they were scheduled to meet in the semi-final of the 2012 Miami Masters before Nadal withdrew with injury. At the semi-final stage of the 2014 French Open, Nadal triumphed in a dominant straight sets win for the loss of just 6 games. In one of their most recent meetings, Murray beat Nadal for the first time on clay, and the first time in a Masters 1000 final, at the Madrid Open in 2015. Murray fell to Nadal in the semi-finals of the 2016 Monte Carlo Masters, despite taking the first set. Three weeks later they met again at the semi-final stage of the 2016 Madrid Open, this time Murray winning the match in straight sets.
Murray and Stan Wawrinka have played 19 times with Murray leading 11 -- 8. Murray leads 7 -- 4 on hard courts and 3 -- 0 on grass courts while Wawrinka leads 4 -- 1 on clay courts. They have also met six times in Grand Slam tournaments with each player winning three matches. They have contested some close matches and one of their most notable matches was in the 2009 Wimbledon fourth round which Murray won in five sets and was the first men 's match to be played under the Wimbledon roof, having the latest finish for a Wimbledon match at the time. Wawrinka also ended Murray 's title defense at the 2013 US Open quarter - finals with a comfortable straight sets victory. Other close matches the two have contested include the 2010 US Open which Wawrinka won in four sets. Murray won the 2008 Canada Open and 2011 Shanghai Masters.
While Murray has led the majority of the rivalry, Wawrinka won their first two matches and beat Murray three consecutive times between 2013 and 2015, winning all of them in straight sets, until Murray ended the losing streak at the 2016 French Open, beating the defending champion Wawrinka in four sets to reach his first ever French Open final and become the first British man to do so since 1937. Their most recent match was played in the semi-final of the 2017 French Open, which Wawrinka won in five sets. Due to this match - up and since both players each have three Grand Slam titles, Wawrinka has been identified by some, including Djokovic, as a potential contender to turn the Big Four tennis quartet into a "Big Five '', although Wawrinka himself has downplayed those suggestions, stating that he is still far behind them.
Murray plays an all - court game with an emphasis on defensive baseline play, and professional tennis coach Paul Annacone stated that Murray "may be the best counterpuncher on tour today. '' His strengths include groundstrokes with low error rate, the ability to anticipate and react, and his transition from defence to offence with speed, which enables him to hit winners from defensive positions. His playing style has been likened to that of Miloslav Mečíř. Murray also has one of the best two - handed backhands on the tour, with dynamic stroke execution while he primarily uses his forehand, which is more passive, and a sliced backhand to let opponents play into his defensive game before playing more offensively. Tim Henman has stated that Murray may now have the best lob in the game, succeeding Lleyton Hewitt. Murray 's tactics often involve passive exchanges from the baseline. He is capable of injecting sudden pace into his groundstrokes to surprise his opponents who are used to the slow rally. Murray is also one of the top returners in the game, often able to block back fast serves with his excellent reach and ability to anticipate. For this reason, Murray is rarely aced.
Murray is known for being one of the most intelligent tacticians on the court, often constructing points. Other strengths in his game, although not huge parts of his game, include his drop shot and net game. As he plays predominantly from the baseline, he usually approaches the net to volley when finishing points more quickly. Murray is most proficient on a fast surface, like grass, where he has won eight singles titles including the Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 Olympic Gold Medal, although hard courts are his preferred surface. He has worked hard since 2008 on improving his clay court game, ultimately winning his first clay titles during 2015 at Munich and Madrid, as well as reaching his first French Open final during 2016. While Murray 's serve is a major weapon for him, with his first serve reaching speeds of 130 mph or higher on some occasions and winning him many free points, it can become inconsistent when hit under pressure, especially with a more vulnerable and slower second serve. Since his 2011 season and Ivan Lendl 's coaching, Murray has played a more offensive game and has also worked to improve his second serve, forehand, consistency and mental game which have all been crucial to his further success.
In 2009, German manufacturer Adidas and Murray signed a five - year - deal worth £ 30 million. This included wearing their range of tennis shoes. The contract with Adidas allowed Murray to keep his shirt sleeve sponsors Shiatzy Chen, Royal Bank of Scotland and Highland Spring. Before he was signed by Adidas in late 2009, he wore Fred Perry apparel. At the end of their contract together Adidas decided not to re-sign with Murray, and he began a 4 - year partnership with athletic apparel company Under Armour in December 2014, reportedly worth $25 million. Murray uses Head rackets, and regularly appears in advertisements for the brand. In June 2012, the Swiss watch manufacturer Rado announced that Murray had signed a deal to wear their D - Star 200 model.
Murray 's coaching staff has changed through the years and are as follows: Leon Smith (1998 -- 2004), Pato Álvarez (2003 -- 2005), Mark Petchey (2005 -- 2006), Brad Gilbert (2006 -- 2007), Miles Maclagan (2007 -- 2010), Àlex Corretja (2010 -- 2011), Ivan Lendl (2011 -- 2014, 2016 -- 2017), Amélie Mauresmo (2014 -- 2016), Jonas Björkman (2015), Jamie Delgado (2016 --).
Murray is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with David Beckham. Footage from the launch at Wembley Stadium can be seen on YouTube and the charity 's website. Murray also made ' Nets Needed ', a short public service announcement, for the charity to help raise awareness and funds to help in the fight against malaria. Murray has also taken part in several charity tennis events, including the Rally for Relief events that took place prior to the start of the 2011 Australian Open.
In June 2013, Murray teamed up with former British No. 1 Tim Henman for a charity doubles match against Murray 's coach and eight - time grand slam champion Ivan Lendl, and No. 6 Tomáš Berdych at the Queen 's Club in London. The event named Rally Against Cancer was organised to raise money for Royal Marsden Cancer Charity after his best friend and fellow British player Ross Hutchins was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma. The event took place following the final day of competitive play at the AEGON Championships, on Sunday 16 June. Subsequently, following his victory at the tournament, Murray donated his entire prize money pot to The Royal Marsden Cancer Charity.
In June 2014, following the death of Elena Baltacha, Murray featured in an event known as ' Rally for Bally '. Murray played at Queen 's Club alongside Victoria Azarenka, Martina Hingis, Heather Watson and his brother Jamie. The event raised money for the Royal Marsden Cancer Charity and the Elena Baltacha Academy of Tennis. Children from Baltacha 's academy took to the court to play alongside Murray. As a result of his various charitable exploits, Murray was awarded the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year award for 2014.
Murray identifies himself as Scottish and British. His national identity has often been commented on by the media. While making a cameo appearance on the comedy show Outnumbered, Murray was asked whether he was British or Scottish, to which he responded "Depends whether I win or not. '' Much of the discussion about Murray 's national identity began prior to Wimbledon 2006, when he was quoted as saying he would "support whoever England is playing '' at the 2006 World Cup. English ex-tennis player Tim Henman confirmed that the remarks had been made in jest and were only in response to Murray being teased by journalist Des Kelly and Henman about Scotland 's failure to qualify.
Murray initially refused to endorse either side of the debate in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, citing the abuse he had received after his comments in 2006. Just before the referendum, Murray tweeted a message that was considered by the media to be supportive of independence. He received online abuse for expressing his opinion, including messages that were described as "vile '' by Police Scotland; one referred to the Dunblane massacre. A few days after the vote, in which a 55 % majority opposed Scottish independence, Murray said that he did not regret stating his view, but said that it was out of character and that he would concentrate on his tennis career in the future.
After defeating Nikolay Davydenko at Wimbledon 2012, Murray pointed upwards with both hands and wagged them back and forth while looking to the sky. Murray declined to reveal the reason, and ever since, he has continued to celebrate his victories with this gesture. Murray marked his first Wimbledon title in 2013 with the same victory salute. Then in his book ' Seventy - Seven; My Path to Wimbledon Glory ', released in November 2013, Murray said: "The real reason is that around that time I had a few friends and family who had various issues affecting them... I knew that they would be watching and I wanted to let them know I was thinking of them. ''
After winning the Brisbane International in January 2013, he dedicated the victory to his friend Ross Hutchins who had been diagnosed with cancer in December 2012. Hutchins confirmed that Murray 's victory salute after this win was a sign to him.
In 2006, there was uproar after a match with Kenneth Carlsen. Having been given a warning for racket abuse, he went on in the post-match interview to state that he and Carlsen had "played like women '' during the first set. Murray was booed for the remark, but explained later that the comment had been intended as a jocular response to what Svetlana Kuznetsova had said at the Hopman Cup. A few months later, Murray was fined for swearing at the umpire during a Davis Cup doubles rubber with the Serbia and Montenegro Davis Cup team. Murray refused to shake hands with the umpire at the end of the match.
In 2007, Murray suggested that tennis had a match - fixing problem, stating that everyone knows it goes on, in the wake of the investigation surrounding Nikolay Davydenko. Both Davydenko and Rafael Nadal questioned his comments, but Murray responded that his words had been taken out of context.
In a June 2015 column written for the French sports newspaper L'Équipe Murray criticised what he described as a double standard applied by many in their attitudes towards Amélie Mauresmo in her role as Murray 's coach, highlighting how many observers attributed his poor performances during the early part of her tenure to her appointment, which Murray denied, before pointing out that his previous coaches had not been blamed by the media for other spells of poor form. He also lamented the lack of female coaches working in elite tennis, and concluded: "Have I become a feminist? Well, if being a feminist is about fighting so that a woman is treated like a man then yes, I suppose I have ''. Murray has corrected others a number of times on the subject of women 's tennis. After BBC host John Inverdale indirectly suggested Murray was the first person to win more than one tennis Olympic gold medal, Murray interjected; "I think Venus and Serena have won about four each. '' Murray has also argued that male and female tennis players should receive equal amounts of prize money.
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which came first the navy or the marines | History of the United States Marine Corps - wikipedia
The history of the United States Marine Corps (USMC) begins with the founding of the Continental Marines on 10 November 1775 to conduct ship - to - ship fighting, provide shipboard security and discipline enforcement, and assist in landing forces. Its mission evolved with changing military doctrine and foreign policy of the United States. Owing to the availability of Marine forces at sea, the United States Marine Corps has served in nearly every conflict in United States history. It attained prominence when its theories and practice of amphibious warfare proved prescient, and ultimately formed a cornerstone of the Pacific Theater of World War II. By the early 20th century, the Marine Corps would become one of the dominant theorists and practitioners of amphibious warfare. Its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises has made and continues to make it an important tool for U.S. foreign policy.
In February 1776, the Continental Marines embarked on their maiden expedition. The Continental Marines were disbanded at the end of the war, along with the Continental Navy. In preparation for the Quasi-War with France, Congress created the United States Navy and the Marine Corps. The Marines ' most famous action of this period occurred in the First Barbary War (1801 -- 1805) against the Barbary pirates. In the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace, which overlooked Mexico City, their first major expeditionary venture. In the 1850s, the Marines would see service in Panama, and in Asia. The Marine Corps played only a minor role after their breaking ranks and causing the collapse of the Union Line at the first battle of Manassas. During the U.S. Civil War (1861 -- 1865); their most important task was blockade duty and other ship - board battles, but were mobilized for a handful of operations as the war progressed. The remainder of the 19th century would be a period of declining strength and introspection about the mission of the Marine Corps. Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin 's term (1864 -- 1876), many Marine customs and traditions took shape. During the Spanish -- American War (1898), Marines would lead U.S. forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. Between 1900 and 1916, the Marine Corps continued its record of participation in foreign expeditions, especially in the Caribbean and Central and South America, which included Panama, Cuba, Veracruz, Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Nicaragua.
In World War I, battle - tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the United States ' entry into the conflict. Between the world wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Major General John A. Lejeune, another popular commandant. In World War II, the Marines played a central role, under Admiral Nimitz, in the Pacific War, participating in nearly every significant battle. The Corps also saw its peak growth as it expanded from two brigades to two corps with six divisions, and five air wings with 132 squadrons. During the battle for Iwo Jima, photographer Joe Rosenthal took the famous photo Raising of the Flag on Iwo Jima of five Marines and one naval corpsman raising a U.S. flag on Mount Suribachi. The Korean War (1950 -- 1953) saw the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade holding the line at the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, where Marine helicopters (VMO - 6 flying the HO3S1 helicopter) made their combat debut. The Marines also played an important role in the Vietnam War at battles such as Da Nang, Huế, and Khe Sanh. The Marines operated in the northern I Corps regions of South Vietnam and fought both a constant guerilla war against the Viet Cong and an off and on conventional war against North Vietnamese Army regulars. Marines went to Beirut during the 1982 Lebanon War on 24 August. On 23 October 1983, the Marine barracks in Beirut was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history. Marines were also responsible for liberating Kuwait during the Gulf War (1990 -- 1991), as the Army made an attack to the west directly into Iraq. The I Marine Expeditionary Force had a strength of 92,990 making Operation Desert Storm the largest Marine Corps operation in history.
Perhaps the earliest lineal predecessor of the modern Marine Corps was the creation and evolution of marines dating back to the European naval wars, during the Second Hundred Years ' War (1689 -- 1815) of the 17th and 18th century, particularly the Second Anglo - Dutch War (1665 -- 67). The European powers all contended with each other in naval power. James II of England, the brother of King Charles II, was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that had authoritative command over the English Royal Navy. The position at this time was exercised by a single person, usually an admiral to oversee the structure and institution of naval affairs. As France and the Netherlands were opting to train seamen for infantry combat, England instead in 1664 formed a special regiment, the Duke of York and Albany 's Maritime Regiment of Foot, also known as the "Lord High Admiral 's Regiment '', the progenitors of the modern Royal Marines. This maritime infantry regiment was directed to be under the complete control of the Admiralty. The Lord High Admiral 's Regiment saw action in the Franco - Dutch War (1672 -- 1678), and the Third Anglo - Dutch War (1672 -- 74). However, due to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, King James II was overthrown by British Parliament, leading to the disbandment of the regiment.
Two years later, two new regiments were formed, the 1st and 2nd Regiment of (Royal) Marines, their functions assumed the same roles as the subsequent marine regiments in the past; however the ensuing wars of the Second Hundred Years ' War, like the Royal Navy, the marine regiment would quickly dissolve only to be reassembled during the events of war. The general military service type of "marines '' first appeared throughout the Dutch and French wars, but the majority of the marine infantry regiments were perpetually drawn from the British Army; all the regiments had little permanence.
By 1702, the English government assembled six maritime regiments of foot for combative naval service with the fleet against Spain, during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702 -- 1714). But unlike the earlier campaigns from previous regiments of the past, in which the earlier British marines had fought as detachments aboard ships; in 1704, these marines found themselves fighting ashore the beaches of Gibraltar and Spain as part of an amphibious assault landing force, with the help of Dutch forces under the command of Prince George of Hesse - Darmstadt. By the time the war ended, once again the marine regiments were disbanded, or returned to fill the ranks of the British Army.
25 years later in 1731, an incident involving master mariner Robert Jenkins, an English captain of a British merchant ship who allegedly had his ear severed by Spanish coast guardsmen off the coast of New Granada (modern countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama), initiating the War of Jenkins ' Ear (1739 -- 1742). This affair and a number of similar incidents sparked a war against the Spanish Empire. Meanwhile, two companies of Marine Boatmen drawn from the Georgia Militia, commanded by Captains Mark Carr and Noble Jones under General James Oglethorpe, helped in defeating an amphibious landing attempted by the Spanish on St. Simons Island in the Battle of Gully Hole Creek and the Battle of Bloody Marsh.
The British government formed ten regiments of marines for a naval campaign against the Spanish colonies in the West Indies and north coast of South America. Admiral Edward Vernon, a British naval officer, was given command of a squadron of five vessels. And again, most of the marines were drafted from the British Army. The British Admiralty requested that its American colonies form a regiment of three thousand men for naval service aboard Admiral Edward Vernon 's fleet. Edward Vernon can be considered by many military history enthusiasts the first naval fleet commander over American marines. The American colonial marines were raised in the colony of Virginia and from other Middle Colonies, under the command of Governor William Gooch. Although it may have been composed of men from surrounding colonies intent for a Crown commission, it was also used as a dumping ground for its debtors, criminals, scoundrels, and vagrants. This "four - battalion '' regiment, the 43rd Regiment of Foot, better known as "Gooch 's Marines '', has a lineage that can be traced to the origin of the United States Marine Corps.
On 21 November 1739, Admiral Vernon, along with Sir Gooch and his marines, headed toward the West Indies and successfully captured the Spanish colonial possession of Portobelo (present - day) Panama. However, because of the conditions of its service -- thinned by diseases, bad weather, and a near - mutinous crew -- the regiment had only three hundred of its most trustworthy men serve ashore in Vernon 's unsuccessful deadly amphibious assault against the strategic defenses on the colonial seaport of Cartagena, forcing a retreat to Jamaica. As a successful method in social purification, the only remaining 10 - percent survived the disastrous Cartegena expedition. Thereafter, Vernon 's fleet returned to the United Kingdom of Great Britain toward the end of 1742. Like their British components, the colonial marines disbanded as a regiment. One of the regiment 's surviving officers, marine captain Lawrence Washington, a half - brother of George Washington, served aboard Admiral Vernon 's flagship HMS Princess Caroline. The future patriot General George Washington later named his estate Mount Vernon in honor of his half - brother 's commander.
Time again, the recall of reforming maritime regiments was in need when the War of Jenkins ' Ear had escalated into the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 1748), which brought another set of ten British marine regiments into naval service. The remaining independent companies within the British marine regiments merged with another regiment in 1746; by the end of the war it too was dissolved, their officers placed on half pay.
In 1755, British Parliament allowed the marines to be institutionalized on some grounds of permanence as they were insistent in building their own military force, particularly its naval fleet under the Admiralty. Thus, the Corps of Royal Marines was born; over five thousand marines were recruited and were assembled into fifty independent companies, assigned as "divisions '' to three large English naval bases.
During the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), also known as the French and Indian War in the colonies, the marines were then appropriately dispersed amongst the Royal navy warships, the Royal Marines played an integral part in successful naval expeditions. These ship detachments soon formed expeditionary battalions that fought ashore Canada, Cuba, and the Philippines. Now being strictly under the control of the Admiralty, the Marines were used exclusively for expeditions and raids, becoming so essential to the maritime strategy of Prime Minister William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. Their primary mission in ship - to - ship combat and ship seizures were to pick off officers with expert musketry, to repel borders with skilled bayonetry, and to augment as gun crew members when necessary. Also, they played a major part of a ships landing party for operations ashore, raiding naval bases, stores, etc, etc. But during cruising conditions, the marines policed and enforced ship regulations about fires, thievery, and unlawful conduct by sailors, to include prevention and deterrence against a mutinous crew. By the end of the war, the Corps of Royal Marines remained an important force within the Royal Navy. On the eve of the American Revolutionary War, roughly 4,500 marine officers and enlistees were still in existence. It was the same quantum of traditions by the British marines that influenced the likelihood from the rebelled American colonies in establishing its own legion of (Continental) marines, adopting the same ethics and traditions alike.
That a letter be wrote to council, to put vessels under the General 's command and direction, and to furnish him instantly with every necessary in their power, at the expence of the Continent.
In that letter, it was the first time that Congress ever mentions "Marines '' in United States history. When the battles of Lexington and Concord sparked the beginning of the American Revolutionary War on 19 April 1775, the leaders of the American rebellion soon recognized that in order to prevent the British army from restoring Crown rule and further occupation into the colonies of New England, they would have to resort to a naval war. Although this realization had consumed the Second Continental Congress (by then convened in Philadelphia), its members remained reluctant to support a naval campaign against the world 's strongest fleet. Thus, the Royal Navy had the ability to reinforce and supply the British garrisons in the town of Boston, in the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
On 19 April, the initial siege of Boston (1775 -- 1776) by the Minutemen militia impeded the flow of reinforcements and supplies to the British army. By 14 June, the Second Continental Congress chose to adopt the militia and formed it into the new Continental Army, and unanimously elected George Washington the next day as its Commander - in - Chief. A set of naval constraints were established due to the successful siege complemented by the supporting capabilities that the British were giving their garrisons.
Even though there still was n't a formidable Continental navy yet, the individual colonies each had navies and marines of their own. Units of the Continental Army and groups of militia were sometimes pressed to serve as sailors and naval infantry on ships, purposely serving as marines. These American colonial marines have no lineage traceable to the Continental Marines, nor the modern United States Marine Corps; nonetheless, they fought the British as American marines as early as May.
As the newly appointed commander of the Continental Army, George Washington was desperate for firearms, powder, and provisions; he opted to supply his own force from matériel from captured British military transports. To further expand his fleet, he also resorted to the maritime regiment of the Massachusetts militia, the 14th Continental Regiment (also known as the "Marblehead Regiment '') to help muster in ranks. This unique regiment subsequently folded into Washington 's army in January 1776. The Marblehead Regiment was entirely composed of New England mariners, providing little difficulty in administering crews for Washington 's navy.
His decision to create his fleet came without difficulties in recruiting new rebel naval forces either, for the siege of Boston stirred the war along the entire coast of New England and into the strategic Lake Champlain area on the New York border. The Royal Navy concentrated its vessels in the New England open waters, while its smaller warships raided the coastal towns and destroyed rebel military stores for supplies and provisions; and to punish the colonials for their rebellion -- in accordance to the Proclamation of Rebellion that was chartered by King George. In response, several small vessels were commissioned by the governments of Massachusetts and Connecticut by the summer of 1775, authorizing the privateering against British government ships. In August 1775, Washington 's makeshift naval fleet continued the interdiction of Massachusetts Bay; being a huge success, by the end of the year he was in command of four warships: the USS Franklin, USS Hancock, USS Lee, and USS Warren.
Meanwhile, the New England militia forces of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Vermont (the Green Mountain Boys), under the command of Benedict Arnold, seized the strategic post of Fort Ticonderoga and temporarily eliminated British control of Lake Champlain -- using a small flotilla of shallow - draft vessels armed with light artillery. Early as May 1775, the sloop Interprise (sic) ushered eighteen men, presumably the Massachusetts militiamen, as marines on the payroll. Later in May, the Connecticut Committee of Public Safety consigned ₤ 500 to Arnold, the shipment of payment was "escorted with Eight marines... well spirited and equipped, '' although they were actually seamen. They are often referred to as the "Original Eight ''.
General George Washington decided to attempt an invasion of Canada on 27 June 1775, by the American Continental Army to wrest Quebec and the St. Lawrence River from the British. A force led by Brigadier General Richard Montgomery headed north from Fort Ticonderoga along Lake Champlain and up the St. Lawrence River valley. Meanwhile, Colonel Benedict Arnold persuaded Washington to have him lead his own separate expedition through the Maine wilderness.
By August 1775, the Rhode Island Assembly, along with other colonial committees of safety, requested Second Continental Congress for naval assistance from Royal Navy raiders but it was appealed. Although Congress was aware of Britain 's naval strength and its own financial limitations, it addressed itself reluctantly to the problem of creating a formidable continental navy. They were hesitant to the requests, only positing that they were only able to form a naval force from Washington 's and Arnold 's fleets; the colonies were left to fend for themselves. As a result, Rhode Island established their own state navy.
The colonial marines of Washington 's naval fleet, Benedict Arnold 's Lake Champlain flotilla, and privateers, made no distinction of their duties as their activities were no different from English customs: marines were basically soldiers detailed for naval service whose primary duties were to fight aboard but not sail their ships. Washington 's navy expeditions throughout the remaining months of 1775 suggested that his ship crews of mariner - militiamen were not divided distinctly between sailors and marines; the Marblehead Regiment performed a plethora of duties aboard the warships. However, the Pennsylvania Committee of Public Safety made a dividing line between the sailors and marines when it decided to form a state navy to protect the Delaware River and its littoral areas.
Early October, Congress members, such as John Adams, and colonial governments pushed Congress in creating a navy, however small. To examine the possible establishment of a national navy, the Naval Committee was appointed on 5 October (predecessor to the House and Senate Committees on Naval Affairs). On 13 October 1775, Congress authorized its Naval Committee to form a squadron of four converted Philadelphia merchantmen, with the addition of two smaller vessels. Despite a shortage in funding, the Continental Navy was formed.
In 1775, the Royal Navy numbered 268 warships, and by the end of the year it grew to a fleet force of 468 ships; its naval personnel increased during the war from 10,000 to 18,000. By contrast, the Continental Navy -- including the state navies -- had managed to maintain over 50 commissioned warships by winter of 1776 -- 1777, which fell in numbers thereafter; its manpower most likely numbered no more than a total of 30,000 sailors and marines. To the hundreds of small privateers that sailed the North Atlantic, the American naval forces found it increasingly difficult to take prizes, let alone influence the outcome of the war.
The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on 9 November 1775, consulting the Naval Committee to send an amphibious expedition to Halifax in Nova Scotia. Having launched two land expeditions toward the St. Lawrence River months earlier, (as Richard Montgomery 's and Benedict Arnold 's forces were each making their way toward Quebec City to join forces (later leading to the Battle of Quebec)), Congress was convinced that sending marines to fight at sea and engage military operations ashore were paramount in destroying an important British naval base in Halifax, and to procure enemy provisions and supplies, if possible. On 10 November 1775, the Naval Committee was directed by Congress to raise two marine battalions at the Continental expense. Also, Congress decided the marines would not only be used for the Nova Scotia expedition but for subsequent service thereafter. Henceforth, the Naval Committee established a network of appointments for offices; paymaster, commissions, procurements, equipment, etc., for establishing a future national corps of marines. The United States Marine Corps still celebrates 10 November, as its official birthday Borrowing from the Royal Navy, the practices and printed instructions were outlined in the "Rules for the Regulations of the Navy of the United Colonies. '' It was intended that the American marines would provide the same services as British marines.
The two battalions of Continental Marines officially became "resolved '' when Congress issued the first commission to Captain Samuel Nicholas on 28 November 1775. Nicholas ' family were tavernkeepers, his prominence came not from his work but from his leadership in two local clubs for fox - hunters and sport fishermen. Historian Edwin Simmons surmises that it is most likely Nicholas was using his family tavern, the "Conestoga Waggon '' (sic), as a recruiting post; although the standing legend in the United States Marine Corps today places its first recruiting post at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia.
In December 1775, to aid in drafting plans in expanding the Continental Navy and to supervise the construction of vessels and procurement of naval equipment, the Continental Congress established a permanent committee for the Marine Corps, the Marine Committee (the forerunner of the United States Department of the Navy). It would supersede the duties of the naval affairs committee; which the majority of the personnel were also appointed in the same office of the Naval Committee. The Marine Committee contained thirteen members, one for each colony, included important figures, such as Robert Morris, John Hancock, and Samuel Chase. The Naval Committee would oversee the Marine Committee on matters concerning naval expeditions and projections. It exercised legislative, judicial, and executive powers. However, the lack of an administrative head and of actual authority over the states, impeded the Marine Committee as they did Congress. Since the Marine Committee was responsible in drafting plans for the expansion of the Continental Navy, three days later after its establishment it recommended to Congress to build a force of thirteen frigates, outfitted with 24 -- 36 guns. Congress accepted the program as it would protect colonial merchant trade from the British blockaders; on the recommendation that the construction of warships will be decentralized.
Congress was greatly depending on Washington 's cooperation for the Nova Scotia expedition and were planning to draw them from Washington 's army, but Washington was unenthusiastic about the plan and suggested instead to Congress to recruit unemployed seamen for the proposed marine battalions in New York and Philadelphia (which at the time was the Nation 's first capital city (before moving to the District of Columbia)). Congress agreed on the decision. Ten additional Marine officers were appointed by Captain Nicholas, the majority of officers and enlistees were Philadelphian small merchants and businessmen, skilled tradesmen and workers, and unskilled laborers. Even there were some that were acquainted to those in Congress or in the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety. The primary duties of the officers were recruiting and persuading men to enlist, most officers were commissioned because their most important qualification was knowledge of working the local taverns and other hot - spots of the working class. The officers would sweep through the city for potential recruits, accompanied by drummers borrowed from the Philadelphia Associators, a city militia. Nicholas and his officers might have had some maritime experience, but it is unlikely that they were skilled mariners. Five companies of about 300 Marines were raised. While armed, they were not equipped with standardized uniforms.
Continental Congress appointed Rhode Island Navy Commodore Esek Hopkins as the Commander - in - Chief of the Continental Navy on 22 December 1775.; in Philadelphia, the Marine Committee outfitted a flotilla of five ships, the first squadron in the Continental fleet. His brother, Stephen Hopkins, served in the Continental Congress and was co-chairman of Naval Affairs and the Marine Committee. Formally commissioned as captains by Congress include: Esek 's son, John Burroughs Hopkins, who commandeered the brigantine USS Cabot. USS Alfred was placed in commission on 3 December 1775, with Capt. Dudley Saltonstall in command, as to serve as Hopkins ' flagship, becoming the first vessel to fly the Grand Union Flag (the precursor to the Stars and Stripes) hoisted by Lieutenant John Paul Jones in February 1776; and the brigantine USS Andrew Doria, commandeered by Nicholas Biddle. A prominent naval commander in the Rhode Island Navy, Commodore Abraham Whipple, decided to transfer his commission to the Continental Navy and was commissioned a captain on 22 December 1775. He was given command of a frigate USS Columbus; armed with twenty - four guns and a serving crew of sailors and company of Nicholas 's Continental Marines aboard its quarters.
By 17 February, the Continental Marines embarked onto Hopkin 's six vessels for their maiden expedition. It was the first amphibious / expedition for the Continental Navy - Marine Corps. Hopkins was given the task to patrol the southern American coastline to intercept and clear any presence of British troops, then return north to New England and perform similar services. He was instructed to attack the British fleet under John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, in Chesapeake Bay, Hopkins considered his orders discretionary and the enemy too strong. He was ordered to clear the American coast of British warships, then return north to perform similar services. Since rebel warships were already active off the New England coast, and the Middle Colonies were forming their own coastal defense navies; Hopkins 's orders made strategic sense. However, for reasons that remain obscure, he disobeyed his ambitious orders to sweep the southern seas of British ships, and to safeguard the southern American coastline. Instead without proper authority he directed his squadron to head south en route to the Bahama Islands.
As he reach the Bahamas on 1 March 1776, his squadron began harassing small British forces guarding the small islands around New Providence Island, and raiding for gunpowder for Washington 's army.
While Hopkins and Nicholas were sailing the Atlantic and Caribbean, Congress authorized the Marine Committee to purchase two more brigantines for the Continental Navy. The Marine Committee purchased brigantine Wild Duck, from the Maryland Committee of Safety and renamed her USS Lexington, commemorating the battle in Lexington of Middlesex County. Lexington then was turned over to "Wharton and Humphrey 's Shipyard '' in Philadelphia for fitting for Continental service. John Barry was commissioned as a captain in the Continental Navy, dated 14 March 1776; along with this commission went command of the brig Lexington, his first warship. The Marine Committee of the Continental Congress purchased merchantman Molly on 28 March 1776; renamed her USS Reprisal and placed under the command of Captain Lambert Wickes. These two vessels were to be used to supplement the efforts of the Pennsylvania Navy in clearing the lower approaches of the Delaware River. They also appointed a ship captain and four new additional Marine officers for each vessel, all of whom by March 1776 were recruiting enlistees.
On 3 March 1776, the Continental Marines made their first epitomized amphibious landing in American history when they attempted an amphibious assault during the Battle of Nassau. However, they failed to achieve a surprise attack as Hopkins directed his captains to make an opposed landing of all his 234 of Marines, and some fifty seamen on the island of New Providence, to assault the British Fort Montagu hoping to seize supplies and provisions. The next day, they then marched to Fort Nassau to seize more shots, shells, and cannons. However, the failure of surprise the day before had warned the defenders and allowed the British governor to send off their stock of gunpowder in the night. One British merchantman ship escaped, leaving all but 24 barrels of gunpowder. The Continental Marines and sailors stripped the garrisons of cannon and ordnance supply before departing. The acquired matériel were essential to the supply armament of the Continental Army.
On 16 March, Commodore Hopkins withdrew from New Providence. Sailing back to Rhode Island on the 16th, the squadron captured four small prize ships. The squadron finally returned on 8 April 1776, with 7 dead Marines and four wounded. While returning from the Bahamas, Hopkin 's squadron encountered a British ship off the coast of New York City on 5 April. Here, Nicholas 's Marines participated in the capture of HMS Bolton. The next day (6 April), the Marines and sailors engaged in a naval battle between Hopkin 's Cabot and Alfred and the British frigate HMS Glasgow off the coast of Long Island, New York. Four Marines wounded and seven killed; Lieutenant John Fitzpatrick was the first Continental Marine killed in combat. Sailing back toward Rhode Island, the squadron captured four small prize ships. The Hopkin 's squadron reached New London on 8 April 1776.
John Martin 's enlistment gave him the role as the first black American Marine. In Philadelphia in April 1776, he signed to service aboard the Continental brig Reprisal docked along with Lexington in Philadelphia. While patrolling off the Virginia Capes, Lexington encountered HMS Edward and the sailors and Marines boarded the British brigantine - sloop and captured it on 7 April 1776.
Meanwhile, Hopkins fleet again set out at sea in the Atlantic, on 29 May 1776, the Continental sailors and Marines aboard brigantine Andrea Doria captured two British transports, with each bearing an infantry company. Hereafter, Hopkin 's squadron patrolled the coast of New England as far north to Nova Scotia for the rest of the spring of 1776. Alfred (under command by John Paul Jones) continued to raid British commerce while the rest of the squadron awaited repairs or more crewmen. Most of the sailors and Marines were riddled by diseases, desertion, and resignation of officers. The Continental Congress struggled to find more crews to man the Navy 's ships; the Marine detachments were moved from vessel to vessel and were temporarily reinforced by the Continental Army and militia. In the summer of 1776, Hopkins 's squadron returned to Philadelphia. Also, Congress approved the Marine Committee 's request for new officers; fourteen new officer were commissioned in the Continental Marine Corps. Samuel Nicholas was promoted to major on 25 June due to his service in the New Providence expedition. Congress however, was utterly disappointed in Commodore Esek Hopkins 's disobeying of orders. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of the fleet, and its subsequent inactivity in Rhode Island, led to an investigation by Congress. Censured for disobedience of orders, Hopkins returned to the fleet.
Also on the same day (25 June), Robert Mullan (whose mother was the proprietor of Tun Tavern and most likely used it as his recruiting rendezvous) received his commission as captain. Capt. Mullan played an important aid in recruitment of enlistees for Marines aboard the Continental navy fleets, he became by legend, the first ' Marine Recruiter '. Captain Mullan 's roster lists two black men, Issac and Orange, another historical recording of one of the first black American Marines.
On 28 June Pennsylvania 's brig Nancy arrived in Cape May with 386 barrels of powder in her hold and ran aground while under fire while attempting to elude British blockaders HMS Kingfisher and HMS Orpheus. The next evening, the Continental Marines aboard Lexington, along with four American warships to assist the wreck Nancy. By dawn, the crew in small boats unloaded weaponry and precious gunpowder, leaving only 100 barrels of powder behind. Barry devised a delayed action fuse just as a boatload of British seamen boarded Nancy, exploding the powder. This engagement became known as the Battle of Turtle Gut Inlet.
On 4 July 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed. The Continental sailors and Marines aboard Reprisal and then headed south to the Caribbean Islands on 27 July. Their assignment was to bring William Bingham, who had been appointed agent from the American colonies to Martinique, in acquiring intelligence, and additional arms and supplies for George Washington 's armies. While en route, they encountered the British sloop - of - war HMS Shark off the coast of Martinique and forced her out of the area. Reprisal and her accompanying Marines returned to Philadelphia from the West Indies on 13 September.
By autumn of 1776, Major Nicholas raised four new companies of Marines for four of the new frigates that were to be completed and commissioned in Philadelphia. Armed with marines by the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety, the detachments guarded both the Continental and state vessels and store while waiting for their frigates to sail.
On 5 September 1776, the Marine Committee apportioned a uniform for the Continental Marines. The uniform regulations specified that standard uniform was a short green coat with white trim facings (lapels, cuffs, and coat lining), and a high leather collar to protect against cutlass slashes and to keep a man 's head erect, leading to the nickname "leatherneck ''; complemented by a white waistcoat, white or buff short breeches, woolen stockings, and a short black gaiter. Marine officers wore small cocked hats, and a single epaulette; and the enlisted men sported round black hats with the brim pinned on one side. The adoption of green coats and round hats probably reflects the constraints of availability, for both of the uniform attire were used by the Philadelphia Associators. It was n't until the year 1777 that the Marines entirely appeared in uniform in numbers. Though legend attributes the green color to the traditional color of riflemen, Continental Marines mostly carried muskets. More likely, green cloth was simply plentiful in Philadelphia, and it served to distinguish Marines from the blue of the Army and Navy or the red of the British. Also, Sam Nicholas 's hunting club wore green uniforms, hence his recommendation was for green. Notably, Marines aboard USS Bonhomme Richard wore red, though they were mostly Irish soldiers of the French Army.
The Continental sailors and Marines aboard Providence sails north to Canada toward Nova Scotia. By 22 September, the sailors and Marines reached Canso Harbor and recaptured the small port. The following next day, they struck Isle Madame destroying fishing boats. On 27 September while fishing, Providence, became under surprise attack from the British frigate HMS Milford. Although surprised, the smaller American ship managed to escape in a day of expert sailing.
Sometime in October, Sergeants William Hamilton and Alexander Neilson are promoted to lieutenant, being the first recorded "mustangs '' (enlistees who received field commission) in the Marine Corps. On 24 October 1776, Benjamin Franklin was dispatched to France as appointed ' Commissioner to France ' for Congress. Captain Lambert Wickes was ordered by the Continental Congress to proceed to Nantes, France, aboard Reprisal. En route to France, the sailors and Marines captured two brigantines. Reprisal reaches Nantes, France on 29 November, becoming the first vessel of the Continental Navy to arrive in European waters.
In late November 1776, General Washington 's Continental Army positions along the Hudson River collapsed from the concurring assaults of British forces. In emergency response Washington requested assistance of a brigade of Philadelphia militia, a company of local seamen, and Major Nicholas 's four companies of Continental Marines. George Washington wrote a staunchly letter to John Cadwalader, a brigadier general of the Pennsylvania Associators:
"... if they came out resolved to act upon Land... instead their Services to the Water only. ''
On 2 December 1776, Major Samuel Nicholas and his three companies of Marines, garrisoned at the Marine barracks in Philadelphia, were tasked to reinforce Washington 's retreating army from New York through Trenton to slow the progress of British troops southward through New Jersey. The Major Nicholas and the American marines marched off to aid in support an American army for the first time in history; he led a battalion of 130 officers and enlisted men from Philadelphia, leaving behind one company to man the Continental vessels. Unsure what to do with the Marines, Washington requested that the Marines be attached to a brigade militiamen from the Philadelphia Associators, in which were also dressed in green uniforms alike of the Continental Marines. Thus, Nicholas and his Marines joined Cadwalader 's brigade of Pennsylvania Associators, a force of 1,200 men. The Marines lived side - by - side with the militia brigade in Bristol, Pennsylvania for two weeks waiting for an attack from the British. However, the British army instead went into winter quarters along the New Jersey shore of the Delaware River.
Meanwhile at sea, Lexington becomes captured by the British frigate HMS Pearl. Momentarily, Marine Captain Abraham Boyce leads his men and Lexington 's sailors in overtaking the small British prize crew. Alfred also engaged combat with HMS Milford on 9 December. Although the British frigate was better - armed, the American ship was able to out - sail their opponent and escape unharmed. The Continental Marines and sailors were able to escape to the harbor at Baltimore, Maryland.
General Washington attacked the German garrison at Trenton on 26 December, though Cadwalader 's brigade were unable to arrive in time to affect the battle for Trenton, due to problems crossing the ice - choked Delaware River. Cadwalader finally crossed the river on 27 December on his own initiative, reaching Trenton by 2 January as Washington concentrated his army. As Cadwalader and his brigade managed to reach Trenton on 2 January from across the Delaware River, the Continental Marines watched the cannonade between the Continental Army and Lord Cornwallis ' British Army at Assunpink Creek. The Marines helped defend a crucial bridge against a Hessian attack. On the night of 3 January, Cadwalader 's brigade (including Major Nicholas 's battalion of Continental Marines) and General Washington 's Army silently departs the battlefield and marches toward Princeton. By daybreak, they launched a two - pronged attack. The first prong of attack, led by Brigadier General Hugh Mercer, a close friend of George Washington, attacked a British stronghold. Mercer 's brigade ran into heavy, well - disciplined musketry of two British regiments that were emplaced in front of Princeton, Mercer 's brigade position soon collapsed. Cadwalader 's brigade (along with the Marines) came to the assistance, but too stumbled into the British infantry forcing them to fall back. The second prong of attack caught the British in open flank, scattering three British regiments. It gave Washington 's forces the advantage to take Princeton. The battle for Princeton was the first engagement that the Continental Marines fought and died in battle.
After the Trenton -- Princeton campaign, Nicholas 's four - company battalion discontinued service; reduced by transfers, desertion, and disease of eighty Marines. On 4 January, the remaining three companies encamped at its winter quartering at Sweets Town, not far from Washington 's bivouac at Jockey Hollow, Morristown. From 1 February 1777 and throughout the winter, the two companies of Marines either transferred to Morristown to assume the roles in the Continental artillery batteries, or left the service altogether. Captain Robert Mullan 's company returned to Philadelphia as prisoner guards after they found that there was no ship to man. Captain Robert Mullans ' company of Continental Marines disbanded in April 1777. Many also returned to Philadelphia in the spring to become part of the detachments of the new Continental galley Washington (the third ship to be named as such) and the frigate Delaware.
In the Bay of Biscay off France, on 5 February, the Continental Marines aboard Reprisal led a boarding party that seized and sank HMS Swallow.
The 32 - gun frigate Randolph was put to sea in early February 1777, joining the smaller Continental vessels from Hopkins 's squadron. Constantly, the Continental Navy attempted to breach the cordon of British vessels awaiting their departure; tasks in reaching the open seas came with such burden that Congress and the state assemblies attempted to mount a serious naval campaign in an effort to drive away the British warships that were blockading the American harbors. One achievement was that they warranted in shifting some of its cruises to European waters, using the ports of their ally, France, as a base of operation. Although it did not totally hinder nor prevent the Royal Navy from going anywhere in American waters. But the naval campaigns made it costly for Great Britain to maintain its army in American.
Marines made another overseas strike, raiding the coast of Britain (notably at Whitehaven) with John Paul Jones on the USS Ranger in April 1777.
Alfred, and Raleigh under command of Capt. Thomas Thompson, and their accompanying Continental Marines, departed for France on 22 August 1777. On 4 September, the Continental Marines aboard the frigate Raleigh participated in the bold attack on the British sloop HMS Druid. The approach of the remaining British escorts forced them to break off, unabling them to sink or capture any British prizes.
On 14 September 1777, Reprisal left France, for New England.
On 19 September, Lexington and her Marine detachments were defeated by the British cutter HMS Alert, near France.
The Continental frigate Delaware and her Marines were forced onto a shoal in the Delaware River as they fought with British batteries guarding the approaches to Philadelphia occupied by the British. Although Delaware was captured, many of the sailors and Marines escaped.
On 1 October 1777, caught in an Atlantic storm, Reprisal foundered off the banks of Newfoundland and all 129 on board (sailors and Marines), except the cook, went down with her. Continental naval officer in command of sloop - of - war Ranger, Captain John Paul Jones, sailed for Nantes, France, on 1 November 1777, to dispatch news to Commissioner Benjamin Franklin about the American victory of Saratoga and the surrender of British General John Burgoyne. On the voyage, two British prizes were captured. Ranger arrived at Nantes on 2 December. Captain Jones sold the prizes and delivered the news of the victory at Saratoga to Ben Franklin.
On 2 January 1778, the Marine Committee came to the conclusion that Esek Hopkins be relieved of command. Thereafter as such, the Continental Congress implemented a few plans for squadron operations.
On 10 January, a company of Marines under Navy Captain James Willing departed Fort Pitt, Pennsylvania for an expedition, in the armed boat Rattletrap. They sailed into the Ohio River en route to New Orleans.
Marines from the frigate Randolph help extinguish a huge blaze on 15 January in Charleston, South Carolina, that destroyed hundred of buildings. They seized the forts, and captured five ships in the harbor.
During a surprise attack on the night of 28 January 1778, Marines repeated the raid on smaller scale once again at New Providence Island, on Nassau in the Bahamas, under Captains John Trevett and John Rathbun. The ' Stars and Stripes ' was hoisted over a foreign shore for the first time. It was repeated again for the third time, in May 1782, with Bernardo de Gálvez to secure the island for the Spanish.
Meanwhile, Captain Willing and the Marines from Rattletrap captured the British sloop HMS Rebecca while sailing down the Mississippi River. They were able to temporarily weaken the British hold on the waterway from occupation. They raided British Loyalist plantations along on the shore of Lake Ponchartrain.
The ill - fated day of 7 March, the frigate Randolph, commanded by Nicholas Biddle, explodes while commencing in a firefight with HMS Yarmouth, a British 64 - gun ship - of - the - line. During battle, the powder magazines onboard combusted, exploding the entire hull. Randolph sank taking a loss of 301 sailors, soldiers, and Marines.
On 9 March 1778, near Barbados in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean Sea, Alfred and Raleigh encountered British warships HMS Ariadne and HMS Ceres. When the American ships attempted to flee, Alfred fell behind her faster consort Raleigh, which escaped. Towards afternoon the British men - of - war caught up with Alfred and forced her to surrender after a half - an - hour 's battle. The Marine detachment, along with the Continental sailors, were taken prisoner. Raleigh continued north to New England. On 27 March, a British squadron chased Raleigh ashore on Point Judith, near Newport, Rhode Island. The Continental Marines held off an attack by Royal Marines while the crewmen unloaded valuable stores from the grounded ship. The Continental Navy ship Raleigh returned to New England early in April 1778.
On 23 April 1778, John Paul Jones and sailors and Marines aboard USS Ranger make a raid on the British port of Whitehaven, Great Britain. The crew of Ranger set fire to ships and spiked the cannon of the fort. Later that same day, they land on St. Mary Isle to capture a British earl, but find him away from home, and instead they take the family silver. The next day (24 April), Ranger and her Marines defeat the British sloop HMS Drake in the Irish Sea.
On 1 May 1778, the Marines assist in a night battle with the British frigate HMS Lark in Narragansett Bay as Providence escapes the blockade and makes it to the open sea. Accused of cowardice and dereliction of duty for not aiding Alfred, Captain Thomas Thompson was suspended soon after reaching port. On 30 May 1778 the Marine Committee appointed John Barry to replace him as captain.
On 3 August 1778, the sailors and Marines aboard the Continental Navy ship General Gates and intercepted, then defeated, the British letter - of - marque brigantine HMS Montague, whose under command of Captain Horatio Nelson.
The Marines aboard Providence attack a 30 - ship convoy on 7 August, off the coast of Nova Scotia. They inflict damage on an armed transport carrying Highland troops.
On 27 September, the British ships HMS Experiment and HMS Unicorn engage Continental ship Raleigh off the Penobscot River, Maine, and force her aground. Some of the Marines and sailors escape to shore, but more are captured.
Marines would mainly participate in the naval battles of the war, fighting ship - to - ship, such as the Battle of Valcour Island and famed Battle of Flamborough Head. Marksmen would perch in the upper riggings and masts of the ship to fire on enemy sailors from above. However, unlike British Marines, the Continental Marines would take the then - unorthodox missions of landing parties and other services ashore. For example, Marines would support batteries ashore at the Siege of Charleston in the spring of 1780.
Continental Marines landed and briefly captured Nautilus Island and the Majabagaduce peninsula in the Penobscot Expedition in 1779, but withdrew with heavy losses when Commodore Dudley Saltonstall 's force failed to capture the nearby fort. A group under Navy Captain James Willing left Pittsburgh, traveled down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, captured a ship later known as USS Morris, and in conjunction with other Continental Marines, brought by ship from the Gulf of Mexico, raided British Loyalists on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain on 10 September 1779. The last official act of the Continental Marines was to escort a stash of silver, on loan from Louis XVI of France, from Boston to Philadelphia to enable the opening of the Bank of North America. However, Marines did fight on the duel between USS Alliance and HMS Sibyl on 10 March 1783, the last recorded shots of the war, and Pvt Robert Stout of that ship would be the last recorded mention of a Continental Marine one year later. Major Nicholas would die from yellow fever on 27 August 1790. In all, the Continental Marines suffered 49 dead and 70 wounded.
At the end of the Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Marines were disbanded in April. Although individual Marines stayed on for the few American naval vessels left, the last Continental Marine was discharged in September. In all, there were 131 Colonial Marine officers and probably no more than 2,000 enlisted Colonial Marines. Though individual Marines were enlisted for the few American naval vessels, the organization would not be re-created until 1798. Despite the gap between the disbanding of the Continental Marines and the establishment of the United States Marine Corps, Marines worldwide celebrate 10 November 1775 as the official birthday. This is traditional in Marine units and is similar to the practice of the British and Netherlands Royal Marines. Despite the Continental Navy being older in establishment (13 October vs. 10 November 1775) and reestablishment (27 March 1794 vs. 11 July 1798), Marines have taken the position of precedence, awarded due to seniority of age, because they historically and consistently maintained their birth as 10 November, while the Navy had no official recognition of 13 October as their birthday until 1972.
Due to harassment by the French navy on U.S. shipping during the French Revolutionary Wars, Congress created the United States Navy and the Marine Corps. The Act to provide a Naval Armament of 27 March 1794 authorizing new build frigates for the war had specified the numbers of Marines to be recruited for each frigate. Marines were enlisted by the War Department as early as August 1797 for service in these frigates. Daniel Carmick and Lemuel Clerk were commissioned as Lieutenants of Marines on 5 May 1798. Under the "Act for establishing and organizing a Marine Corps '', signed on 11 July 1798 by President John Adams, the Marine Corps was to consist of a battalion of 500 privates, led by a major and a complement of officers and NCOs. The next day, William Ward Burrows I was appointed a major. In the Quasi-War, Marines aboard the USS Constitution and other ships conducted raids in the waters off Hispaniola against the French and Spanish, making the first of many landings in Haiti and participating in the Battle of Puerto Plata Harbor.
Among the equipment Burrows inherited was a stock of leftover blue uniforms with red trim, the basis for the modern Blue Dress uniform. When the capital moved to Washington, D.C. in June 1800, Burrows was appointed Lieutenant Colonel Commandant of the Marine Corps; the first de jure Commandant, though Samuel Nicholas is traditionally accorded as the first de facto Commandant for his role as the most senior officer of the Continental Marines. In 1801, President Thomas Jefferson and Burrows rode horses about the new capital to find a place suitable for a Marine barracks near the Washington Navy Yard. They chose the land between 8th and 9th, and G and I streets and hired architect George Hadfield to design the barracks and the Commandant 's House, in use today as Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.. Burrows also founded the United States Marine Band from an act of Congress passed on 11 July 1798, which debuted at the President 's House on 1 January 1801 and has played for every presidential inauguration since.
The Marines ' most famous action of this period occurred in the First Barbary War (1801 -- 1805) against the Barbary pirates, when General William Eaton, the Naval Special Agent and appointed commander - in - chief of the multi-national expedition, and First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led a group of eight Marines and 300 Arab and European mercenaries in an attempt to capture Tripoli and free the crew of the captured USS Philadelphia. Though they only made it as far as Derne, Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines ' Hymn. The deposed Pasha, Prince Hamet Karamanli was so impressed with the Marines that he presented a Mameluke sword to O'Bannon inscribed in memory of the Battle of Derne, a tradition continued today by the swords worn by Marine officers.
In May 1811, 2 officers and 47 Marines established an advanced base on Cumberland Island, Georgia to be used for actions against pirates in Spanish Florida, and captured Fernandina on 18 March 1812 for occupation until May 1813. This was the first peacetime overseas base of the United States.
The Marine Corps ' first land action of the War of 1812 was the establishment of an advanced base at Sackets Harbor, New York by 63 Marines. This gave the Navy a base on the shores of Lake Ontario, and later, headquartered their operations in the Great Lakes; Marines helped to repel two British attacks (the First and Second Battle of Sacket 's Harbor). The Marines also established another base at Erie, Pennsylvania. Marine ship detachments took part in the great frigate duels of the war, the first U.S. victories of the war. By the end of the war Marines acquired a reputation as marksmen, especially in ship - to - ship actions. On 27 April 1813, Marines participated in United States Army Colonel Winfield Scott 's landing at York (now Toronto). Under Commodore Joshua Barney and Captain Samuel Miller, they acted to delay the British forces marching toward Washington at the Battle of Bladensburg. During the battle, they held the line after the Army and militia retreated, though were eventually overrun. Tradition holds that the British respected their fighting enough to spare the Marine Barracks and Commandant 's house when they burned Washington, though they may have intended to use it as a headquarters; a related legend cites that two NCOs buried treasure at the site (to prevent its capture) that is yet unfound. At the Battle of New Orleans, the Marines held the center of Gen Andrew Jackson 's defensive line. A total of 46 Marines would die and 66 were wounded in the war.
Together with sailors and Army troops, they again captured Amelia Island and Fernandina in Spanish Florida on 23 December 1817. Fernandina was occupied until Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1821. In 1823, Marines also established an advanced base on Thompson 's Island, now called Key West, for Commodore David Porter to use against pirates around the island of Cuba. They garrisoned Pensacola, Florida in 1825 to use it as a base against pirates in the West Indies.
After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a depressed state. The third Commandant, Franklin Wharton, died while in office on 1 September 1818, causing a battle for succession between Majors Anthony Gale, Samuel Miller, and Archibald Henderson (then acting Commandant). The latter two were unable to successfully impeach Gale, who assumed the role on 3 March 1819, ending a six - month vacancy. After a falling - out with Secretary Smith Thompson, Gale was court - martialed for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, convicted, and fired on 18 October 1820.
Henderson secured a confirmed appointment as the fifth commandant in 1820 and breathed new life into the Corps. He would go on to be the longest - serving commandant, commonly referred to as the "Grand old man of the Marine Corps ''. Under his tenure, the Marine Corps took on a new role as an expeditionary force - in - readiness with a number of expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, China, Fiji, Peru, Buenos Aires, Nicaragua, and Sumatra, in addition to many of the Indian Wars. Previously having rarely done anything but guard ships and naval depots, Henderson seized every opportunity to deploy his Marines in "landing party operations '' and other expeditions. One example of this was the acquisition artillery pieces and training for use with landing parties, which would bear fruit at the Battle of the Pearl River Forts. Henderson is also credited with thwarting attempts by President Andrew Jackson to combine the Marine Corps with the Army. Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the United States Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps was part of the Department of the Navy, as a sister service to the United States Navy. This would be the first of many times that Congress came to the aid of the Marines.
When the Seminole Wars (1835 -- 1842) broke out, Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for service, leading 2 battalions to war, which accounted for about half the strength of the Marine Corps. They garrisoned Fort Brooke in Tampa and held off an Indian attack on 22 January 1836. Henderson commanded the mixed Marine / Army Second Brigade at the Battle of Hatchee - Lustee on 27 January 1837, for which he was appointed a brevet brigadier general. Marines also fought at the Battle of Wahoo Swamp that November.
A decade later, in the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace, which overlooked Mexico City, their first major expeditionary venture. Since marching to Mexico City would be a long and perhaps impossible venture, a combined force (containing some 200 Marines) under Major General Winfield Scott made a landing south of Veracruz on 9 March 1847 and captured the city on 29 March. From there, they fought their way to Mexico City and commenced their assault on 13 September. The Marines were given the task of clearing the Chapultepec Castle, the "Halls of Montezuma '', where they cut down the Mexican colors and ran up the Flag of the United States. The high mortality rate amongst officers and non-commissioned officers is memorialized in the dress uniform 's "blood stripes '', as well as the line "From the Halls of Montezuma '' in the Marines ' Hymn. Marines were later placed on guard duty at the palace and Captain Jacob Zeilin, a future Commandant, was made military governor. Marines also served as part of the Navy 's blockade of Mexico that successfully prevented overseas arms and munitions from reaching the Mexican forces, and as part of the California Battalion under Major Archibald H. Gillespie; engagements included the battles of Monterey, Los Angeles, Dominguez Rancho, San Pasqual, Rio San Gabriel, La Mesa, and 2nd Tabasco. Other battles included the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd Tuxpan, capturing La Paz, defending La Paz, Mulege, and capturing and defending San José del Cabo.
In the 1850s, the Marines would further see service in Panama, and in Asia, escorting Matthew Perry 's fleet on its historic trip to the East. Two hundred Marines under Zeilin were among the Americans who first stepped foot on Japan; they can be seen in contemporary woodprints in their blue jackets, white trousers, and black shakos. Marines were also performed landing demonstrations while the expedition visited the Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. Upon Henderson 's death in 1859, legend cites that he willed the Commandant 's House, his home of 38 years, to his heirs, forgetting that it was government property; however, this has proven false.
Despite their stellar service in foreign engagements, the Marine Corps played only a minor role during the Civil War (1861 -- 1865); their most important task was blockade duty and other ship - board battles, but were mobilized for a handful of operations as the war progressed.
During the prelude to war, a hastily created 86 - man Marine detachment under Lieutenant Israel Greene was detached to arrest John Brown at Harper 's Ferry in 1859, after the abolitionist raided the armory there. Command of the mission was given to then - Colonel Robert E. Lee and his aide, Lieutenant J.E.B. Stuart, both having been on leave in Washington when President James Buchanan ordered Brown arrested. The ninety Marines arrived to the town on 17 October via train, and quickly surrounded John Brown 's Fort. Upon his refusal to surrender, the Marines stormed the building with bayonets, battering down the door with hammers and a ladder used as a battering ram. Greene slashed Brown twice and would have killed him had his sword not bent on his last thrust; in his haste he had carried his light dress sword instead of his regulation sword.
At the opening of the war, the Marine Corps had 1892 officers and men, but two majors, half the captains, and two - thirds of the lieutenants resigned to join the Confederacy, as did many prominent Army officers. Though the retention of enlisted men was better, the Confederate States Marine Corps formed its nucleus with some of the best Marines the Corps had. Following the wave of defections, thirteen officers and 336 Marines, mostly recruits, were hastily formed into a battalion and sent to Manassas. At the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas), U.S. Marines performed poorly, running away like the rest of the Union forces. Commandant John Harris reported sadly that this was "the first instance in Marine history where any portion of its members turned their backs to the enemy. ''
Congress only slightly enlarged the Marines due to the priority of the Army; and after filling detachments for the ships of the Navy (which had more than doubled in size by 1862), the Marine Corps was only able to field about one battalion at any given time as a larger force for service ashore. Marines from ship 's detachments as well as ad - hoc battalions took part in the landing operations necessary to capture bases for blockade duty. These were mostly successful, but on 8 September 1863, the Marines tried an amphibious landing to capture Fort Sumter in Charlestown harbor and failed, one of the few failed landings of the Marine Corps. Due to a shortage of officers, the Marines of Commander George Preble 's naval brigade that fought at the Battle of Honey Hill in 1864 started the battle with First Lieutenant G.G. Stoddard as the battalion commander (normally accorded a lieutenant colonel), the only officer in the battalion (the company commanders and other staff being sergeants).
On 15 May 1862, the Battle of Drewry 's Bluff began as a detachment of ships under Commander John Rodgers (including the USS Monitor and USS Galena) steamed up the James River to test the defenses of Richmond as part of the Peninsula Campaign. As the Galena took heavy losses, the unwavering musket and cannon fire of Corporal John F. Mackie would earn him the Medal of Honor on 10 July 1863, the first Marine to be so awarded.
In January 1865, the Marines took part in the Second Battle of Fort Fisher, tasked with acting as marksmen on the flank of the attack to shoot any Confederate troops that appeared on the ramparts of the fort. Even though they were ordered from their firing positions by Admiral Porter 's second in command, Porter blamed the Marines for the failure of the naval landing force to take the fort. Despite this, the fort was successfully captured; five Marines earned the Medal of Honor during the battle. In all, Marines received 17 of the 1522 awards during the Civil War. A total of 148 Marines would die in the war, the most casualties up to that point.
On the opposite side of the lines, the Congress of the Confederate States authorized the creation of the Confederate States Marine Corps on 16 March 1861. Initially authorized at 45 officers and 944 enlisted men, the CSMC was increased to 1,026 enlisted men on 24 September 1862, but actual manpower never approached that number, maxing below 550 total. Its first and only Commandant, Colonel Lloyd J. Beall, stood the corps up in Richmond, and headquartered it at Fort Darling.
The Confederate Marines, much like its progenitor, played small roles through the Civil War. Much of its service in the war was shipbound, such as the CSS Virginia 's famous duel with the USS Monitor at Battle of Hampton Roads. Detachments on land guarded several naval bases, including the defense of the CSMC 's headquarters at the Battle of Drewry 's Bluff. One of the few notable operations included an assault on a Union prisoner of war camp at Point Lookout. Toward the end of the war, Marines were pressed for the defense of Richmond, such as the Battle of Sayler 's Creek.
The remainder of the 19th century would be a period of declining strength and introspection about the mission of the Marine Corps. The Navy 's transition from sail to steam put into question the need for Marines on naval ships; indeed, the replacement of masts and rigging with smokestacks literally left Marine marksmen without a place. However, the Marines would serve as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect U.S. lives and property in foreign countries, such as action in Formosa in 1867. In June 1871, 651 Marine deployed for the expedition to Korea and made a landing at Ganghwa Island in which six Marines earned the Medal of Honor and one was killed (an landing also taken by the French in 1866 and Japanese in 1875), 79 years before the famed landing at nearby Inchon. After the Virginius Affair caused a war scare with Spain, Marines took part in naval brigade landing exercises in Key West in 1874, Gardiners Island in August 1884, and Newport, Rhode Island in November 1887. Three Marines earned Medals of Honor in the Samoan Civil War. Altogether, the Marines were involved in over 28 separate interventions in the 35 years from the end of the Civil War to the end of the 19th century, including China, Formosa, Japan, Nicaragua, Uruguay, Mexico, Korea, Panama, Egypt, Haiti, Samoa, Argentina, Chile, and Colombia, including the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, which would be annexed five years later. They would also be called upon to stem political and labor unrest within the United States, such as guarding mail. In 1885, war correspondent Richard Harding Davis popularized the phrase "The Marines have landed and have the situation well in hand '' when describing Americans intervention in a Panamanian revolt.
Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin 's term (1864 -- 1876), many Marine customs and traditions took shape. The Corps adopted the Marine Corps emblem in essentially its modern form on 19 November 1868, borrowing the globe from the Royal Marines, but introducing the fouled anchor and a U.S. bald eagle. In 1869, the Corps adopted a blue - black evening jacket and trousers encrusted with gold braid, that survives today as officer 's mess dress. It was also during this time that the "Marines ' Hymn '' was first heard. Around 1883, the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis '', Latin for "Always Faithful '' and often shortened by Marines to "Semper Fi ''. In 1885 1st Lt. H.K. Gilman wrote the first manual for enlisted Marines, Marines ' Manual: Prepared for the Use of the Enlisted Men of the U.S. Marine Corps and in 1886 the first landing manual The Naval Brigade and Operations Ashore. Previous to this, the only landing instructions available were those in the Ordnance Instructions for the United States Navy. John Philip Sousa, previously an apprentice in the Marine Band as a child, returned to lead the band in 1880 at the age of 25, making a name for himself and the Band with his composed marches.
During the Spanish -- American War (1898), Marines would lead U.S. forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At the Battle of Cienfuegos, Marines from the USS Marblehead and USS Nashville cut undersea telegraph cables under heavy Spanish fire to support the blockade of Cuba, 12 of them earning the Medal of Honor for their actions. The 1st Battalion, under LtCol Robert W. Huntington, invaded and captured Guantánamo Bay in order to set up an advanced base and refueling station for the fleet. In the seizure of Cuzco Well, a Spanish counterattack was aided by friendly fire from the USS Dolphin, and Sergeant John H. Quick would later receive the Medal of Honor for braving both Spanish rifle fire and naval gunfire to signal the Dolphin and shift fire.
At the outbreak of war, owing to a shortage of khaki cloth, Marine forces wore their standard blue wool uniforms. Later, a brown linen "campaign suit '' was adopted, to be worn in conjunction with the felt campaign hat. Equipment consisted of a wide belt with attached x-suspenders and ammunition pouches, all made of black leather; a canteen, haversack, plus bayonet scabbard.
In the Puerto Rican Campaign, Marine detachments under Lieutenant John A. Lejeune landed in Fajardo in order to seize boats for a subsequent landing by Army forces. While they were waiting for the Army, they were attacked by strong Spanish forces in a night attack. Upon a prearranged signal, the Marines and sailors occupying the Cape San Juan Lighthouse took cover while the U.S. ships bombarded the area. They left the next day when they found out that the Army commander had changed his mind and landed on the other end of the island at Guánica, securing the beach for the Army.
In the Philippines, Marines landed at Cavite following the Battle of Manila Bay under Commodore George Dewey, and saw action at the Capture of Guam and Siege of Baler. In the subsequent Philippine -- American War, Marines played little role in fighting but did serve as occupiers and peacekeepers. In all, fifteen Marines would earn the Medal of Honor, most of them at Cienfuegos; and additional six in the Philippines.
The successful landing at Guantanamo and the readiness of the Marines for the Spanish - American War were in contrast to the slow mobilization of the United States Army in the war. In 1900, the General Board of the United States Navy decided to give the Marine Corps primary responsibility for the seizure and defense of advanced naval bases. The Marine Corps formed an expeditionary battalion to be permanently based in the Caribbean, which subsequently practiced landings in 1902 in preparation for a war with Germany over their siege in Venezuela. Under Major Lejeune, in early 1903, it also undertook landing exercises with the Army in Maine, and in November, blocked Colombian Army forces sent to quash a Panamanian rebellion, an action which led to the independence of Panama. Marines stayed in Panama, with brief intermissions as they were deployed for other actions, until 1914. From 1903 to 1904, 25 Marines protected American diplomats in Abyssinia, modern day Ethiopia. A small group of Marines made a show of force in Tangier to resolve the kidnapping of Ion Perdicaris in the summer of 1904. The Marine Corps Advanced Base School was founded as was the Advanced Base Force, the prototype of the Fleet Marine Force.
Marine aviation began on 22 May 1912, when Lieutenant Alfred Austell Cunningham reported to the Naval Aviation Camp in Annapolis, Maryland, "for duty in connection with aviation. '' As the number of Marine Aviators grew over the next few years, so did the desire to separate from Naval Aviation, realized on 6 January 1914, when Lt Bernard L. Smith was directed to Culebra, Puerto Rico, to establish the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School. In 1915, the Commandant George Barnett authorized the creation of an aviation company consisting of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men. The first official Marine flying unit arrived with the 17 February 1917, commissioning of the Marine Aviation Company for duty with the Advanced Base Force at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.
Marines played a role in China, which would continue on through to the 1950s. Originally dispatched in 1894 to protect Americans during the First Sino - Japanese War, Marines defended western legations in the Battles of Tientsin and Peking during the Boxer Rebellion (1899 -- 1901) and China Relief Expedition. The Boxers, seeking to drive all foreigners from China and eradicate foreign influences, became violent and began murdering westerners. The remaining foreigners banded together in the Beijing Legation Quarter and were protected by a small military force, which included 56 Marines, until reinforcements from the Eight - Nation Alliance, including the Army 's 9th Infantry Regiment and a battalion of Marines stationed in the Philippines, arrived on 14 August 1900 to end the rebellion. Private Daniel Daly would earn his first Medal of Honor here, as well as 32 other Marines. Marines would redeploy from April 1922 to November 1923, and again in 1924, to protect Americans during the First and Second Zhili -- Fengtian Wars. The 4th Marine Regiment would arrive in 1927, to defend the Shanghai International Settlement during the Northern Expedition and Second Sino - Japanese War, later being called China Marines. The regiment would leave in 1941 for Cavite to fight in World War II.
Between 1900 and 1916, the Marine Corps continued its record of participation in foreign expeditions, especially in the Caribbean and Central and South America, which included Panama, Cuba, Veracruz, Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Nicaragua. These actions became known as the "Banana Wars '', and the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into the Small Wars Manual in 1935. Action in these places south of the United States continued through World War I, and after for many. Many of these actions were part of the Monroe Doctrine; that is, the efforts of the United States to prevent further colonization and interference in the Western Hemisphere. Marines occasionally had to fight against their reputation as the private army of the State Department. A total of 93 Marines would die throughout the various conflicts.
In December 1909, Major Smedley Butler commanded 3rd Battalion 1st Marines in Panama. The battalion, which had occupied Panama since that nation 's independence from Colombia in 1903, would remain until 1914, with intermissions where it was sent to Nicaragua, Veracruz, and Haiti.
The United States occupied Cuba since the Spanish left on 1 January 1899, but could not annex it as a territory (unlike the Philippines and Guam) per the Teller Amendment. After establishing Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, the Marines assisted in the occupation from 1899 to 1902 under military governor Leonard Wood, and again from 1906 to 1909, 1912, and from 1917 to 1922.
On 27 May 1910, Major Butler arrived in Bluefields with 250 men to protect American interests in Juan José Estrada 's rebellion. Marines returned to occupy Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933 in order to prevent the construction of the Nicaragua Canal without American control. Butler returned in the summer of 1912 with 350 Marines on the USS Annapolis to supplement the 100 Marines sent there the previous month, again augmented by another 750 Marines under Colonel Joseph Henry Pendleton. Resistance from Luis Mena and Benjamín Zeledón was crushed that October, and the majority of the Marines left, having lost 37 of their number. The remainder occupied the nation, mostly fighting Augusto César Sandino and his group until the Good Neighbor policy and the Great Depression prompted their withdrawal in January 1933. A total of 130 Marines were killed in the 21 years in Nicaragua, while two earned the Medal of Honor there.
Marines also returned to Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. From 5 to 7 September 1903, Marines protected Americans evacuating the Yaqui River Valley. In response to the Tampico Affair and to intercept weapons being shipped to Victoriano Huerta in spite of an arms embargo, Marines were deployed to Veracruz on 21 April 1914 to occupy it. Landing unopposed from USS Florida and USS Utah, Marines under Colonel Wendell Cushing Neville fought their way to their objectives on the waterfront. Around midnight, additional ships arrived, bring with them Maj Butler and his battalion from Panama, and in the morning, captured the Veracruz Naval Academy. Another regiment under Colonel Lejeune arrived that afternoon, and by the 24th, the entire city was secure. On 1 May, Colonel Littleton Waller arrived with a third regiment and took command of the brigade. Marines were gradually replaced with soldiers and returned to their ships until the American withdrawal on 23 November. Fifty - six Medals of Honor were awarded, including Butler 's first. The Army would return to Mexico in two years for the Pancho Villa Expedition.
Marines saw action in the Dominican Republic in 1903, 1904, and 1914, then occupied it from 1916 until 1924. After Desiderio Arias seized power from Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra, Rear Admirals William B. Caperton and Harry Shepard Knapp landed Marines in May 1916 to restore order. Locals began a resistance that lasted until 1921, and the Marines were withdrawn the following year, with a total of three having earned the Medal of Honor. Marines would return in 1965.
The Marines also occupied Haiti from 28 July 1915 until 1 August 1934. When Cacos overthrew the government and the possibility of an anti-American Rosalvo Bobo became the likely president of Haiti, President Woodrow Wilson sent the Marines in to secure American business dominance, but publicly announced to "re-establish peace and order ''. On 17 November 1915, Major Butler led a force of Marines to capture Fort Riviere, a Caco stronghold. After organized armed resistance was over, the governance from the United States began to improve infrastructure and living conditions, but denied the Haitians any real self - governeance. In 1930, after the Forbes Commission criticized this, and President Herbert Hoover began a withdrawal in 1932. The last Marines departed on 15 August 1934. In the nineteen - year occupation, eight Marines would earn the Medal of Honor, including the second awards to Gunnery Sergeant Dan Daly and Major Butler, the only Marines to be twice awarded. The latter would later express his disapproval of the occupation and gunboat diplomacy in his book War Is a Racket. The Marines would return to Haiti in 1994 and 2010.
Marine Aviators began to experiment with air - ground tactics during the Banana Wars and making the support of their fellow Marines on the ground their primary mission. It was in Haiti that Marines began to develop the tactic of dive bombing and in Nicaragua where they began to perfect it. While other nations and services had tried variations of this technique, Marine aviators were the first to embrace it and make it part of their tactical doctrine. Cunningham had noted in 1920 that "... the only excuse for aviation in any service is its usefulness in assisting the troops on the ground to successfully carry out their missions. '' On 3 May 1925 the Marine Corps officially appeared in the Navy 's Aeronautical Organization the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics authorized three fighter squadrons. Also in the 1920s, Marine squadrons began qualifying on board aircraft carriers.
In World War I, battle - tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the United States ' entry into the conflict. Unlike the majority of Allied armies, the Marine Corps had a deep pool of officers and non-commissioned officers with battle experience, and experienced a smaller growth. They participated in small ways throughout 1918 (such as Château - Thierry, Soissons, and Saint - Mihiel), but its most famous action of the war would come that summer as the Spring Offensive neared its end. From 1 to 26 June, Marines fought their celebrated Battle of Belleau Wood, then the largest in the history of the Corps, creating their reputation in modern history. Rallying under the battle cries of "Retreat? Hell, we just got here! '' (Capt Lloyd Williams) and "Come on, you sons of bitches, do you want to live forever? '' (GySgt Dan Daly), the Marines drove German forces from the area. While its previous expeditionary experience had not earned it much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines ' fierceness and toughness earned them the respect of the Germans, who rated them of storm - trooper quality. Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them "Teufelhunden '' (sic) or "Devil Dogs '', there is no evidence of this in German records. Nevertheless, the name stuck, such as a famous recruiting poster.
The French government renamed the forest to "Bois de la Brigade de Marine '' ("Wood of the Marine Brigade ''), and decorated both the 5th and 6th Regiments with the Croix de Guerre three times each. This earned them the privilege to wear the fourragère, which Franklin D. Roosevelt, then Secretary of the Navy, authorized them to henceforth wear on the left shoulder of their dress and service uniforms. Marine aviation also saw exponential growth, as the First Aeronautic Company which deployed to the Azores to hunt U-boats in January 1918 and the First Marine Air Squadron which deployed to France as the newly renamed 1st Marine Aviation Force in July 1918 and provided bomber and fighter support to the Navy 's Day Wing, Northern Bombing Group. By the end of the war, several Marine aviators had recorded air - to - air kills, and collectively dropped over 14 short tons (13,000 kg) of bombs. and their number totals included 282 officers and 2,180 enlisted men operating from 8 squadrons. In 1919 the 1st Division / Squadron 1 was formed from these units, and exists as VMA - 231.
Near the end of the war in June 1918, Marines were landed at Vladivostok in Russia to protect American citizens at the consulate and other places from the fighting of the Russian Civil War. That August, the Allies would intervene on the side of the White Russians against the Bolsheviks to protect the Czechoslovak Legions and Allied materiel from capture. Marines would return on 16 February 1920, this time to Russky Island to protect communications infrastructure, until 19 November 1922.
Opha May Johnson was the first woman to enlist in the Marines; she joined the Marine Corps Reserve in 1918 during World War I, officially becoming the first female Marine. From then until the end of World War I, 305 women enlisted in the Corps.
The Marine Corps had entered the war with 511 officers and 13,214 enlisted personnel and, by 11 November 1918, had reached a strength of 2,400 officers and 70,000 enlisted. The war cost 2,461 dead and 9,520 wounded Marines, while eight would earn the Medal of Honor.
Between the world wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Major General John A. Lejeune, another popular commandant. The Marine Corps was searching for an expanded mission after World War I. It was used in France as a junior version of the army infantry, and Marines realized that was a dead end. In the early 20th century they had acquired the new mission of police control of Central American countries partly occupied by the US. That mission became another dead end when the nation adopted a "Good Neighbor Policy '' toward Latin America, and renounced further invasions. The corps needed a new mission, one distinct from the army. It found one: it would be a fast - reacting, light infantry fighting force carried rapidly to far off locations by the navy. Its special role was amphibious landings on enemy - held islands, but it took years to figure out how to do that. The Mahanian notion of a decisive fleet battle required forward bases for the navy close to the enemy. After the Spanish - American War the Marines gained the mission of occupying and defending those forward bases, and they began a training program on Culebro Island, Puerto Rico. The emphasis at first was on defending the forward base against enemy attack; they would be like the Turks who in 1915 inflicted 250,000 casualties on the British, Australian and New Zealand invaders of Gallipoli, forcing their withdrawal.
As early as 1900 the Navy 's General Board considered building advance bases for naval operations in the Pacific and the Caribbean. The Marine Corps was given this mission in 1920, but the challenge was to avoid another disaster like Gallipoli. The conceptual breakthrough came in 1921 when Major "Pete '' Ellis wrote "Advanced Base Operations in Micronesia '' a secret 30,000 - word manifesto that proved inspirational to Marine strategists and highly prophetic. To win a war in the Pacific, the Navy would have to fight its way through thousands of miles of ocean controlled by the Japanese -- including the Marshall, Caroline, Marianas and Ryukus island groups. If the Navy could land Marines to seize selected islands, they could become forward bases. Ellis argued that with an enemy prepared to defend the beaches, success depended on high - speed movement of waves of assault craft, covered by heavy naval gunfire and attack from the air. He predicted the decision would take place on the beach itself, so the assault teams would need not just infantry but also machine gun units, light artillery, light tanks, and combat engineers to defeat beach obstacles and defenses. Assuming the enemy had its own artillery, the landing craft would have to be specially built to protect the landing force. The failure at Gallipoli came because the Turks could easily reinforce the specific landing sites. The Japanese would be unable to land new forces on the islands under attack.
Not knowing which of the many islands would be the American target, the Japanese would have to disperse their strength by garrisoning many islands that would never be attacked. An island like Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands, would, Ellis estimated, require two regiments, or 4,000 Marines. (Indeed, in February 1944 the Marines seized Eniwetok with 4,000 men in three battalions.) Guided by Marine observer airplanes, and supplemented by Marine light bombers, warships would provide sea - going artillery firepower so that Marines would not need any heavy artillery (in contrast to the Army, which relied heavily on its artillery.) Shelling defended islands was a new mission for warships. The Ellis model was officially endorsed in 1927 by the Joint Board of the Army and Navy (a forerunner of the Joint Chiefs of Staff).
Actual implementation of the new mission took another decade because the Corps was preoccupied in Central America, the Navy was slow to start training in how to support the landings, and a new kind of ship had to be invented to hit the beaches without massive casualties. In 1941 British and American ship architects invented a new class of "landing ship '' to solve the problem. In World War II, the Navy built 1,150 LSTs. They were large (2400 tons) and slow (10 knots); officially known as "Landing Ship Tank, '' the passengers called them "Large Stationary Targets. '' Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the Marines (and Army soldiers) a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943.
In 1933, a "Fleet Marine Force '' was established with the primary mission of amphibious landings. The Force was a brigade with attached Marine aviation units that were trained in observation and ground support. By paying special attention to communications between ground and air, and between shore and sea, they developed an integrated three - dimensional assault force. By 1940, having adding enough men, the appropriate equipment, and a rigorous training program, the Marine Corps had worked out, in theory, its doctrine of amphibious assaults. Under the combat leadership of Holland "Howlin Mad '' Smith, the general most responsible for training, the Marines were ready to hit the beaches.
The Corps acquired amphibious equipment such as the Higgins boat which would prove of great use in the upcoming conflict. The various Fleet Landing Exercises were a test and demonstration of the Corps ' growing amphibious capabilities.
Marine aviation also saw significant growth in assets; on 7 December 1941, Marine aviation consisted of 13 flying squadrons and 230 aircraft. The oldest squadron in the Corps, known today as VMFA - 232, was commissioned on 1 September 1925, as VF - 3M.
In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War, participating in nearly every significant battle. The Corps also saw its peak growth as it expanded from two brigades to two corps with six divisions, and five air wings with 132 squadrons. In addition, 20 Defense Battalions were also set up, as well as a Parachute Battalion. In all, the Corps totaled at a maximum end strength of over 475,000 Marines, the highest in its history. The battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Saipan, Guam, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between U.S. Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army. The secrecy afforded their communications by the now - famous Navajo code talker program is widely seen as having contributed significantly to their success. The first African American recruits were accepted in 1942 to begin the desegregation of the Corps.
During the battle for Iwo Jima, photographer Joe Rosenthal took the famous photo Raising of the Flag on Iwo Jima of five Marines and one Navy corpsman raising the American flag on Mount Suribachi. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, who had come ashore earlier that day to observe the progress of the troops, said of the flag raising on Iwo Jima, "... the raising of that flag on Suribachi means a Marine Corps for the next five hundred years. '' The acts of the Marines during the war added to their already significant popular reputation, and the Marine Corps War Memorial adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery was dedicated in 1954.
As the Marine Corps grew to its maximum size, Marine aviation also peaked at 5 air wings, 31 aircraft groups and 145 flying squadrons. The Battle of Guadalcanal would teach several lessons, such as the debilitating effects of not having air superiority, the vulnerability of unescorted targets (such as transport shipping), and the vital importance of quickly acquiring expeditionary airfields during amphibious operations. After being dissatisfied with Navy air support at the Battle of Tarawa, General Holland Smith recommended that Marines should do the job, put into effect at New Georgia. The Bougainville and 2nd Philippines campaigns saw the establishment of air liaison parties to coordinate air support with the Marines fighting on the ground, and the Battle of Okinawa brought most of it together with the establishment of aviation command and control in the form of Landing Force Air Support Control Units
Though the vast majority of Marines served in the Pacific Theater, a number of Marines did play a role in the European Theater, North Africa, and Middle East. Mostly serving aboard warships and as guards for naval bases, especially in the British Isles; though some volunteered for duty with the Office of Strategic Services. Numerous observers were dispatched to learn tactics from allied nations, such as Roy Geiger aboard HMS Formidable. Interservice rivalry may have played a role in this; for example, when briefed of a plan for Project Danny, Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall stood and walked out, stating "That 's the end of this briefing. As long as I 'm in charge, there 'll never be a Marine in Europe. ''
By the war 's end, the Corps had grown to include six divisions, five air wings and supporting troops totaling about 485,000 Marines. 19,733 Marines were killed and 68,207 wounded during WWII and 82 received the Medal of Honor. Marine Aviators were credited with shooting down 2,355 Japanese aircraft while losing 573 of their own in combat, as well as 120 earning ace.
Despite Secretary Forrestal 's prediction, the Corps faced an immediate institutional crisis following the war. Army brass pushing for a strengthened and reorganized defense establishment also attempted to fold the Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army. Drawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, the Marine Corps rebuffed such efforts to legislatively dismantle the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine Corps in the National Security Act of 1947. Despite the introspective crisis, Marines also suffered from major post-war cutbacks and drawdowns in size. For example, aviation fell from 116,628 personnel and 103 squadrons on 31 August 1945 to 14,163 personnel and 21 squadrons on 30 June 1948, with another 30 squadrons in the reserves.
Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson in particular singled the Navy and Marine Corps out for budget cuts. A strong believer in unification and the idea that the United States ' monopoly on the atomic bomb was adequate protection against any and all external threats, he began a campaign to strip away much of America 's military power, especially naval and amphibious. Shortly after his appointment, Johnson had a conversation with Admiral Richard L. Connally, giving a revealing look at his attitudes towards the Navy and Marine Corps and any need for non-nuclear forces:
However, the Marines were included in the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act in 1948, which gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Marines.
President Harry S. Truman had a well - known dislike of the Marines dating back to his service in World War I, and would say in anger in August 1950, "The Marine Corps is the Navy 's police force and as long as I am President, that is what it will remain. They have a propaganda machine that is almost equal to Stalin 's. '' Johnson exploited this to reduce or eliminate many Marine Corps ' budget requests. Johnson attempted to eliminate Marine Corps aviation entirely by transferring its air assets to the Navy and Air Force, and again proposed to progressively eliminate the Marine Corps altogether in a series of budget cutbacks and decommissioning of forces. Johnson ordered that the commandant be barred from attending Joint Chiefs of Staff meetings in his role of chief of service (including meetings involving Marine readiness or deployments), deleted him from the official roll of chiefs of service branches authorized a driver and limousine, and for whom a special gun salute was prescribed on ceremonial occasions. He further specified that there would be no future official recognition or celebration of the Marine Corps birthday. The Navy 's surface fleet and amphibious ships were drastically reduced, and most landing craft were reserved for army use.
After Johnson announced the cancellation of the 65,000 - ton USS United States, under construction and the Navy 's hope to participate in strategic nuclear air operations, without consulting the Department of the Navy nor Congress, Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan abruptly resigned, beginning the Revolt of the Admirals. In June 1949, the House Committee on Armed Services launched an investigation into charges of malfeasance in office against Secretary Johnson. While ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing, the congressional rebuke weakened Johnson 's power with the military and President Truman, and few subsequent cuts were made. After his severe cutbacks resulted in a military too weak to perform effectively in the initial days of the Korean War, Johnson resigned on 19 September 1950, replaced with George Marshall. Ironically, the Marines, as part of an amphibious corps with the US Army 7th division who deployed, and made an amphibious operation at Inchon at the opening of the war.
Shortly after, in 1952, the Douglas - Manfield Bill afforded the commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of Staff on matters relating to the Marines, and established the structure of three divisions and air wings that remains today. This allowed the Corps to permanently maintain a division and air wing in the Far East and participate in various small wars in Southeast Asia -- in Tachen, Taiwan, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. A small guard force was sent to Jerusalem to protect the United States Consul General in 1948.
Marines would take a large role in the initial days Occupation of Japan, beginning with the 4th Marine Division landing at Kanagawa on 28 August 1945, just 13 days after Emperor Hirohito announced surrender. It was soon replaced by the Eighth United States Army in 1946. About 50,000 Marines would take part in the post-war occupation of North China from 1945 until 1947, and would reappear in 1948 and 1949. III Amphibious Corps would control major infrastructure points and repatriate Japanese and Soviet troops, as well as evacuate Americans when the Communist Party of China began to win the Chinese Civil War.
Despite cuts in number, Marine aviation did progress in technology: propeller aircraft were gradually phased out as jet aircraft improved and helicopters were developed for use in amphibious operations. The first Marine jet squadron came in November 1947 when VMF - 122 fielded the FH Phantom, while HMX - 1, the first Marine helicopter squadron, stood up in November 1947. General Geiger had observed the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll the year earlier and instantly recognized that atomic bombs could render amphibious landings difficult because of the dense concentrations of troops, ships, and materiel at the beachhead. The Hogaboom Board recommended that the Marine Corps develop transport helicopters in order to allow a more diffuse attack on enemy shores, resulting in HMX - 1 and the acquisition of Sikorsky HO3S - 1 and the Piasecki HRP - 1 helicopters. Refining the concept for several years, Marines would use the term "vertical envelopment '' instead of "air mobility '' or "air assault ''.
The Korean War (1950 -- 1953) saw the hastily formed 1st Provisional Marine Brigade holding the line at the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, where Marine helicopters (VMO - 6 flying the HO3S1 helicopter) made their combat debut. To execute a flanking maneuver, General Douglas MacArthur called on Marine air and ground forces to make an amphibious landing at the Battle of Inchon. The successful landing resulted in the collapse of North Korean lines and the pursuit of North Korean forces north near the Yalu River until the entrance of the People 's Republic of China into the war. Chinese troops surrounded, surprised and overwhelmed the overextended and outnumbered U.S. forces. However, unlike the Eighth Army, which retreated in disarray, the 1st Marine Division, while attached to the Army 's X Corps regrouped and inflicted heavy casualties during their fighting withdrawal to the coast. Now known as the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, it entered Marine lore as an example of the toughness and resolve of the Marine. Marines would continue a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953 armistice.
The Korean War saw the Marine Corps rebound from its drastic cuts of about 75,000 at the start to a force, by the end of the conflict in 1953, of 261,000 Marines, most of whom were reservists. Aviation grew to four air wings, 20 aircraft groups and 78 flying squadrons, a level that has remained more or less consistent to this day. 4,267 Marines were killed and 23,744 wounded during the war, while 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor.
In the intervening years, Marines would continue to be dispatched to regional crises. During the Suez Crisis in the fall of 1956, Marines from 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines evacuated Americans from Alexandria. In 1958, Marines were dispatched to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat in response to the crisis there. Marines returned to Cuba from 1959 to 1960 to protect Americans during the Cuban Revolution. 5,000 Marines were sent to Thailand on 17 May 1962 to support the government 's struggles against Communists until withdrawn on 30 July.
Marines also returned to Haiti for Operation Power Pack on 28 April 1965. Originally sent to evacuate Americans in the midst of fighting between forces loyal to assassinated dictator Rafael Trujillo and the Dominican Revolutionary Party supporting Juan Bosch, President Lyndon B. Johnson expanded the intervention to prevent a second Communist nation on America 's doorstep. Joined by the 82nd Airborne Division and the Organization of American States, Marines quickly forced a cease - fire, but would continue to be harassed by small - scale combat and sniper fire until their withdrawal on 31 August. Remaining peacekeepers enforced a truce, and Bosch would never regain power.
The Marines also played an important role in the Vietnam War at battles such as Da Nang, Huế, and Khe Sanh. The Marines operated in the northern I Corps regions of South Vietnam and fought both a constant guerilla war against the Viet Cong and an off and on conventional war against North Vietnamese Army regulars. Marines also conducted the less well - known Combined Action Program that implemented unconventional techniques for counterinsurgency warfare. The Marine presence was withdrawn in 1971, but returned briefly in 1975 to evacuate Saigon and attempt to rescue the crew of the Mayagüez. 13,091 Marines were killed and 88,594 wounded during the war. As a footnote, the Marines in Vietnam suffered more casualties than both WWI and WWII combined, and 57 were awarded the Medal of Honor.
Returning from South Vietnam, the Marine Corps hit one of the lowest points in its history with high rates of courts - martial, non-judicial punishments, unauthorized absences, and outright desertions. The re-making of the Marine Corps began in the late 1970s when policies for discharging inadequate Marines were relaxed leading to the removal of the worst performing ones. Once the quality of new recruits started to improve, the Marines began reforming their NCO corps, an absolutely vital element in the functioning of the Marine Corps. After Vietnam, the Marine Corps resumed its expeditionary role.
On 4 November 1979, Islamist students supporting the so - called Iranian Revolution stormed the Embassy of the United States in Tehran and took 53 hostages, including the Marine Security Guards. Marine helicopter pilots took part in Operation Eagle Claw, the disastrous rescue attempt on 24 April 1980. An unexpected sandstorm grounded several RH - 53 helicopters, as well as scattering the rest, and ultimately killing several when one struck an EC - 130 Hercules staged to refuel them. The mission was aborted, and the Algiers Accords negotiated the release of the hostages on 20 January 1981. The mission demonstrated the need for an aircraft that could take off and land vertically, but had greater speed than a helicopter, realized decades later in the V - 22 Osprey.
Marines returned to Beirut during the 1982 Lebanon War on 24 August with the arrival of the 32nd Marine Amphibious Unit (later redesignated as 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit) and the Multinational Force in Lebanon (MNF). As part of a peace treaty, the Palestine Liberation Organization was withdrawn to Tunisia, and the Marines returned to their ships. Due to increased violence from the still - ongoing Lebanese Civil War, President Ronald Reagan ordered the Marines to return on 29 September in the form of 2nd Battalion 8th Marines. Relieved by 3rd Battalion 8th Marines in October, the MNF increasingly drew fire from different factions. The United States embassy was bombed on 18 April 1983 in opposition to the MNF 's presence; 1st Battalion 8th Marines was rotated in under the command of the 24th MAU. On 23 October 1983, the Marine barracks in Beirut was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history: 220 Marines, 18 sailors, and three soldiers, as well as 55 French Paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment and 3 French Paratroopers of the 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment in a near - simultaneous bombing 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) away. As violence increased, public pressure mounted to withdraw forces from Lebanon. After an additional 24 American deaths, the Marines were ordered to leave and began on 7 February 1984, and finished on the 26th.
Marines recovered from this low point and began a series of successes. The Invasion of Grenada, known as "Operation Urgent Fury '', began on 25 October 1983 in response to a coup by Bernard Coard and possible "Soviet - Cuban militarization '' on the island. The 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit quickly took the northern sectors, and were withdrawn by 15 December. Interservice rivalry and cooperation issues shown during the invasion resulted in the Goldwater -- Nichols Act of 1986 altering the chain of command in the United States military. When Operation Classic Resolve began on 2 December 1989 in the Philippines (in retaliation for the coup attempt), a company of Marines was dispatched from Naval Base Subic Bay to protect the Embassy of the United States in Manila. The Invasion of Panama, known as "Operation Just Cause '' began on 20 December of the same year, and deposed the military dictator Manuel Noriega.
Marines were also responsible for liberating Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War of 1990 and 1991, as the Army III, VII and XVIII corps made an attack to the west and north directly into Iraq to kill the Iraqi army and cut off forces in Kueait. The I Marine Expeditionary Force had a strength of 92,990 making Operation Desert Storm the largest Marine Corps operation in history. A total of 24 Marines were killed in action or later died of wounds, while 92 were wounded.
Marines played a modest role in the Bosnian War and NATO intervention. Operation Deny Flight began on 12 April 1993, to enforce the United Nations no - fly zone in Bosnia and Herzegovina and provide air support to the United Nations Protection Force. The F / A-18D Hornet was proven to be a "highly resourceful multirole platform '', in addition to showcasing the importance of precision - guided munitions. In 1995, the mission was expanded to include a bombing campaign called "Operation Deliberate Force ''. On 2 June 1995, Air Force Captain Scott O'Grady 's F - 16 was shot down by a Bosnian Serb Army surface - to - air missile in the Mrkonjić Grad incident. Marines from the 24th MEU, based on the USS Kearsarge, rescued him from western Bosnia on 8 June. Marines would support the IFOR, SFOR, and KFOR until 1999. On 3 February 1998, an EA - 6B Prowler from VMAQ - 2, deployed to Aviano Air Base to support the peacekeeping effort, hit an aerial tram cable and killed 20 European passengers.
In the summer of 1990, the 22nd and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units conducted Operation Sharp Edge, a noncombatant evacuation in the west Liberian city of Monrovia. Liberia suffered from civil war at the time, and citizens of the United States and other countries could not leave via conventional means. With only one reconnaissance team having come under fire with no casualties incurred on either side, the Marines evacuated several hundred civilians within hours to Navy vessels waiting offshore. On 8 April 1996, Marines returned for Operation Assured Response, helping in the evacuation of 2,444 foreign and United States citizens from Liberia. On 23 May 1996, President Bill Clinton diverted Marines from Joint Task Force Assured Response to Bangui, Central African Republic until 22 June, where they provided security to the American Embassy and evacuated 448 people. Due to increased threats against Americans as part of the fallout from the Lottery Uprising in Albania, 200 Marines and 10 Navy SEALs were deployed on 16 August 1998 to the American embassy there. As Indonesian occupation of East Timor ended in the fall of 1999, President Clinton authorized the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit, based on the USS Belleau Wood, to deploy there until the International Force for East Timor could arrive in October.
Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia (1992 -- 1995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore Hope II, and United Shield. While Operation Restore Hope was designated as a humanitarian relief effort, Marine ground forces frequently engaged Somali militiamen in combat. Elements of Battalion Landing Team 2nd Battalion 9th Marines with 15th MEU were among the first troops of the United Nations effort to land in Somalia in December 1992, while Marines of Battalion Landing Team 3rd Battalion 1st Marines participated in the final withdrawal of United Nations troops from Somalia in 1995.
Following the September 11 attacks of 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is "the defeat of Al - Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any nation that supports or harbors terrorists ''. Since then, the Marine Corps, alongside other military and federal agencies, has engaged in global operations around the world in support of that mission.
These operations have worn out their equipment and reduced their readiness because equipment is not available for training.
In 2002, Combined Joint Task Force -- Horn of Africa was stood up at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti to provide regional security. Despite transferring overall command to the Navy in 2006, the Marines continued to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2010.
In the summer of 2006, Marines from the 24th MEU evacuated Americans from Lebanon and Israel in light of the fighting of the 2006 Lebanon War. The 22nd and 24th MEUs returned to Haiti after the 2010 earthquake in January as part of Operation Unified Response.
After the U.S. was attacked by terrorists on September 11, 2001, Marines and other U.S. forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom. The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were some of the first conventional forces into Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in November 2001. Since then, Marine battalions and squadrons have been rotating through, engaging Taliban and Al - Qaeda forces. Marines of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit flooded into the Taliban - held town of Garmsir on 29 April 2008, in Helmand Province, in the first major American operation in the region in years. In June 2009, 7,000 Marines with the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in an effort to improve security, and began Operation Strike of the Sword the next month. Thus far, 449 Marines have been reported killed.
Most recently, the Marines have served prominently in the Iraq War as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The I Marine Expeditionary Force, along with the Army 's 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq and received the Presidential Unit Citation, the first time a Marine unit has received that award since 1968. The Marines left Iraq in the fall of 2003, but returned for occupation duty in the beginning of 2004. They were given responsibility for the Al Anbar Province, the large desert region to the west of Baghdad. During this occupation, the Marines spearheaded both assaults on the city of Fallujah in April (Operation Vigilant Resolve) and November 2004 (Operation Phantom Fury) and also saw intense fighting in such places as Ramadi, Al - Qa'im and Hīt. Their time in Iraq has also courted controversy with the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident. The Anbar Awakening and 2007 surge reduced levels of violence. On 1 March 2009, President Barack Obama announced an accelerated withdrawal during a speech at Camp Lejeune, promising all combat troops out by August 2010. The Marine Corps officially ended its role in Iraq on 23 January 2010 when they handed over responsibility for Al Anbar Province to the United States Army. 1,022 Marines were killed in the war with an additional 8,623 wounded, while only Cpl Jason Dunham received the Medal of Honor.
https://web.archive.org/web/20111105071128/http://www.marines.mil/unit/mcbjapan/Pages/2011/111104-birthday.aspx This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Congressional Research Service. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.
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when was we didnt start the fire written | We Did n't Start the Fire - wikipedia
"We Did n't Start the Fire '' is a song by Billy Joel. Its lyrics include brief, rapid - fire allusions to more than 100 headline events between 1949, the year of Joel 's birth, and 1989, when the song was released on his album Storm Front. The tune was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year. The song was also a No. 1 hit in the US.
Joel got the idea for the song when he had just turned 40. He was in a recording studio and met a friend of Sean Lennon who had just turned 21 who said "It 's a terrible time to be 21! '' Joel replied to him, "Yeah, I remember when I was 21 -- I thought it was an awful time and we had Vietnam, and y'know, drug problems, and civil rights problems and everything seemed to be awful. '' The friend replied, "Yeah, yeah, yeah, but it 's different for you. You were a kid in the fifties and everybody knows that nothing happened in the fifties ''. Joel retorted, "Wait a minute, did n't you hear of the Korean War or the Suez Canal Crisis? '' Joel later said those headlines formed the basic framework for the song.
Joel has said, "I 'm a history nut. I devour books. At one time I wanted to be a history teacher ''. According to his mother, he was a bookworm by the age of seven. Unlike most of Joel 's songs, the lyrics were written before the melody, owing to the somewhat unusual style of the song. The song was a huge commercial success and was Joel 's third Billboard No. 1 hit. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year.
I had turned forty. It was 1989 and I said "Okay, what 's happened in my life? '' I wrote down the year 1949. Okay, Harry Truman was president. Popular singer of the day, Doris Day. China went Communist. Another popular singer, Johnnie Ray. Big Broadway show, South Pacific. Journalist, Walter Winchell. Athlete, Joe DiMaggio. Then I went on to 1950 (...). It 's one of the worst melodies I 've ever written. I kind of like the lyric though.
Joel has said, "There 's an element of malevolence in the song; it 's like waiting for the other shoe to drop. '' He has mentioned having mixed feelings about the song. "It 's a nightmare to perform live, because if I miss one word, it 's a train wreck. '' He has called it a "novelty song '' that does not "really define me as well as album songs that probably do n't get played '', and has also criticized the song on strictly musical grounds. In 1993, when discussing it with documentary filmmaker David Horn, Joel compared its melodic content unfavorably to his song "The Longest Time '': "Take a song like ' We Did n't Start the Fire. ' It 's really not much of a song... If you take the melody by itself, terrible. Like a dentist drill. ''
When asked if he could do a follow - up about the next couple of years after the events that transpired in the original song, he commented "No, I wrote one song already and I do n't think it was really that good to begin with, melodically. ''
A music video for the single was directed by Chris Blum, which chronicles a white middle - class married couple and their goal of the American Dream: a home, careers, and children. This is symbolised by the constant revamping of a domestic kitchen -- 1940s utilitarian turning into 1950s Populuxe, 1960s op art, 1970s earth - colored tiles and macramé, and finally 1980s black lacquer & granite bench tops. This is juxtaposed with symbols of the tumultuous social times of the second half of the 20th century (e.g., bra burning, lynching, and draft - card burning). The singer acts as an unseen but omnipresent observer. During each chorus, Joel wearing sunglasses (similar to Roy Orbison 's) rhythmically beats on a black table; in the background, famous photographs (of Lee Harvey Oswald 's assassination and Nguyễn Văn Lém 's execution, among others) are consumed by fire, a metaphor of the song 's theme and title.
The music video on YouTube has over 60 million views as of August 2017.
Though the lyrics are rapid - fire with several people and events mentioned in a single word each, there is widespread agreement on the meaning of the lyrics. Steven Ettinger wrote,
Billy Joel captured the major images, events, and personalities of this half - century in a three - minute song... It was pure information overload, a song that assumed we knew exactly what he was singing about... What was truly alarming was the realization that we, the listeners, for the most part understood the references.
The following events (with Joel 's lyric for each appearing in bold) are listed in the order that they appear in the song, which is almost entirely chronological. The lyric for each individual event is brief and the events are punctuated by the chorus and other lyrical elements. The following list includes longer, more descriptive names for clarity. Events from a variety of contexts -- such as popular entertainment, foreign affairs, and sports -- are intermingled, giving an impression of the culture of the time as a whole. There are 119 items listed in the song.
(Note: an item from 1976 is put between items from 1977 to make the song scan better.)
Numerous parodies and takeoffs have been based on the song, including The Simpsons ' parody "They 'll Never Stop the Simpsons '' at the end of the 2002 "Gump Roast '' episode, and the San Francisco a cappella group The Richter Scales ' 2007 Webby Award - winning parody "Here Comes Another Bubble. '' Cornell University 's oldest a cappella group Cayuga 's Waiters perform a version entitled "We Did n't Go to Harvard '' with constantly changing lyrics to reflect the changing Cornell experience but always mentioning various Cornell and Ithaca landmarks. The band Guns ' n ' Moses made a parody of the song called "We Love Barney Fife '' that was played frequently on the Doctor Demento radio show, which not only paid tribute to The Andy Griffith Show, it also took advantage of the melody of the refrain being a suitable counterpoint for the Andy Griffith Show theme ("The Fishin ' Hole ''). The song was also parodied on the episode of the U.S. version of The Office where "Ryan the temp '' starts a fire in the office building, and Dwight and Michael change the lyrics of the song to "Ryan Started The Fire ''.
Another parody was released in 2010 titled "The Wii Did n't Start the Fire '' about the history of video games. "We Did n't Start the Fire '' was also used in the American comedy series Parks and Recreation in the seventh season episode, "Leslie and Ron '' (aired 20 January 2015), in which Leslie attempted to sing the song in order to get Ron to confess about why he left the parks department.
JibJab set their 2007 year in review song to "We Did n't Start the Fire '' 's tune. In early 2009, comedy website CollegeHumor created a parody entitled "We Did n't Start the Flame War '' which chronicles a long list of common inflammatory (and often explicit) comments left on content over a wide variety of popular websites by internet trolls.
In 1993, Lenny Solomon and Shlock Rock created a parody entitled "We 've Got a Strong Desire '', which contains over 5000 years of Jewish history told in the tune of the song. In the Netherlands the Dutch punk rock band Heideroosjes did a parody on their 20 - year anniversary album about things that happened over those twenty years in the Netherlands called "De Wereld Draait Door '' (The World Keeps Turning). German comedian Otto Waalkes did a parody called "Wir haben Grund zum Feiern '' (English: "We have reason to celebrate ''), with a list of alcoholic beverages.
An edition of the BBC Three comedy programme Russell Howard 's Good News featured a parody of the song detailing numerous items that the Daily Mail newspaper actually believed caused cancer.
Fans of Homestuck uploaded a version of the song called "You Ca n't Fight the Homestuck '' on YouTube in 2012, chronicling the webcomic 's long and convoluted story. YouTuber Daneboe / Dane Boedigheimer, known as creator of the popular comedic Web series Annoying Orange, produced a parody as part of YouTube 's Comedy Week in 2013 titled "We Did n't Start the Viral. '' In a 2013 episode of Family Guy (titled "Bigfat ''), after Peter 's plane goes down, he asks his friends if there might be a hint on how to start a fire in the song. He proceeds to sing the song but has forgotten almost all of the words and mumbles through it.
Pop band Milo Greene performed a version of the song in June 2013 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series. In 2015, Sky Sports released their own version of the song to advertise the upcoming 2015 Ashes series, with backing vocals and percussion provided by Elio Pace and his band. Pace has toured and recorded with Joel 's original touring band.
In 2014, Neil Cicierega released a mashup album, Mouth Silence. The 17th song, Space Monkey Mafia, plays lyrics from We Did n't Start The Fire and R.E.M. 's It 's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine) on top of each other, modifying the lyrics of both songs so they sync up, and putting them over an original polka melody.
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what do the colors on the american flag represent | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and the Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean. Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the Company 's flag by the United States as their national flag. He said to George Washington, "While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company. '' This was a way of symbolising American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States ' aspirations to be self - governing, as was the East India Company. Some colonists also felt that the Company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government tax policies. Colonists therefore flew the Company 's flag, to endorse the Company.
However, the theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticised as lacking written evidence. On the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and a number of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company 's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule. In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag ''). Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參; literally: "flower flag ginseng '' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗 银行; "Flower Flag Bank ''.
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern meaning of the flag was forged in April 1861, when Major Robert Anderson defended Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The Confederates shot at the flag and Anderson was forced to surrender. The modern meaning of the flag was forged by Anderson 's stand at Fort Sumter; he was celebrated in the North as a hero. Harold Holzer states that New York City:
Author Adam Goodheart argues after this opening event move of the American Civil War, the flag was used throughout northern states to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. In worldwide comparison, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He received a B − on the project. According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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who told the magi to follow the star | Star of Bethlehem - wikipedia
The Star of Bethlehem, or Christmas Star, appears only in the nativity story of the Gospel of Matthew, where "wise men from the East '' (Magi) are inspired by the star to travel to Jerusalem. There they meet King Herod of Judea, and ask where the king of the Jews had been born. Herod, following a verse from the Book of Micah interpreted as a prophecy, directs them to Bethlehem, to the south of Jerusalem. The star leads them to Jesus ' home in the town, where they worship him and give him gifts. The wise men are then given a divine warning not to return to Herod, so they return home by a different route.
Many Christians believe the star was a miraculous sign to mark the birth of the Christ (or Messiah). Some theologians claimed that the star fulfilled a prophecy, known as the Star Prophecy. Astronomers have made several attempts to link the star to unusual celestial events, such as a conjunction of Jupiter and Venus, a comet, or a supernova.
Some modern scholars do not consider the story to be describing a historical event but a pious fiction created by the author of the Gospel of Matthew.
The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season, although the Biblical account describes Jesus with a broader Greek word παιδίου, which can mean either "infant '' or "child '' (paidion), rather than the more specific word for infant (brephos), possibly implying that some time has passed since the birth. The visit is traditionally celebrated on Epiphany (January 6) in Western Christianity.
In the Gospel of Matthew account, the Magi (often translated as "wise men '', but more accurately astrologers) arrive at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and tell the king of a star which signifies the birth of the King of the Jews:
Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the king, behold, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, saying, Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we have seen His star in the East (or at its rising) and have come to worship Him. When Herod the king heard this, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him. And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he inquired of them where the Christ was to be born.
Herod is "troubled '', not because of the appearance of the star, but because the Magi have told him that a "king of the Jews '' had been born, which he understands to refer to the Messiah, a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was believed to be foretold in scripture. So he asks his advisors where the Messiah would be born. They answer Bethlehem, birthplace of King David, and quote the prophet Micah. The king passes this information along to the Magi.
Then Herod, when he had secretly called the wise men, determined from them what time the star appeared. And he sent them to Bethlehem and said, Go and search carefully for the young Child, and when you have found Him, bring back word to me, that I may come and worship Him also. When they heard the king, they departed; and behold, the star which they had seen in the East went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was. When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy. And when they had come into the house, they saw the young Child with Mary His mother, and fell down and worshiped Him. And when they had opened their treasures, they presented gifts to Him: gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
Matthew 's account suggests that the Magi knew from the star that the "king of the Jews '' had been born even before they arrived in Jerusalem. They present Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, and as verse 11 describes: "they saw the child with his mother Mary, and they bowed down and worshiped him ''. In a dream, they are warned not to return to Jerusalem, so they leave for their own country by another route. When Herod realizes he has been tricked, he orders the execution of all male children in Bethlehem "two years old and younger, '' based on the age the child could be in regard to the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared. Joseph, warned in a dream, takes his family to Egypt for their safety. The Gospel links the escape to a verse from scripture, which it interprets as a prophecy: "Out of Egypt I called my son. '' This was a reference to the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt under Moses, so the quote suggests that Matthew saw the life of Jesus as recapitulating the story of the Jewish people, with Judea representing Egypt and Herod standing in for pharaoh. After Herod dies, Joseph and his family return from Egypt, and settle in Nazareth in Galilee. This is also said to be a fulfillment of a prophecy ("He will be called a Nazorean, '' (NRSV) which could be attributed to Judges 13: 5 regarding the birth of Samson and the Narazite vow. The word "Nazareth '' is related to the word "netzer '' which means "sprout '', and which some Bible commentators think refers to Isaiah 11: 1, "And there shall come forth a shoot out of the stock of Jesse, and a branch out of his roots shall bear fruit. '' (ESV).
Many scholars who see the gospel nativity stories as later apologetic accounts created to establish the Messianic status of Jesus regard the Star of Bethlehem as a pious fiction. Aspects of Matthew 's account which have raised questions of the historical event include: Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the Magi. In Mark 6: 1 - 4, the author of the Gospel of Mark, considered by modern text scholars to be the oldest of the Gospels, does not appear to be aware of the Bethlehem nativity story. Scholars suggest that Jesus was born in Nazareth and that the Bethlehem nativity narratives reflect a desire by the Gospel writers to present his birth as the fulfillment of prophecy. The Matthew account conflicts with that given in the Gospel of Luke, in which the family of Jesus already live in Nazareth, travel to Bethlehem for the census, and return home almost immediately.
Matthew 's description of the miracles and portents attending the birth of Jesus can be compared to stories concerning the birth of Augustus (63 BC). Linking a birth to the first appearance of a star was consistent with a popular belief that each person 's life was linked to a particular star. Magi and astronomical events were linked in the public mind by the visit to Rome of a delegation of magi at the time of a spectacular appearance of Halley 's Comet in AD 66, about the time the Gospel of Matthew was being composed. This delegation was led by King Tiridates of Armenia, who came seeking confirmation of his title from Emperor Nero. Ancient historian Dio Cassius wrote that, "The King did not return by the route he had followed in coming, '' a line similar to the text of Matthew 's account, but written some time after the completion of Matthew 's gospel.
The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the Hebrew patriarchs, as well as Greek and Roman heroes.
The Star of Bethlehem is traditionally linked to the Star Prophecy in the Book of Numbers:
I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near; A Star shall come out of Jacob; A Scepter shall rise out of Israel, And batter the brow of Moab, And destroy all the sons of tumult.
Although clearly intended to refer to a time that was long past, since the kingdom of Moab had long ceased to exist by the time the Gospels were being written, this passage had become widely seen as a reference to the coming of a Messiah. It was, for example, cited by Josephus, who believed it referred to Emperor Vespasian. Origen, one of the most influential early Christian theologians, connected this prophecy with the Star of Bethlehem:
If, then, at the commencement of new dynasties, or on the occasion of other important events, there arises a comet so called, or any similar celestial body, why should it be matter of wonder that at the birth of Him who was to introduce a new doctrine to the human race, and to make known His teaching not only to Jews, but also to Greeks, and to many of the barbarous nations besides, a star should have arisen? Now I would say, that with respect to comets there is no prophecy in circulation to the effect that such and such a comet was to arise in connection with a particular kingdom or a particular time; but with respect to the appearance of a star at the birth of Jesus there is a prophecy of Balaam recorded by Moses to this effect: There shall arise a star out of Jacob, and a man shall rise up out of Israel.
Origen suggested that the Magi may have decided to travel to Jerusalem when they "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world ''.
The Magi are sometimes called "kings '' because of the belief that they fulfill prophecies in Isaiah and Psalms concerning a journey to Jerusalem by gentile kings. Isaiah mentions gifts of gold and incense. In the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament probably used by Matthew, these gifts are given as gold and frankincense, similar to Matthew 's "gold, frankincense, and myrrh. '' The gift of myrrh symbolizes mortality, according to Origen.
While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation, John Chrysostom viewed the star as purely miraculous: "How then, tell me, did the star point out a spot so confined, just the space of a manger and shed, unless it left that height and came down, and stood over the very head of the young child? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said, "Lo, the star went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was. ''
Although magi (Greek μαγοι) is usually translated as "wise men, '' in this context it probably means "astronomer '' or "astrologer ''. The involvement of astrologers in the story of the birth of Jesus was problematic for the early Church, because they condemned astrology as demonic; a widely cited explanation was that of Tertullian, who suggested that astrology was allowed ' only until the time of the Gospel '.
In 1614, German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in the year 7 BC. He argued (incorrectly) that a planetary conjunction could create a nova, which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem. Modern calculations show that there was a gap of nearly a degree (approximately twice a diameter of the moon) between the planets, so these conjunctions were not visually impressive. An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period, but does not indicate that the conjunctions were of any special interest. In the 20th century, Prof. Karlis Kaufmanis, an astronomer, argued that this was an astronomical event where Jupiter and Saturn were in a triple conjunction in the constellation Pisces. Archaeologist and Assyriologist Simo Parpola has also suggested this explanation.
In 3 -- 2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus near Regulus on June 17, 2 BC. "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe - inspiring event '', according to Roger Sinnott. Another Venus -- Jupiter conjunction occurred earlier in August, 3 BC. These events however occurred after the generally accepted date of 4 BC for the death of Herod. Since the conjunction would have been seen in the west at sunset it could not have led the magi south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem.
Other writers suggest that the star was a comet. Halley 's Comet was visible in 12 BC and another object, possibly a comet or nova, was seen by Chinese and Korean stargazers in about 5 BC. This object was observed for over seventy days with no movement recorded. Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over '' specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over '' the "place '' where Jesus was (the town of Bethlehem). However, this is generally thought unlikely as in ancient times comets were generally seen as bad omens. The comet explanation has been recently promoted by Colin Nicholl. His theory involves a hypothetical comet which could have appeared in 6 BC.
A recent (2005) hypothesis is that the star of Bethlehem was a supernova or hypernova occurring in the nearby Andromeda Galaxy. Although it is difficult to detect a supernova remnant in another galaxy, or obtain an accurate date of when it occurred, supernova remnants have been detected in Andromeda.
The Magi told Herod that they saw the star "in the East, '' or according to some translations, "at its rising '', which may imply the routine appearance of a constellation, or an asterism. One theory interprets the phrase in Matthew 2: 2, "in the east, '' as an astrological term concerning a "heliacal rising. '' This translation was proposed by Edersheim and Heinrich Voigt, among others. The view was rejected by the philologist Franz Boll (1867 -- 1924). Two modern translators of ancient astrological texts insist that the text does not use the technical terms for either a heliacal or an acronycal rising of a star. However, one concedes that Matthew may have used layman 's terms for a rising.
Astronomer Michael R. Molnar argues that the "star in the east '' refers to an astronomical event with astrological significance in the context of ancient Greek astrology. He suggests a link between the Star of Bethlehem and a double occultation of Jupiter by the moon on March 20 and April 17 of 6 BC in Aries, particularly the second occultation on April 17. Occultations of planets by the moon are quite common, but Firmicus Maternus, an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine, wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king. He argues that Aries rather than Pisces was the zodiac symbol for Judea, a fact that would affect previous interpretations of astrological material. Molnar 's theory was debated by scientists, theologians, and historians during a colloquium on the Star of Bethlehem at the Netherlands ' University of Groningen in October 2014. Harvard astronomer Owen Gingerich supports Molnar 's explanation but noted technical questions. "The gospel story is one in which King Herod was taken by surprise, '' said Gingerich. "So it was n't that there was suddenly a brilliant new star sitting there that anybody could have seen (but) something more subtle. '' Astronomer David A. Weintraub says, "If Matthew 's wise men actually undertook a journey to search for a newborn king, the bright star did n't guide them; it only told them when to set out. ''
The events were quite close to the sun and would not have been visible to the naked eye.
Babylonian astronomers usually referred to the planet Jupiter as MUL. BABBAR, meaning the "white star. '' The symbolically royal celestial events were centered on the planet 's annual cycle.
This conception of the star has been referred to as "a serious study of what could have been a messianic Jewish perspective concerning the heavens two millennia ago. ''
Attorney Frederick Larson examined the biblical account in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 2 and found the following nine qualities of Bethlehem 's Star: It signified birth, it signified kingship, it was related to the Jewish nation, and it rose "in the East ''; King Herod had not been aware of it; it appeared at an exact time; it endured over time; and, according to Matthew, it was in front of the Magi when they traveled south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, and then it stopped over Bethlehem.
Using astronomy software, and an article written by astronomer Craig Chester based on the work of Ernest Martin, Larson thinks all nine characteristics of the Star of Bethlehem are found in events that took place in the skies of 3 - 2 BC. Highlights include a triple conjunction of Jupiter, called the king planet, with the fixed star Regulus, called the king star, starting in September 3 BC. Larson believes that may be the time of Jesus ' conception.
By June of 2 BC, nine months later, the human conception period, Jupiter had continued moving in its orbit around the sun and appeared in close conjunction with Venus in June of 2 BC. In Hebrew Jupiter is called "Sedeq '', meaning "righteousness '', a term also used for the Messiah, and suggested that because the planet Venus represents love and fertility, so Chester had suggested astrologers would have viewed the close conjunction of Jupiter and Venus as indicating a coming new king of Israel, and Herod would have taken them seriously. Astronomer Dave Reneke independently found the June 2 BC planetary conjunction, and noted it would have appeared as a "bright beacon of light ''.
Jupiter next continued to move and then it stopped in its apparent retrograde motion on December 25 of 2 BC over the town of Bethlehem. Since planets in their orbits have a "stationary point '', a planet moves eastward through the stars but "After it passes the opposite point in the sky from the sun, it appears to slow, come to a full stop, and move backward (westward) for some weeks. Again it slows, stops, and resumes its eastward course, '' said Chester. The date of December 25 that Jupiter appeared to stop while in retrograde took place in the season of Hanukkah, and is the date later chosen to celebrate Christmas.
If the story of the Star of Bethlehem described an actual event, it might identify the year Jesus was born. The Gospel of Matthew describes the birth of Jesus as taking place when Herod was king. According to Josephus, Herod died after a lunar eclipse and before a Passover Feast. The eclipse is usually identified as the eclipse of March 13, 4 BC. Other scholars suggested dates in 5 BC, because it allows seven months for the events Josephus documented between the lunar eclipse and the Passover than the 29 days allowed by lunar eclipse in 4 BC. Others suggest it was an eclipse in 1 BC. The narrative implies that Jesus was born sometime between the first appearance of the star and the appearance of the Magi at Herod 's court. That the king is said to have ordered the execution of boys two years of age and younger implies that the Star of Bethlehem appeared within the preceding two years. Some scholars date the birth of Jesus as 6 -- 4 BC, while others suggest Jesus ' birth was in 3 / 2 BC.
The Gospel of Luke says the census from Caesar Augustus took place when Quirinius was governor of Syria. Tipler suggests this took place in AD 6, nine years after the death of Herod, and that the family of Jesus left Bethlehem shortly after the birth. Some scholars explain the apparent disparity as an error on the part of the author of the Gospel of Luke, concluding that he was more concerned with creating a symbolic narrative than a historical account, and was either unaware of, or indifferent to, the chronological difficulty.
However, there is some debate among Bible translators about the correct reading of Luke 2: 2. Instead of translating the registration as taking place "when '' Quirinius was governor of Syria, some versions translate it as "before '' or use "before '' as an alternative, which Harold Hoehner, F.F. Bruce, Ben Witherington and others have suggested may be the correct translation. While not in agreement, Emil Schürer also acknowledged that such a translation can be justified grammatically. According to Josephus, the tax census conducted by the Roman senator Quirinius particularly irritated the Jews, and was one of the causes of the Zealot movement of armed resistance to Rome. From this perspective, Luke may have been trying to differentiate the census at the time of Jesus ' birth from the tax census mentioned in Acts 5: 37 that took place under Quirinius at a later time. One ancient writer identified the census at Jesus ' birth, not with taxes, but with a universal pledge of allegiance to the emperor.
Jack Finegan noted some early writers ' reckoning of the regnal years of Augustus are the equivalent to 3 / 2 BC, or 2 BC or later for the birth of Jesus, including Irenaeus (3 / 2 BC), Clement of Alexandria (3 / 2 BC), Tertullian (3 / 2 BC), Julius Africanus (3 / 2 BC), Hippolytus of Rome (3 / 2 BC), Hippolytus of Thebes (3 / 2 BC), Origen (3 / 2 BC), Eusebius of Caesarea (3 / 2 BC), Epiphanius of Salamis (3 / 2 BC), Cassiodorus Senator (3 BC), Paulus Orosius (2 BC), Dionysus Exiguus (1 BC), and Chronographer of the Year 354 (AD 1). Finegan places the death of Herod in 1 BC, and says if Jesus was born two years or less before Herod the Great died, the birth of Jesus would have been in 3 or 2 BC. Finegan also notes the Alogi reckoned Christ 's birth with the equivalent of 4 BC or AD 9.
In the Orthodox Church, the Star of Bethlehem is interpreted as a miraculous event of symbolic and pedagogical significance, regardless of whether it coincides with a natural phenomenon; a sign sent by God to lead the Magi to the Christ Child. This is illustrated in the Troparion of the Nativity:
Your birth, O Christ our God, dawned the light of knowledge upon the earth. For by Your birth those who adored stars were taught by a star to worship You, the Sun of Justice, and to know You, Orient from on High. O Lord, glory to You.
In Orthodox Christian iconography, the Star of Bethlehem is often depicted not as golden, but as a dark aureola, a semicircle at the top of the icon, indicating the Uncreated Light of Divine grace, with a ray pointing to "the place where the young child lay '' (Matt 2: 9). Sometimes the faint image of an angel is drawn inside the aureola.
Simon the Athonite founded the monastery of Simonopetra on Mount Athos after seeing a star he identified with the Star of Bethlehem.
Mormons believe that the Star of Bethlehem was an actual astronomical event visible the world over. In the Book of Mormon, which they believe contains writings of ancient prophets, Samuel the Lamanite prophesies that a new star will appear as a sign that Jesus has been born, and Nephi later writes about the fulfillment of this prophecy.
Among Jehovah 's Witnesses the Star of Bethlehem is seen as a product of Satan, rather than a sign from God, since the star led the astrologers to Jerusalem where they met King Herod 's plan to kill Jesus.
In The Desire of Ages, Ellen White states "That star was a distant company of shining angels, but of this the wise men were ignorant. ''
Paintings and other pictures of the Adoration of the Magi may include a depiction of the star in some form. In the fresco by Giotto di Bondone, it is depicted as a comet. In the tapestry of the subject designed by Edward Burne - Jones (and in the related watercolour), the star is held by an angel.
The colourful star lantern known as a paról is a cherished and ubiquitous symbol of Christmas for Filipinos, its design and light recalling the star. In its basic form, the paról has five points and two "tails '' that evoke rays of light pointing the way to the Christ Child, and candles inside the lanterns have been superseded by electric illumination.
In the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, a silver star with 14 undulating rays marks the location traditionally claimed to be that of Jesus ' birth.
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who gave us the common principles of law and what are they | Common law - wikipedia
Common law is a body of law derived from judicial decisions (also known as judicial precedent or judge - made law or case law) as distinct from statutes or constitutions, and distinct from a civil law system and ecclesiastical law; in common law jurisdictions, it is the basic system of legal concepts, together with the techniques of applying them in courts of law. At the heart of all common law systems lies the principle, known as stare decisis, that judges should decide cases according to consistent principles and rules, so that similar facts will yield similar results.
Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, and from there propagated to the colonies of the former British Empire and of the British "Thirteen Colonies '' in North America. England 's common law was stated in Halsbury 's Laws of England, to be nothing else but the common custom of the realm, and not to be confused with the jus commune of the Church of Rome. Today, one third of the world 's population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law, including Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Burma, Cameroon, Canada (both the federal system and its provinces except Quebec), Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago, the United States (both the United States federal courts and 49 of its 50 states), and Zimbabwe.
Among lawyers the most frequent usages of the term common law are the first three described here. Other connotations occur in other contexts.
The first of four definitions of "common law '' given in the widely used U.S. law dictionary, Black 's Law Dictionary (10th edition, 2014, editor - in - chief Bryan A. Garner), is "the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions '', and this is the usage characterized as the "most common '' among legal professionals in U.S. and frequently seen in court decisions, The law in common law jurisdictions includes "statutory law '' enacted by a legislature, "regulatory law '' (in the U.S.) or "delegated legislation '' (in the U.K.) promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to delegation of rule - making authority from the legislature, and common law or "case law '', i.e., decisions issued by courts. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, and governments and private publishers publish law reports. Some decisions become the "leading cases '' or "landmark decisions '' that are cited and applied most frequently in later cases and discussed in academic commentaries.
The second of the definitions in Black 's Law Dictionary (10th Ed. 2014) differentiates "common law '' jurisdictions and legal systems from "civil law '' or "code '' jurisdictions. Common law systems place great weight on court decisions, which are considered "law '' with the same force of law as statutes -- for nearly a millennium, common law courts have had the authority to make law where no legislative statute exists, and statutes mean what courts interpret them to mean.
By contrast, in civil law jurisdictions (the legal tradition that prevails, or is combined with common law, in Europe and most non-Islamic, non-common law countries), courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less interpretive weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently, and less predictably. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. The role of providing overarching principles, which in common law jurisdictions is provided in judicial opinions, in civil law jurisdictions is filled by giving greater weight to scholarly literature.
Common law systems trace their history to England, while current civil law systems trace their history through the Napoleonic Code and back to the Corpus Juris Civilis of Roman law.
Black 's fourth definition differentiates common law from "equity ''. Before 1873, England had two complementary court systems: courts of "law '' which could only award money damages and recognized only the legal owner of property, and courts of "equity '' (courts of chancery) that could issue injunctive relief (that is, a court order to a party to do something, give something to someone, or stop doing something) and recognized trusts of property. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States. For most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U.S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Nonetheless, the historical distinction between "law '' and "equity '' remains important today when the case involves issues such as the following:
Courts of equity rely on common law principles of binding precedent.
Historical uses of the term provide some background for the meaning of "common law ''.
In some contexts, "common law '' refers to the pre-Christian system of law, imported by the Saxons to England before the Norman conquest, and before there was any consistent law to be applied. This definition is found or alluded to in some internet dictionaries.
"Common law '' as the term is used today in common law countries contrasts with jus commune (or, frequently, ius commune). While historically the ius commune became a secure point of reference in continental European legal systems, in England it was not a point of reference at all.
The English Court of Common Pleas dealt with lawsuits in which the monarch had no interest, i.e., between commoners.
Black 's third definition is "General law common to a country as a whole, as opposed to special law that has only local application. '' From at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King 's justice in "assizes ''. The term "common law '' was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. cautioned that "the proper derivation of general principles in both common and constitutional law... arise gradually, in the emergence of a consensus from a multitude of particularized prior decisions. '' Justice Cardozo noted the "common law does not work from pre-established truths of universal and inflexible validity to conclusions derived from them deductively, '' but "(i) ts method is inductive, and it draws its generalizations from particulars. ''
The common law is more malleable than statutory law. First, common law courts are not absolutely bound by precedent, but can (when extraordinarily good reason is shown) reinterpret and revise the law, without legislative intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and social philosophy. Second, the common law evolves through a series of gradual steps, that gradually works out all the details, so that over a decade or more, the law can change substantially but without a sharp break, thereby reducing disruptive effects. In contrast to common law incrementalism, the legislative process is very difficult to get started, as legislatures tend to delay action until a situation is totally intolerable. For these reasons, legislative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive (sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and sometimes with unintended consequences).
One example of the gradual change that typifies evolution of the common law is the gradual change in liability for negligence. The traditional common law rule through most of the 19th century was that a plaintiff could not recover for a defendant 's negligent production or distribution of a harmful instrumentality unless the two were in privity of contract. Thus, only the immediate purchaser could recover for a product defect, and if a part was built up out of parts from parts manufacturers, the ultimate buyer could not recover for injury caused by a defect in the part. In an 1842 English case, Winterbottom v. Wright, the postal service had contracted with Wright to maintain its coaches. Winterbottom was a driver for the post. When the coach failed and injured Winterbottom, he sued Wright. The Winterbottom court recognized that there would be "absurd and outrageous consequences '' if an injured person could sue any person peripherally involved, and knew it had to draw a line somewhere, a limit on the causal connection between the negligent conduct and the injury. The court looked to the contractual relationships, and held that liability would only flow as far as the person in immediate contract ("privity '') with the negligent party.
A first exception to this rule arose in 1852, in the case of Thomas v. Winchester, when New York 's highest court held that mislabeling a poison as an innocuous herb, and then selling the mislabeled poison through a dealer who would be expected to resell it, put "human life in imminent danger. '' Thomas relied on this reason to create an exception to the "privity '' rule. In, 1909, New York held in Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. that a coffee urn manufacturer was liable to a person injured when the urn exploded, because the urn "was of such a character inherently that, when applied to the purposes for which it was designed, it was liable to become a source of great danger to many people if not carefully and properly constructed. ''
Yet the privity rule survived. In Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson, (decided in 1915 by the federal appeals court for New York and several neighboring states), the court held that a car owner could not recover for injuries from a defective wheel, when the automobile owner had a contract only with the automobile dealer and not with the manufacturer, even though there was "no question that the wheel was made of dead and ' dozy ' wood, quite insufficient for its purposes. '' The Cadillac court was willing to acknowledge that the case law supported exceptions for "an article dangerous in its nature or likely to become so in the course of the ordinary usage to be contemplated by the vendor. '' However, held the Cadillac court, "one who manufactures articles dangerous only if defectively made, or installed, e.g., tables, chairs, pictures or mirrors hung on the walls, carriages, automobiles, and so on, is not liable to third parties for injuries caused by them, except in case of willful injury or fraud, ''
Finally, in the famous case of MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., in 1916, Judge Benjamin Cardozo for New York 's highest court pulled a broader principle out of these predecessor cases. The facts were almost identical to Cadillac a year earlier: a wheel from a wheel manufacturer was sold to Buick, to a dealer, to MacPherson, and the wheel failed, injuring MacPherson. Judge Cardozo held:
It may be that Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. have extended the rule of Thomas v. Winchester. If so, this court is committed to the extension. The defendant argues that things imminently dangerous to life are poisons, explosives, deadly weapons -- things whose normal function it is to injure or destroy. But whatever the rule in Thomas v. Winchester may once have been, it has no longer that restricted meaning. A scaffold (Devlin v. Smith, supra) is not inherently a destructive instrument. It becomes destructive only if imperfectly constructed. A large coffee urn (Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co., supra) may have within itself, if negligently made, the potency of danger, yet no one thinks of it as an implement whose normal function is destruction. What is true of the coffee urn is equally true of bottles of aerated water (Torgeson v. Schultz, 192 N.Y. 156). We have mentioned only cases in this court. But the rule has received a like extension in our courts of intermediate appeal. In Burke v. Ireland (26 App. Div. 487), in an opinion by CULLEN, J., it was applied to a builder who constructed a defective building; in Kahner v. Otis Elevator Co. (96 App. Div. 169) to the manufacturer of an elevator; in Davies v. Pelham Hod Elevating Co. (65 Hun, 573; affirmed in this court without opinion, 146 N.Y. 363) to a contractor who furnished a defective rope with knowledge of the purpose for which the rope was to be used. We are not required at this time either to approve or to disapprove the application of the rule that was made in these cases. It is enough that they help to characterize the trend of judicial thought.
We hold, then, that the principle of Thomas v. Winchester is not limited to poisons, explosives, and things of like nature, to things which in their normal operation are implements of destruction. If the nature of a thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of danger. Its nature gives warning of the consequences to be expected. If to the element of danger there is added knowledge that the thing will be used by persons other than the purchaser, and used without new tests then, irrespective of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully... There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable.
Cardozo 's new "rule '' exists in no prior case, but is inferrable as a synthesis of the "thing of danger '' principle stated in them, merely extending it to "foreseeable danger '' even if "the purposes for which it was designed '' were not themselves "a source of great danger. '' MacPherson takes some care to present itself as foreseeable progression, not a wild departure. Cardozo continues to adhere to the original principle of Winterbottom, that "absurd and outrageous consequences '' must be avoided, and he does so by drawing a new line in the last sentence quoted above: "There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable. '' But while adhering to the underlying principle that some boundary is necessary, MacPherson overruled the prior common law by rendering the formerly dominant factor in the boundary, that is, the privity formality arising out of a contractual relationship between persons, totally irrelevant. Rather, the most important factor in the boundary would be the nature of the thing sold and the foreseeable uses that downstream purchasers would make of the thing.
This illustrates two crucial principles. (a) The evolution of the common law is in the hands of judges, and judges have "made law '' for hundreds of years. (b) The reasons given for a decision are often more important in the development of the law than the outcome in a particular case.
Common law decisions are published in law reports for use by lawyers, courts and the general public.
After the American Revolution, Massachusetts became the first state to establish an official Reporter of Decisions. As newer states needed law, they often looked first to the Massachusetts Reports for authoritative precedents as a basis for their own common law. The United States federal courts relied on private publishers until after the Civil War, and only began publishing as a government function in 1874. West Publishing in Minnesota is the largest private - sector publisher of law reports in the United States. Government publishers typically issue only decisions "in the raw, '' while private sector publishers often add indexing, editorial analysis, and similar finding aids.
In common law legal systems, the common law is crucial to understanding almost all important areas of law. For example, in England and Wales, in English Canada, and in most states of the United States, the basic law of contracts, torts and property do not exist in statute, but only in common law (though there may be isolated modifications enacted by statute). As another example, the Supreme Court of the United States in 1877, held that a Michigan statute that established rules for solemnization of marriages did not abolish pre-existing common - law marriage, because the statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was silent as to preexisting common law.
In almost all areas of the law (even those where there is a statutory framework, such as contracts for the sale of goods, or the criminal law), legislature - enacted statutes generally give only terse statements of general principle, and the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the interstitial common law. To find out what the precise law is that applies to a particular set of facts, one has to locate precedential decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy.
In common law jurisdictions (as opposed to "civil law ''), legislatures operate under the assumption that statutes will be interpreted against the backdrop of the pre-existing common law. As the United States Supreme Court explained in United States v Texas, 507 U.S. 529 (1993):
For example, in most U.S. states, the criminal statutes are primarily codification of pre-existing common law. (Codification is the process of enacting a statute that collects and restates pre-existing law in a single document -- when that pre-existing law is common law, the common law remains relevant to the interpretation of these statutes.) In reliance on this assumption, modern statutes often leave a number of terms and fine distinctions unstated -- for example, a statute might be very brief, leaving the precise definition of terms unstated, under the assumption that these fine distinctions will be inherited from pre-existing common law. (For this reason, many modern American law schools teach the common law of crime as it stood in England in 1789, because that centuries - old English common law is a necessary foundation to interpreting modern criminal statutes.)
With the transition from English law, which had common law crimes, to the new legal system under the U.S. Constitution, which prohibited ex post facto laws at both the federal and state level, the question was raised whether there could be common law crimes in the United States. It was settled in the case of United States v. Hudson, which decided that federal courts had no jurisdiction to define new common law crimes, and that there must always be a (constitutional) statute defining the offense and the penalty for it.
Still, many states retain selected common law crimes. For example, in Virginia, the definition of the conduct that constitutes the crime of robbery exists only in the common law, and the robbery statute only sets the punishment. Virginia Code section 1 - 200 establishes the continued existence and vitality of common law principles and provides that "The common law of England, insofar as it is not repugnant to the principles of the Bill of Rights and Constitution of this Commonwealth, shall continue in full force within the same, and be the rule of decision, except as altered by the General Assembly. ''
By contrast to statutory codification of common law, some statutes displace common law, for example to create a new cause of action that did not exist in the common law, or to legislatively overrule the common law. An example is the tort of wrongful death, which allows certain persons, usually a spouse, child or estate, to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased. There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, the compensation or other remedy available is limited to the remedy specified in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages). Courts generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly -- that is, limited to their precise terms -- because the courts generally recognize the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge - made law unless such statute should violate some "second order '' constitutional law provision (cf. judicial activism).
Where a tort is rooted in common law, all traditionally recognized damages for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those damages in the current statutory law. For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the negligence of another may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and / or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement and more. These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of them are extinguished upon death.
In the United States, the power of the federal judiciary to review and invalidate unconstitutional acts of the federal executive branch is stated in the constitution, Article III sections 1 and 2: "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish... The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority... '' The first famous statement of "the judicial power '' was Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). Later cases interpreted the "judicial power '' of Article III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or overturn any action of Congress or of any state that conflicts with the Constitution.
The interactions between decisions of different courts is discussed further in the article on precedent.
The United States federal courts are divided into twelve regional circuits, each with a circuit court of appeals (plus a thirteenth, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and cases against the federal government, without geographic limitation). Decisions of one circuit court are binding on the district courts within the circuit and on the circuit court itself, but are only persuasive authority on sister circuits. District court decisions are not binding precedent at all, only persuasive.
Most of the U.S. federal courts of appeal have adopted a rule under which, in the event of any conflict in decisions of panels (most of the courts of appeal almost always sit in panels of three), the earlier panel decision is controlling, and a panel decision may only be overruled by the court of appeals sitting en banc (that is, all active judges of the court) or by a higher court. In these courts, the older decision remains controlling when an issue comes up the third time.
Other courts, for example, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the Supreme Court, always sit en banc, and thus the later decision controls. These courts essentially overrule all previous cases in each new case, and older cases survive only to the extent they do not conflict with newer cases. The interpretations of these courts -- for example, Supreme Court interpretations of the constitution or federal statutes -- are stable only so long as the older interpretation maintains the support of a majority of the court. Older decisions persist through some combination of belief that the old decision is right, and that it is not sufficiently wrong to be overruled.
The reliance on judicial opinion is a strength of common law systems, and is a significant contributor to the robust commercial systems in the United Kingdom and United States. Because there is reasonably precise guidance on almost every issue, parties (especially commercial parties) can predict whether a proposed course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful, and have some assurance of consistency. As Justice Brandeis famously expressed it, "in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right. '' This ability to predict gives more freedom to come close to the boundaries of the law. For example, many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and create greater wealth, because the parties know ahead of time that the proposed arrangement, though perhaps close to the line, is almost certainly legal. Newspapers, taxpayer - funded entities with some religious affiliation, and political parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries within which their freedom of expression rights apply.
In contrast, in non-common - law countries, and jurisdictions with very weak respect for precedent, fine questions of law are redetermined anew each time they arise, making consistency and prediction more difficult, and procedures far more protracted than necessary because parties can not rely on written statements of law as reliable guides. In jurisdictions that do not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, parties have less a priori guidance and must often leave a bigger "safety margin '' of unexploited opportunities, and final determinations are reached only after far larger expenditures on legal fees by the parties.
This is the reason for the frequent choice of the law of the State of New York in commercial contracts, even when neither entity has extensive contacts with New York -- and remarkably often even when neither party has contacts with the United States. Commercial contracts almost always include a "choice of law clause '' to reduce uncertainty. Somewhat surprisingly, contracts throughout the world (for example, contracts involving parties in Japan, France and Germany, and from most of the other states of the United States) often choose the law of New York, even where the relationship of the parties and transaction to New York is quite attenuated. Because of its history as the United States ' commercial center, New York common law has a depth and predictability not (yet) available in any other jurisdictions of the United States. Similarly, American corporations are often formed under Delaware corporate law, and American contracts relating to corporate law issues (merger and acquisitions of companies, rights of shareholders, and so on.) include a Delaware choice of law clause, because of the deep body of law in Delaware on these issues. Outside the United States, parties that are in different jurisdictions from each other often choose the law of England and Wales, particularly when the parties are each in former British colonies and members of the Commonwealth. The common theme in all cases is that commercial parties seek predictability and simplicity in their contractual relations, and frequently choose the law of a common law jurisdiction with a well - developed body of common law to achieve that result.
Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising out of unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective choice of law clauses in contracts discussed in the previous paragraph), certain jurisdictions attract an unusually high fraction of cases, because of the predictability afforded by the depth of decided cases. For example, London is considered the pre-eminent centre for litigation of admiralty cases.
This is not to say that common law is better in every situation. For example, civil law can be clearer than case law when the legislature has had the foresight and diligence to address the precise set of facts applicable to a particular situation. For that reason, civil law statutes tend to be somewhat more detailed than statutes written by common law legislatures -- but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult to read (the United States tax code is an example). Nonetheless, as a practical matter, no civil law legislature can ever address the full spectrum of factual possibilities in the breadth, depth and detail of the case law of the common law courts of even a smaller jurisdiction, and that deeper, more complete body of law provides additional predictability that promotes commerce.
Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, and from there propagated to the colonies of the British Empire.
In the late 9th century, Alfred the Great assembled the Doom book (not to be confused with the more - famous Domesday Book from 200 years later), which collected the existing laws of Kent, Wessex, and Mercia, and attempted to blend in the Mosaic code, Christian principles, and Germanic customs dating as far as the 5th century.
Before the Norman conquest in 1066, justice was administered primarily by what is today known as the county courts (the modern "counties '' were referred to as "shires '' in pre-Norman times), presided by the diocesan bishop and the sheriff, exercising both ecclesiastical and civil jurisdiction. While in some sense an early form of jury came to be part of the procedure in the shire courts, the development of the common law grand jury and petty jury came later.
The main sources for the history of the common law in the Middle Ages are the plea rolls and the Year Books. The plea rolls, which were the official court records for the Courts of Common Pleas and King 's Bench, were written in Latin. The rolls were made up in bundles by law term: Hilary, Easter, Trinity, and Michaelmas, or winter, spring, summer, and autumn. They are currently deposited in the UK National Archives, by whose permission images of the rolls for the Courts of Common Pleas, King 's Bench, and Exchequer of Pleas, from the 13th century to the 17th, can be viewed online at the Anglo - American Legal Tradition site (The O'Quinn Law Library of the University of Houston Law Center).
The term "common law '' originally derives from the 1150s and 1160s, when Henry II of England established the secular English tribunals. The "common law '' was the law that emerged as "common '' throughout the realm (as distinct from the various legal codes that preceded it, such as Mercian law, the Danelaw and the law of Wessex) as the king 's judges followed each other 's decisions to create a unified common law throughout England. From at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King 's justice. The term "common law '' was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions.
The doctrine of precedent developed during the 12th and 13th centuries, as the collective judicial decisions that were based in tradition, custom and precedent.
The form of reasoning used in common law is known as casuistry or case - based reasoning. The common law, as applied in civil cases (as distinct from criminal cases), was devised as a means of compensating someone for wrongful acts known as torts, including both intentional torts and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating contracts. The type of procedure practiced in common law courts is known as the adversarial system; this is also a development of the common law.
The early development of case - law in the thirteenth century has been traced to Bracton 's On the Laws and Customs of England and led to the yearly compilations of court cases known as Year Books, of which the first extant was published in 1268, the same year that Bracton died. The Year Books are known as the law reports of medieval England, and are a principal source for knowledge of the developing legal doctrines, concepts, and methods in the period from the 13th to the 16th centuries, when the common law developed into recognizable form.
In 1154, Henry II became the first Plantagenet king. Among many achievements, Henry institutionalized common law by creating a unified system of law "common '' to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, eliminating arbitrary remedies and reinstating a jury system -- citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims. The jury reached its verdict through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of evidence, a distinguishing factor from today 's civil and criminal court systems.
Henry II developed the practice of sending judges from his own central court to hear the various disputes throughout the country. His judges would resolve disputes on an ad hoc basis according to what they interpreted the customs to be. The king 's judges would then return to London and often discuss their cases and the decisions they made with the other judges. These decisions would be recorded and filed. In time, a rule, known as stare decisis (also commonly known as precedent) developed, whereby a judge would be bound to follow the decision of an earlier judge; he was required to adopt the earlier judge 's interpretation of the law and apply the same principles promulgated by that earlier judge if the two cases had similar facts to one another. Once judges began to regard each other 's decisions to be binding precedent, the pre-Norman system of local customs and law varying in each locality was replaced by a system that was (at least in theory, though not always in practice) common throughout the whole country, hence the name "common law. ''
Henry II 's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of canonical (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The murder of the Archbishop gave rise to a wave of popular outrage against the King. Henry was forced to repeal the disputed laws and to abandon his efforts to hold church members accountable for secular crimes (see also Constitutions of Clarendon).
The English Court of Common Pleas was established after Magna Carta to try lawsuits between commoners in which the monarch had no interest. Its judges sat in open court in the Great Hall of the king 's Palace of Westminster, permanently except in the vacations between the four terms of the Legal year.
The term "common law '' is often used as a contrast to Roman - derived "civil law '', and the two traditions and sets of foundational principles remain distinct.
By the time of the rediscovery of the Roman law in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, the common law had already developed far enough to prevent a Roman law reception as it occurred on the continent. However, the first common law scholars, most notably Glanvill and Bracton, as well as the early royal common law judges, had been well accustomed with Roman law. Often, they were clerics trained in the Roman canon law. One of the first and throughout its history one of the most significant treatises of the common law, Bracton 's De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae (On the Laws and Customs of England), was heavily influenced by the division of the law in Justinian 's Institutes. The impact of Roman law had decreased sharply after the age of Bracton, but the Roman divisions of actions into in rem (typically, actions against a thing or property for the purpose of gaining title to that property; must be filed in a court where the property is located) and in personam (typically, actions directed against a person; these can affect a person 's rights and, since a person often owns things, his property too) used by Bracton had a lasting effect and laid the groundwork for a return of Roman law structural concepts in the 18th and 19th centuries. Signs of this can be found in Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England, and Roman law ideas regained importance with the revival of academic law schools in the 19th century. As a result, today, the main systematic divisions of the law into property, contract, and tort (and to some extent unjust enrichment) can be found in the civil law as well as in the common law.
John Makdisi 's article The Islamic Origins of the Common Law (published 1999) proposed that English common law was influenced by medieval Islamic law. Makdisi drew comparisons between the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt '' and the "Islamic Aqd '', the "English assize of novel disseisin '' (a petty assize adopted in the 1166 at the Assizes of Clarendon) and the "Islamic Istihqaq '', and the "English jury '' and the "Islamic Lafif '' in the classical Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, and argued that these institutions were transmitted to England by the Normans, "through the close connection between the Norman kingdoms of Roger II in Sicily -- ruling over a conquered Islamic administration -- and Henry II in England. '' Makdisi also argued that the "law schools known as Inns of Court '' in England (which he asserts are parallel to Madrasahs) may have also originated from Islamic law. He states that the methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems. Other legal scholars such as Monica Gaudiosi, Gamal Moursi Badr and A. Hudson have argued that the English trust and agency institutions, which were introduced by Crusaders, may have been adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions they came across in the Middle East. Paul Brand also notes parallels between the Waqf and the trusts used to establish Merton College by Walter de Merton, who had connections with the Knights Templar.
The first attempt at a comprehensive compilation of centuries of common law was by Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, in his treatise, Institutes of the Lawes of England in the 17th century.
The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 -- 1769.
A reception statute is a statutory law adopted as a former British colony becomes independent, by which the new nation adopts (i.e. receives) pre-independence English law, to the extent not explicitly rejected by the legislative body or constitution of the new nation. Reception statutes generally consider the English common law dating prior to independence, and the precedent originating from it, as the default law, because of the importance of using an extensive and predictable body of law to govern the conduct of citizens and businesses in a new state. All U.S. states, with the partial exception of Louisiana, have either implemented reception statutes or adopted the common law by judicial opinion.
Other examples of reception statutes in the United States, the states of the U.S., Canada and its provinces, and Hong Kong, are discussed in the reception statute article.
Yet, adoption of the common law in the newly - independent nation was not a foregone conclusion, and was controversial. Immediately after the American Revolution, there was widespread distrust and hostility to anything British, and the common law was no exception. Jeffersonians decried lawyers and their common law tradition as threats to the new republic. The Jeffersonians preferred a legislatively - enacted civil law under the control of the political process, rather than the common law developed by judges that -- by design -- were insulated from the political process. The Federalists believed that the common law was the birthright of Independence: after all, the natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' were the rights protected by common law. Even advocates for the common law approach noted that it was not an ideal fit for the newly - independent colonies: judges and lawyers alike were severely hindered by a lack of printed legal materials. Before Independence, the most comprehensive law libraries had been maintained by Tory lawyers, and those libraries vanished with the loyalist expatriation, and the ability to print books was limited. Lawyer (later president) John Adams complained that he "suffered very much for the want of books. '' To bootstrap this most basic need of a common law system -- knowable, written law -- in 1803, lawyers in Massachusetts donated their books to found a law library. A Jeffersonian newspaper criticized the library, as it would carry forward "all the old authorities practiced in England for centuries back... whereby a new system of jurisprudence (will be founded) on the high monarchical system (to) become the Common Law of this Commonwealth... (The library) may hereafter have a very unsocial purpose. ''
Well into the 19th century, ancient maxims played a large role in common law adjudication. Many of these maxims had originated in Roman Law and were typically stated in Latin even in English decisions. Some are familiar in everyday speech, such as "One can not be a judge in one 's own cause '' (see Dr. Bonham 's Case), and rights are reciprocal to obligations. Judicial decisions and treatises of the 17th and 18th centuries, such at those of Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, presented the common law as a collection of such maxims.
Undue reliance on old maxims and rigid adherence to precedent, no matter how old or ill - considered, came under critical discussion in the late 19th century, notably in the United States. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. in a well - known article, The Path of the Law, commented, "It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is still more revolting if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long since, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past. '' Justice Holmes noted that study of maxims might be sufficient for "the man of the present, '' but "the man of the future is the man of statistics and the master of economics. '' In an 1880 lecture at Harvard, he wrote:
The life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation 's development through many centuries, and it can not be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics.
In the early 20th century, Louis Brandeis, later appointed to the United States Supreme Court, became noted for his use of policy - driving facts and economics in his briefs, and extensive appendices presenting facts that lead a judge to the advocate 's conclusion.
Undue reliance on old maxims has come to be deprecated. Common law decisions today reflect contemporary factors drawn from economics, the social sciences, business, decisions of foreign courts. The degree to which these external factors should influence adjudication is the subject of active debate, but it is indisputable that judges do draw on experience and learning from everyday life, from other fields, and from other jurisdictions.
As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common - law system would petition the King in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law (as opposed to equity)) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. From this developed the system of equity, administered by the Lord Chancellor, in the courts of chancery. By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the 17th century that equity should prevail.
In England, courts of law (as opposed to equity) were combined with courts of equity by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, with equity prevailing in case of conflict.
In the United States, parallel systems of law (providing money damages, with cases heard by a jury upon either party 's request) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief, heard by a judge) survived well into the 20th century. The United States federal courts procedurally separated law and equity: the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, and the two kinds of cases proceeded under different procedural rules. This became problematic when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief. In 1937, the new Federal Rules of Civil Procedure combined law and equity into one form of action, the "civil action. '' Fed. R. Civ. P. 2. The distinction survives to the extent that issues that were "common law (as opposed to equity) '' as of 1791 (the date of adoption of the Seventh Amendment) are still subject to the right of either party to request a jury, and "equity '' issues are decided by a judge.
Delaware, Mississippi, and Tennessee still have separate courts of law and equity, for example, the Court of Chancery. In many states there are separate divisions for law and equity within one court.
For centuries, through the 19th century, the common law recognized only specific forms of action, and required very careful drafting of the opening pleading (called a writ) to slot into exactly one of them: Debt, Detinue, Covenant, Special Assumpsit, General Assumpsit, Trespass, Trover, Replevin, Case (or Trespass on the Case), and Ejectment. To initiate a lawsuit, a pleading had to be drafted to meet myriad technical requirements: correctly categorizing the case into the correct legal pigeonhole (pleading in the alternative was not permitted), and using specific "magic words '' encrusted over the centuries. Under the old common law pleading standards, a suit by a pro se ("for oneself, '' without a lawyer) party was all but impossible, and there was often considerable procedural jousting at the outset of a case over minor wording issues.
One of the major reforms of the late 19th century and early 20th century was the abolition of common law pleading requirements. A plaintiff can initiate a case by giving the defendant "a short and plain statement '' of facts that constitute an alleged wrong. This reform moved the attention of courts from technical scrutiny of words to a more rational consideration of the facts, and opened access to justice far more broadly.
In the UK, since 2009, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has the authority to overrule and unify decisions of lower courts. From 1966 to 2009, this power lay with the House of Lords, granted by the Practice Statement of 1966.
The main alternative to the common law system is the civil law system, which is used in Continental Europe, and most of the rest of the world.
The primary contrast between the two systems is the role of written decisions and precedent.
In common law jurisdictions, nearly every case that presents a bona fide dispute on the law the court states the legal reasoning for the decision, known as ratio decidendi, that determines the court 's judgment between the parties in the case.
In common law systems, under the principle of stare decisis a single decided case is binding to the same extent as statute or regulation. In contrast, in civil law systems, individual decisions have advisory, not binding, effect. In civil law systems, case law only acquires weight when a long series of cases use consistent reasoning, called jurisprudence constante. Civil law lawyers consult case law to obtain their best prediction of how a court will rule, but comparatively, civil law judges are less bound to follow it.
For that reason, statutes in civil law systems are more comprehensive, detailed, and continuously updated, covering all matters capable of being brought before a court.
Common law systems tend to give more weight to separation of powers between the judicial branch and the executive branch (which promulgates regulatory law, called "administrative law '' in civil law systems). In contrast, civil law systems often allow individual officials to exercise both powers.
Common law courts usually use an adversarial system, in which two sides present their cases to a neutral judge. In contrast, civil law systems usually use an inquisitorial system in which an examining magistrate serves two roles by developing the evidence and arguments for one side and then the other during the investigation phase.
The examining magistrate then presents the dossier detailing his or her findings to the president of the bench that will adjudicate on the case where it has been decided that a trial shall be conducted. Therefore, the president of the bench 's view of the case is not neutral and may be biased while conducting the trial after the reading of the dossier. Unlike the common law proceedings, the president of the bench in the inquisitorial system is not merely an umpire and is entitled to directly interview the witnesses or express comments during the trial, as long as he or she does not express his or her view on the guilt of the accused.
The proceeding in the inquisitorial system is essentially by writing. Most of the witnesses would have given evidence in the investigation phase and such evidence will be contained in the dossier under the form of police reports. In the same way, the accused would have already put his or her case at the investigation phase but he or she will be free to change her or his evidence at trial. Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial will be conducted. Unlike the adversarial system, the conviction and sentence to be served (if any) will be released by the trial jury together with the president of the trial bench, following their common deliberation.
There are many exceptions in both directions. For example, most proceedings before U.S. federal and state agencies are inquisitorial in nature, at least the initial stages (e.g., a patent examiner, a social security hearing officer, and so on), even though the law to be applied is developed through common law processes.
The contrast between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of jurisprudence (similar to case law but not binding) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries.
Examples of common law being replaced by statute or codified rule in the United States include criminal law (since 1812, U.S. federal courts and most but not all of the States have held that criminal law must be embodied in statute if the public is to have fair notice), commercial law (the Uniform Commercial Code in the early 1960s) and procedure (the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the 1930s and the Federal Rules of Evidence in the 1970s). But note that in each case, the statute sets the general principles, but the interstitial common law process determines the scope and application of the statute.
An example of convergence from the other direction is shown in Srl CILFIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health, in which the European Court of Justice held that questions it has already answered need not be resubmitted. This brought in a distinctly common law principle into an essentially civil law jurisdiction.
The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a Socialist law system.
Much of the Muslim world uses Sharia (also called Islamic law).
The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of: England and Wales and Northern Ireland in the UK, Ireland, the United States (both the federal system and the individual states (with the partial exception of Louisiana)), Canada (both federal and the individual provinces (except Quebec)), Australia (both federal and individual states), New Zealand, South Africa, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St Vincent and the Granadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and many other generally English - speaking countries or Commonwealth countries (except the UK 's Scotland, where Scots law has civil and common law elements, and Malta). Essentially, every country that was colonised at some time by England, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom uses common law except those that were formerly colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows the law of France in part), South Africa and Sri Lanka (which follow Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists. Guyana and Saint Lucia have mixed Common Law and Civil Law systems.
Scotland is often said to use the civil law system, but it has a unique system that combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis with an element of its own common law long predating the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 (see Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages), founded on the customary laws of the tribes residing there. Historically, Scottish common law differed in that the use of precedent was subject to the courts ' seeking to discover the principle that justifies a law rather than searching for an example as a precedent, and principles of natural justice and fairness have always played a role in Scots Law. From the 19th century, the Scottish approach to precedent developed into a stare decisis akin to that already established in England thereby reflecting a narrower, more modern approach to the application of case law in subsequent instances. This is not to say that the substantive rules of the common laws of both countries are the same although in many matters (particularly those of UK - wide interest) they are similar; for example, the 1932 decision on appeal to the House of Lords in Donoghue v Stevenson (the "Paisley snail in a bottle case ''), concerning liability for negligence in actions for delict in Scotland, and for tort in England and Wales, and in Northern Ireland.
Scotland maintains a separate criminal law system from the rest of the UK, with the High Court of Justiciary being the final court for criminal appeals. The highest court of appeal in civil cases brought in Scotland is now the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
The centuries - old authority of the common law courts in England to develop law case by case and to apply statute law -- "legislating from the bench '' -- is a traditional function of courts, which was carried over into the U.S. system as an essential component of the "judicial power '' specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. summarized centuries of history in 1917, "judges do and must legislate, but they can do so only interstitially... ''
The state of New York, which also has a civil law history from its Dutch colonial days, began a codification of its law in the 19th century. The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the Field Code applying to civil procedure. The original colony of New Netherland was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When the English captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was recaptured by the Dutch. When the English finally regained control of New Netherland they forced, as a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire, the English imposed common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This was problematic, as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-19th century. The influence of Roman - Dutch law continued in the colony well into the late 19th century. The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in New York continued on from the Dutch days.
Under Louisiana 's codified system, the Louisiana Civil Code, private law -- that is, substantive law between private sector parties -- is based on principles of law from continental Europe, with some common law influences. These principles derive ultimately from Roman law, transmitted through French law and Spanish law, as the state 's current territory intersects the area of North America colonized by Spain and by France. Contrary to popular belief, the Louisiana code does not directly derive from the Napoleonic Code, as the latter was enacted in 1804, one year after the Louisiana Purchase. However, the two codes are similar in many respects due to common roots.
Louisiana 's criminal law largely rests on English common law. Louisiana 's administrative law is generally similar to the administrative law of the U.S. federal government and other U.S. states. Louisiana 's procedural law is generally in line with that of other U.S. states, which in turn is generally based on the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
Historically notable among the Louisiana code 's differences from common law is the role of property rights among women, particularly in inheritance gained by widows.
The U.S. state of California has a system based on common law, but it has codified the law in the manner of the civil law jurisdictions. The reason for the enactment of the California Codes in the 19th century was to replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states. California and a number of other Western states, however, have retained the concept of community property derived from civil law. The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common - law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge - made common law. (Most notably, in the case Li v. Yellow Cab Co., 13 Cal. 3d 804 (1975), the California Supreme Court adopted the principle of comparative negligence in the face of a California Civil Code provision codifying the traditional common - law doctrine of contributory negligence.)
The United States federal courts only act as interpreters of statutes and the constitution by elaborating and more precisely defining broad statutory language but, unlike state courts, do not act as an independent source of common law.
Before 1938, the federal courts, like other common law courts, decided the law on any issue where the relevant legislature (either the U.S. Congress or state legislature), had not acted, by looking to courts in the same system, that is, other federal courts, even on issues of state law, and even where there was no express grant of authority from Congress or the Constitution.
In 1938, the U.S. Supreme Court in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins 304 U.S. 64, 78 (1938), overruled earlier precedent, and held "There is no federal general common law, '' thus confining the federal courts to act only as interpreters of law originating elsewhere. E.g., Texas Industries v. Radcliff, 451 U.S. 630 (1981) (without an express grant of statutory authority, federal courts can not create rules of intuitive justice, for example, a right to contribution from co-conspirators). Post-1938, federal courts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to defer to state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason what a state 's highest court would rule if presented with the issue, or to certify the question to the state 's highest court for resolution.
Later courts have limited Erie slightly, to create a few situations where United States federal courts are permitted to create federal common law rules without express statutory authority, for example, where a federal rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal interests, such as foreign affairs, or financial instruments issued by the federal government. See, e.g., Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States, 318 U.S. 363 (1943) (giving federal courts the authority to fashion common law rules with respect to issues of federal power, in this case negotiable instruments backed by the federal government); see also International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918) (creating a cause of action for misappropriation of "hot news '' that lacks any statutory grounding); but see National Basketball Association v. Motorola, Inc., 105 F. 3d 841, 843 -- 44, 853 (2d Cir. 1997) (noting continued vitality of INS "hot news '' tort under New York state law, but leaving open the question of whether it survives under federal law). Except on Constitutional issues, Congress is free to legislatively overrule federal courts ' common law.
Most executive branch agencies in the United States federal government have some adjudicatory authority. To greater or lesser extent, agencies honor their own precedent to ensure consistent results. Agency decision making is governed by the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946.
For example, the National Labor Relations Board issues relatively few regulations, but instead promulgates most of its substantive rules through common law (connotation 1).
The law of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are largely based on English common law because of the long period of British colonial influence during the period of the British Raj.
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had an historically independent school of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, dating from 400 BCE and the Manusmriti, from 100 CE, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia. Early in this period, which finally culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear - cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character.
When India became part of the British Empire, there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by the common law. After the failed rebellion against the British in 1857, the British Parliament took over control of India from the British East India Company, and British India came under the direct rule of the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858 to this effect, which set up the structure of British government in India. It established in Britain the office of the Secretary of State for India through whom the Parliament would exercise its rule, along with a Council of India to aid him. It also established the office of the Governor - General of India along with an Executive Council in India, which consisted of high officials of the British Government. As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has little correlation to the institutions of the pre-British era.
Post-partition, India retained its common law system. Much of contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence. Legislation first introduced by the British is still in effect in modified form today. During the drafting of the Indian Constitution, laws from Ireland, the United States, Britain, and France were all synthesized to produce a refined set of Indian laws. Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and environmental law. Certain international trade laws, such as those on intellectual property, are also enforced in India.
The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa, annexed in stages in the 1960s through 1980s. In Goa, a Portuguese uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces and adoption.
Post-partition, Pakistan retained its common law system.
Post-partition, Bangladesh retained its common law system.
Canada has separate federal and provincial legal systems. The division of jurisdiction between the federal and provincial Parliaments is specified in the Canadian constitution.
Each province and territory is considered a separate jurisdiction with respect to common law matters. As such, only the provincial legislature may enact legislation to amend private law. Each has its own procedural law, statutorily created provincial courts and superior trial courts with inherent jurisdiction culminating in the Court of Appeal of the province. This is the highest court in provincial jurisdiction, only subject to the Supreme Court of Canada in terms of appeal of their decisions. All but one of the provinces of Canada use a common law system (the exception being Quebec, which uses a civil law system for issues arising within provincial jurisdiction, such as property ownership and contracts).
Canadian Federal Courts operate under a separate system throughout Canada and deal with narrower subject matter than superior courts in provincial jurisdiction. They hear cases reserved for federal jurisdiction by the Canadian constitution, such as immigration, intellectual property, judicial review of federal government decisions, and admiralty. The Federal Court of Appeal is the appellate level court in federal jurisdiction and hears cases in multiple cities, and unlike the United States, the Canadian Federal Court of Appeal is not divided into appellate circuits.
Criminal law is uniform throughout Canada. It is based on the constitution and federal statutory Criminal Code, as interpreted by the Supreme Court of Canada. The administration of justice and enforcement of the criminal code are the responsibilities of the provinces.
Canadian federal statutes must use the terminology of both the common law and civil law for those matters; this is referred to as legislative bijuralism.
Nicaragua 's legal system is also a mixture of the English Common Law and Civil Law. This situation was brought through the influence of British administration of the Eastern half of the Mosquito Coast from the mid-17th century until about 1894, the William Walker period from about 1855 through 1857, USA interventions / occupations during the period from 1909 to 1933, the influence of USA institutions during the Somoza family administrations (1933 through 1979) and the considerable importation between 1979 and the present of USA culture and institutions.
Israel has a common law legal system. Its basic principles are inherited from the law of the British Mandate of Palestine and thus resemble those of British and American law, namely: the role of courts in creating the body of law and the authority of the supreme court in reviewing and if necessary overturning legislative and executive decisions, as well as employing the adversarial system. One of the primary reasons that the Israeli constitution remains unwritten is the fear by whatever party holds power that creating a written constitution, combined with the common - law elements, would severely limit the powers of the Knesset (which, following the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, holds near - unlimited power).
Roman Dutch Common law is a bijuridical or mixed system of law similar to the common law system in Scotland and Louisiana. Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions include South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Sri - Lanka and Zimbabwe. Many of these jurisdictions recognise customary law, and in some, such as South Africa the Constitution requires that the common law be developed in accordance with the Bill of Rights. Roman Dutch common law is a development of Roman Dutch law by courts in the Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions. During the Napoleonic wars the Kingdom of the Netherlands adopted the French code civil in 1809, however the Dutch colonies in the Cape of Good Hope and Sri Lanka, at the time called Ceylon, were seized by the British to prevent them being used as bases by the French Navy. The system was developed by the courts and spread with the expansion of British colonies in Southern Africa. Roman Dutch common law relies on legal principles set out in Roman law sources such as Justinian 's Institutes and Digest, and also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the 17th century such as Grotius and Voet. In practice, the majority of decisions rely on recent precedent.
Edward Coke, a 17th - century Lord Chief Justice of the English Court of Common Pleas and a Member of Parliament, wrote several legal texts that collected and integrated centuries of case law. Lawyers in both England and America learned the law from his Institutes and Reports until the end of the 18th century. His works are still cited by common law courts around the world.
The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 -- 1769. Since 1979, a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper - bound volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English part of the United Kingdom by Halsbury 's Laws of England that covers both common and statutory English law.
While he was still on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and before being named to the U.S. Supreme Court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. published a short volume called The Common Law, which remains a classic in the field. Unlike Blackstone and the Restatements, Holmes ' book only briefly discusses what the law is; rather, Holmes describes the common law process. Law professor John Chipman Gray 's The Nature and Sources of the Law, an examination and survey of the common law, is also still commonly read in U.S. law schools.
In the United States, Restatements of various subject matter areas (Contracts, Torts, Judgments, and so on.), edited by the American Law Institute, collect the common law for the area. The ALI Restatements are often cited by American courts and lawyers for propositions of uncodified common law, and are considered highly persuasive authority, just below binding precedential decisions. The Corpus Juris Secundum is an encyclopedia whose main content is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.
Scots common law covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called Institutional Texts and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, Jus Feudale (1655) and Stair, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1681).
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what would not have been an early goal of the knights of labor | Knights of Labor - wikipedia
Knights of Labor (K of L), officially Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected socialism and anarchism, demanded the eight - hour day, and promoted the producers ethic of republicanism. In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.
It was founded by Uriah Stephens on December 28, 1869, reached 28,000 members in 1880, then jumped to 100,000 in 1884. By 1886 20 % of all workers were affiliated with the KOL, ballooning to nearly 800,000 members. Its frail organizational structure could not cope as it was battered by charges of failure and violence and calumnies of the association with the Haymarket Square riot. Most members abandoned the movement in 1886 - 87, leaving at most 100,000 in 1890. Many of them chose to join groups that helped to identify their specific need, instead of the KOL that addressed many different types of issues. Furthermore, the Panic of 1893 terminated the Knights of Labor 's importance. Remnants of the Knights of Labor continued in existence until 1949, when the group 's last 50 - member local dropped its affiliation.
In 1869, Uriah Smith Stephens, James L. Wright, and a small group of Philadelphia tailors founded a secret organization known as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor. The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873 left a vacuum for workers looking for organization. The Knights became better organized with a national vision when they replaced Stephens with Terence V. Powderly. The body became popular with Pennsylvania coal miners during the economic depression of the mid-1870s, then it grew rapidly. The KOL was a diverse industrial union open to all workers. The leaders felt that it was best to have a versatile population in order to get points of view from all aspects. Its members included low skilled workers, railroad workers, immigrants, and steel workers.
As membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union and less of a secret organization. Local assemblies began not only to emphasize cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from employers. The new leader Powderly, opposed strikes as a "relic of barbarism, '' but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy.
In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed the words "Noble Order '' from their name. This was to mollify the concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid any resemblance to freemasonry. Though initially averse to strikes as a method to advance their goals, the Knights aided various strikes and boycotts. The Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 was also a significant success, as Powderly finally supported what became a successful strike on Jay Gould 's Wabash Line. Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally. These positive developments gave momentum and a surge of members, so by 1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members.
The Knights ' primary demand was for an eight - hour day; they also called for legislation to end child and convict labor, as well as a graduated income tax. They were eager supporters of cooperatives. The only woman to hold office in the Knights of Labor, Leonora Barry worked as an investigator and described the horrific conditions in factories, conditions tantamount to the abuse of women and children. These reports made Barry the first person to collect national statistics on the American working woman.
Powderly and the Organization tried to avoid divisive political issues, but in the early 1880s, many Knights had become followers of Henry George 's radical ideology known now as georgism. In 1883, Powderly officially recommended George 's book and announced his support of "single tax '' on land values. During the New York mayoral election of 1886, Powderly was able to successfully push the organization towards the favor of Henry George.
The Knights of Labor was an organization that helped to join together many different types of people from all different walks of life; for example Catholic and Protestant Irish - born workers. The KOL was appealing to them because they worked very closely with the Irish Land League. The Knights of Labor had a mixed history of inclusiveness and exclusiveness, accepting women and blacks (after 1878) and their employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into local assemblies, but tolerating the segregation of assemblies in the South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor manufacturers were excluded because they were considered unproductive members of society. Asians were also excluded, and in November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington worked to expel the city 's Chinese, who amounted to nearly a tenth of the overall city population at the time. The Union Pacific Railroad came into conflict with the Knights. When the Knights in Wyoming refused to work more hours in 1885, the railroad hired Chinese workers. The result was the Rock Springs massacre, that killed scores of Chinese, and drove all the rest out of Wyoming. About 50 African - American sugar - cane laborers organized by the Knights went on strike and were murdered by strikebreaking thugs in the 1887 Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana. The Knights strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups.
The Knights of Labor attracted many Catholics, who were a large part of the membership, perhaps a majority. Powderly was also a Catholic. However, the Knights 's use of secrecy, similar to the Masons, during its early years concerned many bishops of the church. The Knights used secrecy and deception to help prevent employers from firing members. After the Archbishop of Quebec condemned the Knights in 1884, twelve American archbishops voted 10 to 2 against doing likewise in the United States. Furthermore, Cardinals James Gibbons and John Ireland defended the Knights. Gibbons went to the Vatican to talk to the hierarchy.
Though often overlooked, the Knights of Labor contributed to the tradition of labor protest songs in America. The Knights frequently included music in their regular meetings, and encouraged local members to write and perform their work. In Chicago, James and Emily Talmadge, printers and supporters of the Knights of Labor, published the songbook "Labor Songs Dedicated to the Knights of Labor '' (1885). The song "Hold the Fort '' (also "Storm the Fort ''), a Knights of Labor pro-labor revision of the hymn by the same name, became the most popular labor song prior to Ralph Chaplin 's IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) anthem "Solidarity Forever ''. Pete Seeger often performed this song and it appears on a number of his recordings. Songwriter and labor singer Bucky Halker includes the Talmadge version, entitled "Labor 's Battle Song, '' on his CD Do n't Want Your Millions (Revolting Records 2000). Halker also draws heavily on the Knights songs and poems in his book on labor song and poetry, For Democracy, Workers and God: Labor Song - Poems and Labor Protest, 1865 - 1895 (University of Illinois Press, 1991).
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number of episodes in the flash season 4 | The Flash (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the American television series The Flash, which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin - off of Arrow. The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons, and are joined by Neil Sandilands.
The fourth season began airing on October 10, 2017, and ran for 23 episodes on The CW until May 22, 2018.
Barry, Oliver, Sara, Alex, Martin and Jax wake up in a Nazi concentration camp on Earth - X wearing power dampeners. The arriving SS Sturmbannführer is revealed to be the Earth - X doppelgänger of Quentin Lance, who plans to execute them, but they are saved by Citizen Cold (the Earth - X doppelgänger of Leonard Snart) and Ray Terrill. Snart and Terrill take them to the headquarters of the Freedom Fighters, where the team meets the resistance movement 's leader, General Schott (Winn Schott 's Earth - X doppelgänger). They learn that the only way back to Earth - 1 is through a temporal gateway in a research facility, which Schott plans to blow up to strand Dark Arrow (Oliver 's Earth - X doppelgänger) on Earth - 1. Oliver disguises himself as Dark Arrow to infiltrate the facility and discovers the Nazi doomsday device against parallel Earths is a militarized timeship called Wellenreiter. Barry and Ray battle the Freedom Fighters ' Red Tornado to stop it from destroying the gateway while the rest of the team enters the facility to reactivate its portal, during which Stein is shot and gravely wounded. On Earth - 1, Eobard Thawne prepares to perform surgery on Kara to save Overgirl. Felicity and Iris try to stop him, but are captured.
The series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, "The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season. '' In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons. Todd Helbing and Kreisberg were slated to serve as the season 's showrunners. In November 2017, Kreisberg was suspended from his role as executive producer and showrunner on The Flash over allegations of sexual harassment. By the end of the month, he had been fired, with his name eventually being removed from the credits from all shows he worked on. In addition, Berlanti would take additional responsibilities working with Helbing to co-showrun the season.
-- Grant Gustin on the rebirth of Barry in season four.
In March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, "We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we 're going to focus on the present. '' In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode "Abra Kadabra '' when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash 's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale "Finish Line '' when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series ' San Diego Comic - Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, "With three Speedsters in a row, this year it 's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive. '' He added that the writers were "making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up ''.
Regarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry 's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that "It 's not something that 's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for. '' With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying "the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together,... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it 's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back. '' Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco 's more lighthearted joking manner. Candice Patton explained Iris West 's larger role within Team Flash as "a way of distracting herself, '' adding that "(Iris) is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We 're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris. '' Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that "the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry ''.
In July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season 's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of The Flash is "going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons, '' and said that the show was likely "done with Speedster villains ''. Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth - 2, saying that "season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he 's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he 's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to the Thinker 's plan, '' in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.
In September 2017, Helbing noted "There 's a lot of love in the air this season, '' and compared Barry and Iris ' reunion to "somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There 's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry did n't when he was gone, and it 's really (about) the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they were n't together. '' Helbing also explained that the Speed Force "let (Barry) deal with all of the baggage (from the past three seasons). When he comes out, he 's sort of left that all behind. '' That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since "(they) keep comically clashing inadvertently because (both are) used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it. '' He added, "The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship. ''
Main cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth - 2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, "We 're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season 's gaps present themselves. '' Also returning from earlier in the series is Jessica Camacho as Gypsy. It was revealed that Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, would not be a series regular in the fourth season, and that there were no plans for him to appear. Julian 's absence will be addressed "pretty quickly -- there 's a reason why he 's no longer with the team, '' said Helbing. In the season premiere, it is revealed that Julian has returned to London. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Beane eventually appeared as Jesse on the episode "Luck Be a Lady ''. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek - a-Boo in the first season and the web series The Chronicles of Cisco, reprised her role in the season premiere.
In July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, DeVoe 's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth - 19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that "should put the visual effects department to the test '', with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast - talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City 's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of metahuman supervillains.
Filming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and concluded on April 21, 2018. Kevin Smith returned to direct an episode in January 2018.
In August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathaniel Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.
In May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four - show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series Supergirl, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Arrow. The crossover, Crisis on Earth - X, began with Supergirl and a special airing of Arrow on November 27, 2017, and concluded on The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be "a big life event for a few different people '' that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding "There are many life events that happen. '' Prior to that, Arrow actress Emily Bett Rickards appears as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season. Following the crossover, Katie Cassidy (who has previously appeared on The Flash as both Laurel Lance and Black Siren) appears in the nineteenth episode as Siren - X, an alternate version of Laurel from Earth - X. Arrow actor David Ramsey appears as John Diggle, as well as DeVoe 's Diggle disguise earlier in the twenty second episode.
The season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. The season concluded on May 22, 2018. Sky One acquired the rights to air the season in the UK & Ireland, airing it alongside the other Arrowverse shows. The season premiered October 17.
In July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic - Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the "grim '' tone, there was "some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without (Barry),... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you 've got a good season of The Flash lined up. '' Ben Pearson with / Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was "a nice change of pace for that character '', but anticipated that "Barry (would) be back two or three episodes in at the latest. '' Collider 's Allison Keene also noted Iris "getting an actual storyline '' with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he "(would) be back in the fold by the end of the first episode '' alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, "There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech -- it 's great! ''
The season was made available for streaming on Netflix in late May 2018, soon after the season finale aired. It will be released on Blu - ray on August 28, 2018.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 82 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.65 / 10 based on 17 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "After an unsteady turn in season three, The Flash returns to its roots with a fourth season packed with humor, spectacle, and a whole lot of heart. ''
Reviewing the first two episodes of the season, Allison Keene writing for Collider.com, felt the premiere "wipes the slate clean, fixing a lot of the issues that plagued the end of the last season, and setting up a much more toned - down storyline. Most importantly, it 's brought back some fun. '' She added that with a "streamlined team, '' the core characters now have time to interact and have meaningful plot lines. On the second episode, Keene described it as "truly a delight '' with the show taking "the time to focus on character relationships, and not just romantic relationships '' and each character "feeling like a refreshed version of themselves, with new narrative purpose ''. She also highlighted the setup of the Thinker "as an Alchemy - like villain who manipulates evil metas into the Flash 's path as part of some kind of masterplan '', saying "The Flash is a series that truly works best as a procedural, with the team finding creative ways to bring down Villains of the Week. ''
In reviewing the finale, IGN 's Jesse Schedeen gave the episode "We Are The Flash '' a rating of 4.6 / 10, opining that, "As troubled as the series has been this year, it 's disappointing but unsurprising to see The Flash 's fourth season end on such a bland note. '' Mike Cecchini of Den of Geek! similarly assigned the episode a rating of 2.5 / 5. In his review, Cecchini felt that the finale was "the weakest season finale (The Flash) has ever produced, '' and that, "despite several high points, was n't really enough to salvage the season. '' In a more positive review from The A.V. Club, Scott Von Doviak gave the finale a B+, praising the light tone and character moments, while adding that "None of this can make up for the long stretches of mediocrity this year, but at least it does n't leave me with a bad taste in my mouth. ''
General references
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when was the last time state of origin was played on a sunday | State of Origin results and statistics - wikipedia
State of Origin results and statistics have been accumulating since the 1980 State of Origin game. Every game played under State of Origin selection rules, including the additional 1987 exhibition match and the matches played between New South Wales and Queensland for the Super League Tri-series are detailed below unless stated otherwise.
The matches in 1980 and 1981 were one off experimental matches after New South Wales had already won the interstate series in both years. Both games count toward official statistics, but are not considered series.
After Queensland had won the 1987 State of Origin series 2 - 1, a further game was played in Long Beach, California to showcase rugby league to the American public. On 15 July 2003 the Australian Rugby League announced that this game was to be classified as an "official match '' and that the match would count towards the players ' individual statistics and overall match win - loss - draw records. However, the match has not counted towards series win - loss - draw records and the 1987 series still remains a 2 - 1 win to Queensland.
2018 winners NSW
New South Wales and Queensland played two matches against each other under State of Origin selection rules using players from the Super League (Australia) competition. These matches were not sanctioned by the Australian Rugby League and are not counted as official State of Origin series matches. The Tri-series also included both sides playing a game against New Zealand.
Since 1988 either New South Wales or Queensland usually hosts two of the three matches on a rotational basis. Prior to this Queensland hosted two matches every year. In 1990, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015 one of the matches was played in Melbourne. The following venues have hosted State of Origin matches since 1980.
Most tries in a match: 3 -- Chris Anderson (Game 3, 1983), Kerry Boustead (Game 1, 1984), Ryan Girdler (Game 3, 2000), Lote Tuqiri (Game 2, 2002), Matt Sing (Game 3, 2003), Matt King (Game 3, 2005), Dane Gagai (Game 2, 2016), Valentine Holmes (Game 3, 2017). Most goals in a match: 10 -- Ryan Girdler (Game 3, 2000) Most field goals in a match: 2 -- Ben Elias (Game 3, 1994) Most points in a match: 32 -- Ryan Girdler (Game 3, 2000) Most appearances: 42 -- Cameron Smith (2003 -- Present) Most consecutive matches: 36 -- Johnathan Thurston (Game 1, 2005 -- Game 3, 2016) Most tries in State of Origin career: 17 -- Greg Inglis (2006 -- Present) Most points in State of Origin career: 212 (5 tries, 102 goals, 2 field goals) -- Johnathan Thurston (2005 -- 2017) Oldest player: Petero Civoniceva (36 years and 73 days -- Game 3, 2012) Youngest player: Ben Ikin (18 years and 83 days -- Game 1, 1995) Most wins as a player: Cameron Smith 27 games to Game III 2017
Queensland
New South Wales
From 1992 to 2003 the Wally Lewis Medal was awarded by the Queensland Rugby League for the Queensland player of the series. Since 2004 it has been awarded to the player of the series, irrespective of state. The following players have been awarded the Wally Lewis Medal for player of the series.
The following players have been awarded the Ron McAuliffe Medal for Queensland player of the series. From 1992 to 2003, the award was the "Wally Lewis Medal '', however after 2003, this medal was dedicated to the player of the series from both teams, and thus the award for Queensland Player of the Series was awarded with the "Ron McAuliffe '' Medal.
The following players have been awarded the Brad Fittler Medal for New South Wales player of the series.
The following referees have controlled State of Origin series matches.
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when was the last time the seahawks were a home underdog | Super Bowl XLVIII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XLVIII was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Denver Broncos and National Football Conference (NFC) champion Seattle Seahawks to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2013 season. The Seahawks defeated the Broncos 43 -- 8, the largest margin of victory for an underdog and tied for the third largest point differential overall (35) in Super Bowl history with Super Bowl XXVII (1993). It was the first time the winning team scored over 40 points, while holding their opponent to under 10. This became the first Super Bowl victory for the Seahawks and the fifth Super Bowl loss for the Broncos, the most of any team. The game was played on February 2, 2014, at MetLife Stadium at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey, the first Super Bowl played outdoors in a cold - weather city and the first Super Bowl to be played on February 2.
For the first time since Super Bowl XLIV (2010), and just the second time since Super Bowl XXVIII (1994), the number one seed from each conference met in the league championship. The Seahawks posted a 13 -- 3 record and were making their second Super Bowl appearance in 8 years. The Broncos were making their seventh Super Bowl appearance after also posting a 13 -- 3 record. The game also featured the league 's top offense (Denver) against the league 's top defense (Seattle), the first time this had occurred since Super Bowl XXXVII (2003).
Seattle built a 22 -- 0 halftime lead, and then a 36 -- 0 advantage before allowing Denver 's first and only score on the final play of the third quarter. The Seahawks defense scored a safety on the first play from scrimmage, the quickest score in Super Bowl history (coincidentally, the final play from scrimmage of the previous Super Bowl was also a safety). They also became the first team in a Super Bowl to score on a safety, a kickoff return for a touchdown, and an interception return for a touchdown. The Broncos were held to almost 30 points below their scoring average. Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning, a five - time NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) award winner, threw two interceptions in the first half. Seahawks linebacker Malcolm Smith, who returned one of those interceptions 69 - yards for a touchdown, recovered a fumble and made nine tackles, was named Super Bowl MVP.
In the United States, the game was televised by Fox; with an average audience of 111.5 million viewers, and peaking at 115.3 million during the halftime show featuring Bruno Mars, the game was briefly the most - watched U.S. television broadcast of all time, until it was surpassed the following year. The game 's inaugural Spanish - language telecast on Fox Deportes was also the highest - rated Spanish - language cable telecast outside of soccer.
Three stadiums were part of the bidding to host the game:
Tampa has hosted four Super Bowls (XVIII, XXV, XXXV, and XLIII). South Florida / Miami has hosted ten Super Bowls (II, III, V, X, XIII, XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, XLI, and XLIV).
During the voting process by the league owners, the South Florida / Miami bid was eliminated in the second round of voting, but it eventually took the fourth round of voting for New Jersey 's bid to beat Tampa 's. The game was awarded on May 26, 2010 at the NFL owners meetings in Irving, Texas.
Super Bowl XLVIII was the first Super Bowl held at an open - air stadium in a "cold - weather '' city; previous Super Bowls in cold - weather cities were held at indoor stadiums. However, the temperature at kickoff was a mild 49 ° F (9 ° C), making this only the third - coldest game in Super Bowl History. Ironically enough, a major snow storm hit the area the very next day. According to Weather.com, the average high and low temperatures for East Rutherford on February 2 were 39 ° F (4 ° C) and 20 ° F (− 7 ° C), respectively. The coldest outdoor Super Bowl of the first 47 games was Super Bowl VI, held at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 16, 1972, with a kickoff temperature of 39 ° F (4 ° C). However, New Orleans usually has a humid subtropical climate, with January morning lows averaging around 46 ° F (8 ° C) and daily highs around 63 ° F (17 ° C); also, all New Orleans Super Bowls since XII have been played at the indoor Superdome. Since Super Bowl X in 1976, all but one outdoor Super Bowl has been played in either California or Florida, the exception being Super Bowl XXX in Tempe, Arizona. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell indicated that if Super Bowl XLVIII was successful, additional "cold - weather '' Super Bowls would be considered.
Super Bowl XLVIII was the first NFL championship game to be held in the New York metropolitan area since December 30, 1962, when the Green Bay Packers beat the New York Giants in the original Yankee Stadium, 16 -- 7. Since then, two other major pro football leagues have held title games in the area:
New York City was scheduled to host Super Bowl XLIV upon the completion of the proposed West Side Stadium. When the stadium proposal was rejected, Sun Life Stadium was selected to host the game instead.
MetLife Stadium was the first Super Bowl venue that was simultaneously home to two NFL teams: the New York Giants and the New York Jets, and thus was the first championship game to have two host teams. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (which hosted Super Bowls I and VII) served as the home of the Los Angeles Rams and the Los Angeles Raiders, but not at the same time.
This was also the first Super Bowl played outdoors on artificial turf (FieldTurf) since Super Bowl X (1976) at the Miami Orange Bowl. It was also the first in which two U.S. states, New York and New Jersey, shared hosting duties. This was also the first Super Bowl to be played outdoors since Super Bowl XLIV was played in Miami Gardens.
The choice of holding the Super Bowl outdoors in a cold weather environment generated some controversy. When it was released in August 2013, the "Winter Outlook '' section in the 2014 Farmers ' Almanac predicted that a winter storm would hit just about the time Super Bowl XLVIII kicked off; this generated the attention of several media sources, including ESPN 's Rick Reilly in a piece that aired on ESPN 's Monday Night Countdown on October 21, 2013. In a radio interview broadcast on WFAN, Fox studio analyst Terry Bradshaw stated that he opposes the idea of a cold Super Bowl, stating "I do n't want it to be bad... What if we get two passing teams? '' In a piece published on Sports Illustrated 's "Monday Morning Quarterback '' site, Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman also opposed holding the game at MetLife Stadium, stating that "it 's the league 's responsibility to show its audience the best possible product, and this ca n't happen in the snow ''. The decision to play the game in New Jersey was made even more controversial by the fact that the NFL informed the Miami Dolphins that Sun Life Stadium would never host another Super Bowl until they put a roof over the stadium for fear of rain.
The NFL announced on December 18, 2013, that in the event of a forecast of heavy snow, the game would be rescheduled for the Saturday before, or for the Monday or Tuesday after.
One day before the Super Bowl, weather conditions for the game were forecast to be mostly cloudy with temperatures in the low to mid-40s Fahrenheit.
A winter storm arrived 6 hours after the game ended, dropping 8 inches of snow on the region. The inclement weather cancelled one quarter of the flights available at the area 's 3 major airports, stranding thousands.
Super Bowl XLVIII earned a few unofficial nicknames, with the "Weed Bowl '', "Bong Bowl '', and "Marijuana Bowl '' being among the most prominent, from users of social networking websites and various news outlets as the home states of the Seahawks and Broncos (Washington and Colorado, respectively) were the first two states to legalize marijuana for recreational use, during the fall 2012 elections.
Seattle finished the season 13 -- 3, winning the NFC West division and home - field advantage throughout the playoffs. The team scored 417 points during the season, while giving up 231.
The offense was led by second - year quarterback Russell Wilson, a third - round draft pick who won the starting role after a three - way quarterback competition in training camp and went on to win a playoff game in his rookie season with the Seahawks. In his second season, he completed 63.1 percent of his passes for 3,357 yards and 26 touchdowns, with only nine interceptions, while also rushing for 539 yards and another score. His 101.2 passer rating ranked him seventh in the NFL, and made him the first quarterback in history with a triple digit passer rate in his first two seasons. His top target was Pro Bowl receiver Golden Tate, who caught 64 passes for 898 yards and five touchdowns. Tate was also a major asset on special teams, returning 51 punts for 585 yards (second in the NFL). Other key targets included Doug Baldwin (50 receptions, 775 yards, five touchdowns) and tight end Zach Miller (33 receptions, 387 yards, five touchdowns). Pro Bowl running back Marshawn Lynch was the team 's leading rusher with 1,257 yards and 12 touchdowns. He was also a reliable receiver, hauling in 36 passes for 316 yards and two more scores. The Seahawks ' offensive line was led by Pro Bowl center Max Unger. Kicker Steven Hauschka ranked fourth in the NFL in scoring (143 points) and second in field goal percentage (. 943, 33 / 35).
Seattle had the NFL 's top defense, with the fewest yards allowed per game (273.6), fewest points allowed (231), and most takeaways (39). They were the first team since the 1985 Chicago Bears to lead the league in all three categories. The Seahawks were also the fourth team to lead the NFL in interceptions and fewest passing yards allowed; all four teams reached the Super Bowl. Seattle 's defensive line featured defensive ends Cliff Avril and Michael Bennett, both of whom recorded eight sacks. Avril also forced five fumbles, while Bennett recovered three, returning them for 39 yards and a touchdown. Defensive tackle Clinton McDonald also made a big impact with 5.5 sacks, two fumble recoveries, and an interception. Linebacker Bobby Wagner led the team in combined tackles (120), while also racking up five sacks and two interceptions. But the best aspect of the defense was their secondary -- collectively known as the Legion of Boom -- which sent three of their four starters to the Pro Bowl: cornerback Richard Sherman, who led the NFL in interceptions (eight, with 125 return yards), along with free safety Earl Thomas (five interceptions, 105 tackles, two forced fumbles) and strong safety Kam Chancellor (99 tackles, three interceptions, 78 return yards).
Denver finished the season 13 -- 3 for the second straight year, winning the AFC West division and home - field advantage throughout the playoffs. The Broncos had the best offense in the NFL, leading the league in points scored (606, the highest total in NFL history) and yards gained (7,313). The offense was so explosive that they scored points on their opening possession at least eight straight games leading into the playoffs and a ninth time against the San Diego Chargers during the Divisional Playoffs game. During the AFC Championship Game against the New England Patriots, they broke that streak, only to score on the opening possession of the second half. In only five out of 18 games (including playoffs) did they score fewer than 30 points, the fewest being 20 points.
In command of the offense was 16 - year veteran quarterback Peyton Manning. Now in his second year as the team 's starter, Manning posted one of the best seasons of any quarterback in NFL history, leading the league in completions, attempts, yards, and touchdown passes. His 5,477 passing yards and 55 touchdown completions both set new NFL records. His 450 completions were the second - highest total in NFL history, and his 115.1 passer rating ranked second in the league. Denver 's leading pass - catcher was Pro Bowl receiver Demaryius Thomas, who caught 92 passes for 1,430 yards and 14 touchdowns. But Manning had plenty of other reliable options, including Eric Decker (97 receptions, 1,288 yards, 11 touchdowns), Wes Welker (73 receptions, 778 yards, 10 touchdowns), and Pro Bowl tight end Julius Thomas (65 receptions, 788 yards, 12 touchdowns). Overall, they made Denver the first team in NFL history ever to have four players with at least 10 touchdown receptions in a season. Running back Knowshon Moreno was the team 's leading rusher with 1,038 yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 60 passes for 548 yards and another three scores. Rookie running back Montee Ball was also a big contributor with 554 rushing yards, four touchdowns, and 20 receptions. The team 's offensive line featured Pro Bowl guard Louis Vasquez. On special teams, Pro Bowl kicker Matt Prater ranked second in the NFL in scoring (150 points) and first in field goal percentage (. 962, 25 / 26). His only miss of the year was from 52 yards, and he set a new NFL record for the longest field goal ever made (64 yards), breaking a record that had stood for 44 years.
Defensive end Shaun Phillips anchored the Broncos ' line with 10 sacks, while linebacker Danny Trevathan racked up 129 combined tackles, three forced fumbles, and three interceptions. Defensive end Malik Jackson was also a key component of the defense with 42 tackles and six sacks, helping compensate for the loss of Von Miller, who had five sacks in nine games before suffering a season - ending injury. Cornerbacks Dominique Rodgers - Cromartie and Chris Harris Jr. led the secondary with three interceptions each.
Both the Seattle Seahawks and Denver Broncos entered the postseason as the number one seed in their respective conferences, and as such started with first - round byes.
The Seahawks ' first playoff game was in the NFC divisional round, a rematch of Monday Night Football from Week 13, playing the New Orleans Saints at home. The Seahawks had a 16 - point lead at halftime, but although the Saints were able to halve the deficit in the fourth quarter, they could not close the gap further before a botched play in the final seconds ended the game, with the Seahawks winning 23 -- 15.
The Seahawks then played in the NFC Championship Game at home against the rival San Francisco 49ers; the two teams had each won once against the other during the regular season. Despite entering halftime with a 7 - point deficit, the Seahawks took the lead in the fourth quarter thanks largely to Colin Kaepernick losing one fumble and throwing two interceptions. The second interception came in the final seconds of the game when Richard Sherman batted the ball into the arms of Malcolm Smith to seal the 23 -- 17 win and send the Seahawks to their second Super Bowl in franchise history.
The Broncos faced the San Diego Chargers in the AFC divisional round. Although their record - breaking offense was held to an unusually low 24 points, the Broncos still emerged victorious, 24 -- 17, having shut out the Chargers until the fourth quarter.
The AFC Championship Game once again pitted Peyton Manning and his Broncos against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots, the 15th matchup between the two veteran quarterbacks. The Broncos won 26 -- 16 on the back of a 400 - yard passing performance by Manning, which included two touchdown drives that lasted over seven minutes each, earning the Broncos their first Super Bowl berth since 1998.
As the Broncos were the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, they elected to wear their home uniform (orange jerseys with white pants) while the Seahawks wore a mixed uniform (white jerseys with navy - blue pants, representing away and home, respectively). With the loss, the Broncos fell to 0 -- 4 (outscored 167 -- 38) in Super Bowls in which they wore orange jerseys, while with the Seahawks ' win, the team wearing white had then won nine of the previous ten Super Bowls.
Holding the game in the New York - New Jersey - Connecticut Tri-State Area created the possibility of a "cold weather Super Bowl '', leading to much controversy about whether or not MetLife Stadium was an appropriate venue. Further raising the possibility that cold temperatures could have affected the game was that the winter of 2014 was particularly cold in North America. However, the concerns never materialized as a timely warm front had moved into the region prior to the game; the kick - off temperature for the game was 49 ° F (9 ° C), never threatening the Super Bowl record low temperature of 39 ° F (4 ° C) in Super Bowl VI, held at New Orleans ' Tulane Stadium. Precipitation was limited to an occasional drizzle in the latter portions of the game.
The Hyatt Regency in Jersey City, New Jersey served as the home for the Broncos during their stay. The team took up 150 of the 351 rooms until the night of January 29 before taking up the entire hotel. The team hosted the press conferences during the week on a cruise ship docked at the pier of the hotel. Meanwhile, the Seahawks took up 120 to 150 of 429 - room Westin Hotel, also in Jersey City. The team retrofitted some rooms into training and massage rooms and occupied the pool. The City of Jersey City renamed its main boulevard, Columbus Drive, to Super Bowl Drive to welcome the teams.
The Broncos utilized the New York Jets headquarters, Atlantic Health Jets Training Center, in Florham Park, New Jersey, while the Seahawks utilized the New York Giants headquarters, Quest Diagnostics Training Center adjacent to MetLife Stadium.
Since New York and New Jersey co-hosted the Super Bowl, pregame events took place in both states. The official kickoff of the Super Bowl week was on January 27 with a concert at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey followed by the Macy 's fireworks. The "Super Bowl Kickoff Spectacular '' was the first major kickoff event of the Super Bowl in NFL history. Media Day took place on January 28 at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey.
Meanwhile, in Manhattan, Broadway, from 34th to 47th streets, was transformed into Super Bowl Boulevard from January 29 to February 1, allowing the public to participate in various NFL - related activities. The boulevard was to contain activities such as autographs, a 60 - foot (18 m) - high toboggan run, and photographs with the Vince Lombardi Trophy. As the area was expected to see around 400,000 people, security was increased in the area.
In the week leading up to the game, there were various events throughout, some of which are NFL - sponsored. Highlights of the week as presented by the Host Committee were:
Super Bowl XLVIII was televised by Fox in the United States, with Joe Buck calling play - by - play, Troy Aikman as color analyst, and Pam Oliver and Erin Andrews as sideline reporters. The broadcast attracted 111.5 million viewers, becoming the most - watched event in U.S. television history and surpassing the previous record of 111.3 million viewers who watched Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. Episodes of New Girl and Brooklyn Nine - Nine were the lead - out programs.
For the third consecutive year, a webcast was provided for viewers. Fox streamed its coverage of the game online on PCs and tablets through its new TV Everywhere service Fox Sports Go. Although normally requiring a television subscription to use, Fox made the service available as a free preview for the Super Bowl. Due to contractual restrictions imposed by the NFL 's exclusive digital and mobile content deals with Microsoft and Verizon Communications, Fox was unable to offer any additional camera angles or offer streaming on smartphones. Mobile streaming of the game was exclusive to the Verizon Wireless NFL Mobile service.
For the first time in Super Bowl history, a dedicated Spanish language telecast of the game was broadcast in the United States. The broadcast was carried by sister cable network Fox Deportes as part of a larger package of marquee games simulcast from Fox, and featured commentary and surrounding coverage in that language. As with all NFL games, the Spanish play - by - play was also carried via Fox 's SAP feed. With 561,000 viewers, the Fox Deportes broadcast was the highest - rated U.S. Spanish - language cable telecast outside of soccer.
NFL Network produced an international television feed of the game, with alternate English - language commentary provided by Bob Papa (play - by - play) and Charles Davis (color analyst).
Fox set the sales rate for a 30 - second advertisement at US $4 million, matching the price set by CBS for Super Bowl XLVII. Fox began selling advertising for the game in May 2013 and announced it had sold out on December 4.
USA Today 's Super Bowl Ad Meter named Budweiser 's ad "Puppy Love '' as the best of the game. Meanwhile, a Coca - Cola spot with people of diverse cultures singing "America the Beautiful '' in various languages ignited controversy, with political commentators such as Glenn Beck, Todd Starnes and Allen West condemning the ad for discouraging assimilation, while others considered it a tribute to the idea of the United States as a multicultural society.
Paramount Pictures, Columbia Pictures, Lionsgate, Warner Bros., Universal Studios and Walt Disney Studios paid for movie trailers to be aired during the Super Bowl. Following Monsters vs. Aliens ' footsteps, Paramount paid for the debut trailers for Transformers: Age of Extinction and Noah, Sony paid for The Amazing Spider - Man 2, RoboCop, The Monuments Men, and Pompeii, Lionsgate paid for Draft Day, Warner Bros. paid for The Lego Movie, Universal paid for Neighbors, and Disney paid for Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Need for Speed, and Muppets Most Wanted.
The game was nationally broadcast on Westwood One radio, with Kevin Harlan as play - by - play announcer, Boomer Esiason as color analyst, and James Lofton and Mark Malone as sideline reporters. Jim Gray hosted the network 's pregame, halftime, and post-game coverage. Scott Graham, who hosted additional pregame coverage for Westwood One, also served as MetLife Stadium 's public address system announcer for the game.
The flagship stations of each station in the markets of each team carried their local play - by - play calls. In Seattle, KIRO - FM (97.3) and KIRO (710 AM) carried the "Seahawks Bing Radio Network '' call with Steve Raible on play - by - play and Warren Moon with color commentary, while in Denver, the Broncos play - by - play from the "Denver Broncos Radio Network '' aired on KOA (850 AM) and KRFX (103.5) with the play - by - play of Dave Logan and the color commentary of Ed McCaffrey. The Spanish - language partner of the Broncos, KJMN (92.1) / KMXA (1090) carried the game in that language for the Denver market. Sirius XM Radio carried the Westwood One and local team feeds over satellite radio, along with the call in eight other languages. Outside of those stations, all the other stations in the Seahawks and Broncos radio networks carried the Westwood One call per NFL rules. KOA and KIRO are both clear - channel stations, which allowed listeners throughout most of the western US to hear the portion of the contest which continued past sunset local time.
Westwood One 's coverage was simulcast on TSN Radio in Canada.
In the United Kingdom, Absolute Radio 90s carried the game for the first time, taking over rights from the BBC, who carried the contest for several years prior. The in - house Absolute Radio broadcast featured Darren Fletcher on color commentary (the same capacity in which he served with the BBC), Rocky Boiman with additional contributions and Will Gavin on play - by - play.
The social network Twitter estimated that Super Bowl XLVIII generated 24.9 million posts ("tweets '') on the service (surpassing last year 's total of 24.1), peaking at 381,605 tweets per - minute following Percy Harvin 's kickoff return at the start of the second half (surpassing the 231,500 per - minute peak the previous year during the blackout). 57 % of the ads broadcast during the game promoted an associated hashtag, up from 50 % in 2013.
The pregame show began with the Rutgers Scarlet Knights Marching Band and Syracuse University Marching Band. Queen Latifah, joined by the New Jersey Youth Chorus, sang "America the Beautiful ''. "The Star - Spangled Banner '' was then sung by Renée Fleming, the first, (and, so far, only), opera singer ever to do so at a Super Bowl. A V - shaped formation of three United States Army Black Hawks, three Apache attack helicopters and three Chinook heavy - lifters did a military flyover timed with the last note of the song.
On September 8, 2013, the league announced that Bruno Mars would perform at halftime. On January 10, 2014, it was announced that Red Hot Chili Peppers would be joining Mars as halftime show performers. The show opened with a children 's choir singing a chorus from "Billionaire. '' Afterward, Mars appeared, playing a drum solo. Mars then performed the songs "Locked Out of Heaven '', "Treasure '', "Runaway Baby '', "Give It Away '' (with Red Hot Chili Peppers) and "Just the Way You Are '' as a tribute to the United States Armed Forces. The halftime performance was the most watched in the history of the Super Bowl drawing in a record 115.3 million viewers, passing the record 114 million who watched Madonna perform two years earlier. It was later revealed that the music was pre-recorded. Red Hot Chili Pepper 's drummer, Chad Smith responded on Twitter by saying "FYI... Every band in the last 10 years at the Super Bowl has performed to a previously recorded track. It 's the NFL 's policy. ''
Planners initially indicated there would not be a halftime show at all due to the possibility of poor weather conditions. One such logistical problem would be assembling and disassembling the halftime show stage during a blizzard. But the league went ahead after all. According to Mike Florio of Profootballtalk.com, the NFL wanted to avoid a repeat of Super Bowl XXVI when Fox counter-programmed a special live episode of In Living Color. Fox had not yet become a television partner with the NFL and saw an opportunity to pull young audiences away from a halftime show that lacked big - name performers. As a result of Fox 's ratings success, the league tapped Michael Jackson to perform during the following season 's Super Bowl XXVII, and since then the league has continued to book big - name talent to hold the television audience.
Touchdown Entertainment, the company that produced the event, incorporated the live audience into the show and transformed the crowd into "the largest ever LED screen ''. During the show, spectators put on a black knitted hat called a "video ski hat '' with 3 embedded LEDs that lit up on command. The hats transformed the audience into an enormous human video screen made up of over 80,000 pixels. Images including the Pepsi logo flashed across the crowd, as well as video of the live Red Hot Chili Peppers performance and fireworks display. Thanks to this technology, each spectator was integrated to the show, and the Super Bowl Halftime laid claim to the largest - ever human video screen. The company that invented and provided the crowd activation technology is the Montreal - based company PixMob.
The game kicked off at 6: 32 p.m. EST (UTC − 05: 00).
On Denver 's first play after receiving the opening kickoff, center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball while quarterback Peyton Manning was shifting forward (from shotgun formation) in the process of calling an audible, resulting in the ball going past Manning into the end zone. Running back Knowshon Moreno recovered the ball to prevent a Seahawks touchdown, but he was downed for a safety to give the Seahawks a 2 -- 0 lead. Seattle 's score just 12 seconds into the game was the quickest to start a game in Super Bowl history, surpassing the kickoff return by Devin Hester to start Super Bowl XLI seven years earlier (which coincidentally featured Peyton Manning, at the time the Colts ' quarterback). Following the free kick, receiver Percy Harvin gained 30 yards on an end around run to set up Steven Hauschka 's 31 - yard field goal, making the score 5 -- 0. Denver was forced to a three - and - out on their next drive, and after the Denver punt, Russell Wilson completed a 37 - yard pass to Doug Baldwin, leading to another Hauschka field goal, this one from 33 yards, that increased the lead to 8 -- 0. On the third play of Denver 's ensuing possession, Manning was intercepted by Kam Chancellor, giving Seattle a first down on the Denver 37.
Aided by a 15 - yard run from Harvin on the first play, Seattle quickly got the ball into the red zone. The Broncos defense eventually managed to force an incomplete pass on third down, but defensive back Tony Carter was flagged for pass interference in the end zone, giving Seattle a first down at the one - yard line. One play later, running back Marshawn Lynch crashed into the end zone, hitting the line so effectively that he ended the play on his feet, scoring a 1 - yard touchdown run that made the score 15 -- 0 three minutes into the second quarter.
At this point, the Broncos offense finally managed to get moving, picking up a first down for the first time in the game at 10: 37 and moving the ball to the Seattle 35 - yard line. But on third - and - 13, Manning was hit by Seahawks defensive end Cliff Avril as he tried to throw a pass to Moreno, causing a high short floater that was intercepted by linebacker Malcolm Smith and returned 69 yards for a touchdown. After Seattle 's kickoff, Denver mounted a drive to the Seahawks ' 19 - yard line, aided by Demaryius Thomas 's 19 - yard reception on third - and - 5. With just over a minute left in the half, Denver faced fourth - and - 2. Rather than kick a field goal, they tried to pick up a first down, but Manning 's pass was incomplete and the score would remain 22 -- 0 at the end of the half. The 22 - point deficit was the largest faced by the Broncos all season. It was also the third - largest halftime deficit in Super Bowl history, and the previous two were also against the Broncos -- the Redskins led the Broncos 35 -- 10 in Super Bowl XXII and the 49ers led the Broncos 27 -- 3 in Super Bowl XXIV.
In order to avoid a big kickoff return, Matt Prater kicked the second half kickoff short, hitting the ground at the Seattle 12 - yard line. But it did not stop Harvin from picking the ball out of the air and taking off for an 87 - yard touchdown return that increased Seattle 's lead to 29 -- 0. The touchdown took place 12 seconds into the second half, exactly the same amount of time that the Seahawks took to score the safety in the first half. It was also the first time that consecutive Super Bowls had kickoff returns for touchdowns (Jacoby Jones ' return in Super Bowl XLVII being the previous one, which was also the second half opening kickoff). After an exchange of punts, Eric Decker gave Denver good field position with a 9 - yard return to the Denver 45. Two plays later, Manning completed a 23 - yard pass to Demaryius Thomas, but cornerback Byron Maxwell knocked the ball out of his hands and Malcolm Smith recovered it, returning the ball seven yards. An unnecessary roughness penalty against Denver added 15 more yards onto the end of the play, giving Seattle the ball at the Denver 42 - yard line. Two plays later, Russell Wilson hit tight end Luke Willson for a 12 - yard completion on third - and - 7 and later completed a 19 - yard pass to Ricardo Lockette. On the next play, he threw a short pass to Jermaine Kearse, who broke four tackles as he took off for a 23 - yard touchdown reception bringing the score to 36 -- 0.
Denver finally managed to respond on their next drive, advancing the ball 80 yards as Manning completed six consecutive passes, including a 22 - yard completion to Wes Welker, and finishing the drive with a 14 - yard touchdown toss to Demaryius Thomas on the last play of the third quarter. Then Welker caught a pass for a successful two - point conversion, cutting the score to 36 -- 8.
However, any momentum Denver might have gained was quickly snuffed out as Seattle tight end Zach Miller recovered Prater 's onside kick attempt on his own 48 - yard line. He also caught a 10 - yard reception as the Seahawks subsequently drove 52 yards, featuring a 24 - yard reception by Kearse, and scoring on Wilson 's 10 - yard touchdown pass to Baldwin, increasing their lead to 43 -- 8. There were more than 11 minutes left in the game, but this would be the final score, as Denver 's last three drives would result in a turnover on downs, a Manning fumble that was forced and recovered by Seattle defensive end Chris Clemons (the only sack of the game for either team), and time expiring in the game.
Wilson finished the game 18 / 25 for 206 yards and two touchdowns. Baldwin was his top receiver with five catches for 66 yards and a score, while Kearse added four catches for 65 and a touchdown. In addition to his 87 - yard kickoff return touchdown, Harvin was Seattle 's leading rusher with 45 yards, even though he only carried the ball twice. Chancellor had nine tackles and an interception. Manning completed 34 / 49 passes for 280 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions. His top target was Demaryius Thomas, who caught 13 passes (a Super Bowl record) for 118 yards and a touchdown. Welker added eight receptions for 84 yards. Linebacker Danny Trevathan had 12 tackles. Moreno was Denver 's leading rusher, but with just 17 yards. Overall, Denver 's record setting offense gained only 306 yards, with just 27 yards on the ground.
Seahawks ' LB Malcolm Smith was named the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player. Denver fell to 2 -- 5 in Super Bowls, while five - time league MVP Manning dropped to 11 -- 12 in the playoffs, and 1 -- 2 in the Super Bowl. Including Denver 's loss, none of the eight highest - scoring teams in league history won a Super Bowl in the same season, and all four teams who entered the championship with the league 's leading passer lost the game. Manning 's 34 completions and Demaryius Thomas ' 13 receptions were both Super Bowl records.
With touchdowns scored on offense, defense, and special teams, the Seahawks became the first team since the Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV to do so. Teams with an interception return for a touchdown also stayed perfect, improving to 12 -- 0 in Super Bowls. As a result of scoring their safety 12 seconds into the game and subsequently never relinquishing the lead for the rest of the game, the Seahawks set a Super Bowl record for holding a lead continuously for the longest time (59: 48). Denver became only the second team in the past 30 years to score less than 10 points in the game.
at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLVIII, The Football Database Super Bowl XLVIII
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Organizers dubbed Super Bowl XLVIII the "Mass Transit Super Bowl '', emphasizing and encouraging game attendees and other visitors to use public transportation to get to the game and other festivities throughout the region. The host committee in conjunction with other metropolitan transit agencies, such New Jersey Transit, the lead agency, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and Metropolitan Transportation Authority developed special services, fares, schedules and maps to promote the use of metro area 's trains, subways, light - rail, and buses during Super Bowl Week. However, the plan was considered a failure by fans and writers who attended the game due to poor execution and overcrowding.
The Super Bowl was considered a level one national security event. To that end, the New Jersey State Police and the NFL host committee installed a 2.5 - mile chain - link perimeter fence around the Meadowlands Sports Complex, which is located at the intersection of a number of highways. Security planners stated that access to the area would be strictly limited and regulated. To that end, parking spaces were greatly reduced, tailgate parties restricted and walking to the venue strictly prohibited. Taxis and limousines were not permitted to drop off passengers. Passengers for trains to the stadium were limited in what they carry and were screened before boarding.
The area was patrolled on land, by air, and by water since it is surrounded by wetlands. More than 3,000 security guards and 700 police officers were on duty on game day. In addition, SWAT teams and snipers were located throughout the stadium. There was a no - fly zone and fighter jets patrolled the region. The security effort was overseen by a joint operations center a few miles away from MetLife Stadium, which was staffed by hundreds of people from 35 different agencies ranging from the CIA to the New Jersey Transit Police.
In February 2013, controversy arose with mayors of five local municipalities saying they would not provide emergency services, stating they have been poorly compensated for past stadium events. One of the mayors, William J. Roseman of Carlstadt, New Jersey, stated: "The teams do n't care about budget caps and what the impacts are on the taxpayers of Carlstadt. I had to cut back my police department budget by a total of a million dollars over the last several years. While we are forced to lay off police officers, the owners of the Jets and Giants are filling their pockets at taxpayers ' expense. ''
In a postgame news conference, Super Bowl MVP Malcolm Smith was being asked questions when suddenly a man jumped onto the podium, grabbed the microphone, and said "Investigate 9 / 11. 9 / 11 was perpetrated by people within our own government. '' Smith did not react hastily but was rather confused and continued on with answering questions from the media. The man quickly walked away and security closed in on him. The conspiracy theorist was identified as Matthew Mills, a 30 - year - old from Brooklyn. Mills was arrested for trespassing.
Many girls from New York and New Jersey were kidnapped and brought to serve as prostitutes for the Super Bowl. The FBI arrested 45 pimps and rescued 25 child prostitutes.
Super Bowl XLVIII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
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what happens to ruby in anne of green gables | Anne of the Island - wikipedia
Anne Of The Island is the third book in the Anne of Green Gables series, written by Lucy Maud Montgomery about Anne Shirley.
Anne of the Island was published in 1915, seven years after the bestselling Anne of Green Gables. In the continuing story of Anne Shirley, Anne attends Redmond College in Kingsport, where she is studying for her BA.
Anne leaves Green Gables and her work as a teacher in Avonlea to pursue her original dream (which she gave up in Anne of Green Gables) of taking further education at Redmond College in Nova Scotia. Gilbert Blythe and Charlie Sloane enroll as well, as does Anne 's friend from Queen 's Academy, Priscilla Grant. During her first week of school, Anne befriends Philippa Gordon, a beautiful girl whose frivolous ways charm her. Philippa (Phil for short) also happens to be from Anne 's birthplace in Bolingbroke, Nova Scotia.
The girls spend their first year in boardinghouses and decide to set up house thereafter in a lovely cottage called Patty 's Place, near campus. The girls enter their second year at Redmond happily ensconced at Patty 's Place, along with Queen 's classmate Stella Maynard and her "Aunt Jimsie '' (their chaperone), while life continues in Avonlea. Diana Barry becomes engaged to Fred Wright and Davy and Dora continue to keep Marilla busy.
Midway through their college years, Gilbert Blythe, who has always loved Anne, proposes to her but Anne rejects him; although she and Gilbert are very close, she holds sentimental fantasies about true love (all featuring a tall, dark, handsome, inscrutable hero) and does not recognize her true feelings for Gilbert. Gilbert leaves, his heart broken, and the two drift apart.
Anne 's childhood friend Ruby Gillis dies of consumption very soon after finding her own true love. Anne later welcomes the courtship of Roy Gardner, a darkly handsome Redmond student who showers her with attention and poetic gestures. However, when he proposes after two years, Anne abruptly realizes that Roy does not really belong in her life, and that she had only been in love with the idea of him as the embodiment of her childhood ideal.
Anne is so ashamed in how she treated Roy that she feels her entire Redmond experience may have been spoiled. She returns to Green Gables, a "full - fledged B.A. '', but finds herself a bit lonely. Diana gives birth to her first child, and Jane Andrews, an old school friend, marries a Winnipeg millionaire. Having received an offer to be the principal of the Summerside school in the fall, Anne is keeping herself occupied over the summer when she learns that Gilbert is gravely ill with typhoid fever. With shock, Anne finally realizes how deep her true feelings for Gilbert are, and endures a white night of fear that he will leave this world without knowing that she does care. In the morning, Anne gratefully learns that Gilbert will survive. Gilbert recovers over the summer, bolstered by a letter from Phil assuring him that there is really nothing between Anne and Roy. After several visits to Green Gables, Gilbert and Anne take a late summer walk in Hester Gray 's garden, and finally become engaged.
The title of the book reflects the development of Anne. While studying away from Prince Edward Island and in particular when visiting the place of her birth, she finds herself identifying the Island as her true home. Several times, she denies being a ' Blue Nose ', as those born in Nova Scotia were nicknamed, considering herself an Islander to the core.
Anne Shirley - Now a student at Redmond College, Anne has become an elegant, smart young woman.
Marilla Cuthbert - The stern, upright woman who took Anne in when she was just a girl, Marilla has now become a loving mother figure to Anne. She continues to live at Green Gables with the twins, Davy and Dora Keith who are her dead second cousin 's children.
Gilbert Blythe - Anne 's childhood rival and now good friend. Gilbert is now studying at Redmond College and is in Anne 's class. After many years, he finally admits his love for Anne and proposes to her. He is rejected the first time but after falling ill and proposing again Anne accepts it.
Charlie Sloane - An old schoolmate who has feelings for Anne, but who Anne has always felt indifferent towards and is now in her class at Redmond College. He proposes to Anne but is rejected.
Priscilla Grant - Anne 's friend from Queen 's Academy, Priscilla is one of Anne 's roommates at Patty 's Place.
Stella Maynard - Anne 's friend from Queen 's Academy, Stella is one of Anne 's roommates at Patty 's Place.
Philippa Gordon - Anne 's new friend from Redmond College, Philippa (or Phil for short) is playful and charming and ca n't choose between her beaus. However, she is also a loyal friend and plays an essential role in bringing Anne and Gilbert together at the end.
Royal Gardner - A handsome Redmond student who Anne at first thinks is her dream man having become friends after he shared his umbrella with her. He courts Anne for two years. Anne is at first enamored by his romantic gestures, but eventually finds him rather dull and humorless and rejects his proposal.
Diana Barry - Anne 's kindred spirit since childhood. The two remain best friends, even as Diana marries and starts a family.
Davy Keith - One of the twins who Marilla took in, Davy is mischievous but sweet at heart, and idolizes Anne. He has fair, fuzzy ringlets all over his head, one dimple, roguish hazel eyes, a snub nose and is often smiling.
Dora Keith - Dora, Davy 's sister, is completely the contrary of her brother. She does everything she is told without mistake and is very docile. She has sleek curls, hazel eyes, a straight nose and "prunes and prisms '' mouth.
Rachel Lynde - Formerly Marilla and Anne 's neighbour, who has since moved to Green Gables after the death of her husband Thomas. While she is outspoken and demanding, she is well - intentioned and kindhearted.
Ruby Gillis - Anne 's childhood friend. Ruby is fair and beautiful and prepared to marry when she discovers that she is gravely ill and dies later in the book.
Jane Andrews - Anne 's childhood friend. Jane is a teacher who meets and marries an older millionaire, much to Mrs. Andrews ' delight.
Billy Andrews - Jane 's slow - witted brother, who is Anne 's first proposal. Too bashful to go courting, he uses his sister as an intermediary. Anne is disappointed but amused at how unromantic the whole situation and she rejects him.
Montgomery continued the story of Anne Shirley in a series of sequels. They are listed in the order of Anne 's age in each novel.
The musical Anne & Gilbert drew from this book in the second act - Anne and Gilbert also draws from Anne of Avonlea.
The television mini-series Anne of Green Gables - The Sequel (1987) starring Megan Follows was largely inspired by this book, along with Anne of Avonlea and Anne of Windy Poplars.
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what is the meaning of the hills have eyes | The Hills Have Eyes (2006 film) - wikipedia
The Hills Have Eyes is a 2006 American horror film and remake of Wes Craven 's 1977 film of the same name. It was written by filmmaking partners Alexandre Aja and Grégory Levasseur of the French horror film Haute Tension, and directed by Aja. The film follows a family that is targeted by a group of cannibalistic mutants after their car breaks down in the desert.
The film was released theatrically in the United States and United Kingdom on March 10, 2006. It earned $15.5 million in its opening weekend in the U.S., where it was originally rated NC - 17 for strong gruesome violence, but was later edited down to an R - rating. An unrated DVD version was released on June 20, 2006. A sequel, The Hills Have Eyes 2, was released in theaters March 23, 2007.
In the New Mexico desert, a group of scientists are killed by a mutant named Pluto (Michael Bailey Smith). Later, Bob Carter (Ted Levine) and his wife, Ethel (Kathleen Quinlan) are traveling from Cleveland, Ohio to San Diego, California for their silver anniversary. With them are their teenage children Bobby (Dan Byrd) and Brenda (Emilie de Ravin), eldest daughter Lynn (Vinessa Shaw), Lynn 's husband Doug Bukowski (Aaron Stanford), Lynn and Doug 's baby Catherine (Maisie Camilleri Preziosi), and their German Shepherds, Beauty and Beast.
In the New Mexico desert, they meet a gas station attendant named Jeb (Tom Bower), who tells them of a short - cut through the hills. After taking the supposed short - cut, their tires are punctured by a hidden spike strip. Doug and Bob go look for help, while the rest of the family stays behind.
Later that day Bobby chases a panicked Beauty into the hills and finds her mutilated body. Frightened, he runs and falls, knocking himself unconscious. A young female mutant named Ruby (Laura Ortiz) finds him and protects him from her brother Goggle (Ezra Buzzington).
As Doug travels towards the interstate, he finds a vast area full of craters that are filled with numerous abandoned cars and other items.
Bob goes back to the gas station for help, and after finding news clippings detailing various disappearances that have occurred in the area, he realizes the attendant purposefully led them to danger by suggesting they take an alternative route through the hills. When Bob exits he finds the hysterical Jeb, who commits suicide in front of him. In fear, Bob attempts to flee, but is attacked by the mutant leader, Papa Jupiter (Billy Drago), and dragged into the mining caves by Jupiter, Jupiter 's eldest son Lizard (Robert Joy), and Pluto.
Bobby returns to the trailer, but does n't mention Beauty 's death not wanting to frighten the rest of the family. Later that night, the family is awakened by Bob 's screams, and they all rush from the trailer, except for Brenda and the baby, who are left behind. Outside they find Bob being burned alive on a stake and frantically try to save him, but to no avail. Meanwhile, Pluto and Lizard use the distraction to ransack the trailer, and Lizard beats and rapes Brenda. When Lynn returns to the trailer she is greeted by Lizard and Pluto, and forced to let Lizard drink from her breasts while her baby is held at gunpoint. When Ethel returns she is shot by Lizard, and Lynn stabs Lizard in the leg, prompting him to shoot Lynn in the head. Lizard and Pluto flee with the baby after Lizard attempts to shoot Brenda with an unloaded gun.
Doug and Bobby return to the trailer and discover Lynn and Ethel, who die shortly afterward. Goggle, who is watching the Carters with a pair of binoculars, is attacked by Beast, who tears his throat out, killing him. The next morning, Doug and Beast set out to rescue Catherine. During his search, Doug comes across an abandoned nuclear testing village, and is knocked unconscious by Big Mama (Ivana Turchetto). Upon awakening, he escapes an ice box filled with human body parts and continues his search, only to encounter Big Brain (Desmond Askew). After Big Brain tells him the mutants ' origins, Doug is attacked by Pluto, who beats him and severs two of his fingers with an axe. Pluto almost kills Doug, but Doug manages to gain the upper hand while Pluto is distracted, and kills him with his own axe.
Outside, Doug kills the mutant Cyst (Gregory Nicotero) and continues to search for Catherine. After ordering Lizard to kill Catherine, Big Brain is mauled to death by Beast. Lizard takes a cleaver and prepares to kill Catherine, but finds that Ruby has replaced the baby with a piglet and taken her. Doug sees Ruby running through the hills with Catherine and follows her. At the trailer, Brenda and Bobby discover their mother 's body missing and track it to find Papa Jupiter eating her, so they lure him towards the trailer and prepare an explosive trap, which destroys the trailer, apparently killing Papa Jupiter.
Doug catches up with Ruby, but before she can return Catherine, Lizard attacks him. Lizard and Doug have fight and Lizard is presumed dead. Ruby gives Doug his daughter back. Lizard, who is still alive aims a shotgun at Doug. In order to save Doug, Ruby tackles Lizard off a cliff, sending them falling to their deaths. Bobby and Brenda find that Papa Jupiter managed to survive their trap, and Brenda finishes him off. They are then reunited with an exhausted and bloody Doug, Catherine, and Beast. As the survivors of the Carter family embrace, an unknown mutant watches them through binoculars from the hills.
Wes Craven, director and writer of the original film, considered a remake after he saw the success of other horror remakes such as The Texas Chainsaw Massacre and The Amityville Horror. The search then began for filmmakers to helm the project. Marianne Maddalena, Craven 's long time producing partner, came across Alexandre Aja and his art director / collaborator Grégory Levasseur who had previously made the French slasher film Haute Tension. After showing the film to Craven and the rest of the production crew, they were impressed with the pair. Craven comments that they "demonstrated a multi-faceted understanding of what is profoundly terrifying '' and "After viewing the film and then meeting the film makers, I knew I wanted to work with them. '' Aja and Levasseur then began to re-write the story in what is the pair 's first American production.
Director Aja and art director Grégory Levasseur chose not to film in the original 's filming location of Victorville, California, and instead scouted many locations for filming including Namibia, South Africa, New Mexico, and Mexico. The two settled on Ouarzazate in Morocco, which was also known as "the gateway to the Sahara Desert ''.
The film is set in New Mexico, and strongly implies that a large number of atmospheric nuclear weapon tests were performed in that state. In fact, the only atmospheric nuclear detonation in New Mexico was the Trinity test, the first test of a nuclear device conducted on July 16, 1945. The United States carried out most of its atmospheric nuclear weapons tests at the Nevada Test Site and in the Marshall Islands at the lagoons of Bikini and Eniwetok, between 1946 and 1962. The theatrical poster shows Vinessa Shaw 's character lying down with a mutant hand on her face.
Prior to filming, Aja and Levasseur had already conceived an idea for the mutants ' appearance. "We based all our descriptions and directions on real documents, pictures and footage that we found on the effects of nuclear fallout in Chernobyl and Hiroshima '', explains Aja. The Hills Have Eyes utilized the K.N.B. EFX Group Inc. who had done previous work on films such as The Chronicles of Narnia (for which they were nominated for an Academy Award) and Sin City.
K.N.B. spent over six months designing the mutants, first using 3D designer tools, such as ZBrush, allowing them to use a computer to generate their sculptures. After prosthetics were made, they could be fitted to the actors before filming. Robert Joy, who plays the mutant Lizard, explained, "Every day, these amazing artists took more than three hours to transform me into something that could only be found in a nightmare. ''
K.N.B. artist Gregory Nicotero was also made a cameo as Cyst, the mutant with the halo head - gear.
Jamison Goei and his team, who had done previous work on Hellraiser: Hellseeker and Halloween: Resurrection, had done over 130 visual effects for the film. A large part of that was digitally constructing the testing village, which in actuality was only one built street with others digitally added. The team also warped the mutant 's faces slightly, which is shown mostly in the character of Ruby.
Papa Jupiter displays no deformities. However, as shown in "The Making Of '', Papa Jupiter appears to have a large parasitic twin attached to his upper left torso. The young children of the film had their deformities added by CGI, with the exception of Ruby, who had a combination of CGI and makeup.
The casting process began with the selection of The Silence of the Lambs 's Ted Levine as the character Big Bob. Levine was also a fan of the film Haute Tension. Afterward, Kathleen Quinlan was cast as Ethel in her first role starring in a horror film (despite appearing in Twilight Zone: The Movie and Event Horizon). Next, Aaron Stanford was cast as Doug Bukowski who "undergoes the most radical transformation of anyone in the Carter family '' Stanford even asked not to see any of the mutants in make - up before his character 's battle in the testing village so, that way, he 'd be truly frightened. When casting Lynn, Doug 's wife, Aja wanted to cast Vinessa Shaw who he had wanted to work with since seeing her in Stanley Kubrick 's 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut. Shaw was hesitant to play the role, but after watching Haute Tension, she agreed, explaining: "There was such an odd combination of beauty and terror, it felt almost like an art film. So, after meeting with Alex and Greg, I decided to do it. '' For the role of Brenda, the filmmakers sought a young actress who had relatively little exposure and found it in Emilie de Ravin who was beginning her rise in the television series Lost. After de Ravin, Dan Byrd was cast as Bobby. Byrd had previous genre experience starring in Salem 's Lot.
Aja then had the six actors arrive in the filming location of Morocco early to bond together.
When casting for the mutants, associate producer Cody Zwieg explained: "We needed to find actors who could not only perform the stunt work, handle the extensive makeup and perform in that makeup, but who truly could embody the fierce, primal nature of the mutants ' way of life. '' To play the role of Pluto, Aja looked to Michael Bailey Smith, who had been in A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child. For Lizard, the filmmakers cast Robert Joy, who had made previous genre films such as Amityville 3 - D and George A. Romero 's Land of the Dead. Ezra Buzzington, impressed with the filmmakers, agreed to play the role of Goggle and even watched a documentary about human cultures engaging in cannibalism. To play the mutant leader, Billy Drago was cast. Drago had previously had a role in Brian De Palma 's The Untouchables and other horror features. The most difficult mutant to cast was Ruby, who was a "touch of sweetness to the madness of the mutants. '' Laura Ortiz was ultimately cast, making her film debut.
The Hills Have Eyes was a commercial success, playing in total 2,521 theaters and taking in its opening weekend $15,708,512. The film grossed $41,778,863 in the United States Box Office and $70,000,000 worldwide, surpassing its budget costs by over fourfold.
The film placed third at the box office during its opening week. It dropped to fifth after its second week of release, and to eighth after its third week. It fell out of the Top 10 into twelfth place after four weeks in release. After five weeks, it placed seventeenth at the box office, and it fell out of the Top 20 into twenty - first place after its sixth week. It continued to fall in subsequent weeks.
The Hills Have Eyes was in first release for a total of 105 days, or 15 weeks, with its final showing on June 22, 2006.
Reviews were mixed, with an average critic "Rotten '' rating of 50 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a critical consensus stating "Faster paced for today 's audiences, this ' Hills ' remake ratchets up the gore for the hardcore horror fans, but will turn away casual audiences. '' The Washington Post said: "this remake of the alleged 1977 Wes Craven classic has one very disturbing quality: It 's too damned good. '' Some have gone on to refer to the film as torture porn. Bloody Disgusting, however, was scathing of those who referred to the movie 's genre as such, saying "some may call it ' Torture porn ' - these people are idiots ''. Roger Ebert also gave a negative review, mentioning that the characters in the film are not familiar with horror movies, and went on to cite that the film should have focused more on the characters rather than the violence, saying "The Hills Have Eyes finds an intriguing setting in ' typical ' fake towns built by the government (...) But its mutants are simply engines of destruction. There is a misshapen creature who coordinates attacks with a walkie - talkie; I would have liked to know more about him, but no luck. ''
The soundtrack score was composed by "tomandandy ''. The record was released on March 7, 2006 via Lakeshore Records label.
US Edition
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who did daisy choose on daisy of love | Daisy of Love - Wikipedia
Daisy of Love is an American reality television dating show which stars Daisy de la Hoya, Oscar De La Hoya 's niece and also the runner - up of the VH1 reality dating show Rock of Love 2. The show premiered on April 26, 2009, at 9: 00 pm ET on VH1.
First aired April 26, 2009 (2M viewers)
After leaving Mexico with a broken heart, Daisy returns to find a man that is compatible with her. This time she brings Riki Rachtman to help her pluck out the fakes from the real. Although there are 20 men in the show, one of them is very familiar; 12 Pack, who has appeared on I Love New York and I Love Money. The men meet Daisy after she performs a song on stage for them. She says she is building a career for herself as a "singer, model, and all around bad ass ''. After the show, the men become situated and later, Daisy gives them nicknames to show off their personalities. The men are then led to the "mixer ''. As all the guys vie for her attention during the mixer, Flipper, who wants to grab the attention of Daisy, decides to jump off the stage bars and into the pool. Daisy confronts Tool Box for saying "Where the bitches at? '' and warns him that she will not tolerate that kind of behavior. Weasel, London, and Torch become too intoxicated to form a connection with Daisy. Dropout fails to impress Daisy and she thinks that he is trying too hard to act cool. ' 84, ' 85, and ' 86 tell Daisy that they are only interested in having a good time and dating her together. After the party, Daisy gathers the men together, telling them that she knows who is there for her. She sends the triplets (' 84, ' 85, and ' 86) packing before the elimination ceremony saying that she thought they were awesome, but that she is serious about finding love and will not share men or be shared by men. Riki invites them to take home with them all the food they can carry. Although the rest of the men think they are safe, Daisy tells them that two more people still have to go. After London and Weasel fall asleep, the guys decide to sabotage Weasel by drawing on his face. They are then gathered in the elimination room as Daisy gives chains one by one to the guys and asks them if they "will stay and be her rockstar ''. After many chains are passed out, it is soon down to Dropout, London, Torch, and Weasel. She decides to give Weasel and London another chance, and eliminates Torch and Dropout.
First aired May 10, 2009
The guys wake up the next morning and as they ready themselves, 12 Pack reads them a letter from "Daisy 's Diary '' which tells them about their next challenge. The guys are upset about the events concerning Brooklyn and are all very angry that he received a chain. Brooklyn is aware of this and states he will "keep his distance from the other guys ''. When the guys reach the area of their next challenge, they are surprised to find it takes place in a desert. Ricki tells the guys that today 's challenge is all about protecting Daisy. They learn that they must protect a symbolic Daisy mannequin from several sharp - shooting paintballers as they take it from the limo, to the "red carpet '', and then to the "stage door ''. The men are divided into three teams of four and the teams must run their Daisy mannequin from location to location and the team with the least damaged Daisy mannequin will win the challenge and a date with Daisy. The Beige Team goes first with Cage as the first runner. Cage tries to protect the mannequin, but after getting hit so many times with paintballs, he says he begins to black out and the mannequin splits in half. Cage hands it to Brooklyn, who screams and soon hands it off to 6 Gauge. 6 Gauge hands it off to Cable Guy and Cable Guy actually falls on top of the mannequin, crushing many of its parts. The Orange Team goes and Big Rig, Flex, Fox, and Tool Box do a decent job of defending the mannequin. The Black Team defends the mannequin the best so, Sinister, London, Chi Chi and 12 Pack all win a date with Daisy and grants Sinister a VIP date for his good performance. After the challenge, Brooklyn thanks Daisy for his second chance, but says he lied to Daisy because he was drunk and says he is still in love with his ex-girlfriend. He says he is "throwing in the towel ''. Riki becomes infuriated and accuses Brooklyn of lying and criticizes him for hurting Daisy. Daisy says he was just wasting her time and that she does not need him. Daisy decides to bring all the guys to a club where they can all "let loose ''. While most of the guys battle for her attention and spend time with her, she forgets Sinister 's VIP date, but he says he will let it go because it was the "rockstar thing to do ''. She also gets angry with Fox because she says that everyone was trying to spend time with her except for him. When confronted about it, Fox told her he does not want to compete with twelve other guys. The next day, Daisy has a romantic art date with 12 Pack, Sinister, Chi Chi, and London, where she paints on their bodies and they paint on her. 12 Pack opens up a lot and talks about his past love life. Sinister connects with Daisy and kisses her, which makes Chi Chi jealous. Chi Chi then kisses Daisy all over her body, which she found creepy. London connects very well with Daisy and she says he could be the one she is looking for. After the date, Cable Guy connects with Daisy and she likes his honesty, but says that he is not aggressive enough for this competition. Flex and Daisy share one - on - one time, and he makes her laugh a lot and Daisy forms a strong connection with him. Toolbox gets drunk and tells the other contestants that he is not "feeling Daisy for shit '' and does not have a connection with her, which angers Flex. At elimination, she gives the first chain to Flex, followed by Sinister, London, 6 Gauge, 12 Pack, Big Rig, Cage, Chi Chi, and Fox. She sends home Cable Guy due to his lack of aggression. She was going to give Tool Box the last chain, but is informed by Flex that Tool Box said he did not have a connection with her. Daisy asks Toolbox if he wants to stay, and Tool Box said he wanted to stay, but that it was her decision. Daisy said she did not believe him and decided to eliminate him.
First aired May 17, 2009
First aired May 24, 2009
First aired June 7, 2009
^ * Daisy allowed Sinister to join the group date despite Chi Chi winning the fight because he fought well.
Challenge: Fight For Daisy 's Love
First aired June 14, 2009
First aired June 21, 2009
First aired June 28, 2009
First aired July 12, 2009
First aired July 19, 2009
Daisy reviews her "Rules of Dating '' to the viewers based on her many experiences in the house, featuring memorable moments and clips not aired in the main episodes. Including:
First aired July 26, 2009
The final three head to Maui to spend some quality time in the world 's most romantic island. But there is trouble in paradise when Daisy narrows the field to 2 in a tear - filled elimination on a desolate airstrip. The two remaining guys go on emotional final dates with Daisy. Only one guy can be her Rockstar, while the other finds out that "aloha '' also means "goodbye ''.
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when did the united states gain independence from great britain | American Revolutionary war - Wikipedia
American - Allied victory:
Thirteen Colonies (before 1776) United States (after 1776) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic Mysore
British Empire Hanover
German mercenaries: Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst
George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III
William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan
George III Lord North Lord George Germain
United States: Army & Militia: 40,000 (average) 200,000 (total served) Navy: 5,000 sailors (peak 1779) 53 frigates and sloops (total served) State Navies: 106 ships (total served) Privateers: 55,000 sailors (total served) 1,697 ships
Allies: Army: 63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar) Navy: 146 ships - of - the - line (1782)
Native American Allies:
Great Britain: Army: 48,000 (America peak) 121,000 (global 1781) 7,500 (Gibraltar) Navy: 94 ships - of - the - line (1782) 104 frigates (1781) 37 sloops (1781) 171,000 sailors
Loyalists: 25,000 (total served)
Hanoverians: 2,365 (total served)
German mercenaries: 29,875 (total served)
Native American Allies:
United States: 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease
France: at least 7,000 dead (2,112 in the United States)
Spain: 5,000 killed
Netherlands: 500 killed
Great Britain: Army: 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy: 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease (1776 -- 1780) 42,000 deserted
Germans: 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted
Loyalists: 5,300 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 3,600 died of disease (estimated)
The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and her Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America.
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Britain and its colonies. Following the Stamp Act, Patriot protests against taxation without representation escalated into boycotts, which culminated in the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power.
British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British decisively failed. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate New England. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive, but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.
In 1651, the Parliament of England sought to regulate trade in America by passing the Navigation Acts, ensuring that trade only enriched Britain. The economic effects were minimal, but they triggered serious political friction. The American colonists had fought King Philip 's War without significant assistance from the Crown, and this contributed to a growing sense of American identity separate from that of Britain. Britain continued to assert control into the 1680s, culminating in the abrogation of colonial charters and the establishment of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Colonists, however, felt that the Dominion was undermining their democratic liberty and they overthrew it in 1689; the Crown made no attempt to restore it.
The British government continued to pursue trade control, however, passing acts that taxed wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 was especially egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the local economy, and consequently they were rarely paid. Smuggling, bribery, piracy, and intimidation of customs officials became commonplace. Colonial wars were also a contributing factor. The return of Louisbourg to France in 1748 following the War of the Austrian Succession caused considerable resentment in New England, the colonists having expended great effort in subduing the fortress only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.
Britain triumphed over France and Spain in the Seven Years ' War, but this led to a financial crisis, as the national debt had doubled to £ 130 million, and the annual cost of the British civil and military establishment in America had quintupled when compared to 1749. Smuggling had been tacitly accepted, but now the British began to consider that it blunted their revenue, so Whitehall decided to ensure that customs duties were unavoidable by passing the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually '', an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread.
Enforcing the acts proved difficult; the seizure of the sloop Liberty on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England. Tensions rose after the murder of a teen by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor -- so the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests.
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy. Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission. The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts '', and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America. The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment.
The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal which would have created an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain. Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774.
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war. Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias.
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord. Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston. On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with three senior generals; William Howe, John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton. On June 17, the British seized the Charlestown peninsular after a costly frontal assault, leading Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack which had gained them little, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington 's surprise. After a plan to assault the city was rejected, in early March 1776, the Americans fortified Dorchester Heights with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. On March 17, the British were permitted to withdraw unmolested, sailing to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York.
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Native American tribes to support them, while the Americans attempted to maintain their neutrality. Fearing an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec, with a largely Francophone population, had only been under British rule for twelve years, and the Americans expected that liberating them from the British would be welcomed. After an arduous march, the Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31, which was decisively defeated. After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776. A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec. However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit, due to the presence of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing the Americans to withdraw to Ticonderoga, ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion, while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever realized.
In Virginia, the Royal governor, Lord Dunmore, had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. After war broke out, Dunmore issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775, promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. After Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. After negotiations broke down, Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town. In South Carolina, fighting broke out on November 19 between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony. Loyalists recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South were decisively defeated, subduing Loyalist sentiment. An expedition of British regulars to reconquer South Carolina launched a failed attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776, effectively leaving the South in Patriot control until 1780.
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas Colony in the West Indies, in order to secure ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance. For two weeks, the Americans confiscated all the supplies they could load, and sailed away on March 17. After a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6, the squadron reached New London on April 8.
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere. King George III then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, leading to an emboldening of hitherto weak support for independence in the colonies. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected to oppose coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. British Tories refused to compromise, while Whigs argued current policy would drive the colonists towards secession. Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King.
Militarily, the initial hostilities was a sobering lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability. The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage; the British lost control over every colony. The army had been kept deliberately small since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops, and, after a year, were able to send an army of 32,000 men to America, the largest it had ever sent outside Europe at the time.
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing its declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9, invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King, melting it to make bullets. British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves. Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived, intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, and, in some cases, death. American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans. Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war, and offered them a choice between swearing loyalty to the republic, or either face exile, or forfeit the right to protection. Quakers, who remained neutral, had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts they were owed.
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. Howe set sail in June 1776, and began landing troops on Staten Island on July 2. Due to poor intelligence, Washington split his army to positions across the city. An informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe defeated Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Had Howe chose to land on Manhattan, Washington could have been encircled and his army destroyed. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead. Washington managed to withdraw to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, a second attempt to negotiate peace failed, as the British delegates did not possess authorization to grant independence. Howe then seized control of New York on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. Howe attempted encirclement of Washington again, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.
Washington 's retreat left the remnants of his forces isolated, and, on November 16, the British captured an American army, taking 3,000 prisoners, amounting to the worst American defeat to date. Washington fell back four days later. Henry Clinton then captured Newport, an operation which he opposed, feeling the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington. The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous "prison ships '', in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington escaped unmolested. The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men, and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York.
News of the campaign was well received in Britain; festivities took place in London, and public support reached a peak. William Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath by the King. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The American defeat revealed Washington 's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his poorly - trained troops, who fled in disorder when fighting began. In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters, and were in a good place to resume campaigning.
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware, and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton the following morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale, and gave a new hope to the cause for independence. Cornwallis marched to re-take Trenton, though his efforts to this end were repulsed on January 2. Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown on January 6, though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued. While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington 's amazement.
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance. Howe instead argued capturing Philadelphia and defeating Washington was a priority. Germain approved this plan, leaving Howe unable to assist Burgoyne. Washington himself was baffled by Howe 's choices. Alden argues Howe was influenced by the idea that, upon success, he would not receive credit, but Burgoyne. Controversy persists over whether Germain approved Burgoyne 's plan after reading Howe 's, and whether he shared this information with his subordinates. Howe was not given any explicit orders to assist Burgoyne, however, a copy Germain sent to Quebec explicitly stated Howe was to assist Burgoyne 's efforts. Another letter stated Howe should launch his campaign against Philadelphia as intended, while allowing enough time to assist Burgoyne. Black argues Germain either left his generals too much latitude, or without a clear direction.
Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. The hasty withdrawal of the Continental Army after little resistance outraged the American public. Burgoyne 's pursuit ran into stiff resistance at Hubbardton and Fort Anne. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a British foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured. As a result of the defeat, the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him. Meanwhile, Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid.
Having considered his options, Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman 's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low. Henry Clinton did capture two key forts on October 6 to divert American resources, though he turned back ten days later. Meanwhile, the American army was growing in size daily, swelling to some 15,000 men. On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe 's critics accused him of treason.
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army. A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Again, Howe did not follow - up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight. Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies. On December 19, Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war.
The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling. Meanwhile, Howe resigned, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit. The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence. By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence. No positive reply was received from the Americans.
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a casus belli to go to war with and weaken their perennial foe following the conquest of Canada in 1763. The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war, proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign. The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile, but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade.
Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain. Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain. However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain 's empire. In the Spanish - Portuguese War (1776 - 77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain. Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America.
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic. Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater, and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America. Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown. Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail.
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request. Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies. French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports. The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status. The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778. On 12 April 1779, Spain entered the war, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar. On June 24, Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock. The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison. Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland. A combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues and high financial expenditures resulted in the expedition 's failure. However, a diversionary Franco - American squadron under John Paul Jones did meet with some success on 23 September. On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar.
On 9 August, a Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off The Azores, led by John Moutray, bound for the West Indies. The defeat was catastrophic for Britain; losing 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns and 3,144 men, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made. The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million, or £ 180 million in today 's money, dealing a severe blow to British commerce.
In the Caribbean, intending to damage British trade, the French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica. In order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands, and to strike a blow to privateering, French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778. To monitor the French naval base on Martinique, the British defeated a French naval force on 15 December, and captured St. Lucia on 28 December. Though both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, the French under the Comte d'Estaing soon enjoyed superiority in the Caribbean, and began capturing British territories; seizing St. Vincent on 18 June, and Grenada on 4 July. On July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada, the British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated, the worst loss the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690. Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.
On the mainland, Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Louisiana, had intercepted intelligence the British were planning to invade New Orleans, and decided to strike first. Gálvez intended to conquer West Florida, and set out with 670 men on August 27, 1779, though his force was soon swollen to 1,400 by local Native Americans. On 7 September, Fort Bute fell to the Spanish, who then marched on to Baton Rouge, arriving on September 12. After a nine - day siege, the town fell. Leaving a garrison behind, Gálvez returned to New Orleans to recruit additional troops. In early 1780, Gálvez mounted an expedition to take Mobile, setting off with 750 troops on 11 January. Joined by reinforcements from Havana, siege operations commenced on March 1, and the town fell after a 14 - day siege. Gálvez had hoped to push on to Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida, however, a hurricane devastated his expedition, stalling it till 1781.
In Central America, the defence of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region. After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and captured the fort on 20 October. However, the British suffered terribly due to disease, and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November, and Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied the fort. In 1780, John Dalling, governor of Jamaica, planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two, by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River. The British expedition, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson, set out on 3 February 1780. On 17 March, the expedition reached Fort San Juan and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April. The British were ravaged by disease, and were running low on food due to poor logistics. The British withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat; some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war.
After word of hostilities with France reached India, the British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions, and took Pondicherry after a two - week siege on 19 October 1778. The Company resolved to drive the French out of India entirely, capturing the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779. Mahé had been under the protection of Mysore, as French ordnance passed through the port to the Mysorean ruler, Hyder Ali. Tensions were already inflamed due to British support for Malabar rebels against Ali, and the fall of Mahé precipitated war. In July 1780, Ali invaded the Carnatic, and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A 7,000 - strong Company relief force under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September; thus far the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India. Instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second Company army at Madras, Ali renewed the siege at Arcot, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year.
Following the British defeat at Saratoga, and the entry of France into the war, Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating in New York. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, arriving shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. Concluding New York 's defences were too formidable for the French fleet, the Franco - American forces opted to attack Newport. This effort, launched on August 29, failed after the French opted to withdraw, greatly angering the Americans. The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.
In July, Clinton 's attempts to coax Washington into a decisive engagement with a major raid into Connecticut failed. That month, a large American naval operation to retake Maine resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition, destroying a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779 -- 80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war, the national currency was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and, in early 1780, whole regiments mutinied over the conditions.
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to re-take New Jersey. On June 7, an invasion of 6,000 men under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen met stiff resistance from the local militia. Though the British held the field, Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army, and withdrew. A fortnight later, Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt, which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had grown disenfranchised with the war, and conspired with the British to surrender the key American fortress of West Point. Arnold 's plot was foiled upon the capture of his contact, John André, and he escaped to British lines in New York. Though Arnold 's reasoning reflected Loyalist opinion, Patriots strongly condemned him.
West of the Appalachians, the war was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted due to adverse weather. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4, and then secured Vincennes, although the latter was quickly recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counter-attacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner.
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky, as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August, which met with some success, but did little to abate the Native American raids on the frontier. An attempt by French militia to capture Detroit ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the Indian tribes and occupy their land.
In 1778, despite the defeat at Saratoga, the British turned their attention to reconquering the South. Prominent Loyalists with great influence in London had convinced the British that Loyalist support was high in the South, and that a campaign there would inspire a popular Loyalist uprising. The British centred their strategy upon this thinking. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets.
On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah. British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. Despite a promising initial turnout in early 1779, a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14, demonstrating their vulnerability when operating away from British regulars. The British recovered their loss, defeating Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3. The British then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation was noted for a high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists. In October, a combined Franco - American effort to capture Savannah failed. In 1780, Henry Clinton moved against Charleston, capturing it on May 12. With few losses of their own, the British took 5,266 prisoners, effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias, whom effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, York County, Stanly County, and Lancaster County. Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. Soon after arriving, on August 16, Gates suffered a major defeat at Camden, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. While Patriot militia continued to interfere in attempts to pacify the countryside, Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north. This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina. In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.
Unable to confront the British directly, Greene dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781, at Cowpens. As after the defeat of the Loyalists at King 's Mountain, Cornwallis was criticized for his decision to detach a substantial part of his army without adequate support. Despite the setbacks, Cornwallis proceeded to advance into North Carolina, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support. Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition. By March, Greene 's army had grown enough where he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15, and, though Greene was beaten, Cornwallis ' army had suffered irreplaceable casualties. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining as expected due to effective Patriot suppression. Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the interior of the Carolinas, and Georgia, wide open to Greene.
In Cornwallis ' absence, Greene proceeded to reconquer the South. Despite suffering a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25, American troops continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson, and Fort Motte. Augusta, the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, fell on June 6. In an effort to stop Greene, a British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8. Despite inflicting a tactical defeat on Greene 's army, the casualties suffered by the British were such that they withdrew to Charleston. While minor skirmishes in the Carolinas continued till the end of the war, British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of the American 's supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, instead favoring conducting a campaign further north in the Chesapeake region. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis approving his plan, neglecting to include Clinton in the decision - making entirely, despite him being Cornwallis ' superior officer. Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart, Marriot Arbuthnot.
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success. The French fleet, led by the Comte de Grasse, had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed. Washington and his French counterpart, the Comte de Rochambeau, discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia, where the British were less well - established and thus, easier to defeat. Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions to Cornwallis during this time were vague, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base, and transfer troops to the north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown, and awaited the Royal Navy.
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but was essentially overruled when the French opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco - American army moved south to cooperate with de Grasse to defeat Cornwallis. Lacking sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, the British dispatched an inadequate fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and assume naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown, cutting Cornwallis off from reinforcements and relief. Despite the continued urging of his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works, instead expecting reinforcements would arrive from New York.
On September 28, the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown. Believing relief from Clinton was imminent, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then occupied by the Franco - American troops, serving to hasten his subsequent defeat. A British attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point failed when a storm hit. Under increasing bombardment and with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis and his subordinates agreed their situation was untenable, and negotiated a surrender on October 17. Some 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Franco - American army. The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown.
Following British successes at Newport and Charleston, the North government had gained support in Parliament. However, the government 's decision to allow Irish Catholics to enlist in the army was deeply unpopular, triggering a massive protest in London in 1780, culminating in widespread rioting. The riots were the most destructive in London 's history, damaging the prestige of the government. On 25 November 1781, the situation worsened when news of the surrender at Yorktown arrived in London. Prime Minister Lord North is said to have repeatedly exclaimed; "Oh, God! It 's all over! '' King George III received the news with dignity, though later became depressed and considered abdication. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, though a motion proposed on December 12 to end the war was defeated by only one vote.
Lord Germain, who had overseen strategic matters in the war effort, was dismissed from office in early 1782. Soon after, a no confidence motion in the Prime Minister was passed, forcing the resignation of North and leading to the collapse of his ministry. The Rockingham Whigs came to power soon after and began opening negotiations for peace. Prime Minister the Marquess of Rockingham died in office on 1 July 1782, and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, forcing the resignations of prominent Whigs Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox, with whom Shelburne had an icy relationship. Shelburne was initially hesitant to granting full American independence, instead preferring the colonies accept Dominion status, though such intentions were never realized.
Despite the defeats in America, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned there, occupying New York, Charleston and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled to London after the defeat at Yorktown, and departed America in March 1782. He was replaced by Guy Carleton, who was under orders to suspend offensive operations in America.
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports, though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum. The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain, however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon met with more success in August; invading Menorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip 's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a primary war goal for the Spanish. At Gibraltar, a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties. On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea. On 7 February 1783, after 1,322 days of siege, the Franco - Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated.
In the West Indies, on 29 -- 30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse. de Grasse continued seizing British territories; Tobago fell on 2 June, Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782, St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February, despite a British naval victory on 25 January, and Montserrat on 22 February. In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue, and invade Jamaica from the north. The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April. The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins, and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile. Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781. After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay. After a 45 - day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River. Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes, Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River, which he did on 22 August. However, with peace talks opening, and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place.
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island 's wealth.
Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes ' fleet came off worse, and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July. Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.
Meanwhile, Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped. Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on 27 August, and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic. On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner. The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate. On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783. On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore, and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India. On 25 June, the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784. Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives. Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire, though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations. Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal.
The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery. According to one historian, Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it ''.
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted. However, in the long - term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain. France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam.
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783.
The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war.
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775 -- 1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778 -- 1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds. Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776 -- 1780). The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors. Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war. The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war; of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone.
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing, and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90 % of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade.
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental ''.
By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.
Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million, (£ 27.1 billion in today 's money), generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War. Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans, accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs. Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system, the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786. The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century. The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779. Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico, and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia.
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America. Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648, the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and the overthrow of James II, and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King. Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier ''.
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits, as service was nominally for life.
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3, and increased it again the following year, to £ 3.3 s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age.
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang '', was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting.
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally, 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas. Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict. At its height, the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line, 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service.
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia, and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic, such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops. In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse - Kassel (16,992), Hesse - Hannau (2,422), Ansbach - Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck - Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt - Zerbst (1,160). King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.
Without any major allies, the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas. Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity. To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war, and provided some of the best troops in the British service; the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I can not draw the sword in such a cause ''. The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders.
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for (their) consumption ''. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire. No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army. Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers.
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement. During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat. The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel. British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801. Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan, while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog ''.
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land. Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed. After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. The food that could be bought in America was purchased at vastly inflated prices. Soldiers stationed in the West Indies perhaps suffered the worst; the garrison commander of Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua frequently complained of the near - total lack of regular supply from Britain, and the food that could be bought was so expensive that the pay of the troops was inadequate to cover the costs.
Food supplies were frequently in terrible condition, infested with mould, weevils, worms, and maggots. Provisions were frequently destroyed by rats, and their containers were too fragile to sustain a long ocean voyage or the rigors of campaigning. The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil. British troops stationed in America were often on the verge of starvation.
Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer. The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers '' and "worm castles '', and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages. The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea. Rum was issued as part of a daily ration and was a popular drink among soldiers and sailors alike, often mixed with fresh water to make grog.
Discipline in the armed forces was harsh, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences, nor was it applied sparingly. For instance, during the Saratoga campaign, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. During the Napoleonic Wars, one soldier received 700 lashes for stealing a beehive, while another, whom had received only 175 strikes of his 400 - lash sentence, spent three weeks in hospital from his injuries. The practise could often be a contentious source of resentment; during the Battle of Quatre Bras in 1815, the commander of the 92nd Foot was shot and killed by a soldier whom he had recently flogged. Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy, and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Soldiers drank heavily, and was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses they had been quartered in. Despite such issues, British troops are reported to have been generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. This is contrasted by Hessian diaries, who wrote of their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners.
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety amongst the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries. British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers ''. The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect.
During peacetime, the Army 's idleness led to it becoming riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in a myriad of administrative difficulties once campaigning began.
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults. The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle. Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again ''. Conversely, the United States Army 's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility.
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe 's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans. Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington, and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army. At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage. After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army. Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats, Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise.
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat. The decision left Burgoyne precariously isolated, and left the Americans confounded at the decision. Alden argues Howe may have been motivated by political opportunism; if Burgoyne was successful, he would receive the credit for a decisive victory, and not Howe. However, the confusion was further compounded by the lack of explicit and contradictory instructions from London. When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so confused Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine, and again after the Battle of Germantown. At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear, and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides. While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war. Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.
Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill. During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns. Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies.
During the winter of 1776 -- 1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton. While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts. Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support. Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized. As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year.
In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis ' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North. London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction. Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions. Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year, owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart.
As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers. Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat. These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America.
Like Howe before him, Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland. That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed. Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food. By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain.
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects.
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering. The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map ''.
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists, which never transpired on the scale required. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population (vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780. The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars, which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances. The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South.
Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland. As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with. The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage. The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat. In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined.
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict.
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long - established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.
At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.
The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington 's army had 20,000 men, with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities on the American side. It was also difficult for Great Britain to transport troops across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies that the Patriots tried to cut off. By comparison, Duffy notes that Frederick the Great usually commanded from 23,000 to 50,000 in battle. Both figures pale in comparison to the armies that were fielded in the early 19th century, where troop formations approached or exceeded 100,000 men.
African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war. This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists. Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.
Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, although they did not take sides; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain.
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom. About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large - scale desertion, so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.
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who invented the greater than and less than sign | Greater - than sign - wikipedia
The greater - than sign is a mathematical symbol that denotes an inequality between two values. The widely adopted form of two equal - length strokes connecting in an acute angle at the right, >, has been found in documents dated as far back as the 1560s. In typical mathematical usage, the greater - than sign is typically placed between the two values being compared and signals that the first number is greater than the second number. Examples of typical usage include 11⁄2 > 1 and 1 > − 2. Since the development of computer programming languages, the greater - than sign and the less - than sign have been repurposed for a range of uses and operations.
The symbols < and > first appear in Artis Analyticae Praxis ad Aequationes Algebraicas Resolvendas (The Analytical Arts Applied to Solving Algebraic Equations) by Thomas Harriot (1560 -- 1621), which was published posthumously in 1631. The text states: "Signum majoritatis ut a > b significet a majorem quam b '' and "Signum minoritatis ut a < b significet a minorem quam b. ''
According to historian Art Johnson (page 144), while Harriot was surveying North America, he saw a Native American with a symbol that resembled the greater - than sign both backwards and forwards (> and <). Johnson says it is likely he developed the two symbols from this symbol.
The greater - than sign (>) is an original ASCII character (hex 3E, decimal 62).
The character in Unicode is U + 003E > GREATER - THAN SIGN (HTML & # 62; >); this is inherited from the same value in ASCII.
Apart from this, Unicode also has the following variants:
The greater - than sign is used for an approximation of the closing angle bracket (⟩). ASCII does not have angular brackets.
BASIC and C - family languages, (including Java and C++) use the operator > to mean "greater than ''. In Lisp - family languages, > is a function used to mean "greater than ''. In Coldfusion and Fortran, operator. GT. means "greater than ''.
The double greater - than sign (> >) is used for an approximation of the much greater than sign (≫). ASCII does not have the much greater - than sign.
The double greater - than sign (> >) is also used for an approximation of the closing guillemet ('').
In Java, C, and C++, the operator > > is the right - shift operator. In C++ it is also used to get input from a stream, similar to the C functions getchar and fgets.
In Haskell, the > > function is a monadic operator. It is used for sequentially composing two actions, discarding any value produced by the first. In that regard, it is like the statement sequencing operator in imperative languages, such as the semicolon in C.
The triple greater - than sign (> > >) is the unsigned right shift operator in JavaScript, and is the default Python prompt of the interactive shell, often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter
The greater - than sign plus the equals sign (> =) is used for an approximation of the greater than or equal to sign (≥, the opposite of ≤). ASCII does n't have a greater - than - or - equal - to sign.
In BASIC, Lisp - family languages, and C - family languages (including Java and C++), operator > = means "greater than or equal to ''. In Sinclair BASIC it is encoded as a single - byte code point token.
In Fortran, operator. GE. means "greater than or equal to ''.
In Bourne shell and Windows PowerShell, the operator - ge means "greater than or equal to ''.
In some programming languages (for example F#), the greater - than sign is used in conjunction with a hyphen - minus to create an arrow (- >). Arrows like these could also be used in text where other arrow symbols are unavailable. In the R programming language, this can be used as the right assignment operator. In the C, C++, and C# programming languages, this is used as a member access operator.
In Bourne shell (and many other shells), greater - than sign is used to redirect output to a file. Greater - than plus ampersand (> &) is used to redirect to a file descriptor.
Greater - than sign is used in the spaceship operator.
In HTML (and SGML and XML), the greater - than sign is used at the end of tags. The greater - than sign may be included with >, while ≥ produces the greater - than or equal to sign.
The greater - than sign is used to denote quotations in the e-mail and newsgroup formats, and this has been taken into use also in forums. It is also used before a sentence for a sense of implication. (> implying)
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who plays emily's dad in pretty little liars | Eric Steinberg - wikipedia
Eric D. Steinberg (born August 26, 1969 in Washington, D.C.) is an American actor who played the role of Emily Fields ' father in the Freeform hit series Pretty Little Liars.
Steinberg attended the University of Vermont and the University of Kent in England prior to receiving an acting fellowship at the University of California at Irvine.
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what parts of indiana does not change time | Time in Indiana - wikipedia
The U.S. state of Indiana is split between Eastern and Central time zones. The official dividing line has moved progressively west from its original location on the Indiana -- Ohio border, to a position dividing Indiana down the middle, and finally to its current location along much of the Indiana -- Illinois border. Being on the western frontier of the Eastern time zone resulted in opposition from many in the state to observing daylight saving time for decades. The 2005 decision by the Indiana General Assembly to implement daylight saving time remains controversial.
Indiana observes Eastern Time, except for twelve of its ninety - two counties, which observe Central Time. Six of these counties are in northwestern Indiana, near Chicago (which observes Central Time), and six are in southwestern Indiana, near Evansville, where the metro area includes portions of southeastern Illinois and western Kentucky, which also observe Central Time. The twelve counties are:
Since April 2, 2006, all counties in Indiana observe daylight saving time.
The most extensive study of time zone history in Indiana has been published in The American Atlas (1978) by Thomas G. Shanks, where the author identifies 345 areas in the state with a different time zone history for each.
The tz database lists 11 time zones for Indiana, where each zone is defined as a geographic area that observed the same offsets from UTC since January 1, 1970 (the UNIX epoch). The diagrams in this article are colored to show these 11 zones and a key is provided below.
Before 1883 in the United States, most towns and cities set their own local time to noon when the sun was at its highest point in the sky. Since the sun reaches "high noon '' four minutes later for every degree of longitude traveled towards the west, the time in every town was different. In Indiana, local mean time varied from GMT - 5: 39 in the east to GMT - 5: 52 in the west. With the emergence of the railroads, hundreds of miles could be traveled in a much shorter time, causing a train passenger to apparently experience several slight changes in time over the course of even a short rail trip. By 1883, the major railroads in the US agreed to coordinate their clocks and begin operating on "standard time '' with four "time zones '' established across the nation, centered roughly on the 75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th meridians west. On November 18, 1883, telegraph lines transmitted GMT to major cities, where each city was to adjust their official time to their proper zone. The state capital in Indianapolis lies at approximately the 86th meridian (U.S. Census Bureau), closer to the center of the Central Time Zone at the 90th meridian than the center of the Eastern Time Zone at the 75th meridian.
Time zones were first adopted by the United States Congress with the Standard Time Act of 1918. All of Indiana was located in the Central Time Zone. It was at this time the dividing line between Eastern Time and Central Time was moved from the Pennsylvania - Ohio state line to the Indiana -- Ohio state line. Daylight saving time (DST) was included in the original Standard Time Act. A year later, Congress repealed daylight saving time from the Standard Time Act of 1918, though some communities continued to follow it. During World War II, daylight saving time was once again mandated by Congress to conserve energy. After the war, the mandate to observe daylight saving time was lifted again.
In 1949, in a heated rural vs. city debate, the Indiana General Assembly passed a law to put all of Indiana on Central Standard Time and to outlaw daylight saving time. However, the law had no enforcement power, and it was largely ignored by communities who wanted to observe Eastern Standard Time. The Indiana General Assembly passed a law to make Central Time the official time zone of the state in 1957, but permitted any community to switch to daylight saving time during the summer. The law did, however, make it illegal for communities to observe "fast time '' (i.e., daylight saving time) during the winter months. Governor Harold W. Handley vowed to enforce the law by withdrawing state aid from communities who attempted to observe "fast time '' during the winter, though legal obstacles forced the Governor to back down from his stance. Once again, the law was not enforceable, as individual communities continued to observe whichever time zone they preferred.
In 1961, the Indiana legislature repealed the 1957 law making Central Time the official time of Indiana, which allowed any community to observe DST. The Interstate Commerce Commission divided Indiana between the Central Time Zone and the Eastern Time Zone. Still, neither the time zone line nor daylight saving time were uniformly observed (see 50 FR 43745). The United States Congress later passed the Uniform Time Act of 1966 (Pub. L. 89 -- 387 April 13, 1966; 80 Stat. 107 -- 108; 15 U.S.C. § § 260 -- 267) to specify where and when daylight saving time was applied in the U.S., and authority was shifted to the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT). Prior to the passing of this law, each state was permitted to decide this issue for itself. Having the state split in two time zones was inconvenient, however, so Governor Roger D. Branigin petitioned the USDOT to place all of Indiana back in the Central Time Zone a year later.
Over the next two years, the USDOT conducted several hearings in response to Governor Branigan 's petition. Citizens of northwest and southwest Indiana appeared to favor the Central Time Zone with observance of DST, while those from other areas of the state favored the Eastern Time Zone with no observance of DST. The USDOT chose to divide Indiana between the Central Time Zone and the Eastern Time Zone. Six counties near Chicago (Lake, Porter, LaPorte, Jasper, Newton, and Starke) and six counties near Evansville (Posey, Vanderburgh, Warrick, Spencer, Gibson, and Pike) were placed in the Central Time Zone with observance of DST. The remainder of the state was placed in the Eastern Time Zone; the state was given special dispensation to exempt parts of itself from DST. Most portions of the state that were in the Eastern Time Zone did not observe DST. However, Floyd, Clark, and Harrison counties, which are near Louisville, Kentucky; and Ohio and Dearborn counties, which are near Cincinnati, Ohio unofficially observed DST due to their proximity to those major cities that observed DST.
While the USDOT was considering where the time zone line should be, several broadcast companies filed a federal lawsuit in 1968 to compel the USDOT to enforce the observance of daylight saving time in Indiana, which they won. As a result, the USDOT was ordered to stop informing Indiana residents that the Uniform Time Act will not be enforced and to provide a plan for its enforcement (see Time Life Broadcast Company, Inc. v. Boyd, 289 F. Supp. 219 (S.D. Indiana 1968).; Time Life being the then - owner of WFBM - TV (Channel 6) in Indianapolis).
In 1972, the Indiana General Assembly overrode a veto from Governor Whitcomb to place the Northwest and Southwest corners of Indiana in the Central Time Zone on daylight saving time, and to place the rest of the state on Eastern Standard Time, upon federal approval (see IC 1 - 1 - 8.1). Congress approved an amendment (Pub. L. 92 -- 267; 86 Stat. 116) to the Uniform Time Act of 1966 to permit a state that lay in two time zones to exempt part of the state from daylight saving time, and President Richard Nixon signed it into law. Indiana enacted the statute, officially placing northwest and southwest Indiana in the Central Time Zone, in observance of daylight saving time, and the rest of the state in the Eastern Standard Time throughout the year. Several eastern Indiana counties (Ohio and Dearborn counties, near Cincinnati; and Floyd, Clark, and Harrison counties, near Louisville) chose to unofficially observe daylight saving time, despite the Indiana statute.
Pike County asked the USDOT to move it from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone in 1977; the request was approved. Four years later, Starke County asked the USDOT to move it from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone; in this case, however they did not find a sound reason for the move, and declined the request (see 46 FR 23500 and 46 FR 51786). But in 1985, the Indiana General Assembly, in Senate Concurrent Resolution 6 from 1985, asked the USDOT to move five counties in southwest Indiana (Posey, Vanderburgh, Warrick, Spencer, and Gibson) from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone. They denied the request, finding that the change would not serve the convenience of commerce (see 50 FR 25856, 50 FR 28959, and 50 FR 43745). By 1986 -- 87, Jasper County, along with Starke County, which was making a time zone change request for the second time in four years, petitioned the USDOT to move them from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone in 1987 -- 89. They denied the petitions of both counties (see 51 FR 43644 and 52 FR 10119).
Attitudes began to change in the 1990s, as Indiana 's convoluted time zone situation was seen as impeding the state 's economic growth. Interstate travel and commerce were difficult as people wondered, "what time is it in Indiana? '' In 1991, Starke County petitioned the USDOT to move it from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone for the third time. This time, the petition was granted, effective October 27, 1991 (see 56 FR 13609 and 56 FR 51997).
On April 29, 2005, with heavy backing from Governor Mitch Daniels ' economic development plan, and after years of controversy, the Indiana General Assembly passed a law stating that, effective April 2, 2006, the entire state of Indiana would become the 48th state to observe daylight saving time. The bill was also accompanied by Senate Enrolled Act 127, which required Governor Daniels to seek federal hearings from the USDOT on whether to keep Indiana on Eastern Time with New York City and Ohio or whether to move the entire state back to Central Time with Chicago.
As a result of a review by the USDOT, eight counties were moved from the Eastern Time Zone to the Central Time Zone, effective April 2, 2006. These were Starke and Pulaski counties in the northwest and Daviess, Dubois, Knox, Martin, Perry, and Pike counties in the southwest.
The placement of Martin County into the Central Time Zone, while leaving adjoining Greene and Lawrence Counties in the Eastern Time Zone presented a particular problem for Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane, a large US Navy base that straddles all three counties. With the Eastern / Central dividing line running through the base, NSWC Crane was unable to fully comply with the realigned time zones. The base opted to recognize Central Time, since the portion in Martin County was larger than the portions in Greene and Lawrence combined. This decision presented a larger regional problem, for even though NSWC Crane is Martin County 's largest employer, two - thirds of the base 's employees live in Greene, Lawrence, Monroe, and other Eastern Time Zone counties. This meant that the vast majority of Crane 's employees would live in one time zone but work in another. Furthermore, a business park under construction at Crane 's west gate would also straddle the new dividing line, with businesses on one side of the street being in a different time zone from those on the other. After one year under this awkward arrangement, Martin County reconsidered their bid to be placed in the Central Time Zone and formally petitioned for a return to the Eastern Time Zone.
Independent from the situation facing Martin County, Pulaski County also formally petitioned for a return to the Eastern Time Zone. Pulaski County Commissioners and County Council both voted unanimously on February 6, 2006, to declare home rule and stay on Eastern Time if a federal agency did not grant an appeal to change the time zone ruling. However, the county conceded on March 27, 2006, officially accepting Central Time and switching time zones on April 2, 2006. After some residents pledged to unofficially continue observing Eastern Time, the county changed work hours for most county employees so that they were in sync with Eastern Time work hours. Dubois, Daviess, Knox, and Pike counties also decided to ask the federal government to return them to the Eastern Time Zone, and Dubois did so on April 27, 2006. The confusion involving the time status of these counties led to their being dubbed the "seesaw six. '' St. Joseph, Marshall, and Fulton counties overtly expressed interest in making another attempt to be changed to Central Time as of the end of 2006.
On February 9, 2007, it was officially reported that the USDOT had approved Pulaski County 's return to Eastern Time. The change went into effect on March 11, 2007, the date when daylight saving time resumed.
On September 20, 2007, the USDOT approved a petition from the five southwestern counties (Daviess, Dubois, Knox, Martin, and Pike) to return to the Eastern Time Zone. The request was approved, effective when daylight saving time ended on November 3, 2007. A petition from Perry County to move to the Eastern Time Zone was denied.
With the exception of Perry and Starke counties, all counties that were moved to the Central Time Zone in 2006 were moved back to the Eastern Time Zone in 2007.
The decades - long Indiana time zone debate remains controversial. Some argue that the entire state should move to Central Time, while some others would prefer to have the state return to the non-observance of DST.
With a large agricultural heritage, many farmers oppose DST because their days are controlled by the sun, not the clock. Farmers are often dependent on younger workers whose parents want them home by dinner, and when the sun is up later in the evening, farmers miss out on recreational activities that only happen late. When the sun is still up at 9pm to 9: 30pm, the farmer is still in the field, while others have been off work for hours.
Opponents of putting the entire state on one time zone often cite out - of - state cities as their reason of opposition. For example, counties in Northwestern Indiana are part of the Chicago metropolitan area. Many residents commute to Chicago, which is on Central Time. Counties in the southeastern corner of the state are suburbs of cities such as Cincinnati, Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky, who both observe Eastern Time. In the southwestern corner of the state, Evansville serves as the central hub of a tri-state area that includes southern Illinois and western Kentucky (both on Central Time).
Supporters of daylight saving time and a common time zone in Indiana often claim Indiana must adopt the time - keeping system of the Eastern United States to preserve interstate business with that region. Some believe that Indiana businesses have lost hours of productive time with out - of - state colleagues because the time quirks are too confusing to keep track of on a daily basis. The confusion caused to outsiders featured prominently in the plot of an episode of The West Wing in which presidential aides unfamiliar with Indiana 's non-observance of DST miss their return flight to Washington, D.C., on Air Force One and express consternation with the variances in the state 's time measurement.
Detractors of daylight saving time claim that scientific studies assessing the impact of the time policy change to DST in Indiana have identified a significant increase in energy usage and spending on electricity by Indiana households. Indiana households paid an additional $8.6 million in electricity bills according to University of California, Santa Barbara economics professor Matthew Kotchen and Ph. D. student Laura Grant, while supporters of Daylight Saving Time point to studies such as Professor Kotchen, the Department of Transportation and organizations such as the California Energy Commission claim that the United States saves approximately 1 % of energy when Daylight Saving Time is being observed.
Another wrinkle in the issue is the unnatural geographic location of this Eastern - Time - Zoned region. In the western Indiana counties where Eastern time is observed (South Bend and Lafayette south to Terre Haute and Vincennes), around the summer solstice, the sun neither sets until after 9: 20 pm, nor does it reach solar noon until almost 2: 00 pm. During the winter months when standard time is observed, school buses in western regions lose a valuable hour of the sun 's rays as they pick up children in the morning. Another notable observation is that schools in the Eastern Time Zone of Indiana tend to have far more 2 - hour delays, mainly due to the fact that sunlight is required for many road de-icing components to work. With the sun rising as late as 8: 20 am in some areas, available sunlight is inadequate to safely thaw the roads for school buses to pick up all their passengers on time. The argument is that if the same area were in its geographically natural Central time zone, the sun would be up an hour sooner, and it would have an additional hour to thaw the roads every morning.
One group that believes Indiana should be on Central Time with DST is the Central Time Coalition, formed in 2009. The group 's stated reasons for restoring Central Time to Indiana includes the following claims:
Indiana is covered by the following zones in the tz database. Columns marked with * contain the data from zone. tab.
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which of the following types of services can be provided only by cpa firms | Auditor independence - wikipedia
Auditor independence refers to the independence of the internal auditor or of the external auditor from parties that may have a financial interest in the business being audited. Independence requires integrity and an objective approach to the audit process. The concept requires the auditor to carry out his or her work freely and in an objective manner.
Independence of the internal auditor means independence from parties whose interests might be harmed by the results of an audit. Specific internal management issues are inadequate risk management, inadequate internal controls, and poor governance. The Charter of Audit and the reporting to an Audit Committee generally provides independence from management, the code of ethics of the company (and of the Internal Audit profession) helps give guidance on independence form suppliers, clients, third parties, etc.
Independence of the external auditor means independence from parties that have an interest in the results published in financial statements of an entity. The support from and relation to the Audit Committee of the client company, the contract and the contractual reference to public accounting standards / codes generally provides independence from management, the code of ethics of the Public Accountant profession) helps give guidance on independence form suppliers, clients, third parties...
Internal and external concerns are convoluted when nominally independent divisions of a firm provide auditing and consulting services. The Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002 is a legal reaction to such problems.
This article mostly deals with the independence of the statutory auditor (commonly called external auditor). For the independence of the Internal Audit, see Chief audit executive, articles "Independent attitude '' and "organisational independence '', or organizational independence analysed by the IIA.
The purpose of an audit is to enhance the credibility of financial statements by providing written reasonable assurance from an independent source that they present a true and fair view in accordance with an accounting standard. This objective will not be met if users of the audit report believe that the auditor may have been influenced by other parties, more specifically company managers / directors or by conflicting interests (e.g. if the auditor owns shares in the company to be audited). In addition to technical competence, auditor independence is the most important factor in establishing the credibility of the audit opinion.
Auditor independence is commonly referred to as the cornerstone of the auditing profession since it is the foundation of the public 's trust in the accounting profession. Since 2000, a wave of high profile accounting scandals have cast the profession into the limelight, negatively affecting the public perception of auditor independence.
There are three main ways in which the auditor 's independence can manifest itself.
Programming independence essentially protects the auditor 's ability to select the most appropriate strategy when conducting an audit. Auditors must be free to approach a piece of work in whatever manner they consider best. As a client company grows and conducts new activities, the auditor 's approach will likely have to adapt to account for these. In addition, the auditing profession is a dynamic one, with new techniques constantly being developed and upgraded which the auditor may decide to use. The strategy / proposed methods which the auditors intends to implement can not be inhibited in any way.
While programming independence protects auditors ' ability to select appropriate strategies, investigative independence protects the auditor 's ability to implement the strategies in whatever manner they consider necessary. Basically, auditors must have unlimited access to all company information. Any queries regarding a company 's business and accounting treatment must be answered by the company. The collection of audit evidence is an essential process, and can not be restricted in any way by the client company.
Reporting independence protects the auditors ' ability to choose to reveal to the public any information they believe should be disclosed. If company directors have been misleading shareholders by falsifying accounting information, they will strive to prevent the auditors from reporting this. It is in situations like this when auditor independence is most likely to be compromised.
There are two important aspects to independence which must be distinguished from each other: independence in fact (real independence) and independence in appearance (perceived independence). Together, both forms are essential to achieve the goals of independence. Real independence refers to independence of the auditor, also known as independence of mind. More specifically, real independence concerns the state of mind an auditor is in, and how the auditor acts in / deals with a specific situation. An auditor who is independent ' in fact ' has the ability to make independent decisions even if there is a perceived lack of independence present, or if the auditor is placed in a compromising position by company directors. Many difficulties lie in determining whether an auditor is truly independent, since it is impossible to observe and measure a person 's mental attitude and personal integrity. Similarly, an auditor 's objectivity must be beyond question, but how can this be guaranteed and measurntly, but appears independent too. If an auditor is in fact independent, but one or more factors suggest otherwise, this could potentially lead to the public concluding that the audit report does not represent a true and fair view. Independence in appearances also reduces the opportunity for an auditor to act otherwise than independently, which subsequently adds credibility to the audit report.
An auditor earns a living from the fee he is paid. It is therefore automatic that he does not want to do anything to jeopardize this income. This reliance on clients ' fees may affect the independence of an auditor. If the auditor feels this client income is more important than their responsibilities to shareholders he may not perform the audit with the shareholder 's interests in mind. The larger the fee income the more likely the auditor is to shirk his responsibilities and perform the audit without independence. This could lead to the manipulation of figures and exploitation of accounting standards. By performing the audit without independence the shareholders ' may get misled, as the auditor is now reliant on the directors. To encourage auditors to maintain their independence they must be protected from the director 's board. If they were able to challenge statements and figures without the risk of losing their job they would be more likely to work with complete independence. Ultimately, as long as the client determines audit appointments and fees an auditor will never be able to have complete economic independence.
In most cases it is the directors that negotiate an audit contract with the auditors. This may cause problems. Audit firms on occasions quote low prices to directors to ensure repeat business, or to get new clients. By doing so the firm may not be able to perform the audit fully as they do not have enough income to pay for a thorough investigation. Cutting corners could mean the audit team would be reporting without all the evidence required which will affect the quality of the report. This would bring into question their independence.
Under what conditions an auditor is dependent on the client is an open question.
It is common for the audit firm of a company to provide extra services as well as performing the audit. Helping a company reduce its tax charges or acting as a consultant for the implementation of a new computer system, are common examples. Having this additional working relationship with the client would result in questions being asked of the independence of the audit firm. If non-audit fees are substantial in retaliation to audit fees suspicions will arise that auditing standards may be compromised. The firm would no longer be unbiased, as it would want the company to perform well so it can continue to earn the addition fee for their consultancy. This would mean the audit firm would be dependent on the directors and they would no longer be working with independence.
Price competition is a major factor in auditor independence. Prior to the 1970s audit firms were not allowed to advertise their services and take part in bidding competitions for contracts. Competition between the accountancy firms greatly increased when these restrictions were abolished, putting pressure on the audit firms to reduce audit fees. Competitive bidding for contracts has also encouraged the reduction of auditor engagement hours. The pressure to reduce costs may compromise the quality of an audit. If a firm feels threatened by competition they may be tempted to further reduce costs to keep a client. This risks lowering the standard of the audit performed and therefore mislead shareholders.
The increased competition between the larger firms means that company image is very important. No audit firm wants to have to explain to the press the loss of a big client. This gives the directors of the large company a commanding position over its audit firm and they may look to take advantage of it. The audit team would feel pressured to satisfy the needs of the directors and in doing so would lose their independence.
Within the United Kingdom there are various regulations in force regarding auditor independence. The main enforcement of auditor independence is through the Companies Act 1985 and the Companies Act 1989 although the matter is also covered by the professional accounting bodies ' rules of professional conduct and the Auditing Practices Board. It is also of note that regulations (i.e. International Accounting Standards or International Financial Reporting Standards) relating to the preparation of financial statements are also relevant.
The Companies Act 1985 dictates that it is the responsibility of shareholders (rather than directors) to appoint the auditor at the annual general meeting (AGM) -- section 384 of the act refers. The theory behind this is that directors can not intimidate auditors with the threat of replacement or bribe them by offering reappointment. In practice the existing auditors of a company are generally reappointed for another term at the AGM but the shareholders are free to choose another auditor if they wish to. Directors can only appoint auditors in exceptional circumstances (perhaps to fill a casual vacancy during the year). However, such appointments by directors will expire at AGMs. The Companies Act 1985 (section 386) allows shareholders to eliminate the need to reappoint an auditor each year. If they elect to do so then it is automatically assumed that the existing auditor will be reappointed each year without the matter arising at the AGM. In such circumstances it would take an extraordinary general meeting (EGM) in order to remove the auditor.
The Companies Act 1989 (part II) goes further to protect the independence of the auditor in various ways. One of the key ways is that auditors must belong to a recognised supervisory body (RSB) before they can undertake such work. Within the United Kingdom ICAEW, ICAS, ICAI and ACCA have been granted this status. Schedules 11 and 12 of the Companies Act 1989 specify the duties of the RSBs and the strict entry requirements for their members that they must impose. It is intended to ensure that all auditors have the required knowledge and skills in order to carry out their role to an acceptable standard.
Section 33 of the Companies Act 1989 allows for professional accountants who have gained their qualification in another country to practice within the United Kingdom although it is necessary for such persons to undertake extra education in British law and accounting practices. In the past this would tend to be exploited by members of the Commonwealth but due to there being an EU directive on mutual recognition of professional qualifications it is now possible for professional accountants within Europe to come and work in the United Kingdom. The safeguards put in place by section 33 (that any foreign professional accountants must have an adequate knowledge of British law and accounting practices) should protect the quality of audits.
The Companies Act 1989 also has provisions to prevent employees of firms from becoming auditors of their own companies and subsequently either any subsidiary of their employers or parent companies (section 27 refers). This is intended to prevent the appointment of an auditor with conflict of interest with respect to a company.
It is also a requirement that any person barred from acting as an auditor should refuse any such offers of appointment and resign immediately if for whatever reason they become ineligible during their appointment. If for whatever reason an ineligible person carries out an audit then the Secretary of State (under section 29 of the Companies Act 1989) has the power to require a company to appoint a second auditor and bear the brunt of the cost as a result. However, companies are allowed to recover additional fees from the original ineligible auditor.
Further to regulations regarding the appointment of auditors the various Companies Acts also contain rules regarding the rights of auditors. The most fundamental of these regulations is section 389A of the Companies Act 1985. This section states that auditors have a right of access at all times to accounting related information from companies and further have the right to demand explanations from companies regarding any accounting related enquiry they may have. Section 389A also covers other matters such as making it illegal for employees of a company to make misleading, false or deceptive statements to auditors regarding any accounting related queries they may have. Subsidiaries of British companies also must provide any accounting related information to the auditor of the parent company should they request it although in general it is usually the same auditor who undertakes the audit of both the parent company and its subsidiaries. Section 389A finally goes on to state that companies must take all reasonable steps to obtain accounting related information for auditors from any overseas subsidiaries it may have. Auditors also have the right to communicate directly with shareholders as dictated in section 390 in the Companies Act 1985.
Whilst this legislation prevents directors of companies from limiting the information available to auditors it does not prevent directors from setting tight deadlines for auditors where it may prove difficult to obtain all the necessary information they feel they require for audit. Directors could also attempt to negotiate a fee that would not be enough to cover the costs of a proper audit thereby forcing the auditor to perhaps undercut corners in order to reduce costs. Shareholders are not likely to be sympathetic to auditors in such circumstances either as they may be likely to see auditors as unnecessarily overcharging for their service.
Because directors can impose tight deadlines, negotiate low audit fees or perhaps threaten to nominate another auditor to shareholders it could be argued that auditors are not truly independent within the United Kingdom. Whilst there may be some truth to this it would not be fair to say the rules are entirely ineffective as auditors have to consider that if they fail to carry out an audit effectively they will face stiff penalties, they could potentially have to compensate any damages as a result of their failure, they could potentially lose a lot of business and ultimately their credibility would be shattered. Therefore in reality it is thought that British auditors are only influenced in minor ways and normally over matters of opinion given that an auditor would put retaining its business before the loss of one single client.
Issues of audit have been delegated by the U.S. Congress to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). As part of the Sarbanes - Oxley act the SEC has issued Requirements Regarding Auditor Independence. Recently the SEC has followed up on cases where auditor independence is questionable
Many have advocated that in order for an auditor to remain strictly independent they should not be allowed to provide audit clients with any other advisory services. This idea was detailed in the EC 's Eighth Directive and was designed to remove conflicts of interest arising from audit companies having a high percentage of total revenue staked in the contract of one client. To date this has not been made a requirement. Both auditors and their clients have argued that the knowledge acquired during the audit process can allow other services to be provided less expensively.
A review of audit control procedures by another firm is a requirement in the US that must be satisfied once every three years. This has been implemented to ensure external audits are carried out with the utmost professionalism and independence at all times. Such a system has not been accepted by UK auditors; however, it is expected that many large firms already have peer reviews in place which are conducted by audit teams from offices in other parts of the country.
The recommendation for companies to form an audit committee was first made in the Cadbury Report (1992). A group of three to five non-executive directors from within the company are chosen to provide what is supposed to be a truly objective view on all aspects of the audit: from evaluation of internal control systems to recommendations on audit fee. Since the Cadbury Report, this practice has been implemented yet many still remain unconvinced of the neutrality of non-executive directors.
Proponents argue either mandatory rotation of audit firm or mandatory rotation of engagement partners could improve auditor independence. It is argued that an incumbent auditor has less incentive to collude with their client if the firm 's contract expires in the foreseeable future or that auditors are less likely to forge conflicting relationships with client personnel. Further, because current auditors will know they are soon to be replaced, they will be inclined to produce audit reports which demonstrate high standards and are an exemplar of true independence, and avoid having any shortcomings exposed by the new audit team.
However, empirical evidence is mixed. Most research suggests financial reporting quality is lower when auditor tenure is low. One possible explanation is that it is difficult and costly to obtain the client - specific knowledge required to produce a high quality audit. These costs need to be weighed against the threat of impaired independence, mentioned above. Proposals for a maximum client servicing period of five years have since been dismissed after lobbying by accounting firms and their clients, again stressing that it is vitally important that auditors familiarise themselves with client operations in order to conduct a successful audit.
Recent research suggests the relation between partner tenure and audit quality might be more effective for small audit firms, but that five years might be too short a period. There is evidence that the relation between audit partner tenure and audit quality is hyperbolic, with perceived audit quality reduced at the time of rotation but then improving for several years, only to deteriorate again when the audit partner has been incumbent for a fairly long time. This is based on an Australian study, where mandatory audit partner rotation was introduced in 2004 by the CLERP 9 legislation.
The International Federation of Accountants recommends partner rotation but not rotation of firms. The IFAC states in its International Standard on Quality Control (ISQC1 of 15 / 12 / 09) that "The IESBA Code (International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants) recognizes that the familiarity threat is particularly relevant in the context of financial statement audits of listed entities. For these audits, the IESBA Code requires the rotation of the key audit partner after a pre-defined period, normally no more than seven years, and provides related standards and guidance. National requirements may establish shorter rotation periods ''
In the area of Government Auditing, in its ISSAI 1000 standard (art. 66) the INTOSAI also recommends partner rotation: "ISQC 1 requires engagement partner rotation for listed entities after a predefined period. In the public sector, this requirement may be applied to significant public interest entities. However, legislation establishing the appointments and terms of office of the Auditor General may make rotation impractical. Supreme Audit Institutions may establish policies and procedures to promote compliance with the spirit of this requirement ''.
In the United States, audit partner rotation is recommended in Title II Section 203 Sarbanes Oxley 116 Stat 773 (Audit Partner Rotation) (Audit Partner Rotation) of the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act.
The European Commission has issued on 16 / 5 / 02 a recommendation: "Statutory Auditors ' Independence in the EU, A Set of Fundamental Principles ''. The recommendation only requires partner rotation on listed clients after seven years. It differs in some respects from most national / international requirements, namely: it allows a return after two years it applies to ' public interest clients ', not just listed clients in a group context, extends to key audit partners other than the audit engagement partner. No countries within the EU, with the exception of Italy, currently have a system of mandatory audit firm rotation.
In the United Kingdom, the Auditing Practices Board (FRC) has issued a revised Ethical Standard 3: Long Association with the Audit Engagement (applies on 15 December 2009). It can be summarised as follows: Audit engagement partner - maximum rotation period remains at five years, with a minimum of five years not involved in the audit afterwards. However, flexibility of up to an additional two years is permitted.
In the future, issues regarding conflicts of interest may be tackled through legislation which bans audit firms holding shares in client companies. Some financial commentators believe that it is the subjective nature of modern day accounting which is the main contributor to the ambiguity of auditor independence and suggest this could be clarified through the introduction of a conceptual framework, rather than legislation. They feel a set of agreed definitions on matters which are not encompassed by formal standards would benefit the auditor and, ultimately, remove any doubts over real and apparent independence.
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who was the longest serving chief justice in the history of the united states | List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office - wikipedia
A total of 113 Justices have served on the Supreme Court of the United States, the highest judicial body in the United States. Justices have life tenure, and so they serve until they die in office, resign or retire, or are impeached and removed from office (which has never happened; the one impeached Justice was acquitted). Among the current members of the Court, Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy is the longest - serving justice, with a tenure of 7004110140000000000 ♠ 11,014 days (7004110140000000000 ♠ 30 years, 56 days) as of April 15, 2018. For the 104 non-incumbent justices, the mean length of service was 6,112 days (16.7 years) with a standard deviation of 3,620 days (9.9 years). The median length of service was 5,740 days (15.7 years). Their period of service ranges from William O. Douglas 's 13,358 days (7004133580000000000 ♠ 36 years, 209 days) on the Court to the 163 - day tenure of Thomas Johnson.
The table below ranks all United States Supreme Court Justices by time in office. The basis of the ranking is the difference between dates; if counted by number of calendar days all the figures would be one greater, with the exception of Charles Evans Hughes and John Rutledge, who would receive two days each.
The length of incumbency for the five individuals confirmed for associate justice, and later confirmed for chief justice separately -- Charles Evans Hughes, William Rehnquist, John Rutledge, Harlan F. Stone, and Edward Douglass White -- measures their cumulative length of service on the Court. A nominee who was confirmed by the United States Senate but declined to serve, such as Robert H. Harrison, or who died before taking his seat, such as Edwin M. Stanton, is not considered to have served as a Justice. Such individuals are not included. The start date given for each justice is the day he or she took the oath of office, with the end date being the date of the justice 's death, resignation, or retirement. A highlighted row indicates justice currently serving on the Court.
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do re mi fa vs sa re ga ma | Solmization - Wikipedia
Solmization is a system of attributing a distinct syllable to each note in a musical scale. Various forms of solmization are in use and have been used throughout the world, but solfège is the most common convention in Europe and North America.
The seven syllables normally used for this practice in English - speaking countries are: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and ti (with sharpened notes of di, ri, fi, si, li and flattened notes of te, le, se, me, ra).
Guido of Arezzo is widely considered to be the origin of the European tradition of solmization. In Guido 's Micrologus (1026), the ut -- re -- mi -- fa -- so -- la syllables are derived from the initial syllables of each of the first six half - lines of the first stanza of the hymn Ut queant laxis, whose text is attributed to the Italian monk and scholar Paulus Diaconus. Giovanni Battista Doni is known for having changed the name of note "Ut '' (C), renaming it "Do '' (in the "Do Re Mi... '' sequence known as solfège). An alternative explanation, first proposed by Franciszek Meninski in Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and later by J. - B. Laborde in Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780), is that the syllables were derived from the Arabic solmization system درر مفصّلات Durar Mufaṣṣalāt ("Separated Pearls '') (dāl, rā ', mīm, fā ', ṣād, lām, tā ') during the Middle Ages, but there is no documentary evidence for it.
In India, the origin of solmization was to be found in Vedic texts like the Upanishads, which discuss a musical system of seven notes, realized ultimately in what is known as sargam. In Indian classical music, the notes in order are: sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni, which correspond to the Western solfege system.
Byzantine music uses syllables derived from the Greek alphabet to name notes: starting with C, the notes are ni (eta), pa (alpha), vu (beta), ga (gamma), di (delta), ke (epsilon), zo (zeta).
In Han people 's music in China, the words used to name notes are (from fa to mi): 上 (siong or shang4), 尺 (cei or chi3), 工 (gong), 凡 (huan or fan2), 六 (liuo or liu4), 五 (ngou or wu3), 乙 (yik or yi3). The system is used for teaching sight - singing.
In Japanese music, the first line of Iroha, an ancient poem used as an "ABC '' of traditional kana, is used for solmization. The syllables representing the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, G are i, ro, ha, ni, ho, he, to respectively. Shakuhachi musical notation uses another solmization system beginning "Fu Ho U ''.
In Indonesia, Javanese musicians derive syllables from numbers; ji - ro - lu - (pi) - ma - nem (siji, loro, telu, (papat, normally skipped in pentatonic scales), lima, enem).
In Scotland, Canntaireachd was used as a means of communicating bagpipe music verbally.
Other systems invented for teaching sight - singing are:
See also Do Re Mi for songs named after those solmization syllables.
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list of us states admitted to the union | List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia
A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.
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when does spike come back in season 3 | Spike (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) - wikipedia
Spike, played by James Marsters, is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. Spike is a vampire and played various roles on the shows, including villain, anti-hero, Trickster and lover. For Marsters, the role as Spike began a career in science fiction television, becoming "the obvious go - to guy for US cult (television) ''. For creator Whedon, Spike is the "most fully developed '' of his characters. The character was intended to be a brief villain, with Whedon originally adamant to not have another major "romantic vampire '' character like Angel. Marsters says "Spike was supposed to be dirty and evil, punk rock, and then dead. '' However, the character ended up staying for the second season, and then returning in the fourth to replace Cordelia as "the character who told Buffy she was stupid and about to die. ''
Within the series ' narrative, William was an unsuccessful aspiring poet in the Victorian era who was mocked and called "William the Bloody '' because of his "bloody awful '' poetry. Sired by the vampire Drusilla (Juliet Landau), William became an unusually passionate and romantic vampire, being very violent and ready to battle, but not as cruel as his companions. Alongside Drusilla, Darla (Julie Benz) and Angelus (David Boreanaz), Giles thinks William acquired the nickname Spike for his preferred method of torturing people with railroad spikes, but it is revealed it is because his poetry was ' so bad you could stick a railroad spike through your head '. He was noted for killing two vampire Slayers; one at the end of the 1800s during the Boxer Rebellion, the other in 1970s New York, where Spike acquired his trademark leather duster. During the second season of the series, Spike comes to Sunnydale hoping to kill a third Slayer, Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), with whom he later forges an uneasy alliance. Over the course of Buffy, Spike falls in love with the Slayer, reacquires his soul to prove himself to Buffy and dies a hero in the show 's series finale. He is subsequently resurrected in the fifth season of spin - off series Angel.
Considered a ' breakout character ', Spike proved immensely popular with fans of Buffy. The character appears substantially in Expanded Universe materials such as comic books and tie - in novels. Following the cancellation of Angel in 2004, Whedon considered creating a Spike film spin - off. Canonically, the character appears in issues of the comic books Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (2007 -- 11), Angel: After the Fall (2007 -- 09), Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine, Angel & Faith (both 2011 -- 2013) and several Spike limited series, spinning off from both Buffy and Angel. Currently the character is in the canonical comic Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven (2016 -- present).
Spike 's story before he appears in Sunnydale unfolds in flashbacks scattered, out of sequence, among numerous episodes of both Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. The first flashback occurs in Buffy Season Five 's "Fool for Love '', and reveals William as in fact a meek, effete young man (and an aspiring poet) who lived in London with his mother, Anne. Anne would often sing the folksong "Early One Morning '' to her son, right up until the time he was turned into a vampire. William 's surname is given as "Pratt '' in the non-canon comic Old Times and is written on the label of his jar of blood in the comic Spike: Asylum # 002. This surname became official with the publication of the canon comic Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season 11 # 7, in which Buffy calls him by it. The name William Pratt may allude to horror actor Boris Karloff, whose birth name was William Henry Pratt, and can also be understood as the British slang term "prat '', describing a person of arrogant stupidity.
Spike is one of the youngest recurring vampires on the show, though the evidence of his age is contradictory, as the concept of the character evolved over time. When he was introduced in "School Hard '' (season 2), Giles read that he was "barely two hundred, '' implying that he was either born or sired in 1797 or slightly earlier. In "The Initiative '' (season 4) he said he was 126, thus born or sired in 1874. Flashbacks in "Fool for Love '' (season 5) show that Spike was sired as an adult in 1880. Assuming he was in his early to mid 20s when he was sired, Spike would be in his 140s during the series. In the comic Spike: Asylum # 002, Spike 's jar of blood has a label giving his assumed human birth date in 1853, about 27 years before he was sired.
In 1880, William was a struggling poet, often mocked by his peers who called him "William the Bloody '' behind his back because his poetry was so "bloody awful. '' The true origins of this nickname were not revealed until three years after it was first mentioned in Season Two, when it was believed to have purely violent connotations. William showed a strong capacity for loyalty and devoted love, which remained after his siring. After his romantic overtures were rejected by the aristocratic Cecily, William wandered the streets despondently and bumped into Drusilla. She consoled him, drained him of blood and made him drink of her blood, thus transforming him into a vampire -- "siring '' him, in the jargon of the series. Spike 's grand - sire Angelus became his mentor (leading Spike occasionally to describe him loosely as his sire): "Drusilla sired me, but you, you made me a monster. '' Whereas new vampires in the Buffyverse often delight in killing their families once they become evil, William was a notable exception. Having always been very close to his mother, he turned her into a vampire to save her from tuberculosis. But his mother, as a vampire, taunted William and insinuated he had always had a sexual fascination with her. William chose to stake her because he found he could not bear to see his mother behaving like the soulless vampire he had made of her. She, like most vampires, lacked his unusual capacity for some of the softer human emotions, like love and compassion.
After staking his mother, William began a new life with Drusilla, to whom he was utterly devoted. Euphoric with his newfound vampiric abilities, he adopted the poses and trappings of a cultural rebel, affecting a working class East London accent and embracing impulsiveness and extreme violence. He adopted the nom de guerre "Spike '' based on his habit of torturing people with railroad spikes -- possibly prompted by criticism of his poetry: "I 'd rather have a railroad spike through my head than listen to that awful stuff. '' In "The Weight of the World '' Spike mentions having spent "the better part of a century '' in delinquency, suggesting criminal activities other than killing for blood. In the company of Drusilla, Angelus and Darla, Spike terrorized Europe and Asia for almost two decades. He had a strained relationship with Drusilla 's sire Angelus, who continued a sexual relationship with her despite Spike 's strong disapproval. Although Angelus did enjoy the company of another male vampire in their travels, he found Spike 's recklessness and lust for battle to be unnecessary risks. Angelus regarded killing as an art, not a sport, and killed for the sheer act of evil; Spike did it for amusement and the rush.
In 1894, Spike and Angelus developed a rivalry with the enigmatic Immortal, who later had Spike sent to prison for tax evasion. In 1900, Spike killed Xin_Rong, a Chinese Slayer while in China during the Boxer Rebellion. In 1943, he was captured by Nazis for experimentation and taken aboard a submarine, where he was briefly reunited with Angel. By the 1950s, Spike had reunited with Drusilla, and they traveled to Italy. At some point, Spike also became rivals with the famous vampire Dracula. The enmity between Spike and Dracula was explored in the comic series Spike vs. Dracula, in which their mutual hatred is caused when Spike, along with Darla and Drusilla, slaughtered the Romani (gypsy) tribe who had cursed their patriarch, Angelus, with a soul, although it is unclear if either Spike or Drusilla knew precisely why Darla was so angry with the tribe. That clan (unknown to Spike) was favored by Dracula and he sought revenge for their deaths. Spike later mentions in a conversation with Riley Finn, "Dracula? Poncy bugger owes me £ 11, for one thing, '' because Dracula tossed Spike 's signed copy of Bram Stoker 's Dracula in a fire in 1898. Spike also notes that Dracula 's fame has done more damage to vampires than any Slayer, since it made their weaknesses more widely known. Spike attended Woodstock in 1969, whereupon he accidentally became high after ingesting the blood of a hippie, he claims to have spent the next six hours following the incident "watching my hand move ''. In 1977 he fought and killed a second Slayer, Nikki Wood, aboard a subway train in New York City, taking from her a black leather duster which he wears throughout his appearances on Buffy and Angel until it is destroyed in an explosion in Season Five of Angel, whereupon he gets a new one that looks exactly like the old one ("The Girl in Question ''). At some point post-1977, Billy Idol allegedly "stole '' Spike 's look and made it famous as his own (as revealed in Season Seven 's "Sleeper ''; see "Appearance '' below); Spike 's thoughts on this are unrecorded. Inasmuch as Buffy knew of the "theft '' as of "Sleeper, '' Spike presumably shared the detail with her in an undepicted moment.
Spike 's flashback appearances, in chronological order, include:
Spike first arrives in Sunnydale in the second season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, in the episode "School Hard '', accompanied by Drusilla. Spike and Dru were modeled on Sid Vicious and Nancy Spungen; punk, "badass '' vampires to contrast sharply with the more ceremonial tradition of the Master and the Order of Aurelius from Season One. Spike is in fact a fan of Sid Vicious ' band The Sex Pistols and punk band The Ramones. In the final scene of the episode "Lovers Walk '', he can be seen singing to a cover of "My Way '' by Gary Oldman, who portrayed Vicious in the film Sid and Nancy. Spike 's first act in Sunnydale is to attack Buffy and a large group of people at her school, making his first appearance the deadliest of any of Buffy 's "Big Bads '', as he very nearly kills Buffy, but Buffy 's mother distracts Spike long enough for Buffy to recover. Throughout Season Two, Spike and Dru are the canon 's most prominent example of affection between vampires, displaying the humanity and intricacies of vampire relationships. Spike was initially conceived as a disposable villain to be killed off, but proved so popular with fans that Joss Whedon decided to merely injure him instead, in the episode "What 's My Line, Part Two '', in which Spike is crushed by a collapsing pipe organ and left paralyzed. (Later it is revealed that he has healed but chosen to stay in the wheelchair to deceive Angel whom he intended to betray.)
Spike and Drusilla are major enemies of Buffy for much of the second season. They arrive shortly after Drusilla is seriously weakened by an angry mob in Prague, as recounted in the canon comic book The Problem with Vampires. Spike is a devoted caretaker to Drusilla in her weakened condition, and initially hopes the Hellmouth 's energy can help restore her strength. He reunites with Angel and seems genuinely pleased to see him, but is disgusted to find that Angel has a soul (whether or not Spike in fact knew that Angel 's acquisition of a soul is why he left the group nearly a century before has never been made clear) and is in love with the current Slayer, Buffy Summers. When Angel loses his soul and rejoins Spike and Dru, Spike 's initial celebration soon turns to resentment when Angelus starts pursuing Drusilla as a lover and taunting him. Spike decides to ally himself with Buffy against Angelus; as he explains to Buffy, in addition to wanting Drusilla back, he also wants to "save the world '':
Spike reappears in the Season Three episode "Lovers Walk '', in a drunken depression after Drusilla, offended by his alliance with Buffy, dumps him for a Chaos demon. He kidnaps Willow and Xander, and forces Willow to conduct a love spell for him to make Drusilla love him again, even coercing Buffy and Angel to help him in exchange for the safe return of their friends. The excitement of a brawl with the Mayor 's vampires helps him see that Drusilla left him because he had begun to go soft; he resolves to win her back by torturing her until she likes him again, and tells Buffy where to find Willow and Xander. He also tells Buffy and Angel that they can never be friends because of their love for one another. This insight foreshadows Spike 's later role as the "truth - seer '' of the group.
Spike returns to Sunnydale alone in Season Four, in the episode "The Harsh Light of Day '', briefly living with Harmony Kendall, a shallow former classmate of Buffy, now a vampire. He is in Sunnydale to look for the Gem of Amarra, a ring which makes a vampire effectively invulnerable. He finds it and attacks Buffy in daylight, but she wrests the ring from his finger and sends it to Angel. Spike goes to Los Angeles, and hires a vampire named Marcus to torture Angel in order to get the ring, but Marcus takes the ring himself and Angel finally destroys it.
After being captured by The Initiative and implanted with a cerebral microchip which punishes him with debilitating pain whenever he harms or attempts to harm any non-demon life forms, Spike turns to the Scooby Gang for protection, bartering his knowledge of the Initiative. (Though he still spars with Buffy, provided he has no real intent on harming her) His inability to bite is comically compared to impotence, much to Spike 's constant humiliation; in "Doomed '', he attempts to commit suicide by staking himself at Xander 's house, but is stopped by Willow and Xander. Occasionally helping the Scooby Gang by providing them with information and / or combat assistance in exchange for cash or for the joy of fighting, but having no qualms about betraying them to such enemies as Faith and Adam. In Season Four, Spike was introduced to fill the antagonistic role that Cordelia had in seasons One to Three; as Joss Whedon explains on the DVD featurette, "All of our characters got to the point where they were loving and hugging, and it was sort of like, where 's Cordelia? '' Spike appeared in every episode thereafter with the exception of "The Body ''.
In Season Five, after some erotic dreams, Spike becomes aware to his horror that he has fallen in love with Buffy. He becomes a more active participant in the Scooby Gang, jumping into several of Buffy 's fights to provide assistance, whether she wants it or not. When Buffy rejects his advances, Spike attempts to prove his love by kidnapping her so that she can witness him killing Drusilla for her, to little avail; in her disgust, Buffy un-invites him from her house (something she had not bothered to do in almost three years since their alliance against Angelus) and alienates him from the group.
Spike then has Warren Mears make a robot in Buffy 's likeness, programmed to love and obey him. Though Buffy is disgusted by this, her hostility towards him fades considerably when she learns that Spike refused, even under intense torture, to reveal the identity of The Key to Glory, nearly laying down his life to protect Buffy 's sister Dawn. Buffy is moved by this unexpected loyalty and kisses him, saying she will not forget what he has done. In the days and hours leading up to the final showdown with Glory, Spike fights by Buffy 's side, earning her trust and a re-invitation to her house. Spike displays unabashed grief after Buffy dies in the showdown with Glory, Spike honors her memory by remaining loyal to the Scoobies, fighting at their side and serving the role of baby - sitter / older brother / protector to Dawn, helping Willow and Tara to raise her in Buffy 's absence.
After Buffy is resurrected at the beginning of Season Six, she is despondent and detached from her friends. During this time, her relationship to Spike deepens and she is able to talk to him about things she feels she can not share with the Scooby Gang. She gets drunk with Spike, and calls him "a neutered vampire who cheats at kitten poker. '' After a demon 's spell makes them express their emotions in song, and Buffy sings "I want the fire back '', Buffy and Spike begin a physical relationship, consummated two episodes later. The relationship is frequently violent, with Buffy most often initiating both the violence and the sex between them; the violence is made all the easier when Spike finds that (as a side effect of Willow 's resurrection spell) his chip now does not stop him from harming Buffy. Buffy threatens to kill Spike if he ever tells anyone about their relationship. Both are unsatisfied; Buffy is ashamed of her dark desires, while Spike obsessively craves the love, trust, and affection that she is unwilling to give. In "As You Were '', Buffy tells Spike she is using him and ends their relationship. Believing he still has a chance with Buffy after seeing her reactions of jealousy and hurt when he has a drunk sexual encounter with Anya, Spike corners her and makes aggressive sexual advances. When she refuses him, he grows desperate and unsuccessfully tries to rape her. He is at once horrified by his own actions and intentions, while also somewhat remiss that he did not go through with the rape, since he is still essentially a demon and has had no problem committing such acts in the past. This is seen in his reactions to reliving the memory of the event while discussing his subsequent mood with Clem, who has come by with hot wings to hang out. Spike heads to a remote area of Africa, where he seeks out a legendary demon shaman and undergoes the Demon Trials, a series of grueling physical challenges. Proving his worthiness by surviving the trials, Spike earns his soul back.
In Season Seven, a re-ensouled Spike must cope with the guilt of his past actions and try to win back Buffy 's trust. But under influence of the First Evil 's hypnotic trigger, Spike unknowingly starts killing again. Upon discovering what he has done, he begs Buffy to stake him, but she refuses and takes him into her house, telling him she has seen him change. Buffy guards and cares for Spike throughout his recovery, telling Spike she believes in him, a statement which later sustains him throughout his imprisonment and torture at the hands of the First. When Spike 's chip begins to malfunction, causing him intense pain and threatening to kill him, Buffy trusts him enough to order the Initiative operatives to remove it from his head. When Nikki Wood 's son Robin tries to kill Spike, he unwittingly frees Spike from his hypnotic trigger: the song "Early One Morning '', a favorite of his mother, which evokes Spike 's traumatic memories of his mother 's abusive behavior toward him after she turned; after Spike is able to address these issues, he realizes his mother had always loved him, knowledge which frees him from the First 's control.
Later in the season, Spike and Buffy achieve an emotional closeness; he alone stays loyal to her when the Scoobies and Potentials mutiny against her, and his words and encouragement give a depressed Buffy the strength to continue fighting. They spend three nights together, one of which Spike describes as the best night of his life, just holding her. It is unclear whether they resume their sexual intimacy during the third night; creator Joss Whedon says on the DVD commentary for "Chosen '' that he intentionally left it to the viewers to decide how they felt the relationship progressed, though Whedon had earlier stated on the commentary he personally felt having them resume a sexual relationship would send the wrong message. In the final battle inside the Hellmouth, Spike, wearing a mystical amulet, sacrifices himself to destroy the Turok - Han and close the Hellmouth. He is slowly incinerated in the process, but not before Buffy tells him "I love you. '' He replies, "No, you do n't; but thanks for saying it. '' Even as he burns and crumbles to dust, Spike laughs and revels in the destruction around him and the burning presence of his soul, glad to be able to see the fight to its end. In dying to save the world, he becomes a Champion.
Spike had previously appeared in the season 1 episode of Angel "In the Dark '', Spike goes to Los Angeles at the same time as Oz arrives to give Angel the Gem of Amarra, Spike 's objective was to get the ring and kill Angel. Oz gives Angel the ring who then hides it in the sewer, just as he is about to leave for another case he is ambushed by Spike who hits him with a wooden plank, Angel defeats Spike but Spike warns him that he will get the ring one way or another. Angel takes precaution and goes on a manhunt for Spike, Angel finally finds him, chases him through the alley, and corners him only to fall into Spike 's trap. Spike captures Angel and hires a vampire named Marcus to torture Angel until he tells him where the ring is. After a while Spike gets bored of waiting so he goes to Angel 's apartment to find the ring and leaving Marcus to torture Angel, he gets to the apartment only to find Cordelia and Doyle aiming at him with weapons and demanding to know where Angel is. Spike reveals Angel 's location and tells them that the only way he will release Angel is if they find him the ring. Cordelia and Doyle find the ring in the sewer and head straight to Spike. When they arrive at the location they find out that Spike had lied about releasing Angel. Taking precautions however, they then throw the ring away and just as Spike was about to retrieve it, Oz bursts through the wall in his van and rescues Angel. Spike looks for the ring but finds out that Marcus took it. Spike begins smashing Marcus 's things and shouting about how he is going to work alone from now on until a hole that was in the ceiling lets sunlight in and sets the back of his hair on fire.
Despite his apparent death at the end of Buffy 's final season, Spike returns in the fifth and final season of the spin - off series Angel. Resurrected by the amulet in the Los Angeles branch of supernatural law firm Wolfram & Hart, he spends seven episodes as an incorporeal being akin to a ghost; he starts to understand being one when he battles "the Reaper '' Matthias Pavayne. During this time he realizes he is being slowly pulled into hell. Later he becomes corporeal, due to a mysterious gift that arrives at the office of Wolfram and Hart. Soon afterward he is kidnapped by the psychotic Slayer Dana, who believes he was responsible for kidnapping and torturing her as a child. After this, Spike takes on Angel to prove which one of them is the Champion spoken of in the Shanshu Prophecy. Spike defeats Angel, but the prophecy remains ambiguous (the Cup of Torment is revealed as a fake containing Mountain Dew). Manipulated by Lindsey McDonald into "helping the helpless '', Spike becomes a sort of rival to Angel; resembling the heroic Champion Angel was in earlier seasons before becoming disillusioned and corrupted by the bureaucracy of Wolfram & Hart. Cordelia comments on this strange turn of events after coming out of her coma in "You 're Welcome '', exclaiming to Angel, "Okay, Spike 's a hero, and you 're CEO of Hell, Incorporated. What freaking bizarro world did I wake up in? ''
When Fred is killed by Illyria, Spike mourns her death and decides to join Team Angel in her honor. Upon learning that Buffy is now dating The Immortal, Spike and Angel travel to Rome on the pretext of business but spend most of the time there trying to find Buffy. In the end, they fail to catch up with her. (The blonde glimpsed in Rome is later revealed to be a decoy Buffy, set up by Andrew Wells, who had researched the history between Angel, Spike and The Immortal, and thought the idea would be "hilarious ''.) During the final episodes of Angel, Spike is the first to vote for Angel 's plan to wound the Senior Partners by massacring the Circle of the Black Thorn. He then spends what might be his last hours on Earth returning to his mortal roots as a frustrated poet, triumphantly knocking them dead (figuratively) in an open mic poetry slam at a bar. After single - handedly (literally, he held the baby in one hand and a sword in the other) rescuing an infant and destroying the Fell Brethren, Spike joins Angel, Illyria, and a badly wounded Charles Gunn in the alley behind the Hyperion as the series draws to an end, preparing to incur the apocalyptic wrath of the Senior Partners, as a way of going out in a blaze of glory that will probably cost their lives.
Spike appears significantly in a number of canonical Expanded Universe literature concurrent with and subsequent to the television series, including both Buffy and Angel comic books. Many of these novels and comic books concern Spike 's backstory in the periods between the events shown in flashbacks in the television series. From 2007, both Dark Horse Comics and IDW Publishing began telling canonical continuations of Buffy and Angel, respectively. Marsters himself wrote for the miniseries Spike & Dru in 2000. The collection also featured the Christopher Golden stories "The Queen of Hearts '', "All 's Fair '', "Paint the Town Red '' and "Who Made Who? '', set in or around episodes of Buffy in Seasons Two and Four; "Who Made Who '' is set during the Buffy episode "Lovers Walk '' and depicts the disintegration of his relationship with Drusilla when they were together in Brazil. After Buffy finished in 2003, Spike appeared in a comic story from the canonical Tales of the Vampires series. Written by series writer Drew Goddard, "The Problem with Vampires '' establishes his adventures in Prague prior to his introduction Buffy episode "School Hard ''. Christopher Golden 's 2000 novel Spike and Dru: Pretty Maids All in a Row depicts Spike killing a Slayer named Sophie in the 1940s, contradicting the two Slayers whom Spike is later established to have killed; the second Slayer Spike killed was established as New Yorker Nikki Wood. The short story "Voodoo Lounge '' from the collection Tales of the Slayer is a sequel to this novel. Golden 's 2006 novel, Blackout, is truer to the series ' chronology by depicting Spike 's fatal encounter with Slayer Nikki Wood in 1977. Diana G. Gallagher 's 2005 novel Spark and Burn depicts the struggling early - Season Seven Spike remembering an account of his life, amounting to a chronological character history of Spike 's life from the 19th century to the time of the framing device.
Most Spike - centric stories, however, have been published subsequent to Angel 's finale episode. The 2005 IDW comic book Spike: Old Times, by Peter David, depicts Spike 's encounter with the vengeance demon Halfrek, explaining his recognition of her in Buffy episode "Older and Far Away '', and clarifying that she was in fact his beloved Cecily. Mutant Enemy approved the story, even though IDW did not have rights to a Buffy - only character like Halfrek, because of her importance to Spike 's backstory, on the condition that the story 's timing was deliberately ambiguous. Following Angel 's cancellation, Spike immediately appeared in the Angel miniseries Spike vs. Dracula by Peter David, a sequel to the Buffy episode "Buffy vs. Dracula '' and expanding on the characters ' century - old rivalry established in that episode. Scott Tipton 's 2006 comic Spike: Old Wounds is detective fiction set during Season Five, and also features allusions to Spike 's activities in the late 1940s. Tipton 's Spike: Lost and Found in 2006 is a Season Five story that acts as a sequel to the 1999 Buffy / Angel crossover episodes "The Harsh Light of Day '' and "In the Dark '', featuring the immortality - bestowing Gem of Amarra in 2005 Los Angeles. Lastly, writer Brian Lynch teamed up with Franco Urru to produce the story arc Spike: Asylum (2006 -- 07), depicting Spike 's stay in a supernatural medical facility. Although originally of the same ambiguous relationship to canon, the characters it introduced would reappear in the canonical Angel comic books to come later. Whedon appreciated Lynch 's writing of Spike in Asylum so much that he commissioned him to co-write the canonical continuation of the series, Angel: After the Fall, in 2007. Lynch and Urru also penned Spike: Shadow Puppets, featuring Spike and Lorne doing battle with the muppet demons of Angel episode "Smile Time '' in Japan. In the explicitly canonical Whedon stories of 2007, Spike and Angel first appear in a joint cameo in Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (Dark Horse) as part of Buffy 's sexual fantasies. In the Dark Horse Presents # 24 Season Eight tie - in, "Always Darkest '', Spike and Angel appear (again in a dream sequence) at Buffy 's side when she is fighting Caleb, but to her dismay the two start flirting with and kissing one another. Spike appears in Season Eight properly at the conclusion of the "Twilight '' story arc. Lynch 's Spike series features some collaboration with Whedon to connect the IDW and Dark Horse series ' continuities. IDW had planned to launch the series as a bona fide ongoing series, and as such it establishes a support cast for Spike suited to his position headlining the title. The transfer of Angel rights from IDW to Dark Horse necessitated that it end instead as an 8 - issue miniseries.
In IDW 's Angel: After the Fall, Spike does not appear until the second issue, written by Brian Lynch with art by Franco Urru (the creative team of Spike: Asylum and Spike: Shadow Puppets) with plotting and "executive production '' by Whedon himself. In Angel: After the Fall, Spike has adjusted to Los Angeles ' new status as a literal hell on Earth; he and Illyria both serve together as the Demon Lords of Beverly Hills, living in the Playboy Mansion after the death of Hugh Hefner and served by a harem of human and demon females known collectively as the "Spikettes. '' How Spike and Illyria got to be Lords of Los Angeles is detailed in the Spike: After the Fall (2008) miniseries, which also introduces a human friend for Spike in Jeremy Johns. In their new capacity, Spike and Illyria secretly rescue humans and benevolent demons, evacuating them into the care of Connor, Nina Ash, and Gwen Raiden. Spike rallies alongside Angel against the other demon Lords. When vampire Gunn causes Illyria to revert to her monster form, memories of Fred from Spike and Wesley are transplanted into her to restore her humanity. After the Senior Partners revert time to before the Fall, Spike begins a loosely affiliated relationship with the reformed Angel Investigations company, collaborating with Angel and his associates while maintaining independence. Spike continues to appear in the ongoing Angel spin - off series by IDW, under the pens of Kelley Armstrong, Bill Willingham and others. As part of its After the Fall franchise, IDW also published Bill Williams ' miniseries, Spike: The Devil You Know (2010), which follows Spike 's journey from Los Angeles to Las Vegas, where he acquires a spaceship and a crew of alien bugs after learning from Wolfram & Hart of a prophecy concerning the impending apocalypse (featured in Buffy) which has driven them to abandon this dimension.
Spike 's IDW series feeds into the "Twilight '' and "Last Gleaming '' arcs of Buffy Season Eight, concluding that series in 2011. In Season Eight, Spike and his crew come to Buffy 's aid to help prevent the end of the universe. Due to his own research into the prophecies concerning this apocalypse, Spike is able to lead Buffy and friends to the site of the final showdown with Twilight. When Buffy 's decision sees the world lose its magic, Spike is the only one to be emphatically supportive of the decision she had to make. In the follow - up series Season Nine (2011 -- 2013), Spike bases his ship in San Francisco to be near Buffy, but eventually leaves due to the complicatedness of their relationship, setting up the miniseries Spike: A Dark Place (2012), which follows Spike and his insectoid crew aboard his spaceship. Dark Horse also gives the Spike title a new stylised logo, distinct from the Angel - typeface logo used prior. The arc serves to divest Spike of the ship and crew, and sets up his 2013 crossover stint in Angel & Faith ahead of an eventual return to the main Buffy series. In issues of Angel & Faith, Spike helps Angel defeat a demon in possession of Giles ' soul, but leaves London where they are based without hesitation when he learns that Dawn is gravely unwell back in San Francisco. He returns to San Francisco to provide comfort to Dawn who is rapidly fading away without magic in the world to sustain her form. However, his memories of her start to quickly fade and recordings he makes of himself talking about her turn to static. Spike appears unconcerned he missed the chance to talk to Buffy who, along with Willow and Xander, has gone to find magic to save Dawn at the Deeper Well in England. When nobody can remember the name of Buffy 's sister, he phones her boyfriend Xander, and also warns him that the rogue Slayer Simone Doffler has been seeking a way to become the ultimate vampire. When the others return and Dawn is restored Buffy thanks him for staying with her sister, Spike says all that matters to him is that Dawn is safe again. Spike continues to appear in Season Ten, in which he and Buffy finally resume their relationship, despite their own doubts and outward interference from Angel and Harmony.
Spike is seen as something of a paradox amongst vampires in the series, and frequently challenges vampire conventions and limitations. As a soulless vampire, he exhibits quite a few human traits such as love, loyalty, and aesthetic appreciation. As an ensouled vampire, Spike 's need for violence remains unapologetically intact. Spike 's actions are motivated by love in all of its incarnations (love of objects, love of life, love of a specific person). Drusilla does, however, make it seem that all vampires are capable of exhibiting human emotions (such as love) when she says to Buffy, "We can love quite well. Though not always wisely. ''
Throughout the Buffy series, Spike 's character changes and develops the most out of them all. He begins as "evil '' and obsessed with Drusilla, then becomes a depressed drunk after Drusilla leaves him for a Chaos demon because he is not "demon enough '' for her anymore. He then heard about the "Gem of Amara, '' a gemstone that is rumored to give vampires the ability to walk in the sun; it was called a kind of holy grail for the vampires because it was only assumed to be real. Spike set his sights on finding it and ended up locating it in Sunnydale. It was taken away from him by an angry Buffy who subsequently gave it to Angel in Los Angeles. Spike was then captured by The Initiative and was going to be used as a government science experiment. His next character development and change was after he escaped the Initiative, realized he could not harm any human being because of the chip they put in his brain, and saw his only option as going to Buffy and the Scooby Gang for help. Their relationship then grew slowly from a hostile tolerance to a confusing romantic relationship to a mutual respect and understanding. Spike had setbacks along the way; there were times when he reverted to his former "evil '' self and tried to hurt Buffy or the Scoobies. But there were also times when he showed astounding amounts of human emotion and responsibility for a supposedly "evil, '' soulless creature.
Spike is also rare among vampires because he does not fear Slayers; he seeks them out and has killed two by the time he arrives in Sunnydale. He is proud of this accomplishment despite the fact that his victories had more to do with the Slayers ' state of mind than a special prowess on his part (or "luck, '' as he reveals in Buffy episode Fool for Love). Spike admits this to an inquiring Buffy in the season 5 episode Fool for Love, and the impact of his revelation has probably not been completely felt as of the completion of season 8.
Spike is intelligent, insightful and a skilled analyst. His sense of humor is dry and sarcastic, and he carries himself with swagger.
Spike has a habit of pithy remarks and glib insults, even toward the few he does not view as antagonists. Among his favorite targets are Angel, Xander, Giles, and (to a lesser extent) Buffy. Joss Whedon credits this antipathy as what convinced him in the episode "Lovers Walk '' to bring Spike back as a cast regular. As James Marsters put it, "I was supposed to be the one who stood at the side and said, ' Buffy, you 're stupid, and we 're all gon na die '. ''
Spike often nicknames people, both as insults and as terms of endearment; for example, he calls Dawn "Little Bit '' or "the Niblet ''. Spike also retains something of his literary intellect from his human side, routinely referencing poetry, songs, and literature; on occasion he even waxes poetic on the nature of love, life, and unlife as being driven by blood, reasoning that blood is more powerful than any supernatural force because it is what separates the living from the dead.
Spike often treats his vulnerability to the sun as simply an annoying inconvenience. He drives in broad daylight in vehicles with blacked - out windows, and on several occasions travels outside during the day using a blanket for cover. Indeed, he has a remarkably stronger resistance to sunlight than most all other vampires seen in the series except Angel; their elevated ability to endure the sun should not be confused with total immunity, however.
Spike has a punk look which strongly resembles English rock musician Billy Idol; humorously, Buffy claims that Billy Idol in fact stole his look from Spike. His hair is peroxide blond for the duration of his time on Buffy and Angel, although in flashbacks it can be seen in its natural medium brown state as well as dyed black. His nails are often painted black.
A Y - shaped scar on Marsters 's left eyebrow, received during a mugging, was worked into the show; make - up artist Todd McIntosh decided to shave out his eyebrow in order to make it more prominent. He also included the scar on Spike 's "vamp face '' prosthesis, albeit slightly altered as though the skin has stretched. In Spike 's first appearances the wound still looks fresh, but it gradually fades until, in Angel season 5, it is barely visible. A flashback in "Fool for Love '' reveals that Spike received the scar from the sword of the first Slayer he killed in 1900.
Spike usually wears long black leather coats, including one that he took from a Nazi officer and another that he took as a trophy from Nikki Wood, the second Slayer he killed. He wore the Slayer 's black duster for over twenty - five years. When the coat was destroyed by a bomb from the Immortal in Italy, Spike heartbrokenly declared it to be irreplaceable; but the Italian branch of Wolfram & Hart quickly supplied him with a whole wardrobe of new ones, nearly identical, which he happily began wearing. His trademark look includes the leather duster, a black T - shirt or v - neck shirt and black denim pants, usually with heavy boots or Doc Martens. He also wore a red long - sleeved shirt fairly often, particularly during the earlier seasons of Buffy, and a bright blue shirt early in Season 6 & 7. He explained that the shirt was supposed to show Buffy that he had changed and give him confidence (because the First was messing with his head and he did not want Buffy to think he was still evil or crazy). But later, he returned to his trademark look, commenting that he was back.
In addition to possessing the common powers and weaknesses of vampires, Spike 's age and experience makes him a highly effective, skilled, and versatile fighter in both armed and unarmed combat. For example, he is able to briefly overcome Illyria during a testing of her abilities prior to her powers being greatly reduced by Wesley. Illyria criticizes his (and others ') ability to adapt, calling it "compromise. '' He is able to withstand excessive amounts of pain for extended periods of time, particularly when properly motivated, as seen in the episodes "Intervention '' and "Showtime ''. While not as skilled or as sadistic as Angelus, Spike also proves himself to be effective at torture, noting he had gained "screams, various fluids, and a name '' from Doctor Sparrow. Much like Angel, he is highly proficient in various forms of martial arts, and his typical fighting style blends karate, kung fu, and others.
Spike often displays insight and skills in perception and observation, especially with regard to relationships and personalities, so long as the relationship in question does not concern him personally. This ability allows him to wield powerful psychological weapons as easily and effectively as physical ones. For example, when he wants to create disharmony among the Scoobies, Spike divides - and - conquers with "The Yoko Factor '', exploiting tensions that exist under the surface to alienate Buffy and her friends against each other. He explains to Buffy he was able to defeat two Slayers because he sensed and exploited their secret desires to be free of their burden. Spike 's skills of analysis allowed him to realize Willow was barely holding it together after Oz 's departure even though Giles and Buffy thought she was doing better, to be the first to see through Tara 's abusive and controlling family, forced Buffy and Angel to admit that they were more than "just friends '' and identify when and why some relationships, such as between Buffy and Riley, are not meant to last, masterfully feeding Riley 's insecurities in an effort to sabotage his relationship with Buffy, so Spike can pursue her. His analytical skills also help him in battle from time to time; for example, in "Time Bomb '', he identifies Illyria 's fighting style as a Tae Kwon Do / Brazilian Capoeira / Ninjitsu hybrid. While many vampires cling to the mannerisms and speech patterns prevalent at the time they were sired, Spike has been shown to easily adjust to changing fashions and styles over the decades and displays an impressive knowledge of both British and American popular culture, demonstrating another aspect of his potential for analysis and adaptability.
Although capable of developing sound battle strategies, Spike (particularly in the days before receiving his chip and being re-ensouled) often loses patience with anything more complicated than outright attack, as mentioned in the episode "In the Dark ''.
He is also impatient to fight the Slayer upon his initial arrival in Sunnydale; the attack is supposed to coincide with the Night of St. Vigeous (when a vampire 's natural abilities are enhanced), but he "could n't wait '' to go after the Slayer and recklessly leads a mass assault against Buffy at Sunnydale High, which fails and results in the deaths of many Aurelian vampires. However, Spike did exercise patience throughout the later half of Buffy Season Two, when he used a wheelchair for several months after a brutal battle with the Scoobies in the episode What 's My Line left him paraplegic. Feigning weakness, he endured torturous weeks watching Angelus sexually pursue Dru as he waited for the right time to strike against his enemy.
Spike 's "vampire constitution '' provides him with an extremely high tolerance for alcohol (which he regularly consumes in copious quantities). His experience in crime gives him skill at picking locks, hotwiring cars and picking pockets. He is also capable of easily operating various vehicles, such as various cars, a Yamaha XJR400 motorcycle ("Bargaining ''), and a Winnebago ("Spiral ''). He has also been shown using video game systems and a computer, treating injuries, and playing poker and pool. Spike is also seen speaking / understanding Latin, Luganda (a language of Uganda, where he meets the demon shaman), and the language of Fyarl demons, two of whom he once employed as muscle during his pre-Sunnydale days. He is also shown to be capable of recognizing literature; in the last episode of season five, he paraphrases a line from the St. Crispin 's Day Speech while in conversation with Giles after Buffy tells them her plan of attack on Glory.
When Spike was transformed into a ghost - like intangible state following the destruction of Sunnydale and the Hellmouth and his subsequent materialization at Wolfram & Hart, he was capable of walking through solid objects. He was initially unable to make contact with objects around him until he learned how to focus his abilities through desire, allowing him to make brief contact with people and things if he concentrated enough. This ability was relatively useless in a fight; he was unable to pick up a wooden bar to hit the demon Tezcatcatl in "The Cautionary Tale of Numero Cinco '', and required a few moments to properly punch a cyborg strangling Gunn in "Lineage ''. Naturally, he lost these capabilities when he was recorporealized by Lindsey.
In 2004, Joss Whedon set plans for a Spike movie. The film, if ever greenlit, would star James Marsters, Alyson Hannigan and Amy Acker. At a 2006 convention, Acker stated the film was not going ahead due to money issues.
Spike was placed first in SFX magazine 's "Top 50 Vampires '' on television and movies list. The same list featured rival Angel in the third place. Spike was described as an "antihero in the true sense of the word, Spike is morally ambiguous and ready to fight pretty much anyone, for fun. But underneath it all, he loves deeply and earnestly in a way that remains achingly human. Although, ironically, his personality remains pretty much the same, whether he has a soul or not -- in stark (and more entertaining) contrast to Angel. '' Other Buffyverse vampires to appear on the list included Drusilla (at 10th place), Darla (at 25th place), Vampire Willow (at 32nd place), Harmony Kendall (at 31st place), and the Master (at 39th place).
Spike is also featured in Forbes magazine 's "Hollywood 's Most Powerful Vampires '' list along with Angel.
In 1999, Spike won a TV Guide Award for "Scariest Villain ''.
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who did the guitar solo in beat it | Beat It - wikipedia
"Beat It '' is a song written and performed by American singer Michael Jackson from his sixth solo album, Thriller (1982). The song was produced by Quincy Jones together with Jackson. Following the successful chart performances of the Thriller singles "The Girl Is Mine '' and "Billie Jean '', "Beat It '' was released on February 14, 1983 as the album 's third single. The song is also notable for its famous video, which featured Jackson bringing two gangs together through the power of music and dance, and for Eddie Van Halen 's guitar solo.
"Beat It '' received the 1984 Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance, as well as two American Music Awards. It was inducted into the Music Video Producers Hall of Fame. The single, along with its music video, helped propel Thriller into becoming the best - selling album of all time. The single was certified platinum in the United States in 1989. Rolling Stone placed "Beat It '' on the 344th spot of its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The song was also ranked number 81 on Rolling Stone 's "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time ''.
In the decades since its release, "Beat It '' has been covered, parodied, and sampled by numerous artists including Fall Out Boy, Fergie, and "Weird Al '' Yankovic. The song was also featured in the National Highway Safety Commission 's anti-drunk driving campaign.
"Beat It '' was composed by Michael Jackson for his Thriller album. Producer Quincy Jones had wanted to include a rock and roll song in the vein of the Knack 's "My Sharona '', though Jackson reportedly had never previously shown an interest in the genre. Jackson later said of "Beat It '', "I wanted to write a song, the type of song that I would buy if I were to buy a rock song... That is how I approached it and I wanted the children to really enjoy it -- the school children as well as the college students. ''
The song is played in the key of E ♭ minor at a moderately fast tempo of 138 -- 139 beats per minute. In the song, Jackson 's vocal range is B ♭ 3 to D ♭ 5.
Upon hearing the first recorded vocals, Jones stated that it was exactly what he was looking for. The song begins with seven distinct synthesizer notes played on the Synclavier digital synthesizer, with Tom Bahler credited for the Synclavier performance on the song. The intro is taken note for note from a demo LP released the year before, called "The Incredible Sounds of Synclavier II '' first published in 1981 by Denny Jaeger Creative Services, Inc and sold by New England Digital, makers of the Synclavier.
Drums on the song were played by Toto co-founder Jeff Porcaro.
Jermaine Jackson has suggested the inspiration of "Beat It '' and its video came from the Jackson family experiencing gang activity in Gary, Indiana. "From our front window, we witnessed, about three bad rumbles between rival gangs. '' The lyrics of "Beat It '' have been described as a "sad commentary on human nature ''. The line "do n't be a macho man '' is said to express Jackson 's dislike of violence, whilst also referring to the childhood abuse he faced at the hands of his father Joseph.
Eddie Van Halen, lead guitarist of hard rock band Van Halen, was asked to add a guitar solo. When initially contacted by Jones, Van Halen thought he was receiving a prank call. Having established that the call was genuine, Van Halen borrowed an amplifier from guitarist Allan Holdsworth and recorded his guitar solo free of any charge. "I did it as a favor '', the musician later said. "I was a complete fool, according to the rest of the band, our manager and everyone else. I was not used. I knew what I was doing -- I do n't do something unless I want to do it. '' Van Halen recorded his contribution following Jones and Jackson arriving at the guitarist 's house with a "skeleton version '' of the song. Fellow guitarist Steve Lukather recalled, "Initially, we rocked it out as Eddie had played a good solo -- but Quincy thought it was too tough. So I had to reduce the distorted guitar sound and that is what was released. ''
Right before Van Halen 's guitar solo begins, a noise is heard that sounds like somebody knocking at a door. It is reported that the knock was a person walking into Eddie 's recording studio. Another story has claimed that the sound was simply the musician knocking on his own guitar. The sound, however, is that of Jackson knocking on a drum case, as he is credited in the album 's liner notes.
The engineers were shocked during the recording of Van Halen 's solo to discover that the sound of his guitar had caused the monitor speaker in the control room to catch fire, causing one to exclaim, "This must be really good! ''
-- Greg Burk, South Coast Today.
"Beat It '' was released on February 14, 1983, following the successful chart performances of "The Girl Is Mine '' and "Billie Jean ''. Frank DiLeo, the vice president of Epic Records, convinced Jackson to release "Beat It '' while "Billie Jean '' was heading towards No. 1. Dileo, who would later become the singer 's manager, predicted that both singles would remain in the Top 10 at the same time. "Billie Jean '' remained atop the Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks, before being toppled by "Come On Eileen '', which stayed at No. 1 for a single week, before Jackson reclaimed the position with "Beat It ''.
"Billie Jean '' and "Beat It '' occupied Top 5 positions at the same time, a feat matched by very few artists. The single remained at the top of the Hot 100 for a total of three weeks. The song also charted at No. 1 on the US R&B singles chart and No. 14 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart in the US. Billboard ranked it at the No. 5 song for 1983. "Beat It '' also claimed the top spot in Spain and The Netherlands, reached No. 3 in the UK and the Top 20 in Austria, Norway, Italy, Sweden and Switzerland.
In a Rolling Stone review, Christopher Connelly describes "Beat It '' as the best song on Thriller, adding that it "ai n't no disco AOR track ''. He notes of the "nifty dance song '', "Jackson 's voice soars all over the melody, Eddie Van Halen checks in with a blistering guitar solo, you could build a convention center on the backbeat ''. AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that the song is both "tough '' and "scared ''. Robert Christgau claimed that the song has Eddie Van Halen "wielding his might in the service of antimacho ''. Slant Magazine observed that the song was an "uncharacteristic dalliance with the rock idiom ''. The track also won praise from Jackson biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli, who stated that the song was "rambunctious ''.
"Beat It '' has been recognized with several awards. At the 1984 Grammy Awards, the song earned Jackson two of a record - eight awards: Record of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. The track won the Billboard Music Award for favorite dance / disco 12 '' LP in 1983. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), a few months after its release, for shipments of at least one million units. In 1989, the standard format single was re-certified platinum by the RIAA, based on the revised sales level of one million units for platinum singles. The total number of digital sales in the US, as of September 2010, stands at 1,649,000.
The music video for "Beat It '' helped establish Jackson as an international pop icon. The video was Jackson 's first treatment of black youth and the streets. Both "Beat It '' and "Thriller '' are notable for their "mass choreography '' of synchronized dancers, a Jackson trademark.
The video, which cost Jackson $150,000 to create after CBS refused to finance it, was filmed on Los Angeles ' Skid Row -- mainly on locations on East 5th Street -- around March 9, 1983. To add authenticity to the production but also to foster peace between them, Jackson had the idea to cast members of rival Los Angeles street gangs Crips and Bloods. In addition to around 80 genuine gang members, the video, which is noted for opening up many job opportunities for dancers in the US, also featured 18 professional dancers and four breakdancers. Besides Jackson, Michael Peters, and Vincent Paterson, the cast included Michael DeLorenzo, Stoney Jackson, Tracii Guns, Tony Fields, Peter Tramm, Rick Stone, and Cheryl Song.
The video was written and directed by Bob Giraldi, produced by Antony Payne and Mary M. Ensign through production company GASP. The second video released for the Thriller album, it was choreographed by Michael Peters who also performed, alongside Vincent Paterson, as one of the two lead dancers. Despite some sources claiming otherwise, Jackson was involved in creating some parts of the choreography. Jackson asked Giraldi, at the time already an established commercial director but who had never directed a music video, to come up with a concept for the "Beat It '' video because he really liked a commercial Giraldi had directed for WLS - TV in Chicago about a married couple of two elderly blind people who instead of running from a run - down neighborhood all the other white people had fled from, chose to stay and throw a block party for all the young children in the area. Contrary to popular belief, the concept of the video was not based on the Broadway musical West Side Story; in reality Giraldi drew inspiration from his growing up in Paterson, New Jersey.
The video had its world premiere on MTV during prime time on March 31, 1983 though it should be noted that neither Beat It nor Billie Jean was, as is often claimed, the first music video by an African - American artist to be played on MTV. Soon after its premiere the video was also running on other video programs including BET 's Video Soul, SuperStation WTBS 's Night Tracks, and NBC 's Friday Night Videos. In fact, Beat It was the first video shown on the latter 's first ever telecast on July 29, 1983.
The video opens with the news of a fight circulating at a diner. This scene repeats itself at a pool hall, where gang members arrive via foot, forklift, and out of sewers, while the video 's titular song begins to play. The camera cuts to a scene of Jackson lying on a bed, revealing he 's the one singing contemplating the senseless violence. The singer notices rival gangs and leaves. Michael Jackson dons a red leather J. Parks brand jacket, and dances his way towards the fight through the diner and pool hall. A knife fight is taking place between the two gang leaders in a warehouse. They dance battle for an interlude of music until MJ arrives; the singer breaks up the fight and launches into a dance routine. The video ends with the gang members joining him in the dance, agreeing that violence is not the solution to their problems.
The video received recognition through numerous awards. The American Music Awards named the short film their Favorite Pop / Rock Video and their Favorite Soul Video. The Black Gold Awards honored Jackson with the Best Video Performance award. The Billboard Video Awards recognised the video with 7 awards; Best Overall Video Clip, Best Performance by a Male Artist, Best Use of Video to Enhance a Song, Best Use of Video to Enhance an Artist 's Image, Best Choreography, Best Overall Video and Best Dance / Disco 12 ". The short film was ranked by Rolling Stone as the No. 1 video, in both their critic 's and reader 's poll. The video was later inducted into the Music Video Producer 's Hall of Fame.
The music video of the song appears on the video albums: Video Greatest Hits -- HIStory, HIStory on Film, Volume II, Number Ones, on the bonus DVD of Thriller 25 and Michael Jackson 's Vision.
On July 14, 1984, Jackson performed "Beat It '' live with his brothers during The Jacksons ' Victory Tour. The brothers were joined on stage by Eddie Van Halen, who played the guitar in his solo spot. The song became a signature song of Jackson; the singer performed it on all of his world tours: Bad, Dangerous and HIStory. The October 1, 1992 Dangerous Tour performance of "Beat It '' was included on the DVD of the singer 's Michael Jackson: The Ultimate Collection box set. The DVD was later repackaged as Live in Bucharest: The Dangerous Tour. Jackson also performed the song on the Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Special, a concert celebrating the musician 's thirtieth year as a solo performer. The performance featured Slash as the song 's guest guitarist.
A highlight of Jackson 's solo concert tour performances of the song is that would he would begin the song on a cherry picker (which he would also later use with "Earth Song '' during the HIStory World Tour) after performing Thriller. Another live version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16, 1988. The song would have also been performed as part of the This Is It concerts which were cancelled due to Jackson 's death.
Michael Jackson 's "Beat It '' has been cited as one of the most successful, recognized, awarded and celebrated songs in the history of pop music; both the song and video had a large impact on pop culture. The song is said to be a "pioneer '' in black rock music, and is considered one of the cornerstones of the Thriller album. Eddie Van Halen has been praised for adding "the greatest guitar solo '', aiding "Beat It '' into becoming one of the biggest selling singles of all time.
Shortly after its release, "Beat It '' was included in the National Highway Safety Commission 's anti-drunk driving campaign, "Drinking and Driving Can Kill a Friendship ''. The song was also included on the accompanying album. Jackson collected an award from President Ronald Reagan at the White House, in recognition for his support of the campaign. Reagan stated that Jackson was "proof of what a person can accomplish through a lifestyle free of alcohol or drug abuse. People young and old respect that. And if Americans follow his example, then we can face up to the problem of drinking and driving, and we can, in Michael 's words, ' Beat It '. ''
Frequently listed in greatest song polling lists, "Beat It '' was ranked as the world 's fourth favorite song in a 2005 poll conducted by Sony Ericsson. Over 700,000 people in 60 different countries cast their votes. Voters from the UK placed "Billie Jean '' at No. 1, ahead of "Thriller '', with a further five of the top ten being solo recordings by Jackson. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine placed "Beat It '' in the 337th spot on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song was featured in the films Back to the Future Part II, Zoolander and Undercover Brother. When re-released, as part of the Visionary campaign in 2006, "Beat It '' charted at No. 15 in the UK. The song has been used in TV commercials for companies like Budweiser, eBay, Burger King, Delta Air Lines, Game Boy, Coldwell Banker and the NFL. On the City Guys episode of season 3 's "Face the Music '', Jamal says to Slick Billy West, played by Sherman Hemsley, "Well Gone Michael Jackson and Beat It '' which was in the final scene. The song also appeared in the 2008 music game, Guitar Hero World Tour, as the last song in the vocal career. Notably, in this game, the vocalist will perform the same dance routine performed by Jackson on the video and live performances when singing the final verse. The song is featured on the dancing game Michael Jackson: The Experience.
A remix of "2 Bad '', is featured on Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix containing a sample of "Beat It '' as well as a rap by John Forté and guitar solo by Wyclef Jean.
Adapted from the Thriller liner notes.
Performers
Production
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
For Thriller 25, The Black Eyed Peas singer will.i.am remixed "Beat It ''. The song, titled "Beat It 2008 '', featured additional vocals by fellow Black Eyed Peas member Fergie. Upon its release in 2008, the song reached No. 26 in Switzerland, the Top 50 in Sweden and No. 65 in Austria. This was the second remixed version of "Beat It '' to get an official release, following Moby 's Sub Mix which was released on the "Jam '' and "Who Is It '' singles in 1992, as well as the "They Do n't Care About Us '' single in 1996 (and re-released as part of the Visionary campaign.)
"Beat It 2008 '' received generally unfavorable reviews from music critics. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone claimed that the song was a "contender for the year 's most pointless musical moment ''. AllMusic criticized Fergie for "parroting the lyrics of "Beat It '' back to a recorded Jackson ". Blender 's Kelefa Sanneh also noted that the Black Eyed Peas singer traded lines with Jackson. "Why? '', she queried. Todd Gilchrist was thankful that the remix retained Eddie Van Halen 's "incendiary guitar solo '', but added that the song "holds the dubious honor of making Jackson seem masculine for once, and only in the context of Fergie 's tough - by - way - of - Kids Incorporated interpretation of the tune ''. Tom Ewing of Pitchfork observed that Fergie 's "nervous reverence is a waste of time ''.
American rock band Fall Out Boy covered "Beat It ''. The studio version was digitally released on March 25, 2008 by Island Records as the only single from the band 's first live album, Live in Phoenix (2008). The song features a guitar solo by John Mayer, which was performed by Eddie Van Halen in the original song. In the United States, the song peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached No. 21 on the defunct - Billboard Pop 100 chart, also charting internationally. The band has since regularly incorporated it in their set list at their shows.
In early 2008 it was announced that Fall Out Boy were to cover "Beat It '' for their Live in Phoenix album. The band had previously performed the song at venues such as Coors Amphitheatre and festivals such as the Carling Weekend in Leeds. Bassist Pete Wentz, who has claimed to have an obsession with Jackson, stated that prior to recording the song, he would only watch Moonwalker. It was also announced that John Mayer was to add the guitar solo previously played by Eddie Van Halen.
The band 's lead singer / guitarist Patrick Stump stated that the band had not planned to cover the song. "Basically, I just started playing the riff in sound - check one day, and then we all started playing it, and then we started playing it live, and then we figured we 'd record it and put it out with our live DVD. '' Bassist Pete Wentz added that the band had not originally intended for the song to be released as a single either. "' Beat It ' seemed like a song that would be cool and that we could do our own take on '', he said. Having spent time deciding on a guitarist for the song, Wentz eventually called John Mayer to add the guitar solo. "We were trying to think about who is a contemporary guitar guy who 's going to go down as a legend '', Wentz later noted.
Upon its digital release as a single in April 2008, Fall Out Boy 's cover of "Beat It '' became a mainstay on iTunes ' Top 10 chart. The song peaked at No. 8 in Canada, becoming another top 10 hit in the region. It also charted at No. 13 in Australia, No. 14 in New Zealand, No. 75 in Austria and No. 98 in the Netherlands.
The music video for Fall Out Boy 's "Beat It '' was directed by Shane Drake and was made in homage to Jackson. "I think when you 're doing a Michael Jackson cover, there 's this expectation that you 're going to do one of his videos verbatim, '' Stump said. "What we decided to do was kind of inspired by Michael Jackson and the mythology of him. There are specific images that are reference points for us, but at any given point, it 's not any of his videos. It 's kind of all of his videos, all at once, but on a Fall Out Boy budget, so it 's not quite as fancy. '' The costumes for the video were similar to the originals. "My costume is this take on one of the guys from Michael Jackson 's original ' Beat It ' video, like, the guy who plays the rival dancer, '' Wentz said during the filming of the video. The music video featured numerous cameos, including a karate class / dance session being taught by Tony Hale, Donald Faison and Joel David Moore dressed up like Michael Jackson. The short film later received a MTV Video Music Award nomination for Best Rock Video.
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fit athletic leader was in charge of yatch | Mirmo! - Wikipedia
Mirmo de Pon! (Japanese: ミルモ で ポン!, Hepburn: Mirumo de Pon!) is a manga series written by Hiromu Shinozuka and serialized in Ciao magazine from July 2001 through December 2005. It was also published in twelve collected volumes by Shogakukan. The manga series was awarded in the 2003 Kodansha Manga Award and in the 2004 Shogakukan Manga Award for children 's manga. The series was licensed for an English language release in North America by Viz Media. Four months later, the show aired in Japan for the first time.
An anime series named Wagamama Fairy: Mirumo de Pon! (わがまま ☆ フェアリー ミルモ で ポン!, Selfish Fairy: Mirmo de Pon!) by Studio Hibari was adapted from the manga. It premiered in Japan on TV Tokyo on April 6, 2002, and ran for 172 episodes until September 27, 2005. The anime series is also licensed by Viz Media for an English language release in North America, and by ShoPro Entertainment, as Mirmo!.
The main protagonist is a love fairy named Mirumo (Mirmo in the English version). Kaede Minami (Katie Minami in the English version) is a cheerful and energetic eighth - grader who is shy around her male classmates, which makes it difficult for her to date. One day, on her way home from school, she walks into a mysterious shop and buys a blue cocoa mug. When she arrives at home, she peeks into the bottom of the mug and discovers an engraved note which says, "If you read this message aloud while pouring hot cocoa into the mug, a love fairy ('' muglox ") will appear and grant your every wish. '' The skeptical but curious Kaede follows the directions and announces her wish to date Setsu Yuuki (Dylan Yuki in the English version), her crush. Mirumo arrives. At first she is afraid of him but later understands that he is a muglox. Kaede soon finds out that Mirumo prefers eating chocolate and creating mischief over helping Kaede.
Mirumo is a prince of the muglox world. Horrified at the prospect of having to marry Rirumu (Rima in the English version), his princess bride - to - be, Mirumo escaped the muglox world. Hot on his heels, however, are Riruma, Yashichi (Yacht in the English version) the bounty hunter, Murumo (Mirumo 's brother), and many other muglox as well. The villains of the first season are the Warumo gang, a gang of criminals who plan to overthrow the Marumo kingdom. Though they are villains, they actually are n't evil; they just pull childish pranks and faint after hearing an evil plan. At the end of the season, Akumi gives Warumo Gang a time sphere, which they play around with and accidentally smash, causing the muglox world to freeze. Mirumo, Murumo, Rirumu, Yashichi and their partners save the muglox world by having the fairies dance in front of a magical door (which allows it to open) and having the partners find the magic time bird which flew into the door to escape being captured by them.
In this season a new transfer student named Saori comes to Kaede 's school. The villain Darkman, created by the darkness in human hearts, tries to resurrect himself. He influences the minds of Akumi and the Warumo gang. Session magic is introduced for two - person magic, with each person combo producing different magic. Darkman controls Saori and uses her flute to control peoples ' emotions. He is then defeated by Golden Mirumo, the outcome of three person session magic. With the help of Nezumi / Rato, he is resurrected until the muglox 's four - person session magic gives Saori the power to defeat Darkman. The two worlds are separated until reunited by the muglox and their partners ' friendship. Saori goes to Germany to study music with Akumi as her new partner.
In this season a robot octopus, Tako, convinces the gang to look for the legendary seven crystals which are drawn out by different emotions. After all are collected, the gang faces seven trials. Mirumo must pass these tests for the crystals to unite and form a pendant. Tako steals it to save his girlfriend and his land. In the end, they succeed and Tako becomes king of crystal land.
Two new characters, Koichi and Haruka, are introduced. Koichi has a crush on Kaede, and Haruka is Setsu 's childhood friend who wants to be a cartoonist. Her partner Panta is a ghost muglox. Thanks to Azumi, Kaede and Koichi kiss. Also, Koichi confessed to Kaede after Kaede had a whole day of helping him confess to his crush that she did n't know was her. Setsu starts to fall in love with Kaede, and Koichi realizes that he is not right for Kaede and gives up on her. After Haruka tells Setsu she loves him, he chooses her over Kaede. Haruka realizes Setsu 's true love is Kaede and gives up on him. Setsu tells Kaede he loves her and they become a couple; Kaede 's wish is fulfilled. Mirumo has to leave in one hour or something terrible will happen, which the Warumo gang make so. Mirumo loses all memories of Kaede and turns into a rabbit. Kaede brings his memories back and he turns back to normal.
The main characters of Mirmo! are mugloxes, or love fairies, and four human teenagers. The muglox Mirmo has been assigned the task of granting Katie Minami 's wishes, though he spends most of his time eating chocolate and running away from Rima, a female muglox assigned to Dylan Yuki, the boy Katie is infatuated with. Yacht, Mirmo 's muglox archrival, is assigned to Azumi Hidaka, a girl who also loves Dylan and is jealous of Katie. Mirmo 's brother, Murumo, is assigned to Kyle Matsutake, a boy who falls in love with Katie. The muglox fairies use musical instruments as their magical tools. Later on in the show two new characters, Koichi Sumita and Haruka Morishita, enter the race of love for Dylan and Katie 's hearts. They get their very own muglox partners as well -- Papii and Panta.
Mirmo! was published by Shogakukan in Ciao magazine from 2001 to 2006 and collected in 12 tankōbon volumes.
The series was adapted as a 172 - episode anime series broadcast in Japan on TXN from April 2002 through September 2005.
Thirteen CD soundtracks and character song compilations have been released for the Mirmo series. One was released by Toshiba - EMI, four by Tri-M, and the rest by Konami. In addition, Konami released two drama CDs for Mirumo.
Seven Mirumo video games have been created and released by Konami on a variety of platforms.
The manga received the 2003 Kodansha Manga Award and the 2004 Shogakukan Manga Award for children 's manga. The anime also received TV Tokyo 's award for top - rated new program in 2003.
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and god said let there be light in hebrew | Let there be light - wikipedia
"Let there be light '' is an English translation of the Hebrew יְהִי אוֹר (yehi ' or) found in Genesis 1: 3 of the Torah, the first part of the Hebrew Bible. In Old Testament translations of the phrase, translations include the Greek phrase γενηθήτω φῶς (genēthētō phōs) and the Latin phrase fiat lux.
The phrase comes from the third verse of the Book of Genesis. In the King James Bible, it reads, in context:
In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, and it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness.
In the Torah, the phrase in Genesis 1: 3 which is typically translated in English as "let there be light '' is in Hebrew וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים, יְהִי אוֹר; וַיְהִי אוֹר (vayo'mer ' Elohim, yehi ' or vayehi ' or).
In the Koine Greek Septuagint the phrase is translated "καὶ εἶπεν ὁ Θεός γενηθήτω φῶς καὶ ἐγένετο φῶς '' -- kai eipen ho Theos genēthētō phōs kai egeneto phōs. The original Latinization of the Greek translation used in the Vetus Latina was lux sit ("light -- let it exist '' or "let light exist ''), which has been used occasionally, although there is debate as to its accuracy.
In the Latin Vulgate Bible, the Hebrew phrase יְהִי אוֹר is translated in Latin as fiat lux. In context, the translation is "dixitque Deus fiat lux et facta est lux '' ("And said God let there be light, and there was light ''). Literally, fiat lux would be translated as "let light be made '' (fiat is from fieri, the passive form of the verb facere, "to make '' or "to do ''). The Douay -- Rheims Bible translates the phrase, from the Vulgate, as "Be light made. And light was made. ''
Fiat lux or Sit lux appears in the motto and on the seals of a number of educational institutions, including:
Fiat Lux also appears on the outside of Kerns Religious Life Center at Capital University in Columbus, Ohio. The second half of the same verse, Et facta est lux appears on the seal of Morehouse College.
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who have the seattle seahawks lost to this year | Seattle Seahawks - wikipedia
National Football League (1976 -- present)
College Navy, Action Green, Wolf Grey
League championships (1)
Conference championships (3)
Division championships (10)
The Seattle Seahawks are a professional American football franchise based in Seattle, Washington. The Seahawks compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) West division. The Seahawks joined the NFL in 1976 as an expansion team. The Seahawks are owned by Paul Allen and are currently coached by Pete Carroll. Since 2002, the Seahawks have played their home games at CenturyLink Field (formerly Qwest Field), located south of downtown Seattle. The Seahawks previously played home games in the Kingdome (1976 -- 1999) and Husky Stadium (1994, 2000 -- 2001).
The Seahawks are the only NFL franchise based in the Pacific Northwest region of North America, and thus attract support from a wide geographical area, including some parts of Oregon, Montana, Idaho, and Alaska, as well as Canadian fans in British Columbia and Alberta.
Seahawks fans have been referred to collectively as the "12th Man '', "12th Fan '', or "12s ''. The Seahawks ' fans have twice set the Guinness World Record for the loudest crowd noise at a sporting event, first on September 15, 2013, registering 136.6 dB during a game against the San Francisco 49ers and again on December 2, 2013, during a Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints, with a then record - setting 137.6 dB.
Over the years several notable players have been Seahawks, including Shaun Alexander, Brian Blades, Brian Bosworth, Dave Brown, Kenny Easley, Joey Galloway, Jacob Green, Matt Hasselbeck, Steve Hutchinson, Walter Jones, Cortez Kennedy, Dave Krieg, Steve Largent, Marshawn Lynch, Joe Nash, Marcus Trufant, Curt Warner, and Jim Zorn as well as, for a brief time, Hall of Famers Carl Eller, Franco Harris, Warren Moon, John Randle, and Jerry Rice. Largent (1995), Kennedy (2012), Jones (2014), and Easley (2017) have been voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame primarily or wholly for their accomplishments as Seahawks. Brown, Easley, Green, Jones, Kennedy, Krieg, Largent, Warner, and Zorn have been inducted into the Seahawks Ring of Honor along with Pete Gross (radio announcer) and Chuck Knox (head coach).
The Seahawks have won 10 division titles and three conference championships. They are the only team to have played in both the AFC and NFC Championship Games. They have appeared in three Super Bowls: losing 21 - 10 to the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XL, defeating the Denver Broncos 43 -- 8 for their first championship in Super Bowl XLVIII, and losing 28 - 24 to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX. They are also the first, and to date only, post-merger expansion team in NFL history to play in consecutive Super Bowl games.
As per one of the agreed parts of the 1970 AFL -- NFL merger, the NFL began planning to expand from 26 to 28 teams. In June 1972, Seattle Professional Football Inc., a group of Seattle business and community leaders, announced its intention to acquire an NFL franchise for the city of Seattle. In June 1974, the NFL gave the city an expansion franchise. That December, NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle announced the official signing of the franchise agreement by Lloyd W. Nordstrom, representing the Nordstrom family as majority partners for the consortium.
In March 1975, John Thompson, former Executive Director of the NFL Management Council and a former Washington Huskies executive, was hired as the general manager of the new team. The name Seattle Seahawks ("Seahawk '' is another name for Osprey) was selected on June 17, 1975 after a public naming contest which drew more than 20,000 entries and over 1,700 different names.
Thompson recruited and hired Jack Patera, a Minnesota Vikings assistant coach, to be the first head coach of the Seahawks; the hiring was announced on January 3, 1976. The expansion draft was held March 30 -- 31, 1976, with Seattle and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers alternating picks for rounds selecting unprotected players from the other 26 teams in the league. The Seahawks were awarded the 2nd overall pick in the 1976 draft, a pick they used on defensive tackle Steve Niehaus. The team took the field for the first time on August 1, 1976 in a pre-season game against the San Francisco 49ers in the then newly constructed Kingdome.
The Seahawks are, to date, the only NFL team to switch conferences twice in the post-merger era. The franchise began play in 1976 in the aforementioned NFC West but switched conferences with the Buccaneers after one season and joined the AFC West. This realignment was dictated by the league as part of the 1976 expansion plan, so that both expansion teams could play each other twice and every other NFL franchise once (the ones in their conference at the time) during their first two seasons. The Seahawks won both matchups against the Buccaneers in their first two seasons, the former of which was the Seahawks ' first regular season victory.
In 1983, the Seahawks hired Chuck Knox as head coach. Finishing with a 9 -- 7 record, the Seahawks made their first post-season appearance, defeating the Denver Broncos in the Wild Card Round, and then the Miami Dolphins, before losing in the AFC Championship to the Los Angeles Raiders. The following season, the Seahawks had their best season before 2005, finishing 12 -- 4. Knox won the NFL Coach of the Year Award.
In 1988, Ken Behring and partner Ken Hofmann purchased the team for either $79 million or $99 million (both numbers have been reported). The Seahawks won their first division title in 1988, but from 1989 to 1998 had poor records and did not play in the post-season.
In 1996, Behring and Hoffman transferred the team 's operations to Anaheim, California, a widely criticized move, although the team continued to play in Seattle. The team almost relocated, and was in bankruptcy for a short period. They sold the team to Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen in 1997, for $200 million, and in 1999 Mike Holmgren was hired as head coach. He would coach for 10 seasons. The Seahawks won their second division title, as well as a wild card berth in the playoffs.
In 2002, the Seahawks returned to the NFC West as part of an NFL realignment plan that gave each conference four balanced divisions of four teams each. This realignment restored the AFC West to its initial post-merger roster of original AFL teams Denver, San Diego, Kansas City, and Oakland.
In the 2005 season, the Seahawks had their best season in franchise history (a feat that would later be matched in 2013) with a record of 13 -- 3, which included a 42 - 0 rout of the Philadelphia Eagles on December 5, a game since referred to as the Monday Night Massacre. The 13 - 3 record earned them the number one seed in the NFC. They won the NFC Championship Game in 2005, but lost in Super Bowl XL against the Pittsburgh Steelers. The loss was controversial; NFL Films has Super Bowl XL at number 8 on its top ten list of games with controversial referee calls. Before 2005, Seattle had the longest drought of playoff victories of any NFL team, dating back to the 1984 season. That drought was ended with a 20 -- 10 win over the Washington Redskins in the 2005 playoffs.
In the 2009 NFL season, the Seahawks finished 3rd in the NFC West with a 5 - 11 record. Shortly after his first full season with the Seahawks, head coach Jim L. Mora was fired on January 8, 2010. Mora was replaced by former USC Trojans football head coach, Pete Carroll. Shortly thereafter, Mora became the head coach for the UCLA Bruins football team.
In the 2010 NFL season, the Seahawks made history by making it into the playoffs despite having a 7 -- 9 record. They had the best record in a division full of teams with losing seasons (Seahawks 7 -- 9, Rams 7 -- 9, 49ers 6 -- 10, Cardinals 5 -- 11) and won the decisive season finale against the Rams (not only by overall record, but by division record, as both teams coming into the game had a 3 -- 2 division record). In the playoffs, the Seahawks won in their first game against the defending Super Bowl XLIV champs, the New Orleans Saints, 41 -- 36. The Seahawks made even more history during the game with Marshawn Lynch 's 67 - yard run, breaking 7 or more tackles, to clinch the victory. After the run the fans reacted so loudly that a small earthquake (a bit above 2 on the Richter Scale) was recorded by seismic equipment around Seattle. The Seahawks lost to the Bears in their second game, 35 -- 24.
The 2012 NFL season started with doubt, as the Seahawks lost their season opener against the Arizona Cardinals, after the highly touted Seattle defense gave up a go - ahead score late in the fourth quarter, and rookie quarterback Russell Wilson failed to throw the game - winning touchdown after multiple attempts in the red - zone. However, Russell Wilson and the Seahawks went 4 -- 1 in their next five games en route to an 11 -- 5 overall record (their first winning record since 2007). Their 2012 campaign included big wins over the Green Bay Packers, New England Patriots, and San Francisco 49ers. The Seahawks went into the playoffs as the # 5 seed and the only team that season to go undefeated at home. In the Wild Card Round, the Seahawks overcame a 14 - point deficit to defeat the Washington Redskins. This was the first time since the 1983 Divisional Round that the Seahawks won a playoff game on the road. However, in the 2013 Divisional Round, overcoming a 20 - point, fourth quarter deficit would n't be enough to defeat the # 1 seed Atlanta Falcons. An ill - advised timeout and a defensive breakdown late in the game cost the Seahawks their season, as they lost, 30 -- 28. QB Russell Wilson won the 2012 Pepsi Max Rookie of the Year award.
In the 2013 NFL season, the Seahawks continued their momentum from the previous season, finishing tied with the Denver Broncos for an NFL - best regular season record of 13 -- 3, while earning the NFC 's # 1 playoff seed. Their 2013 campaign included big wins over the Carolina Panthers, New Orleans Saints, and the San Francisco 49ers. Six Seahawks players were named to the Pro Bowl: Quarterback Russell Wilson, center Max Unger, running back Marshawn Lynch, cornerback Richard Sherman, free safety Earl Thomas, and strong safety Kam Chancellor. However, none of them were able to play in the Pro Bowl, as the Seahawks defeated the New Orleans Saints 23 -- 15 and the San Francisco 49ers 23 -- 17, in the playoffs to advance to Super Bowl XLVIII against the Denver Broncos. On February 2, 2014, the Seahawks won their first Super Bowl Championship, defeating Denver 43 -- 8. The Seahawks ' defense performance in 2013 was acclaimed as one of the best in the Super Bowl era.
The following season, Seattle advanced to Super Bowl XLIX, their second consecutive Super Bowl, but they were dethroned of their title by the New England Patriots by a score of 28 -- 24.
They got off to a slow start the next year starting 0 - 2 and 2 - 4 through 6 games but finished 10 - 6 on the year clinching a wild card berth. They beat the Minnesota Vikings 10 - 9 to advance to the divisional round. Against Carolina, they were down 31 - 0 at halftime before scoring 24 unanswered points. Their comeback attempt fell short and they failed to make the Super Bowl.
Since moving into the NFC West, the Seahawks have had considerably more success, having won 8 of 15 division titles, and making the playoffs in 11 out of 15 seasons.
Most recently, the Seahawks and the San Francisco 49ers have begun to develop a rivalry, starting with the 49ers hiring of coach Jim Harbaugh for the 2011 NFL season. Harbaugh had coached against Seahawks coach Pete Carroll before in college at Stanford and Southern California, respectively. The 49ers won the first contest between the coaches at the NFL level, then proceeded to win a close game at CenturyLink Field to eliminate the Seahawks from playoff contention. 2012 brought a new season and another Seahawks loss, week 7 on NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, as they dropped a 13 -- 6 game where the offense failed to score a touchdown and 49ers quarterback Alex Smith did just enough to survive. Week 16 brought a fever anxiety as the Seahawks and 49ers prepared to face off in primetime on NBC Sunday Night Football. The Seahawks entered the game at 9 -- 5, with back - to - back blowouts in which the team scored more than 50 points in games against the Buffalo Bills and Arizona Cardinals. Quickly, the Seahawks imposed their will with a Marshawn Lynch 24 - yard touchdown run, two of quarterback Russell Wilson 's touchdown passes and a blocked field goal return had the Seahawks lead at halftime 28 -- 6. The Seahawks continued in the second half, eventually winning 42 -- 13 capped off by Seahawks strong safety Kam Chancellor 's hit on former 49ers tight end Vernon Davis. The 49ers, however, won the following week, locking up the division title for the second consecutive season. Since rejoining the NFC West, the Seahawks lead the series 18 -- 15 versus the 49ers, including playoffs. Colin Kaepernick and the 49ers lost their first 2013 season matchup against their NFC West rivals 29 -- 3, with the help of Marshawn Lynch 's three touchdowns, with the fans setting a new Guinness World Record for the loudest crowd roar at 136.6 dB. However, the Seahawks were defeated 19 -- 17 in their second 2013 game with the 49ers at Candlestick Park. This was largely due to a late game 51 - yard run by Frank Gore. The Seahawks had not won in San Francisco since 2008 until defeating the 49ers in convincing 19 -- 3 fashion on Thanksgiving Day in 2014. In the 2013 NFC Championship Game, the Seahawks defeated the 49ers 23 to 17, thanks to Malcolm Smith 's interception, which was tipped by Richard Sherman. This clinched the Seahawks ' berth into Super Bowl XLVIII.
The Seahawks have developed a rivalry with the Carolina Panthers. The two teams have played each other in the NFL playoffs three times: during the 2005 NFC Championship Game, which Seattle won 34 -- 14; the 2014 NFC Divisional playoffs, which the Seahawks won 31 -- 17; and the 2015 NFC Divisional playoffs, which the Panthers won 31 -- 24. The Seahawks lead the Panthers in the all - time series 8 -- 4.
From the 1980s to the 2002 league realignment, the Denver Broncos were a major rival for the Seahawks. With John Elway, the Broncos were one of the best teams in the NFL, going 200 -- 124 -- 1 overall, and were 32 -- 18 against the Seahawks. Since 2002, Seattle has won two of four interconference meetings, and the teams met in Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014, where the Seahawks won 43 -- 8.
During the Seahawks ' first ten seasons (1976 -- 85), the team 's headquarters was at Carillon Point on the shores of Lake Washington. The summer training camps were initially held at Eastern Washington University in Cheney, just southwest of Spokane. When the team 's new headquarters across town in Kirkland were completed in 1986, the Seahawks held training camp at home for the next eleven seasons (1986 -- 96), staying in the dormitories of the adjacent Northwest College. In Dennis Erickson 's third season as head coach, the team returned to the hotter and more isolated Cheney in 1997, where they held training camp through 2006. In 2007, training camp returned to their Kirkland facility, because of the scheduled China Bowl game that was later canceled. In 2008, the Seahawks held the first three weeks of camp in Kirkland, then moved to the new 19 - acre (92,000 sq yd) Virginia Mason Athletic Center (VMAC) on August 18 for the final week of training camp. The new facility, adjacent to Lake Washington in Renton, has four full - size practice fields: three natural grass outdoors and one FieldTurf indoors.
When the Seahawks debuted in 1976, the team 's logo was a stylized royal blue and forest green osprey 's head based on Northwest Coast art. The helmet and pants were silver while the home uniforms were royal blue with white, blue and green arm stripes. The road uniform was white with blue and green arm stripes. Black shoes were worn for the first four seasons, one of the few NFL teams that did in the late 1970s. They then changed to white shoes in 1980.
In 1983, coinciding with the arrival of Chuck Knox as head coach, the uniforms were updated slightly. The striping on the arms now incorporated the Seahawks logo, and the TV numbers moved onto the shoulders. Helmet facemasks changed from gray to blue. Also, the socks went solid blue at the top, and white on bottom. In the 1985 season, the team wore 10th Anniversary patches on the right side of their pants. It had the Seahawks logo streaking through the number 10. Starting in the 1989 NFL season, jerseys were no longer sand - knit. In 1994, the year of the NFL 's 75th Anniversary, the Seahawks changed the style of their numbering to something more suitable for the team; Pro Block from then until 2001. That same year, the Seahawks wore a vintage jersey for select games resembling the 1976 -- 82 uniforms. However, the helmet facemasks remained blue. The logos also became sewn on instead of being screen - printed. In 2000, Shaun Alexander 's rookie year and Cortez Kennedy 's last, the Seattle Seahawks celebrated their 25th Anniversary; the logo was worn on the upper left chest of the jersey. In 2001, the Seahawks switched to the new Reebok uniform system still in their current uniforms, but it would be their last in this uniform after the season ended. Previously, the team 's uniforms were made by Wilson, Wilson / Staff, Russell Athletic, Logo Athletic, and Puma.
On March 1, 2002, to coincide with the team moving to the NFC as well as the opening of Seahawks Stadium (which would later be renamed Qwest Field, then CenturyLink Field), both the logo and the uniforms were heavily redesigned. The Wordmark was designed by Mark Verlander and the logo was designed by NFL Properties in - house design team. The colors were modified to a lighter "Seahawks Blue '', a darker "Seahawks Navy '' and lime green piping. The helmets also were changed from silver to the lighter "Seahawks Blue '' color after a fan poll was conducted. Silver would not be seen again until 2012. The logo artwork was also subtly altered, with an arched eyebrow and a forward - facing pupil suggesting a more aggressive - looking bird. At first, the team had planned to wear silver helmets at home and blue helmets on the road, but since NFL rules forbid the use of multiple helmets, the team held the fan poll to decide which color helmet would be worn. The team had usually worn all blue at home and all white on the road since 2003, but late in the 2009 season, the Seahawks wore the white jersey - blue pants combo. The blue jersey and white pants combo has been worn for only one regular season game, the 2005 season opener at the Jacksonville Jaguars, while the white jersey and blue pants combination has not been worn regularly since late in the 2002 season, with the exception of late in the 2009 season. In 2009, the Seahawks once again wore the white jersey and blue pants combination for road games against Minnesota (November 22), St. Louis (November 29), Houston (December 13) and Green Bay (December 27).
The Seahawks wore their home blue jerseys during Super Bowl XL despite being designated as the visitor, since the Pittsburgh Steelers, the designated home team, elected to wear their white jerseys.
Since the Oakland Raiders wore their white jerseys at home for the first time ever in a game against the San Diego Chargers on September 28, 2008, the Seahawks are currently the only NFL team never to have worn their white jerseys at home.
On September 27, 2009, the Seahawks wore lime green jerseys for the first time, paired with new dark navy blue pants in a game against the Chicago Bears. The jerseys matched their new sister team, the expansion Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer who wear green jerseys with blue pants. On December 6, 2009, the Seahawks wore their Seahawks blue jersey with the new dark navy blue pants for the first time, in a game against the San Francisco 49ers. The Seahawks broke out the same combo two weeks later against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and two weeks after that in the 2009 regular season finale against the Tennessee Titans. In December 2009, then - coach Jim Mora announced that the new lime green jerseys were being retired because the team did not win in them, because he liked the home jerseys better, and added that the home jersey is a better match for the navy pants. In the same press conference, he stated that the new navy pants "felt better '' on players as opposed to the Seahawks blue pants. For the 2010 season, Seattle returned to the traditional all "Seahawks Blue '' at home and all white on the road.
On April 3, 2012, Nike, which took over as the official uniform supplier for the league from Reebok, unveiled new uniform and logo designs for the Seahawks for the 2012 season. The new designs incorporate a new accent color, "Wolf Grey '', and the main colors are "College Navy '' and "Action Green ''. The uniforms incorporate "feather trims '', multiple feathers on the crown of the helmet, twelve feathers printed on the neckline and down each pant leg to represent the "12th Man '', referring to the team 's fans. The Seahawks have three different jersey colors: navy blue, white, and an alternate grey jersey. The Seahawks will have three different pants: navy blue with green feathers, gray with navy blue feathers, and white with navy blue feathers. Their new logo replaces the Seahawk blue with wolf grey. Altogether, there are nine (9) different uniform combinations possible.
The Seahawks wore their Nike home blue jerseys for the first regular season game on September 16, 2012 against the Dallas Cowboys. The uniform Marshawn Lynch wore in that game is preserved at the Pro Football Hall of Fame. On September 9, 2012, the Seahawks wore their Nike white away jerseys for the first regular season game against the Arizona Cardinals; on October 14, 2012, with the Carolina Panthers wearing white at home, they wore their blue jerseys with gray pants (and would do so again against the Miami Dolphins seven weeks later); and on December 16, 2012, they wore their Alternate Wolf Grey jerseys for the first time against the Buffalo Bills.
As of the end of the 2016 season, the Seattle Seahawks had competed in 41 NFL seasons, dating back to their expansion year of 1976. The team has compiled a 325 -- 318 - 1 record (16 -- 15 in the playoffs) for a. 505 winning percentage (. 516 in the playoffs). Seattle has reached the playoffs in 16 separate seasons, including in the 2005 season when they lost Super Bowl XL to the Pittsburgh Steelers, the 2013 season when they defeated the Denver Broncos to win Super Bowl XLVIII, and the 2014 season when they lost Super Bowl XLIX to the New England Patriots. In the 2010 season, the Seahawks became the first team in NFL history to earn a spot in the playoffs with a losing record (7 -- 9,. 438) in a full season; this was by virtue of winning the division. The Seahawks would go on to defeat the reigning Super Bowl champion New Orleans Saints in the Wild Card round, becoming the first team ever to win a playoff game with a losing record. Until Week 7 of the 2016 season, the Seahawks had never recorded a tied game in their history.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated November 14, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 14 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
The 35th Anniversary team was voted upon by users on Seahawks.com and announced in 2010.
Note: Although Mike McCormack served as head coach, president, and general manager for the Seahawks, he is only listed in the Pro Football Hall of Fame for his contributions as a tackle for the New York Yanks and the Cleveland Browns.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Seahawks cheerleaders are called the Sea Gals. During the off - season, a select performing group from the Sea Gals travel parades and with other NFL Cheerleaders on the road.
The 12th man (also known as the 12s) refers to the fan support of the Seahawks. The team 's first home stadium, the Kingdome, was one of the loudest and most disruptive environments in the NFL. Opponents were known to practice with rock music blaring at full blast to prepare for the often painfully high decibel levels generated at games in the Kingdome.
In 2002, the Seahawks began playing at what is now CenturyLink Field. Every regular season and playoff game at CenturyLink Field since the 2nd week of the 2003 season has been played before a sellout crowd. Like the Kingdome before it, CenturyLink Field is one of the loudest stadiums in the league. The stadium 's partial roof and seating decks trap and amplify the noise and bang it back down to the field. This noise has caused problems for opposing teams, causing them to commit numerous false - start penalties. From 2002 through 2012, there have been 143 false - start penalties on visiting teams in Seattle, second only to the Minnesota Vikings.
The Seahawks ' fans have twice set the Guinness World Record for the loudest crowd noise at a sporting event, first on September 15, 2013, registering 136.6 dB during a game against the San Francisco 49ers and again on December 2, 2013, during a Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints, with a roar of 137.6 dB. As of September 29, 2014, the record of 142.2 dB is held in Arrowhead Stadium by fans of the Kansas City Chiefs.
Prior to kickoff of each home game, the Seahawks salute their fans by raising a giant # 12 flag at the south end of the stadium. Current and former players, coaches, local celebrities, prominent fans, Seattle - area athletes, and current owner Paul Allen have raised the flag. Earlier, the Seahawks retired the # 12 jersey on December 15, 1984 as a tribute to their fans. Before their Super Bowl win, the Seahawks ran onto the field under a giant 12th Man flag.
In September 1990, Texas A&M filed, and was later granted, a trademark application for the "12th Man '' term, based on their continual usage of the term since the 1920s. In January 2006, Texas A&M filed suit against the Seattle Seahawks to protect the trademark and in May 2006, the dispute was settled out of court. In the agreement, which expired in 2016, Texas A&M licensed the Seahawks to continue using the phrase, in exchange for a licensing fee, public acknowledgement of A&M 's trademark when using the term, a restriction in usage of the term to seven states in the Northwest United States, and a prohibition from selling any "12th Man '' merchandise. Once the agreement expired, the Seahawks were allowed to continue using the number "12 '' but were no longer permitted to use the "12th Man '' phrase. In August 2015, the Seahawks decided to drop their signage of the "12th Man '' term and shifted towards referring to their fans as the "12s '' instead.
Starting in the 1998 season, Blitz has been the Seahawks ' official mascot. In the 2003 and 2004 seasons, a hawk named Faith would fly around the stadium just before the team came out of the tunnel. However, because of her relative small size and an inability to be trained to lead the team out of a tunnel, Faith was replaced by an augur hawk named Taima before the start of the 2005 season. Taima started leading the team out of the tunnel in September 2006. Beginning in 2004, the Seahawks introduced their drum line, the Blue Thunder. The group plays at every home game as well as over 100 events in the Seattle community.
As of 2009, the Seahawks ' flagship station is KIRO (AM) 710 kHz -- KIRO - FM 97.3 MHz. Games are heard on 47 stations in five western states and Canada. Microsoft holds naming rights for the broadcasts for their web search engine under the moniker of the "Bing Radio Network ''. The current announcers are former Seahawks players Steve Raible (who was the team 's color commentator from 1982 to 2003) and Warren Moon. The Raible - Moon regular season pairing has been together since 2004 (during the preseason Moon works for the local television broadcast so the color commentary is split between former Seahawks Paul Moyer, Sam Adkins, and Brock Huard). Pete Gross, who called the games from 1976 until just days before his death from cancer in 1992, is a member of the team 's Ring of Honor. Other past announcers include Steve Thomas from 1992 to 1997, Lee Hamilton (also known as "Hacksaw '') from 1998 to 1999, and Brian Davis from 2000 to 2003.
Preseason games not shown on national networks were produced by Seahawks Broadcasting and televised by KING - TV, channel 5 (and, in 2008, also on sister station KONG - TV since KING, an NBC affiliate, was committed to the Summer Olympics in China). Seahawks Broadcasting is the Emmy Award Winning in - house production and syndication unit for the Seattle Seahawks. Curt Menefee (the host of Fox NFL Sunday) has been the Seahawks TV voice since the 2009 preseason. Since the 2012 season, KCPQ - TV, which airs most of the Seahawks regular season games (as the Seattle - Tacoma area 's Fox affiliate), is the television partner for the team and has replaced KING 5 as broadcaster for preseason games, while simulcasts of any Seahawks games on ESPN 's Monday Night Football or NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football airs on either KONG - TV or KZJO. In addition, any Saturday or Sunday afternoon games broadcast by CBS (with the Seahawks hosting an AFC opponent) will air on local CBS affiliate KIRO - TV.
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Explanatory notes
Citations
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when does the men's college basketball tournament start | 2018 NCAA Division I men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament was a 68 - team single - elimination tournament to determine the men 's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I college basketball national champion for the 2017 -- 18 season. The 80th edition of the tournament began on March 13, 2018, and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas.
During the first round, UMBC became the first 16 - seed to defeat a 1 - seed in the men 's tournament by defeating Virginia 74 -- 54. For the first time in tournament history, none of the four top seeded teams in a single region (the South) advanced to the Sweet 16. Also, the tournament featured the first regional final matchup of a 9 - seed (Kansas State) and an 11 - seed (Loyola - Chicago).
Villanova, Michigan, Kansas, and Loyola - Chicago, the "Cinderella team '' of the tournament, reached the Final Four. Villanova defeated Michigan in the championship game, 79 -- 62.
A total of 68 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids were awarded, one to each program that won their conference tournament. The remaining 36 bids were "at - large '', with selections extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
Eight teams (the four lowest - seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest - seeded at - large teams) played in the First Four (the successor to what had been popularly known as "play - in games '' through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games advanced to the main draw of the tournament.
The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 68.
The following sites were selected to host each round of the 2018 tournament:
First Four
First and Second Rounds
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
For the fourth time, the Alamodome and city of San Antonio are hosting the Final Four. This is the first tournament since 1994 in which no games were played in an NFL stadium, as the Alamodome is a college football stadium, although the Alamodome hosted some home games for the New Orleans Saints during their 2005 season. The 2018 tournament featured three new arenas in previous host cities. Philips Arena, the home of the Atlanta Hawks and replacement for the previously used Omni Coliseum, hosted the South regional games, and the new Little Caesars Arena, home of the Detroit Pistons and Detroit Red Wings, hosted games. And for the first time since 1994, the tournament returned to Wichita and the state of Kansas where Intrust Bank Arena hosted first round games.
The state of North Carolina was threatened with a 2018 - 2022 championship venue boycott by the NCAA, due to the HB2 law passed in 2016. However, the law was repealed (but with provisos) days before the NCAA met to make decisions on venues in April 2017. At that time, the NCAA board of governors "reluctantly voted to allow consideration of championship bids in North Carolina by our committees that are presently meeting ''. Therefore, Charlotte was eligible and served as a first weekend venue for the 2018 tournament.
Four teams, out of 351 in Division I, were ineligible to participate in the 2018 tournament due to failing to meet APR requirements: Alabama A&M, Grambling State, Savannah State, and Southeast Missouri State. However, the NCAA granted the Savannah State Tigers a waiver which would have allowed the team to participate in the tournament, but the team failed to qualify.
The following 32 teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's automatic bid.
The tournament seeds were determined through the NCAA basketball tournament selection process. The seeds and regions were determined as follows:
* See First Four
The 2018 tournament was the first time since the 1978 tournament that the six Division I college basketball - playing schools based in the Washington, DC metropolitan area -- American, Georgetown, George Mason, George Washington, Howard, and Maryland -- were collectively shut out of the NCAA Tournament.
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Virginia 's South Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Xavier 's West Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Villanova 's East Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (Kansas 's Midwest Region).
The Pac - 12 lost all of its teams after the first day of the main tournament draw, marking the first time since the Big 12 began play in 1996 that one of the six major conferences -- defined as the ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac - 12, SEC, and both versions of the Big East -- failed to have a team advance to the tournament 's round of 32.
CBS Sports and Turner Sports had U.S. television rights to the Tournament under the NCAA March Madness brand. As part of a cycle beginning in 2016, TBS held the rights to the Final Four and to the championship game. Additionally, TBS held the rights to the 2018 Selection Show, which returned to a two - hour format, was presented in front of a studio audience, and promoted that the entire field of the tournament would be unveiled within the first ten minutes of the broadcast. The broadcast was heavily criticized for its quality (including technical problems and an embedded product placement segment for Pizza Hut), as well as initially unveiling the 68 - team field in alphabetical order (beginning with automatic qualifiers, followed by the at - large teams) rather than unveiling the matchups region - by - region (which was criticized for having less suspense than the traditional format).
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament.
Live video of games was available for streaming through the following means:
Live audio of games was available for streaming through the following means:
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we are millwall and we don't care | No one likes us, we do n't care - wikipedia
"No one likes us, we do n't care '' is a football chant which originated with the supporters of Millwall Football Club in the late seventies. The chant is to the tune of (We Are) Sailing by Rod Stewart.
The song was originally sung by Millwall fans in response to the sustained criticism of their behaviour by the press and the image of many Millwall fans as hooligans, perpetuated by certain sections of the media. The song reached a worldwide audience when Millwall reached the FA Cup Final in 2004.
Many other football clubs in the UK have hooligans, but various commentators including Danny Baker and Rod Liddle (both men are Millwall supporters) have questioned why Millwall 's have consistently been singled out to the point where the name of Millwall has become synonymous with hooliganism, creating a siege mentality amongst the ordinary, law - abiding Millwall fans.
From the late 1960s through to the early 1980s there was a gradual increase in academic study of, and political concerns over, violence at football matches. Millwall featured in some of these studies. In 1977 a Panorama programme by the BBC Dr. Anthony Clare used Millwall as an example of fans who were looking for trouble and using a militaristic analogy said:
But within Millwall 's terraced army, there are divisions... In the trench warfare of the terraces, it 's F - Troop who go over the top. F - Troop are the real nutters... who go looking for fights and are seldom disappointed...
This was followed up by Don Atyeo who wrote in Blood & guts, violence in sports (1979) that "F - Troop are Millwall 's hard men, an older (generally middle to late 20s), tougher brigade who are bent on ' rucking ' at every opportunity, even to the extent of attending games which Millwall are not even playing ''. In his book The Soccer Tribe (1981), Desmond Morris mentions several football firms, by dwelt on hooliganism by Millwall supporters by quoting a long extract about F - Troop from Atyeo 's book, and so introduced an even wider audience to Millwall 's hooligans.
Southwark - born writer and journalist Michael Collins believes that it is due to what he terms the demonisation of the white working classes, and that as Millwall 's support has always been drawn from this group, they present an easy target for the press and media alike. Collins writes: "At the end of the 19th century around the time Millwall F.C. was formed, middle - class journalists used to descend on the area like Baudelaireian flaneurs, to report on the urban working class as though they were discovering natives from the remote islands of the Empire ''.
Supporters of other clubs, social groups and members of professions who perceive themselves as not being liked for various reasons, have used variations of the chant. Wealdstone F.C., MK Dons, Crawley Town, AIK, Shamrock Rovers, Philadelphia Union, Columbus Crew, Urawa Red Diamonds, Raith Rovers, Hertha BSC, Detroit City FC, RB Leipzig, San Diego State Aztecs men 's basketball and MSV Duisburg supporters have also adopted the chant. The Anaheim Ducks fans has adopted the line "No one likes us, we do n't care '' as an informal motto, usually replacing the "D '' in "do n't '' for the team 's logo, a stylized D. After the NHL playoffs series against Winnipeg Jets, some fans in Anaheim were shown on TV holding a banner with the motto. Rangers supporters sing a version of the song with the lyrics changed to reflect a bitter rivalry with Celtic F.C.; however, this version contains lyrics which have been condemned as sectarian. Non-league team Dulwich Hamlet F.C. also sing a version, with the lyrics changed to: "No one knows us, we do n't care. ''
During the Super Bowl LII victory parade for the Philadelphia Eagles on February 8, 2018, football center Jason Kelce sang a profane version of the chant referencing Philadelphia (which as mentioned above has been co-opted by Philadelphia Union supporters known as the Sons of Ben (MLS supporters association); that version uses the tune of "Oh, My Darling, Clementine '', which has the same rhyming scheme, but a different melody, than "Sailing ''), to the crowd 's delight.
No one likes us, no one likes us No one likes us, we do n't care!
We are Millwall, super Millwall We are Millwall from The Den!
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which of the following are the two primary gasses found in the earth's atmosphere | Atmosphere of Earth - wikipedia
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
By volume, dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen, 20.95 % oxygen, 0.93 % argon, 0.04 % carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1 % at sea level, and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.
The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth 's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25 % of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5 % by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, also see volume (thermodynamics) ppmv: parts per million by volume Water vapor is about 0.25 % by mass over full atmosphere Water vapor strongly varies locally
The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature / altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth 's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free - moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
The thermosphere is the second - highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500 -- 1000 km (310 -- 620 mi; 1,600,000 -- 3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth 's surface, contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 ° C (2700 ° F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80 -- 85 km (50 -- 53 mi; 260,000 -- 280,000 ft) above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around − 85 ° C (− 120 ° F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar - mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet - powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket - powered aircraft.
The stratosphere is the second - lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth 's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1 / 1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth 's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be − 60 ° C (− 76 ° F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 ° C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather - producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet - powered aircraft.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from Earth 's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth 's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn ''). The troposphere contains roughly 80 % of the mass of Earth 's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth 's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather - associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller - driven aircraft.
Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth 's surface is 14 ° C (57 ° F; 287 K) or 15 ° C (59 ° F; 288 K), depending on the reference.
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480 × 10 kg (1.135 × 10 lb), about 2.5 % less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth 's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth 's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1 / e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.
In summary, the mass of Earth 's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth 's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350 -- 400 km, within the F - layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700 -- 800 km.
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly - named thermosphere above 90 km.
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg / m (1.2 g / L, 0.0012 g / cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5 × 10) tonnes or 1 / 1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 × 10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ± 0.0003 × 10 kg. ''
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we can not see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.
When light passes through Earth 's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you can not see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun 's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O and O absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows '' of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet - C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400 -- 700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven - meter waves.
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body '' emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 ° C; 10,340 ° F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 ° C; 62 ° F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth 's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO and H O.
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth 's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.
Atmospheric circulation is the large - scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large - scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth 's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated, these gases escaped, partly driven off by the solar wind.
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. A major part of carbon - dioxide emissions soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments.
Researchers have found water - related sediments dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere ''. An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life - forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30 % lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox ''.
The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth - with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen - containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.
Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth 's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long - term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.
Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15 % by the end of the Precambrian. The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen - requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30 % around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today 's 21 %. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today 's atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid development of animals.
The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone - depleting substances.
On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.
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how many english ships fought the spanish armada | Spanish Armada - wikipedia
Decisive Spanish defeat
The Spanish Armada (Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, literally "Great and Most Fortunate Navy '') was a Spanish fleet of 130 ships that sailed from A Coruña in late May 1588, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England. The strategic aim was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and her establishment of Protestantism in England, with the expectation that this would put a stop to English interference in the Spanish Netherlands and to the harm caused to Spanish interests by English and Dutch privateering.
The Armada chose not to attack the English fleet at Plymouth, then failed to establish a temporary anchorage in the Solent, after one Spanish ship had been captured by Francis Drake in the English Channel. The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais. While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parma 's army, the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack. In the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parma 's army, who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats. The Armada managed to regroup and, driven by southwest winds, withdrew north, with the English fleet harrying it up the east coast of England. The commander ordered a return to Spain, but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return. As Martin and Parker explain, "Philip II attempted to invade England, but his plans miscarried, partly because of his own mismanagement, unfortunate weather, and partly because the opportunistic defensive naval efforts of the English and their Dutch allies (the use of ships set afire and sailed into the anchored Armada to create panic) prevailed. ''
The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo - Spanish War (1585 -- 1604). The following year, England organised a similar large - scale campaign against Spain, the Drake -- Norris Expedition or "counter-Armada of 1589 '', which was unsuccessful and resulted in serious economic consequences and the loss of many English lives and ships.
The word armada is from the Spanish armada, which is a cognate with English army. Originally from the Latin armāta, the past participle of armāre (to arm), used in Romance languages as a noun, for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy. Armada (originally from its armadas) was also the Portuguese traditional term (now alternative, but in common use) of the Portuguese Navy.
Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Over time it became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe, especially during the reign of Henry 's son, Edward VI. Edward 's death without an heir led to Henry 's daughter Mary I taking the throne. A devout Catholic, Mary (with her co-monarch and husband, Philip II of Spain) began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake, earning her the nickname ' Bloody Mary '.
Mary 's death in 1558 led to her half - sister, Elizabeth I, taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp, and quickly reimplemented many of Edward 's reforms. Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. Under Roman law, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate. It is alleged that Phillip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive, Mary, Queen of Scots; however, these were thwarted when Elizabeth had the Queen of Scots imprisoned and finally executed in 1587. Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic.
In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth and reinstate Catholicism. Through this, it would end the English material support for the United Provinces -- the part of the Low Countries that had successfully seceded from Spanish rule -- and cut off English attacks on Spanish trade and settlements in the New World. The King was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land.
A raid on Cádiz, led by Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies, setting preparations back by a year. Philip initially favoured a triple attack, starting with a diversionary raid on Scotland, while the main Armada would capture the Isle of Wight, or Southampton, to establish a safe anchorage in the Solent. The Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise. He was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it. The appointed commander of the Armada was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he died in February 1588, and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a high - born courtier, took his place. While a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, but this was prevented from reaching the King by courtiers on the grounds that God would ensure the Armada 's success.
Prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armada 's banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. On 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. The fleet was composed of 130 ships, 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, and bore 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns. The full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. It included twenty eight purpose - built warships, of which twenty were galleons, four galleys and four (Neapolitan) galleasses. The remainder of the heavy vessels were mostly armed carracks and hulks together with thirty - four light ships.
In the Spanish Netherlands, 30,000 soldiers awaited the arrival of the Armada, the plan being to use the cover of the warships to convey the army on barges to a place near London. All told, 55,000 men were to have been mustered, a huge army for that time. On the day the Armada set sail, Elizabeth 's ambassador in the Netherlands, Valentine Dale, met Parma 's representatives in peace negotiations. The English made a vain effort to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay. On 6 July negotiations were abandoned, and the English fleet stood prepared, if ill - supplied, at Plymouth, awaiting news of Spanish movements. The English fleet outnumbered the Spanish, 200 ships to 130, while the Spanish fleet outgunned the English -- its available firepower was 50 % more than that of the English. The English fleet consisted of the 34 ships of the Royal Fleet (21 of which were galleons of 200 to 400 tons) and 163 other ships (30 of which were of 200 to 400 tons and carried up to 42 guns each), 12 of these were privateers owned by Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake.
The Armada was delayed by bad weather. Storms in the Bay of Biscay forced four galleys and one galleon to turn back, and other ships had to put in for repairs, so only about 123 or 124 ships actually made it to the English Channel. Nearly half the fleet were not built as warships and were used for duties such as scouting and dispatch work, or for carrying supplies, animals, and troops.
The fleet was not sighted in England until 19 July, when it appeared off The Lizard in Cornwall. The news was conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed all the way along the south coast. On that evening, the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth Harbour by the incoming tide. The Spanish convened a council of war, where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the defending ships at anchor and from there to attack England; but Medina Sidonia declined to act because this had been explicitly forbidden by Philip, and decided to sail on to the east and towards the Isle of Wight. As the tide turned, 55 English ships set out to confront them from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake as Vice Admiral. Howard ceded some control to Drake, given his experience in battle. The rear admiral was Sir John Hawkins.
On 20 July the English fleet was off Eddystone Rocks, with the Armada upwind to the west. That night, in order to execute their attack, the English tacked upwind of the Armada, thus gaining the weather gage, a significant advantage. At daybreak on 21 July the English fleet engaged the Armada off Plymouth near the Eddystone rocks. The Armada was in a crescent - shaped defensive formation, convex towards the east. The galleons and great ships were concentrated in the centre and at the tips of the crescent 's horns, giving cover to the transports and supply ships in between. Opposing them the English were in two sections, Drake to the north in Revenge with 11 ships, and Howard to the south in Ark Royal with the bulk of the fleet.
Given the Spanish advantage in close - quarter fighting, the English ships used their superior speed and manoeuvrability to keep beyond grappling range and bombarded the Spanish ships from a distance with cannon fire. The distance was too great for this to be effective, however, and at the end of the first day 's fighting neither fleet had lost a ship in action, although the Spanish carrack Rosario and galleon San Salvador were abandoned after they collided. When night fell, Francis Drake turned his ship back to loot the abandoned Spanish ships, capturing supplies of much - needed gunpowder, and gold. However, Drake had been guiding the English fleet by means of a lantern. As a result of him snuffing out the lantern to slip away from the Spanish ships, the rest of his fleet became scattered and was in complete disarray by dawn. It took an entire day for the English fleet to regroup and the Armada gained a day 's grace. The English ships again used their superior speed and manoeuvrability to catch up with the Spanish fleet after a day of sailing.
The English fleet and the Armada engaged once more on 23 July, off Portland. This time a change of wind gave the Spanish the weather - gage, and they sought to close with the English, but were foiled by the smaller ships ' greater manoeuvrability. At one point Howard formed his ships into a line of battle, to attack at close range bringing all his guns to bear, but this was not followed through and little was achieved.
If the Armada could create a temporary base in the protected waters of the Solent (a strait separating the Isle of Wight from the English mainland), they could wait there for word from Parma 's army. However, in a full - scale attack, the English fleet broke into four groups -- Martin Frobisher of Aid now also being given command over a squadron -- with Drake coming in with a large force from the south. At the critical moment Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered the Armada back to open sea to avoid The Owers shoals. There were no other secure harbours further east along England 's south coast, so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais, without being able to wait for word of Parma 's army.
On 27 July, the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly - packed defensive crescent formation, not far from Dunkirk, where Parma 's army, reduced by disease to 16,000, was expected to be waiting, ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast. Communication had proven to be far more difficult than anticipated, and it only now became known that this army had yet to be equipped with sufficient transport or assembled in the port, a process which would take at least six days, while Medina Sidonia waited at anchor; and that Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of thirty flyboats under Lieutenant - Admiral Justinus of Nassau. Parma wanted the Armada to send its light pataches to drive away the Dutch, but Medina Sidonia could not do this because he feared that he might need these ships for his own protection. There was no deep - water port where the fleet might shelter -- always acknowledged as a major difficulty for the expedition -- and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on.
The Dutch flyboats mainly operated in the shallow waters off Zeeland and Flanders that larger warships with a deeper draught, like the Spanish and English galleons, could not safely enter. The Dutch therefore enjoyed an unchallenged naval advantage in these waters, even though their navy was inferior in naval armament. An essential element of the plan of invasion, as it was eventually implemented, was the transportation of a large part of Parma 's Army of Flanders as the main invasion force in unarmed barges across the English Channel. These barges would be protected by the large ships of the Armada. However, to get to the Armada, they would have to cross the zone dominated by the Dutch navy, where the Armada could not go. This problem seems to have been overlooked by the Spanish planners, but it was insurmountable. Because of this obstacle, England never was in any real danger, at least from the Duke of Parma and the Army of Flanders. Because of the eventual English victory at sea, the Army of Flanders escaped the drowning death Justinus and his men had in mind for them, ready to fight another day.
At midnight on 28 July, the English set alight eight fireships, sacrificing regular warships by filling them with pitch, brimstone, some gunpowder and tar, and cast them downwind among the closely anchored vessels of the Armada. The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were "hellburners '', specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges, which had been used to deadly effect at the Siege of Antwerp. Two were intercepted and towed away, but the remainder bore down on the fleet. Medina Sidonia 's flagship and the principal warships held their positions, but the rest of the fleet cut their anchor cables and scattered in confusion. No Spanish ships were burnt, but the crescent formation had been broken, and the fleet now found itself too far to leeward of Calais in the rising southwesterly wind to recover its position. The English closed in for battle.
The small port of Gravelines was then part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands, close to the border with France and the closest Spanish territory to England. Medina Sidonia tried to re-form his fleet there and was reluctant to sail further east knowing the danger from the shoals off Flanders, from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea marks. The English had learned more of the Armada 's strengths and weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel and had concluded it was necessary to close within 100 yards (91 m) to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish ships. They had spent most of their gunpowder in the first engagements and had, after the Isle of Wight, been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for a final attack near Gravelines. During all the engagements, the Spanish heavy guns could not easily be run in for reloading because of their close spacing and the quantities of supplies stowed between decks, as Francis Drake had discovered on capturing the damaged Rosario in the Channel. Instead the gunners fired once and then jumped to the rigging to attend to their main task as marines ready to board enemy ships, as had been the practice in naval warfare at the time. In fact, evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet 's ammunition was never spent. Their determination to fight by boarding, rather than cannon fire at a distance, proved a weakness for the Spanish; it had been effective on occasions such as the battles of Lepanto and Ponta Delgada (1582), but the English were aware of this strength and sought to avoid it by keeping their distance.
With its superior manoeuvrability, the English fleet provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range. The English then closed, firing repeated and damaging broadsides into the enemy ships. This also enabled them to maintain a position to windward so that the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water line. Many of the Spanish gunners were killed or wounded by the English broadsides, and the task of manning the cannon often fell to the regular foot soldiers on board, who did not know how to operate the guns. The ships were close enough for sailors on the upper decks of the English and Spanish ships to exchange musket fire. After eight hours, the English ships began to run out of ammunition, and some gunners began loading objects such as chains into cannons. Around 4: 00 pm, the English fired their last shots and were forced to pull back.
Five Spanish ships were lost. The galleass San Lorenzo, flagship of Don Hugo de Moncada, ran aground at Calais and was taken by Howard after murderous fighting between the crew, the galley slaves, the English who eventually killed all Spanish and slaves, and the French, who ultimately took possession of the wreck. The galleons San Mateo and San Felipe drifted away in a sinking condition, ran aground on the island of Walcheren the next day, and were taken by the Dutch. One carrack ran aground near Blankenberge; another foundered. Many other Spanish ships were severely damaged, especially the Portuguese and some Spanish Atlantic - class galleons (including some Neapolitan galleys) which had to bear the brunt of the fighting during the early hours of the battle in desperate individual actions against groups of English ships. The Spanish plan to join with Parma 's army had been defeated and the English had gained some breathing space, but the Armada 's presence in northern waters still posed a great threat to England.
On the day after the battle of Gravelines, the wind had backed southerly, enabling Medina Sidonia to move his fleet northward away from the French coast. Although their shot lockers were almost empty, the English pursued in an attempt to prevent the enemy from returning to escort Parma. On 2 August Old Style (12 August New Style) Howard called a halt to the pursuit in the latitude of the Firth of Forth off Scotland. By that point, the Spanish were suffering from thirst and exhaustion, and the only option left to Medina Sidonia was to chart a course home to Spain, by a very hazardous route.
The threat of invasion from the Netherlands had not yet been discounted by the English, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester maintained a force of 4,000 soldiers at West Tilbury, Essex, to defend the Thames Estuary against any incursion up - river towards London.
On 8 August (18 August New Style) Elizabeth went to Tilbury to encourage her forces, and the next day, per legend, arrived on horseback in her own personal battle armour (and thus showing to the assembled warriors that she was prepared to fight with them in the ensuing battle to her own death). She gave to them her Royal address, which is probably her most famous speech. It survives in six different versions, each vying to be the authentic report of her words on that day. One version is as follows:
My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but, I do assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear, I have always so behaved myself, that under God I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my subjects; and, therefore, I am come amongst you as you see at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of battle, to live or die amongst you all -- to lay down for my God, and for my kingdoms, and for my people, my honour and my blood even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king -- and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take up arms -- I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already, for your forwardness, you have deserved rewards and crowns, and, we do assure you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the mean time, my lieutenant general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people.
After the victory, typhus swept the fleet, killing off thousands of English mariners. Elizabeth failed in her promise to pay the sailors, and of the few who did survive, even of the crew of the royal warship, Elizabeth, most expired destitute in the gutters of Margate.
In September 1588 the Armada sailed around Scotland and Ireland into the North Atlantic. The ships were beginning to show wear from the long voyage and some were kept together by having their hulls bundled up with cables. Supplies of food and water ran short. The intention would have been to keep well to the west of the coast of Scotland and Ireland, in the relative safety of the open sea. There being no way of accurately measuring longitude, the Spanish were not aware that the Gulf Stream was carrying them north and east as they tried to move west and they eventually turned south much further to the east than planned, a devastating navigational error. Off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland the fleet ran into a series of powerful westerly winds, which drove many of the damaged ships further towards the lee shore. Because so many anchors had been abandoned during the escape from the English fireships off Calais, many of the ships were incapable of securing shelter as they reached the coast of Ireland and were driven onto the rocks and local inhabitants looted the ships. The late 16th century and especially 1588, was marked by unusually strong North Atlantic storms, perhaps associated with a high accumulation of polar ice off the coast of Greenland, a characteristic phenomenon of the "Little Ice Age ''. More ships and sailors were lost to cold and stormy weather than in direct combat.
Following the gales it is reckoned that 5,000 men died by drowning, starvation and slaughter at the hands of English forces after they were driven ashore in Ireland. Reports of the passage of the remnants of the Spanish Armada around Ireland abound with onerous accounts of hardships and survival. In the end, 67 ships and fewer than 10,000 men survived. Many of the men were near death from disease, as the conditions were very cramped and most of the ships ran out of food and water. Many more later died in Spain, or on hospital ships in Spanish harbours, from diseases contracted during the voyage. It was reported that when Philip II learned of the result of the expedition, he declared, "I sent the Armada against men, not God 's winds and waves ''.
The English fleet was still cautious of the remaining Armada after the Battle of Gravelines, requiring it to remain on duty even as some of its sailors died. The following year Elizabeth I launched the Counter Armada, under Sir Francis Drake, but it was unsuccessful in its goals, resulting in Spain retaining naval superiority.
The Spanish failed to gain control of the Channel from the English, nor stop their intervention in the region of Flanders or their privateer transatlantic raids; however, for the sixteen years that the war continued, the English ultimately failed to disrupt the various fleets of the Indies, despite the great number of military personnel mobilised every year. The English were also unsuccessful in plots to support Portuguese separation from the Spanish crown. Spanish naval power not only continued its hegemony in the key trade routes but also in the creation of the Armada de Barlovento. An important fortification effort ensued in different fortifications at both sides of the Atlantic, notably in Cartagena or Portobelo. Despite the efforts by the English and Dutch, Spain remained the predominant power in Europe for several decades, thanks to sufficient financing and organisation as well as superior technology to enhance its naval strength.
The result vindicated the English strategy and caused in a revolution in naval tactics -- using weather gage advantage and line - to - line cannon battle from windward (revealing the opponent ship 's hull and rudder as targets) -- with the promotion of heavier, more numerous naval cannon, which until then had played a supporting role to the principal tactics of ramming and crew boarding.
Most military historians hold that the battle of Gravelines reflected a lasting shift in the balance of naval power in favour of the English, in part because of the gap in naval technology and cannon armament it confirmed between the two nations, which continued into the next century. In the words of Geoffrey Parker, by 1588 "the capital ships of the Elizabethan navy constituted the most powerful battlefleet afloat anywhere in the world ''. The English navy yards were leaders in technical innovation and the captains devised new battle formations and tactics. Parker argues that the sleeker full - rigged ship, amply cannoned, was one of the greatest technological advances of the century and permanently transformed naval warfare.
English shipwrights introduced designs in 1573, first demonstrated in Dreadnought, that allowed the ships to sail faster, manoeuvre better and carry heavier guns. Whereas before warships had tried to grapple with each other so that soldiers could board the enemy ship, now they more often stood off and fired broadsides that could sink the vessel. Superior English ships and seamanship had foiled the invasion. The English also took advantage of Spain 's overly complex strategy that required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore. The poor design of the Spanish cannon meant they were much slower in reloading in a close - range battle, allowing the English to take control. Spain still had numerically larger fleets but England was catching up.
In England, the boost to national pride from the defeat of the Spanish invasion attempt lasted for years and Elizabeth 's legend persisted and grew long after her death. Repulsing the Spanish naval force may have given heart to the Protestant cause across Europe and the belief that God was behind the Protestants. This was shown by the striking of commemorative medals that bore variations on the inscription, "1588. Flavit Jehovah et Dissipati Sunt '' -- with "Jehovah '' in Hebrew letters ("God blew, and they are scattered ''), or He blew with His winds, and they were scattered. There were also more lighthearted medals struck, such as the one with the play on the words of Julius Caesar: Venit, Vidit, Fugit (he came, he saw, he fled). The victory was acclaimed by the English as their greatest since Agincourt.
The English attempted to press home their advantage the following year, when the Drake -- Norris Expedition, with a comparable fleet of English privateers, sailed to establish a base in the Azores, attack Spain and raise a revolt in Portugal. This expedition, led by Sir Francis Drake and John Norreys were defeated in Corunna but withdrew from Lisbon after failing to coordinate its strategy effectively with the Portuguese. Two more armadas were sent by Spain, in 1596 and 1597 but both were once more scattered by storms.
The Spanish Navy underwent a major organizational reform that helped it to maintain control over its trans - Atlantic routes. High - seas buccaneering and the supply of troops to Philip II 's enemies in the Netherlands and France continued but brought few tangible rewards for England. The memory of the victory over the Armada was evoked during both the Napoleonic Wars and the Second World War, when Britain again faced a substantial danger of foreign invasion. The Armada Memorial in Plymouth was constructed in 1888 to celebrate the tercentenary of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
Knerr (1989) has reviewed the main trends in historiography over five centuries. For 150 years writers relied heavily on Petruccio Ubaldini 's A Discourse Concernye the Spanish Fleete Invadinye Englande (1590), which argued that God decisively favoured the Protestant cause. William Camden (1551 -- 1623) pointed in addition to elements of English nationalism and the private enterprise of the sea dogs. He also emphasized that the Duke of Medina Sidonia was an incompetent seaman. David Hume (1711 -- 1776) praised the leadership of Queen Elizabeth. However the Whig historians, led by James A. Froude (1818 -- 1894), rejected Hume 's interpretation and argued that Elizabeth was vacillating and almost lost the conflict by her unwillingness to previously spend enough to maintain and supply the Royal Navy 's fleet of ships. Scientific modern historiography came of age with the publication of two volumes of primary documents by John K. Laughton in 1894. This enabled the leading naval scholar of the day Julian Corbett (1854 -- 1922) to reject the Whig views and turn attention to the professionalization of the Royal Navy as a critical factor. Twentieth - century historians have focused on technical issues, such as the comparative power of English and Spanish naval guns and the degree of naval battle tactics credit due Francis Drake and Charles Howard. Inclement weather in the English Channel and on the oceans at the time has always been cited as a major factor to the outcome.
Coordinates: 50 ° 10 ′ 00 '' N 4 ° 15 ′ 42 '' W / 50.16667 ° N 4.26167 ° W / 50.16667; - 4.26167
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who considered an american tragedy to be a harrowing novel | An American Tragedy - wikipedia
An American Tragedy (1925) is a novel by the American writer Theodore Dreiser.
Ambitious, but ill - educated, naïve, and immature, Clyde Griffiths is raised by poor and devoutly religious parents to help in their street missionary work. As a young adult, Clyde must, to help support his family, take menial jobs as a soda jerk, then a bellhop at a prestigious Kansas City hotel. There, his more sophisticated colleagues introduce him to bouts of social drinking and sex with prostitutes.
Enjoying his new lifestyle, Clyde becomes infatuated with manipulative Hortense Briggs, who persuades Clyde to buy her an expensive fur jacket. When Clyde learns Hortense goes out with other men, he becomes jealous. Still Clyde would rather spend money on the fur coat than to help his sister who had eloped only to end up pregnant and abandoned.
Clyde 's life changes dramatically when his friend Sparser, driving Clyde, Hortense, and other friends back from a secluded rendezvous in the country in his boss ' car, used without permission, hits a little girl and kills her. Fleeing from the police at high speed, Sparser crashes the car. Everyone but Sparser and his partner flee the scene of the crime. Clyde leaves Kansas City, fearing prosecution as an accessory to Sparser 's crimes. This pattern of personal irresponsibility and panicked decision - making in Clyde 's life recurs in the story, culminating in the central tragedy of the novel.
While working as a bellboy at an exclusive club in Chicago, he meets his wealthy uncle Samuel Griffiths, the owner of a shirt - collar factory in the fictional city of Lycurgus, New York. Samuel, feeling guilt for neglecting his poor relations, offers to help Clyde if he will come to Lycurgus. When Clyde accepts the offer, his uncle gives Clyde a menial job at the factory. After that, Samuel Griffiths promotes him to a minor supervisory role.
Samuel Griffiths ' son Gilbert, Clyde 's immediate supervisor, warns Clyde that as a Griffiths, he should not consort with working class people especially women working under his supervision. At the same time the Griffiths pay Clyde little attention socially. As Clyde has no close friends in Lycurgus, he becomes lonely. Emotionally vulnerable, Clyde is drawn to Roberta Alden, a poor and innocent farm girl working in his office, who falls in love with him. Clyde secretly courts Roberta, ultimately persuading her to have sex with him rather than lose him, and makes her pregnant.
At the same time this is happening, elegant young socialite Sondra Finchley, daughter of another Lycurgus factory owner, takes an interest in Clyde, despite his cousin Gilbert 's efforts to keep them apart. Clyde 's engaging manner makes him popular among the young smart set of Lycurgus; he and Sondra become close, and he courts her as well as Roberta. Roberta expects Clyde to marry her to avert the shame of an unwed pregnancy, but Clyde now dreams instead of marrying Sondra.
Having failed to procure an abortion for Roberta, Clyde does n't give her more than desultory help with living expenses, while his relationship with Sondra matures. When Roberta threatens to reveal her relationship with Clyde, unless he marries her, he plans to murder her by drowning while they go boating, having read a local newspaper report of a boating accident.
Clyde takes Roberta out in a canoe on Big Moose Lake in upstate New York, and rows to a secluded bay. As he speaks to her regarding the end of their relationship, Roberta moves towards him, and he unintentionally strikes her in the face with a camera, stunning her and accidentally capsizing the boat. Roberta, unable to swim, drowns, while Clyde, unwilling to save her, swims to shore. The narrative implies that the blow was accidental, but the trail of circumstantial evidence left by the panicky and guilt - ridden Clyde points to murder.
The local authorities are eager to convict Clyde, to the point of manufacturing additional evidence against him, although he repeatedly incriminates himself with his confused and contradictory testimony. Clyde has a sensational trial before an unsympathetic and prejudiced jury of mostly religious conservative farmers. Despite a vigorous (and untruthful) defense by two lawyers hired by his uncle, Clyde is convicted, sentenced to death, and, after an appeal is denied, executed by electric chair. The jailhouse scenes and correspondence between Clyde and his mother are exemplars of pathos in modern literature.
Dreiser based the book on a notorious criminal case. On July 11, 1906, resort owners found an overturned boat and the body of Grace Brown at Big Moose Lake in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York. Chester Gillette was put on trial, and convicted of killing Brown, though he claimed that her death was a suicide. Gillette was executed by electric chair on March 30, 1908. The murder trial drew international attention when Brown 's love letters to Gillette were read in court. Dreiser saved newspaper clippings about the case for several years before writing his novel, during which he studied the case closely. He based Clyde Griffiths on Chester Gillette, deliberately giving him the same initials.
A strikingly similar murder took place in Wilkes - Barre, Pennsylvania, in 1934, when Robert Edwards clubbed Freda McKechnie, one of his two lovers, and placed her body in a lake. The cases were so similar that the press at the time dubbed the Edwards / McKechnie murder "The American Tragedy ''. Edwards was eventually found guilty, and also executed by electric chair.
The novel is a tragedy in the strict sense, Clyde 's destruction being the consequence of his innate weaknesses: moral and physical cowardice, lack of scruple and self - discipline, muddled intellect, and unfocused ambition; additionally, the effect of his ingratiating (Dreiser uses the word "soft '') social manner places temptation in his way which he can not resist.
This novel is full of symbolism, ranging from Clyde 's grotesque description of the high gloomy walls of the factory as an opportunity for success, symbolizing how it is all a mirage, to the description of girls as "electrifying '' to foreshadow Clyde 's destination to the electric chair; Dreiser transforms everyday mundane objects to symbols.
Dreiser sustains readers ' interest in the lengthy novel (over 800 pages) by the accumulation of detail, and by continually varying the "emotional distance '' of his writing from Clyde and other characters, from detailed examination of their thoughts and motivations to dispassionate reportage.
The novel has been adapted several times into other forms, and the storyline has been used, not always unattributed, as the basis for other works:
In 2005, the book was placed on Time Magazine 's list of the top 100 novels written in English since 1923.
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what is the only flag that can be flown above the u.s. flag | United States flag Code - wikipedia
The United States Flag Code establishes advisory rules for display and care of the national flag of the United States of America. It is Chapter 1 of Title 4 of the United States Code (4 U.S.C. § 1 et seq). This is a U.S. federal law, but the penalty described in Title 18 of the United States Code (18 U.S.C. § 700) for failure to comply with it is not enforced. In 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Eichman that prohibiting burning of the U.S. flag conflicts with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech and is therefore unconstitutional.
This etiquette is as applied within U.S. jurisdiction. In other countries and places, local etiquette applies.
Prior to Flag Day, June 14, 1923, neither the federal government nor the states had official guidelines governing the display of the United States ' flag. On that date, the National Flag Code was constructed by representatives of over 68 organizations, under the auspices of the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion. The code drafted by that conference was printed by the national organization of the American Legion and given nationwide distribution.
On June 22, 1942, the Code became Public Law 77 - 623; chapter 435. Little had changed in the code since the Flag Day 1923 Conference. The most notable change was the removal of the Bellamy salute due to its similarities to the Hitler salute.
The Freedom to Display the American Flag Act of 2005 prohibits real estate management organizations from restricting homeowners from displaying the Flag of the United States on their own property.
The Army Specialist Joseph P. Micks Federal Flag Code Amendment Act of 2007 added a provision to fly the flag at half - staff upon the death of a member of the Armed Forces from any State, territory, or possession who died while serving on active duty. It also gave the mayor of the District of Columbia the authority to direct that the flag be flown at half - staff. Federal facilities in the area covered by the governor or mayor of the District of Columbia will also fly the flag at half - staff as directed.
The Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009 (Sec. 595.) allows the military salute for the flag during the national anthem by members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and by veterans.
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trojan elder and husband of theano in greek myth | Antenor (Mythology) - wikipedia
Antenor (Greek: Ἀντήνωρ, Antḗnōr) was a counselor to King Priam of Troy in the legendary Greek accounts of the Trojan War.
Antenor was variously named as the son of the Dardanian noble Aesyetes by Cleomestra or of Hicetaon.
Antenor was one of the wisest of the Trojan elders and counsellors. He was the husband of Theano, daughter of Cisseus of Thrace, who bore him at least one daughter, Crino, and numerous sons, including Archelochus, Acamas, Glaucus, Helicaon, Laodocus, Coön, Polybus, Agenor, Iphidamas, Laodamas, Demoleon, Eurymachus, Hippolochus, Medon, Thersilochus, and Antheus (most of whom perished during the Trojan War). He was also the father of a son, Pedaeus, by an unknown woman. According to numerous scholars, Antenor was actually related to Priam.
In the Homeric account of the Trojan War, Antenor advised the Trojans to return Helen to her husband and otherwise proved sympathetic to a negotiated peace with the Greeks. In later developments of the myths, particularly per Dares and Dictys, Antenor was made an open traitor, unsealing the city gates to the enemy. As payment, his house -- marked by a panther skin over the door -- was spared during the sack of the city.
His subsequent fate varied across the authors. He was said to have rebuilt a city on the site of Troy; to have settled at Cyrene; or to have founded Patavium (modern Padua), Korčula, or other cities in eastern Italy.
Antenor appears briefly in Homer 's Iliad. In Book 3 he is present when Helen identifies for Priam each of the Greek warriors from the wall of Troy; when she describes Odysseus, Antenor criticizes her, saying how he entertained Odysseus and Menelaus and got to know both. In Book 7, as mentioned above, he advises the Trojans to give Helen back, but Paris refuses to yield.
Antenor is mentioned in Vergil 's Aeneid in book 1, line 243, when Venus tells Jupiter that Antenor had escaped from the fall of Troy and founded Patavium, modern Padua.
In Geoffrey Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde, Antenor appears as a minor, non-speaking, character who has been taken prisoner by the Greeks but is returned by them in exchange for Criseyde.
The circle Antenora is named after him in the poem Inferno in Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy. It is located in Hell 's Circle of Treachery which is reserved for traitors of cities, countries, and political parties.
The minor planet 2207 Antenor, discovered in 1977 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh, is named after him.
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how big is the atomic bomb that was dropped on hiroshima | Little Boy - wikipedia
"Little Boy '' was the code name for the nuclear bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 during World War II by the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress Enola Gay piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., commander of the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces. It was the first nuclear weapon used in warfare. The Hiroshima bombing was the second nuclear explosion in history, after the Trinity test, and the first uranium - based detonation. It exploded with an energy of approximately 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ) and caused widespread death and destruction throughout the city.
Little Boy was developed by Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II, a development of the unsuccessful Thin Man nuclear bomb. Like Thin Man, it was a gun - type fission weapon, but it derived its explosive power from the nuclear fission of uranium - 235, whereas Thin Man was based on fission of plutonium - 239. Fission was accomplished by shooting a hollow cylinder of enriched uranium (the "bullet '') onto a solid cylinder of the same material (the "target '') by means of a charge of nitrocellulose propellant powder. It contained 64 kg (141 lb) of enriched uranium, although less than a kilogram underwent nuclear fission. Its components were fabricated at three different plants so that no one would have a copy of the complete design.
After the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid-1946, the Hanford Site reactors began suffering badly from the Wigner effect, the dislocation of atoms in a solid caused by neutron radiation, and plutonium became scarce, so six Little Boy assemblies were produced at Sandia Base. The Navy Bureau of Ordnance built another 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the Lockheed P2V Neptune nuclear strike aircraft which could be launched from the Midway - class aircraft carriers. All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951.
Physicist Robert Serber named the first two atomic bomb designs during World War II based on their shapes: Thin Man and Fat Man. The "Thin Man '' was a long, thin device and its name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel and series of movies about The Thin Man. The "Fat Man '' was round and fat so it was named after Kasper Gutman, a rotund character in Hammett 's novel The Maltese Falcon, played by Sydney Greenstreet in the film version. Little Boy was named by others as an allusion to Thin Man, since it was based on its design.
Because uranium - 235 was known to be fissionable, it was the first material pursued in the approach to bomb development. As the first design developed (as well as the first deployed for combat), it is sometimes known as the Mark I. The vast majority of the work came in the form of the isotope enrichment of the uranium necessary for the weapon, since uranium - 235 makes up only 1 part in 140 of natural uranium. Enrichment was performed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where the electromagnetic separation plant, known as Y - 12, became fully operational in March 1944. The first shipments of highly enriched uranium were sent to the Los Alamos Laboratory in June 1944.
Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the bomb came from the Shinkolobwe mine and was made available thanks to the foresight of the CEO of the High Katanga Mining Union, Edgar Sengier, who had 1,000 long tons (1,000 t) of uranium ore transported to a New York warehouse in 1939. At least part of the 1,200 long tons (1,200 t) of uranium ore and uranium oxide captured by the Alsos Mission in 1944 and 1945 was used in the bomb.
Little Boy was a simplification of Thin Man, the previous gun - type fission weapon design. Thin Man, 17 feet (5.2 m) long, was designed to use plutonium, so it was also more than capable of using enriched uranium. The Thin Man design was abandoned after experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P - 5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor - produced plutonium from Oak Ridge and the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium - 240. This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than the cyclotron - produced plutonium on which the original measurements had been made, and its inclusion in reactor - bred plutonium (needed for bomb - making due to the quantities required) appeared unavoidable. This meant that the background fission rate of the plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely the plutonium would predetonate and blow itself apart in the initial forming of a critical mass.
In July 1944, almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion - type plutonium weapon. Overall responsibility for the uranium gun - type weapon was assigned to Captain William S. Parsons 's Ordnance (O) Division. All the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos was consolidated under Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group.
In contrast to the plutonium implosion - type nuclear weapon and the plutonium gun - type fission weapon, the uranium gun - type weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. The concept was pursued so that in case of a failure to develop a plutonium bomb, it would still be possible to use the gun principle. The gun - type design henceforth had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the Thin Man design to be greatly simplified. A high - velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon could be substituted. The simplified weapon was short enough to fit into a B - 29 bomb bay.
The design specifications were completed in February 1945, and contracts were let to build the components. Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. The gun and breech were made by the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C.; the target case and some other components were by the Naval Ordnance Plant in Center Line, Michigan; and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in Detroit, Michigan. The bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. The uranium - 235 projectile was completed on 15 June, and the target on 24 July. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on 16 July aboard the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis, arriving on 26 July. The target inserts followed by air on 30 July.
Although all of its components had been tested, no full test of a gun - type nuclear weapon occurred before the Little Boy was dropped over Hiroshima. The only test explosion of a nuclear weapon concept had been of an implosion - type device employing plutonium as its fissile material, and took place on 16 July 1945 at the Trinity nuclear test. There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device. Primarily, there was little uranium - 235 as compared with the relatively large amount of plutonium which, it was expected, could be produced by the Hanford Site reactors. Additionally, the weapon design was simple enough that it was only deemed necessary to do laboratory tests with the gun - type assembly. Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun - type design was considered almost certain to work.
Though Little Boy incorporated various safety mechanisms, an accidental detonation was nonetheless possible. For example, should the bomber carrying the device crash the hollow "bullet '' could be driven into the "target '' cylinder, detonating the bomb or at least releasing massive amounts of radiation; tests showed that this would require a highly unlikely impact of 500 times the force of gravity. Another concern was that a crash and fire could trigger the explosives. If immersed in water, the uranium components were subject to a neutron moderator effect, which would not cause an explosion but would release radioactive contamination. For this reason, pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea.
The Little Boy was 120 inches (300 cm) in length, 28 inches (71 cm) in diameter and weighed approximately 9,700 pounds (4,400 kg). The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub-critical mass of uranium - 235 and a solid target cylinder together into a super-critical mass, initiating a nuclear chain reaction. This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto the other by means of four cylindrical silk bags of cordite. The bomb contained 64 kg (141 lb) of enriched uranium. Most was enriched to 89 % but some was only 50 % uranium - 235, for an average enrichment of 80 %. Less than a kilogram of uranium underwent nuclear fission, and of this mass only 0.6 g (0.021 oz) was transformed into several forms of energy, mostly kinetic energy, but also heat and radiation.
Inside the weapon, the uranium - 235 material was divided into two parts, following the gun principle: the "projectile '' and the "target ''. The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60 % of the total mass (38.5 kg (85 lb)). It consisted of a stack of nine uranium rings, each 6.25 - inch (159 mm) in diameter with a 4 - inch (100 mm) bore in the center, and a total length of 7 inches (180 mm), pressed together into the front end of a thin - walled projectile 16.25 inches (413 mm) long. Filling in the remainder of the space behind these rings in the projectile was a tungsten carbide disc with a steel back. At ignition, the projectile slug was pushed 42 inches (1,100 mm) along the 72 - inch (1,800 mm) long, 6.5 - inch (170 mm) smooth - bore gun barrel. The slug "insert '' was a 4 inches (100 mm) cylinder, 7 inches (180 mm) in length with a 1 inch (25 mm) axial hole. The slug comprised 40 % of the total fissile mass (25.6 kg or 56 lb). The insert was a stack of six washer - like uranium discs somewhat thicker than the projectile rings that were slid over a 1 inch (25 mm) rod. This rod then extended forward through the tungsten carbide tamper plug, impact - absorbing anvil, and nose plug backstop, eventually protruding out of the front of the bomb casing. This entire target assembly was secured at both ends with locknuts.
When the hollow - front projectile reached the target and slid over the target insert, the assembled super-critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel, both materials having a combined mass of 2,300 kg (5,100 lb). Neutron initiators at the base of the projectile were activated by the impact.
For the first fifty years after 1945, every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small, solid projectile was fired into the center of a larger, stationary target. However, critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the larger, hollow piece would be the projectile. The assembled fissile core had more than two critical masses of uranium - 235. This required one of the two pieces to have more than one critical mass, with the larger piece avoiding criticality prior to assembly by means of shape and minimal contact with the neutron - reflecting tungsten carbide tamper.
A hole in the center of the larger piece dispersed the mass and increased the surface area, allowing more fission neutrons to escape, thus preventing a premature chain reaction. But, for this larger, hollow piece to have minimal contact with the tamper, it must be the projectile, since only the projectile 's back end was in contact with the tamper prior to detonation. The rest of the tungsten carbide surrounded the sub-critical mass target cylinder (called the "insert '' by the designers) with air space between it and the insert. This arrangement packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun - assembly design.
The fuzing system was designed to trigger at the most destructive altitude, which calculations suggested was 580 metres (1,900 ft). It employed a three - stage interlock system:
The Little Boy pre-assemblies were designated L - 1, L - 2, L - 3, L - 4, L - 5, L - 6, L - 7, and L - 11. L - 1, L - 2, L - 5, and L - 6 were expended in test drops. The first drop test was conducted with L - 1 on 23 July 1945. It was dropped over the sea near Tinian in order to test the radar altimeter by the B - 29 later known as Big Stink, piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, the commander of the 509th Composite Group. Two more drop tests over the sea were made on 24 and 25 July, using the L - 2 and L - 5 units in order to test all components. Tibbets was the pilot for both missions, but this time the bomber used was the one subsequently known as Jabit. L - 6 was used as a dress rehearsal on 29 July. The B - 29 Next Objective, piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney, flew to Iwo Jima, where emergency procedures for loading the bomb onto a standby aircraft were practiced. This rehearsal was repeated on 31 July, but this time L - 6 was reloaded onto a different B - 29, Enola Gay, piloted by Tibbets, and the bomb was test dropped near Tinian. L - 11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb.
Parsons, the Enola Gay 's weaponeer, was concerned about the possibility of an accidental detonation if the plane crashed on takeoff, so he decided not to load the four cordite powder bags into the gun breech until the aircraft was in flight. Parsons and his assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, made their way into the bomb bay along the narrow catwalk on the port side. Jeppson held a flashlight while Parsons disconnected the primer wires, removed the breech plug, inserted the powder bags, replaced the breech plug, and reconnected the wires. Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target, Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red. The bomb was then fully armed. Jeppson monitored the bomb 's circuits.
The bomb was dropped at approximately 08: 15 (JST) 6 August 1945. After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism. The detonation happened at an altitude of 1,968 ± 50 feet (600 ± 15 m). It was less powerful than the Fat Man, which was dropped on Nagasaki, but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. Of those deaths, 20,000 were members of the Imperial Japanese Army.
The exact measurement of the yield was problematic since the weapon had never been tested. President Harry S. Truman officially announced that the yield was 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ). This was based on Parsons 's visual assessment that the blast was greater than what he had seen at the Trinity nuclear test. Since that had been estimated at 18 kilotons of TNT (75 TJ), speech writers rounded up to 20 kilotons. Further discussion was then suppressed, for fear of lessening the impact of the bomb on the Japanese. Data had been collected by Luis Alvarez, Harold Agnew, and Lawrence H. Johnston on the instrument plane, The Great Artiste, but this was not used to calculate the yield at the time.
After hostilities ended, a survey team from the Manhattan Project that included William Penney, Robert Serber, and George T. Reynolds was sent to Hiroshima to evaluate the effects of the blast. From evaluating the effects on objects and structures, Penney concluded that the yield was 12 ± 1 kilotons. Later calculations based on charring pointed to a yield of 13 to 14 kilotons. In 1953, Frederick Reines calculated the yield as 13 kilotons. This figure became the official yield.
In 1962, scientists at Los Alamos created a mockup of Little Boy known as "Project Ichiban '' in order to answer some of the unanswered questions, but it failed to clear up all the issues. In 1982, Los Alamos created a replica Little Boy from the original drawings and specifications. This was then tested with enriched uranium but in a safe configuration that would not cause a nuclear explosion. A hydraulic lift was used to move the projectile, and experiments were run to assess neutron emission. Based on this and the data from The Great Artiste, the yield was estimated at 16.6 ± 0.3 kilotons. After considering many estimation methods, a 1985 report concluded that the yield was 15 kilotons ± 20 %.
When 1 pound (0.45 kg) of uranium - 235 undergoes complete fission, the yield is 8 kilotons. The 16 kiloton yield of the Little Boy bomb was therefore produced by the fission of 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of uranium - 235, out of the 141 pounds (64 kg) in the pit. The remaining 139 pounds (63 kg), 98.5 % of the total, contributed nothing to the energy yield.
After being selected in April 1945, Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target, where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed. While damage could be studied later, the energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation, using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb. Radio - transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 15 kilotons.
Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the 5 psi lethal area rule. Approximately 100 % of people inside the area where the shock wave carries an overpressure of 5 psi or greater would be killed. At Hiroshima, that area was 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) in diameter.
The damage came from three main effects: blast, fire, and radiation.
The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X-ray - heated air (the fireball) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions, initially at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning. Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima. Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances, but the Nagasaki bomb detonated 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings.
In Hiroshima almost everything within 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) of the point directly under the explosion was completely destroyed, except for about 50 heavily reinforced, earthquake - resistant concrete buildings, only the shells of which remained standing. Most were completely gutted, with their windows, doors, sashes, and frames ripped out. The perimeter of severe blast damage approximately followed the 5 psi (34 kPa) contour at 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi).
Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed the 5 psi overpressure threshold. Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it will be crushed, toppled, or gutted by the force of air pressure. The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear - bomb - generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953.
A major effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for fires that were started simultaneously throughout the severe destruction region.
The first effect of the explosion was blinding light, accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball. The Hiroshima fireball was 370 metres (1,200 ft) in diameter, with a surface temperature of 6,000 ° C (10,830 ° F). Near ground zero, everything flammable burst into flame. One famous, anonymous Hiroshima victim, sitting on stone steps 260 metres (850 ft) from the hypocenter, left only a shadow, having absorbed the fireball heat that permanently bleached the surrounding stone. Simultaneous fires were started throughout the blast - damaged area by fireball heat and by overturned stoves and furnaces, electrical shorts, etc. Twenty minutes after the detonation, these fires had merged into a firestorm, pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable.
The Hiroshima firestorm was roughly 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast damage zone. (See the USSBS map, right.) Blast - damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire. Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about. Debris - choked roads obstructed fire fighters. Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless. At Nagasaki, the fires failed to merge into a single firestorm, and the fire - damaged area was only one fourth as great as at Hiroshima, due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city.
As the map shows, the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks. The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast - damaged area, encountering less available fuel.
Accurate casualty figures are impossible to determine, because many victims were cremated by the firestorm, along with all record of their existence. The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60 % of immediate deaths were caused by fire, but with the caveat that "many persons near the center of explosion suffered fatal injuries from more than one of the bomb effects. '' In particular, many fire victims also received lethal doses of nuclear radiation.
Local fallout is dust and ash from a bomb crater, contaminated with radioactive fission products. It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce, with radiation alone, a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire. With an air burst, the fission products rise into the stratosphere, where they dissipate and become part of the global environment. Because Little Boy was an air burst 580 metres (1,900 ft) above the ground, there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout.
However, a burst of intense neutron and gamma radiation came directly from the fireball. Its lethal radius was 1.3 kilometres (0.8 mi), covering about half of the firestorm area. An estimated 30 % of immediate fatalities were people who received lethal doses of this direct radiation, but died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent. Over 6,000 people survived the blast and fire, but died of radiation injuries. Among injured survivors, 30 % had radiation injuries from which they recovered, but with a lifelong increase in cancer risk. To date, no radiation - related evidence of heritable diseases has been observed among the survivors ' children.
Although Little Boy exploded with the energy equivalent of 16,000 tons of TNT, the Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that the same blast and fire effect could have been caused by 2,100 tons of conventional bombs: "220 B - 29s carrying 1,200 tons of incendiary bombs, 400 tons of high - explosive bombs, and 500 tons of anti-personnel fragmentation bombs. '' Since the target was spread across a two - dimensional plane, the vertical component of a single spherical nuclear explosion was largely wasted. A cluster bomb pattern of smaller explosions would have been a more energy - efficient match to the target.
When the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid-1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect. Faced with the prospect of no more plutonium for new cores and no more polonium for the initiators for the cores that had already been produced, the Director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, ordered that some Little Boys be prepared as an interim measure until a cure could be found. No Little Boy assemblies were available, and no comprehensive set of diagrams of the Little Boy could be found, although there were drawings of the various components, and stocks of spare parts.
At Sandia Base, three Army officers, Captains Albert Bethel, Richard Meyer, and Bobbie Griffin attempted to re-create the Little Boy. They were supervised by Harlow W. Russ, an expert on Little Boy who served with Project Alberta on Tinian, and was now leader of the Z - 11 Group of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's Z Division at Sandia. Gradually, they managed to locate the correct drawings and parts, and figured out how they went together. Eventually, they built six Little Boy assemblies. Although the casings, barrels, and components were tested, no enriched uranium was supplied for the bombs. By early 1947, the problem caused by the Wigner effect was on its way to solution, and the three officers were reassigned.
The Navy Bureau of Ordnance built 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the nuclear - capable Lockheed P2V Neptune aircraft carrier aircraft (which could be launched from but not land on the Midway - class aircraft carriers). Components were produced by the Naval Ordnance Plants in Pocatello, Idaho, and Louisville, Kentucky. Enough fissionable material was available by 1948 to build ten projectiles and targets, although there were only enough initiators for six. All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951.
The Smithsonian Institution displayed a Little Boy (complete, except for enriched uranium), until 1986. The Department of Energy took the weapon from the museum to remove its inner components, so the bombs could not be stolen and detonated with fissile material. The government returned the emptied casing to the Smithsonian in 1993. Three other disarmed bombs are on display in the United States; another is at the Imperial War Museum in London.
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does vicks vapor rub have alcohol in it | Vicks VapoRub - wikipedia
Vicks VapoRub ointment is a mentholated topical ointment. VapoRub is indicated for use on the chest, back and throat for cough suppression due to the common cold or on muscles and joints for minor aches and pains. Vicks VapoRub has also been used to treat mosquito bites. Users of VapoRub often apply it immediately before sleep. VapoRub was originally manufactured by the family - owned company Richardson - Vicks, Inc., based in Greensboro, North Carolina.
Richardson - Vicks was sold to Procter & Gamble in 1985 and is now known as Vicks. VapoRub is also currently manufactured and packaged in India and Mexico. In German - speaking countries (the exception of Switzerland) it is sold under the name Wick VapoRub. VapoRub continues to be Vicks 's flagship product internationally, and the Vicks brand name is often used synonymously with the VapoRub product.
VapoRub can be inhaled with hot steam. Since VapoRub ointment is an oil - based medication, it should not be used under or inside the nose or inside the mouth, and it should not be swallowed. Any oil - based product can get into the lungs if used improperly.
In pre-clinical animal studies, the application of Vicks VapoRub directly onto the tracheae of ferrets caused an increase in mucus production compared to a water - based lubricant. However, since the authors used a water - based and not oil - based compound as a control, it is not possible to ascertain which component of Vicks VapoRub caused the increased mucus production. Because Vicks VapoRub was also directly applied to the ferret trachea, it is also difficult to extrapolate the results from this study to comment on possible irritation arising from the safe use of Vicks VapoRub in humans.
A Penn State study showed Vicks VapoRub to be more effective than placebo petroleum rub for helping cough and congestion with regards to helping children and even adults sleep. However, the study also showed that, unlike with the petroleum rub placebo, Vicks VapoRub was associated with burning sensations to the skin (28 %), nose (14 %) and eyes (16 %), with 5 % of study participants reporting redness and rash when using the product.
Another study suggests VapoRub is an effective cough medicine for guinea pigs.
It has been suggested that VapoRub can reduce or cure Onychomycosis.
Lunsford Richardson developed the formula in 1894 when he created a salve for his children, after traveling to France.
Active Ingredients: Label reads: Active Ingredients (Purpose)
Regular:
Lemon:
Inactive Ingredients
Regular & Lemon:
Lemon:
In India, Vicks VapoRub is made by Procter & Gamble (P&G). The formulation is almost the same as the one stated above. P&G states Vicks Vaporub to be an Ayurvedic Medicine, which is indicated on the package.
The ingredients (per 100 g of product) are stated as follows:
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who plays arthur mitchell's daughter in dexter | Arthur Mitchell (character) - wikipedia
Arthur Mitchell, often referred to as the "Trinity Killer '', is a fictional character in the Showtime TV series Dexter. The character is portrayed by John Lithgow, who won a Golden Globe Award and a Primetime Emmy Award for his performance. He is the main antagonist in season four. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked him # 34 of their "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time ''.
Arthur Mitchell is an unassuming suburbanite and family man -- who for 30 years has been living a double life as a serial killer. FBI agent Frank Lundy dubs him the "Trinity Killer '' because of a recurring pattern of three killings. First, Mitchell would kill a young woman in a bathtub by slicing her femoral artery with a straight razor while putting her in a choke hold, and holding up a small mirror so that he can see her face as she dies. His second victim is a married mother of two, whom he kidnaps and forces to jump to her death from an abandoned building. His third victim is a father of two, whom he bludgeons to death with a hammer. At each site he places a small sample of his sister 's ashes, and arranges the victim 's arm to point at the ash. He has repeated this cycle in different cities all over the United States. Frank Lundy 's superiors are skeptical about the existence of the Trinity Killer, leading him to launch a private inquiry into the murders that eluded him during his FBI career.
It is later discovered that, before these three, the Trinity Killer also kidnaps a young boy whom he dresses in cowboy pajamas and convinces to play with a train set in a recreation of his childhood. Following this, he will bury the boy alive in cement at a Four Walls ' building site. These killings were not connected to the pattern until shortly before Mitchell 's death, because the boys were reported as missing rather than dead.
At first, Dexter Morgan is fascinated by Mitchell 's efficient killing methods and apparent ability to balance his familial responsibilities with his secret life as a serial killer.
Mitchell lives with his wife, Sally, and his teenaged children, Jonah and Rebecca. He has another, older daughter by a previous relationship: Christine Hill, who witnessed one of his murders as a child. He treats her like a shameful secret, forbidding her from contacting him and keeping her existence hidden from his other family. She tries unsuccessfully to win his love, going so far as to commit murder for him; she kills FBI agent Frank Lundy and wounds Dexter 's adopted sister Debra to protect her father from the police. Her actions have the opposite of the intended effect, however: When he learns what she has done, Mitchell tells her he wishes she had never been born. She commits suicide shortly afterward.
Members of his family died in the same way as his victims: his sister died in a bathtub in 1959, his mother jumped to her death in 1961, and his father was bludgeoned to death (presumably by Arthur himself) in 1962.
In season four, Mitchell begins the cycle again, killing his victims at the original murder sites. After killing the woman in the bathtub, Mitchell takes a shower in scalding hot water and, after forcing a mother to fall to her death, he provokes a drunken man into beating him up.
FBI agent Frank Lundy comes out of retirement to hunt Trinity down, but is shot and killed just as he begins to close in on him. Lundy had theorized that Trinity was a loner who had no life outside killing. When Dexter goes to kill Trinity, he discovers that Trinity is a husband and father, as well as a prominent figure in a charitable Christian homebuilding organization. He uses this organization to travel around the country to cover for his murder spree, and (it is later learned) as a dump site for the first victim in his cycle.
Dexter is conflicted over whether to kill Mitchell or learn how he made his family life work. Dexter, under the alias of Kyle Butler, befriends Mitchell and soon learns that, unlike Dexter, Mitchell apparently has no problem being himself with his family or expressing affection. He also witnesses Mitchell 's strange, unpredictable personality; the same man who murders people with uncommon brutality starts crying when he and Dexter hit a deer, and is appalled at the idea of putting it out of its misery.
As Mitchell plans a trip to Tampa to build a house, Dexter concocts a plan to go to a meteorological convention to establish an alibi so he has a reason to be in Tampa as well. Mitchell reluctantly allows Dexter to tag along when Dexter claims he 's done something terrible that only Mitchell can help him recover from. Dexter, hoping to redeem his murder of an innocent man, plans to murder the decidedly guilty Mitchell along the way. During their road trip, however, Mitchell pushes Dexter to admit his terrible deed, and Dexter claims to have killed someone in a hunting accident. This admission greatly affects Mitchell, who sees it as a sign of kinship. He takes Dexter to his old home and tells him that when he was 10, he startled his sister while spying on her in the shower; she fell and broke the glass door, slicing her femoral artery and bleeding to death. His mother later committed suicide by leaping off a building, leaving him in the care of his abusive father; Dexter conjectures that Mitchell bludgeoned his father to death, accounting for the third victim.
For the remainder of the trip Mitchell exhibits sudden mood swings and irrational behavior. He keeps telling random people about his family members ' deaths and stresses the need for confession, to the point that Dexter is actually worried that Mitchell might tell people about Dexter 's previously mentioned murder. One morning, Dexter sneaks into Mitchell 's room, intent on killing him, only to find him gone. Dexter tracks him to a construction site where Mitchell attempts suicide. Dexter reluctantly stops him, wanting to kill Mitchell himself. Dexter contemplates letting Mitchell fall to his death, but as he 's about to let go, workers at the site come to help Dexter save him. Afterward, Mitchell has a newfound zest for life, believing God sent Dexter to save him.
As Dexter gets to know Mitchell, he learns that his would - be mentor is not the loving family man he appears to be; Mitchell dominates his wife, beats his son and keeps his daughter virtually imprisoned in her room. During Thanksgiving, Mitchell 's son, Jonah, lashes out at his father, destroying his homebuilder 's plaques and smashing his sister 's urn. In a fit of rage, Mitchell almost strangles Jonah, but Dexter interferes, dragging him into the kitchen. Just as Dexter has Mitchell at his mercy, however, Mitchell 's wife and daughter rush in to stop him.
Dexter witnesses Mitchell kidnap a child, but is unable to stop him. Eventually Dexter tracks him down as he 's about to bury the boy alive in drying concrete. Dexter saves the boy, but Mitchell escapes. After Mitchell learns from a news report that the boy is alive, and that Dexter did n't turn him in, he begins to become suspicious. As he tries to find Dexter he kills a man named Kyle Butler, and ultimately follows Dexter to the Miami Metro Police Department. There, he discovers Dexter 's real name.
In the last episode of the season, "The Getaway '', Dexter subdues Mitchell and prepares to kill him in the room where Mitchell had held the kidnapped child. Mitchell believes Dexter was sent by God to kill him, and claims that he had tried several times to stop killing, but found that he could not change his "path ''. He predicts a similar fate for Dexter: he tells Dexter "It 's already over '', the same thing he says to his victims before he kills them. Dexter then kills him with a hammer. It is revealed in the final scene of the episode that Mitchell killed Dexter 's wife, Rita, in the bathtub of Dexter 's house, and that he left Dexter 's son Harrison in her blood, mirroring the childhood trauma that put Dexter on the path to becoming a serial killer.
Miami Metro detective Joey Quinn suspects Dexter of killing Rita, and he connects the dots as for the identity of Kyle Butler. Anxious to further his investigation, Quinn requests permission from Captain Maria LaGuerta, but she denies his request and orders him to leave Dexter alone. Undeterred, Quinn finds Jonah Mitchell amidst being relocated into witness protection with the rest of his family, and tries to show him a picture of Dexter so that Jonah can confirm whether or not it is "Kyle Butler ''. However, one of the FBI convoys manages to intercept Quinn 's attempt before he succeeds, and so Quinn 's query remains unanswered.
In the sixth season, Dexter hears news about the Mitchell family, who are now living in Nebraska: Mitchell 's wife, Sally, and daughter, Rebecca, have been murdered in the same way as were Mitchell 's victims. Dexter deduces that Jonah is the killer, and hunts him down. At first, Jonah claims his father killed them both, but later gets into a fight with Dexter, seemingly wanting to die by Dexter 's hand. Confused, Dexter gets Jonah to confess that Rebecca actually committed suicide because their mother kept blaming the children for Mitchell 's capture; upon finding her, Jonah flew into a fit of rage and killed his mother, bludgeoning her in the same manner that his father killed his victims. Dexter tells Jonah to forgive himself, and leaves.
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my youth love comedy is wrong as i expected | My Youth Romantic Comedy is Wrong, as I Expected - wikipedia
My Youth Romantic Comedy Is Wrong, As I Expected (Japanese: やはり 俺 の 青春 ラブコメ は まちがっ て いる., Hepburn: Yahari Ore no Seishun Rabukome wa Machigatteiru.), abbreviated as OreGairu (俺 ガイル) and Hamachi (はまち), and also known as My Teen Romantic Comedy SNAFU, is a Japanese light novel series written by Wataru Watari and illustrated by Ponkan8 about a socially awkward boy who is forced by his teacher to join the school 's service club, working with two girls who have their own, personal issues to offer help and advice to others while dealing with their inner conflicts.
There are three ongoing manga adaptations and two anthology volumes. It has been adapted into an anime television series, which aired between April 4 and June 27, 2013 and was followed by a second season which aired between April 2 and June 25, 2015. A video game, titled Yahari Game demo Ore no Seishun Rabukome wa Machigatteiru. and published by 5pb., for the PlayStation Vita was released on September 19, 2013. A second video game also by 5pb was released on October 27, 2016.
The story follows two loners: the pragmatic Hachiman Hikigaya and beautiful Yukino Yukinoshita, who, despite their varying personalities and ideals, offer help and advice to others as part of their school 's Service Club, assisted by the cheerful and friendly Yui Yuigahama. It largely depicts various social situations faced by teens in a high school setting and the psychology driving their interactions.
The main characters in the series are members of the school 's service club, which is run by Yukino Yukinoshita.
The light novel series is written by Wataru Watari and illustrated by Ponkan8. It is being published by Shogakukan under the Gagaga Bunko imprint. The first volume was published on March 18, 2011, and as of June 24, 2015, 11 volumes have been released.
Volumes 3, 4, 7, and 8 were published simultaneously with limited special editions. The special editions of the 3rd and 7th volumes were bundled with drama CDs and those of the 4th and 8th volumes -- with art books by Ponkan8 and guest illustrators. A set of the first 7 volumes was released on March 19, 2013. A collection of short stories, volume 7.5, was published on August 20, 2013. Three additional short volumes, 6.25, 6.50 and 6.75 were bundled with the limited editions of the 1st, 3rd and 5th DVD and BD volumes respectively of the anime series, and were released as single volume, numbered 6.5, on July 22, 2014. A limited special edition of it was bundled with a drama CD. Another short story collection volume, labeled 10.5, was released on March 18, 2015.
A drama CD, titled Tatoeba Konna Birthday Song (たとえば こんな バースデー ソング, subtitled with "Birthday Song for you ''), was released with a special edition of the 3rd light novel on November 18, 2011. The drama CD contains a character song, sung by Saori Hayami and Nao Tōyama, titled "Bright Generation '' and composed by Yukari Hashimoto. A second drama CD, titled Hikigaya Komachi no Keiryaku (比企 谷 小町 の 計略, subtitled with "His sister 's tactics ''), was sold together with the first one at Marvelous AQL 's booth at Comiket 83, held on December 29, 30, and 31, 2012. A third drama CD, titled Kanojotachi no, We Will Rock You (彼女 たち の 、 うぃ ー ・ うぃ る ・ ろ っ く ・ ゆー ♡, subtitled with "We will... We will rock "you ''!! "), was bundled with the special edition of the 7th volume, published on March 19, 2013. The drama CD contains a character song by Saori Hayami and Nao Tōyama, titled "Rock You!! '' and composed and arranged by Yūya Saitō. A fourth drama CD, titled Sono Christmas Candle no Akari ga Yureru Toki... (その クリスマス キャンドル の 灯 が 揺れる 時.......), was released with the special edition of volume 6.5 on July 22, 2014. The fourth drama CD contains a character song by Saori Hayami and Nao Tōyama, titled "Kimi to Merry Christmas '' (君 と Merry Christmas).
The first manga adaptation is illustrated by Rechi Kazuki and published by Square Enix under the title Yahari Ore no Seishun Rabu Kome wa Machigatteiru. - Monologue - (やはり 俺 の 青春 ラブコメ は まちがっ て いる. - 妄言 録 -). Its serialization began in the magazine Big Gangan on September 25, 2012. As of September 7, 2016, there have been nine tankōbon published. A second series, illustrated by Naomichi Io and titled Yahari Ore no Seishun Rabu Kome wa Machigatteiru. @ comic (やはり 俺 の 青春 ラブコメ は まちがっ て いる. @ comic) began serialization in Shogakukan 's Monthly Sunday Gene - X magazine. The first chapter was published in the magazine 's January 2013 edition, released on December 19, 2012. It has been collected into four tankōbon volumes, published, between May 17, 2013 and November 19, 2014 A 4 - panel manga series by Yūta Taneda is published by Ichijinsha under the title Yahari 4 - koma demo Ore no Seishun Rabu Kome wa machigatteiru. (やはり 4 コマ でも 俺 の 青春 ラブコメ は まちがっ て いる.). A preview chapter was published in the May 2013 issue of the Manga 4 - koma Palette magazine, released on March 22, 2013, and the first chapter -- in the June 2013 issue, on April 22, 2013. A tankōbon volume of it was released on June 21, 2014. An anthology volume by several authors was published by Ichijinsha under their DNA Media Comics imprint on May 25, 2013, and a second one, on July 25, 2013.
A 13 - episode anime television series, directed by Ai Yoshimura and produced by Brain 's Base, aired between April 5 and June 21, 2013, with an additional anime - original episode with writing by Wataru Watari following the series on June 27, 2013. The series was simulcast with English subtitles by Crunchyroll. An OVA episode on Blu - ray Disc was bundled with the limited edition of the video game, released on September 19, 2013. The opening theme is "Yukitoki '' (ユキトキ) by Nagi Yanagi and the ending is "Hello Alone '' by Saori Hayami and Nao Tōyama. The anime has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks in North America and Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand.
A second season was announced by Shogakukan in 2014. The season, titled "Yahari Ore no Seishun Love Come wa Machigatteiru. Zoku '', is produced by Studio Feel and directed by Kei Oikawa, with character designs by Yuichi Tanaka and series composition by Shōtarō Suga. It aired between April 3 and June 26, 2015. The main opening theme is "Harumodoki '' (春 擬 き) by Yanagi. The season 's main ending theme is "Everyday World. '' (エブリデイ ワールド) by Yukino Yukinoshita (Hayami) and Yui Yuigahama (Tōyama). The second season has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks. An OVA episode, titled Undoubtedly, Girls Are Made of Sugar, Spice, and Something Nice (きっと 、 女の子 はお 砂糖 と スパイス と 素敵 な 何 か で でき て いる, Kitto, Onna no Ko wa Osatō to Spice to Suteki na Nanika de Dekiteiru), is bundled with the limited edition of the second video game, which was released on October 27, 2016.
A video game for PlayStation Vita, titled Yahari Game demo Ore no Seishun Rabu Kome wa Machigatteiru. (やはり ゲーム でも 俺 の 青春 ラブコメ は まちがっ て いる., lit. "My Youth Romantic Comedy even in Game is Wrong As I Expected. '') was published by 5pb. and released on September 19, 2013. Takuya Eguchi, Saori Hayami, and Nao Tōyama reprised their roles from the anime. The limited edition was bundled with an OVA episode. 5pb. is currently developing a second video game for the series for the PlayStation Vita that will adapt the second season of the anime television series. It was released on October 27, 2016. Like the first game, the limited edition was bundled with an OVA episode. The release date of the second game was postponed from July 28, 2016 to October 27, 2016 on June 14, 2016.
My Youth Romantic Comedy Is Wrong, As I Expected was chosen as the best light novel of Japan according to the online polls compiled by the Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi! annual guide book in 2014, 2015 and 2016. Hachiman Hikigaya was elected the best male character in 2014, 2015 and 2016, Yukino Yukinoshita was elected the best female character in 2015 and Ponkan8, the series ' artist, was chosen as the best illustrator in 2015 and 2016.
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where does eastern ghats and western ghats meet | Eastern Ghats - wikipedia
The Eastern Ghats or Kizhakku thodarchi malaigal or Pūrva Ghaṭ or toorpu kanumalu, also known as Mahendra Parvatam in the south, are a discontinuous range of mountains along India 's eastern coast. The Eastern Ghats run from the northern Odisha through Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south passing some parts of Karnataka. They are eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of peninsular India, known as the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.
The mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. The Deccan Plateau lies to the west of the range, between the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. The coastal plains, including the Coromandel Coast region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The Eastern Ghats are not as high as the Western Ghats.
The Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats, and have a complex geologic history related to the assembly and breakup of the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia and the assembly of the Gondwana supercontinent.
The Eastern Ghats are made up of charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, metamorphic gneisses and quartzite rock formations. The structure of the Eastern Ghats includes thrusts and strike - slip faults all along its range. Limestone, bauxite and iron ore are found in the Eastern Ghats hill ranges.
The Eparchaean Unconformity of the Tirumala Hills is a major discontinuity of stratigraphic significance that represents an extensive period of erosion and non-deposition. It is seen at the steep natural slopes, road scars and ravines in the Tirumala ghat roads in the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.
As with the Western Ghats, these mountain ranges also have local names along the discontinuous hill ranges.
At their southern end, the Eastern Ghats form several ranges of low hills. The southernmost of the Eastern Ghats are the low Sirumalai and Karanthamalai Hills of southern Tamil Nadu.
North of the Kaveri River are the higher Kollimalai, Pachaimalai, Shevaroy (Servarayan), Kalrayan Hills, Chitteri, Palamalai and Mettur Hills in northern Tamil Nadu state. The climate of the higher hill ranges is generally cooler and wetter than the surrounding plains, and the hills are home to coffee plantations and enclaves of dry forest.
The hill station of Yercaud is located in the Shevaroy Hills. The Biligiriranga Hills, which run east from the Western Ghats to the River Kaveri, form a forested ecological corridor that connects the Eastern and Western Ghats, and allows the second - largest wild Asian elephant population in India to range between the South Eastern Ghats, the Biligiriranga Hills and Nilgiri Hills, and the South Western Ghats.
The Malai Mahadeshwara Hills Temple is situated in Chamarajanagar district in Karnataka state in the Eastern Ghats.
The Ponnaiyar and Palar rivers flow from headwaters on the Kolar Plateau eastward through gaps in the Ghats to empty into the Bay of Bengal; the Javadi Hills lie between the two rivers. There are waterfalls in remote areas, such as the Kiliyur Falls.
Some 40 km from the south end of the Javadu Hills starts the Kalvarayan Hill range. The name Kalvarayan comes from the native people known as "kalvar ''. This hill range brings much more rainfall to the eastern part of its surrounding areas during the northwest monsoon. The Thenponnaiyar River divides this hill range from the Javadu Hills in the north. The hills continue as the Shervarayan Hills further southwest divided by Manchavaadi Pass. The Komuki River originates in this range and flows into the Bay of Bengal, along with the Kaveri River.
North of the Palar River in Andhra Pradesh, the central portion of the Eastern Ghats consists of two parallel ranges running approximately north - south. The lower Velikonda Range lies to the east, and the higher Palikonda - Lankamalla - Nallamalai Ranges lie to the west. They run in a nearly north - south alignment, parallel to the Coromandel Coast for close to 430 km between the Krishna and Pennar rivers. Its northern boundaries are marked by the flat Palnadu basin, while in the south it merges with the Tirupati hills. An extremely old system, the hills have been extensively weathered and eroded over the years. The average elevation today is about 520 m, but reaches 1,100 m at Bhairani Konda and 1,048 m at Gundla Brahmeswara.
The Tirumala Hills are located along the Seshachalam - Velikonda Range of the Eastern Ghats. The Palar River cuts through the ranges. The Velikonda Range eventually descends to the coastal plain in northern Nellore district, while the Nallamalla Range in kurnool continues to the River Krishna.
The Kondapalli Hills are a range of low hills which lie between the Krishna and the Godavari rivers. These hills are located in the Guntur, Krishna, West Godavari and Khammam districts of Andhra Pradesh. The Krishna River bisects these hills of the Eastern Ghats. The main hill range starts from Nandigrama to Vijayawada known as Kondapalli.
The Papi Hills (Papi Kondalu) are distributed among the Khammam, East Godavari and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh and lie in the Eastern Ghats.
Madhurawada Dome in the Eastern Ghats mobile belt is formed by a tectonic arrangement with the khondalite suite and quartz Archean rocks along the Eastern Ghats north of Visakhapatnam.
The Maliya Range is located in the northern portion of the Eastern Ghats. The Maliya Range generally ranges between elevations of 900 -- 1200 m, although some of its summits soar higher. The tallest peak in this range is Mahendragiri (1,501 m).
The Madugula Konda Range is located in the northern portion of the Eastern Ghats. The Madugula Konda range is higher than the Maliyas and generally ranges between elevations of 1100 -- 1400 m. Prominent summits include the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats - Arma Konda (1680 m), Gali Konda (1643 m) and Sinkram Gutta (1620 m).
The highest mountain peak in the state of Odisha is Deomali (1672 m), which is situated in the Koraput district of southern Odisha. It is part of the Chandragiri - Pottangi mountain system. The region covers about three - fourths of the entire Odisha state. Geologically it is a part of the Indian Peninsula which was a part of the ancient land mass of Gondwanaland. The major rivers of Odisha with their tributaries have cut deep and narrow valleys.
The Garhjat Range is a northeastern prolongation of the eastern Ghats which rises abruptly and steeply in the east and slopes gently to a dissected plateau in the west running from north - west (Mayurbhanj) to south - west (Malkangiri). The Odisha highlands are also known as the Garhjat Hills. This region is well marked by a number of interfluves or watersheds which interrupt the terrain in the form of broad and narrow river valleys and flood plains. The average height of this region is about 900 metres above mean sea level.
The Similipal Massif is considered the farthest northeast extension of the Eastern Ghats.
The Eastern Ghats are the source points for many small and medium rivers along the east coastal plains of South India.
Rivers flowing through Eastern Ghats include:
Rivers originating on the Eastern Ghats include:
The Eastern Ghats consist of different ecoregions along its range from south to north along the east coast of India. The important ecoregions consist of Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests, East Deccan dry evergreen forests, Deccan thorn scrub forests, shrub lands, and South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests.
The southern tropical thorn scrub type forests consist of open, low vegetation that is characterised by thorny trees with short trunks and low, branching crowns that rarely meet to form a closed canopy. Typical grasses of the ecoregion include Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, Eremopogon foveolatus, Aristida setacea, and Dactyloctenium species. The plants that dominate the vegetation in these forests are acacia species, Balanites roxburghii, Cordia myxa, Capparis spp., Prosopis spp., Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula, Diospyros chloroxylon, Carissa carandas, and Phoenix sylvestris. There are also several other habitat types found in these forests.
Flora of medicinal and botanical interest include an endemic cycad (Cycas beddomei) and Psilotum nudum. A small patch of the tree Shorea talura also exists within the Chittoor forest division, part of which is being maintained as a preservation plot by the Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh. The area between the Nallamalai and Seshachalam Hills is well known for the red sandal (Pterocarpus santalinus), a rare, endemic tree species that is harvested for the medicinal value of its wood.
The Eastern Highlands moist deciduous ecoregion 's forests are dominated by sal (Shorea robusta), in association with Terminalia, Adina, Toona, Syzygium, Buchanania, Cleisanthus, and Anogeissus. The flora of the ecoregion share many affinities with the moist forests of the Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas.
The original vegetation of the Deccan dry evergreen forests ecoregion consisted of forests with an understory of evergreen trees and an emergent canopy of taller deciduous trees, including sal (Shorea robusta), Albizia amara and Chloroxylon spp. Intensive human use of the forests over the centuries has mostly eliminated the deciduous canopy species, and the ecoregion 's remaining forests are now characterized by areas of leathery - leaved evergreen forest, with a relatively low (10 - metre) closed canopy.
Predominant species are Manilkara hexandra, Mimusops elengi, Ceylon ebony (Diospyros ebenum), strychnine tree (Strychnos nux - vomica), Eugenia spp., Drypetes sepiaria, and Flacourtia indica. A few small enclaves of deciduous sal forest exist but are under intensive human pressure. Most of the ecoregion 's forests have been degraded into tropical dry evergreen scrublands, characterized by thorny species such as Ziziphus glaberrima, Dichrostachys cinerea, Catunaregam spinosa, and Carissa spinarum.
Calophyllum inophyllum
Pterocarpus santalinus
Dichrostachys cinerea
Helicteres isora
Blepharis maderaspatensis
Artocarpus heterophyllus
The endemic fauna of the Eastern Ghats are the Jerdon 's courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus) and grey slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus). The rare geckos found here are the Indian golden gecko (Calodactylodes aureus), rock gecko (Hemiphyllodactylus aurantiacus), and Sharma 's skink Eutropis nagarjuni.
Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), Madras treeshrew (Anathana ellioti), common grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica), Indian bison (Bos gaurus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), common muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), Indian leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), dhole (Cuon alpinus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica), Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis), Asian house shrew (Suncus murinus), tufted grey langur (Semnopithecus priam), Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), Bengal fox (Vulpes bengalensis), smooth - coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), jungle cat (Felis chaus), cheetal (Axis axis), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), Indian mole - rat (Bandicota bengalensis)
Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), red - wattled lapwing (Vanellus indicus), spot - billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), blue peafowl (Pavo cristatus), Indian pond heron (Ardeola grayii), hoopoe (Upupa epops), spotted owlet (Athene brama), greater coucal (Centropus sinensis), pied crested cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus), Oriental white ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus), Indian pitta (Pitta brachyura), Indian paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi), red - vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer), red - whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), jungle babbler (Turdoides striata), painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala), black - rumped flameback (Dinopium benghalense), brahminy kite (Haliastur indus), jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus), Indian spotted eagle (Aquila hastata), Indian vulture (Gyps indicus), Malabar whistling thrush (Myophonus horsfieldii)
Indian sunbeam (Curetis thetis)
Common Mormon (Papilio polytes)
Yellow pansy (Junonia hierta) - female
Three - spot grass yellow (Eurema blanda)
Common pierrot (Castalius rosimon)
Tawny coster (Acraea terpsicore)
Up to 30 species of amphibians including the Gunther 's toad (Bufo hololius), pond frogs (Euphlyctis), cricket frog (Fejervarya), bull frogs (Hoplobatrachus), burrowing frogs (Sphaerotheca), balloon frogs (Uperodon), small - mouthed frogs (Microhyla), and tree frog (Polypedates) occur here. Endemic ones include the golden - backed frogs (Hylarana spp.), the bush frog Raorchestes terebrans and the recently described caecilian Gegeneophis orientalis and an Ichthyophis species that is known from old records.
Nearly 100 species of reptiles occur in the Eastern Ghats. Many endangered species are also present, including the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), Indian black turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), Indian flapshell turtle (Lissemys punctata), Indian tent turtle (Pangshura tentoria), Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans), Leith 's softshell turtle (Nilssonia leithii), many of which are found in the northern rivers and riverine valley tracts.
Among lizards are the Roux 's forest calotes Calotes rouxii, those of the genera (Psammophilus), (Sitana), Indian chameleon (Chamaeleo zeylanicus), Reticulated gecko (Hemidactylus reticulatus), the rock geckoes Hemidactylus giganteus, Hemidactylus graniticolus, the golden gecko (Calodactylodes aureus), the slender gecko (Hemiphyllodactylus aurantiacus), the rare ground geckoes (Geckoella nebulosa), (Geckoella collegalensis), the recently rediscovered (Geckoella jeyporensis), Leschenault 's snake - eye (Ophisops leschenaultii), Blinking snake - eye (Ophisops minor), Ashwamedh 's skink (Eutropis ashwamedhii), Beddome 's skink Eutropis beddomei, Nagarjun 's skink (Eutropis nagarjuni) and Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis). Noteworthy lizards include the endemic, fossorial genera of leg-less skinks such as Sepsophis punctatus, Barkudia melanosticta and Barkudia insularis that are known only from the northern ranges and along the adjoining Eastern coastal plains in northern Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
Among snakes are the beaked worm snake (Grypotyphlops acutus), the endemic shield - tailed snakes like Uropeltis ellioti, Uropeltis shorttii, the recently described Rhinophis goweri, the endangered Indian rock python (Python molurus), Forsten 's cat snake (Boiga forsteni), yellow - green cat snake (Boiga flaviviridis), Srilankan flying snake (Chrysopelea taprobanica), Nagarjun Sagar racer (Coluber bholanathi), green keelback (Macropisthodon plumbicolor), Duméril 's black - headed snake (Sibynophis subpunctatus), Indian reed snake (Liopeltis calamaria). Apart from the Big Four Indian venomous snakes, endemic ones like the Beddome 's coral snake (Calliophis beddomei) and the Indian green Bamboo pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus) and the rare King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) and the Banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus) are also known from parts of this region.
Sanctuaries and national parks of the Eastern Ghats:
The Eastern Ghats are home to many Buddhist ruins, from Odisha to South Andhra. Andhra Pradesh has 140 listed Buddhist sites, which provide a panoramic view of the history of Buddhism from the 3rd century BCE to the 14th century CE. There are as many as 501 inscriptions engraved upon various media, including lithic, copper plates, crystals, pots, and conch, of which 360 are lithic records, 7 are sets of copper plates, and 134 are inscribed pots and conches.
Some of the famous Buddhist sites in the Eastern Ghats include:
Some Hindu pilgrimage sites in the Eastern Ghats are:
Coordinates: 15.418 ° 0 ′ N 78.789 ° 0 ′ E / 15.418 ° N 78.789 ° E / 15.418; 78.789
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of the four galilean moons which is the closest to jupiter | Galilean moons - wikipedia
The Galilean moons are the four largest moons of Jupiter -- Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were first seen by Galileo Galilei in January 1610, and recognized by him as satellites of Jupiter in March 1610. They were the first objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of Zeus. They are among the largest objects in the Solar System with the exception of the Sun and the eight planets, with a radius larger than any of the dwarf planets. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is even bigger than the planet Mercury, though only around half as massive. The three inner moons -- Io, Europa, and Ganymede -- are in a 4: 2: 1 orbital resonance with each other. Because of their much smaller size, and therefore weaker self - gravitation, all of Jupiter 's remaining moons have irregular forms rather than a spherical shape.
The Galilean moons were discovered in either 1609 or 1610 when Galileo made improvements to his telescope, which enabled him to observe celestial bodies more distinctly than ever. Galileo 's discovery showed the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that can not be seen by the naked eye. More importantly, the incontrovertible discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a serious blow to the then - accepted Ptolemaic world system, or the geocentric theory in which everything orbits around Earth.
Galileo initially named his discovery the Cosmica Sidera ("Cosimo 's stars ''), but the names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius. Marius discovered the moons independently at the same time as Galileo, and gave them their present names, which were suggested by Johannes Kepler, in his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614.
As a result of improvements Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a magnifying capability of 20 ×, he was able to see celestial bodies more distinctly than was ever possible before. This allowed Galilei to discover in either December 1609 or January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons.
On January 7, 1610, Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiter 's moons. At the time, he saw only three of them, and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter. He continued to observe these celestial orbs from January 8 to March 2, 1610. In these observations, he discovered a fourth body, and also observed that the four were not fixed stars, but rather were orbiting Jupiter.
Galileo 's discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by showing that there were objects in space to be discovered that until then had remained unseen by the naked eye. More importantly, the discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a blow to the then - accepted Ptolemaic world system, which held that Earth was at the center of the universe and all other celestial bodies revolved around it. Galileo 's Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), which announced celestial observations through his telescope, does not explicitly mention Copernican heliocentrism, a theory that placed the Sun at the center of the universe. Nevertheless, Galileo accepted the Copernican theory.
A Chinese historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, has claimed that a "small reddish star '' observed near Jupiter in 362 BCE by Chinese astronomer Gan De may have been Ganymede, predating Galileo 's discovery by around two millennia.
In 1605, Galileo had been employed as a mathematics tutor for Cosimo de ' Medici. In 1609, Cosimo became Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany. Galileo, seeking patronage from his now - wealthy former student and his powerful family, used the discovery of Jupiter 's moons to gain it. On February 13, 1610, Galileo wrote to the Grand Duke 's secretary:
"God graced me with being able, through such a singular sign, to reveal to my Lord my devotion and the desire I have that his glorious name live as equal among the stars, and since it is up to me, the first discoverer, to name these new planets, I wish, in imitation of the great sages who placed the most excellent heroes of that age among the stars, to inscribe these with the name of the Most Serene Grand Duke. ''
Galileo asked whether he should name the moons the "Cosmian Stars '', after Cosimo alone, or the "Medician Stars '', which would honor all four brothers in the Medici clan. The secretary replied that the latter name would be best.
On March 12, 1610, Galileo wrote his dedicatory letter to the Duke of Tuscany, and the next day sent a copy to the Grand Duke, hoping to obtain the Grand Duke 's support as quickly as possible. On March 19, he sent the telescope he had used to first view Jupiter 's moons to the Grand Duke, along with an official copy of Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger) that, following the secretary 's advice, named the four moons the Medician Stars. In his dedicatory introduction, Galileo wrote:
Scarcely have the immortal graces of your soul begun to shine forth on earth than bright stars offer themselves in the heavens which, like tongues, will speak of and celebrate your most excellent virtues for all time. Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for your illustrious name... which... make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed around the star of Jupiter... like children of the same family... Indeed, it appears the Maker of the Stars himself, by clear arguments, admonished me to call these new planets by the illustrious name of Your Highness before all others.
Galileo initially called his discovery the Cosmica Sidera ("Cosimo 's stars ''), in honour of Cosimo II de ' Medici (1590 -- 1621). At Cosimo 's suggestion, Galileo changed the name to Medicea Sidera ("the Medician stars ''), honouring all four Medici brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo). The discovery was announced in the Sidereus Nuncius ("Starry Messenger ''), published in Venice in March 1610, less than two months after the first observations.
Other names put forward include:
The names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius, who discovered the moons independently at the same time as Galileo: he named them at the suggestion of Johannes Kepler after lovers of the god Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter): Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, in his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614.
Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius ' names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel with proper moon names. The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto respectively. Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it. The numbered names (Jupiter x) were used until the mid-20th century when other inner moons were discovered, and Marius ' names became widely used.
Galileo was able to develop a method of determining longitude based on the timing of the orbits of the Galilean moons. The times of the eclipses of the moons could be precisely calculated in advance, and compared with local observations on land or on ship to determine the local time and hence longitude. The main problem with the technique was that it was difficult to observe the Galilean moons through a telescope on a moving ship; a problem that Galileo tried to solve with the invention of the celatone. The method was used by Cassini and Picard to re-map France.
Some models predict that there may have been several generations of Galilean satellites in Jupiter 's early history. Each generation of moons to have formed would have spiraled into Jupiter and been destroyed, due to tidal interactions with Jupiter 's proto - satellite disk, with new moons forming from the remaining debris. By the time the present generation formed, the gas in the proto - satellite disk had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons ' orbits. Other models suggest that Galilean satellites formed in a proto - satellite disk, in which formation timescales were comparable to or shorter than orbital migration timescales. Io is anhydrous and likely has an interior of rock and metal. Europa is thought to contain 8 % ice and water by mass with the remainder rock. These moons are, in increasing order of distance from Jupiter:
Io (Jupiter I) is the innermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and, with a diameter of 3642 kilometers, the fourth - largest moon in the Solar System. It was named after Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of the lovers of Zeus. Nevertheless, it was simply referred to as "Jupiter I '', or "The first satellite of Jupiter '', until the mid-20th century.
With over 400 active volcanos, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System. Its surface is dotted with more than 100 mountains, some of which are taller than Earth 's Mount Everest. Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System (which have a thick coating of ice), Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core.
Although not proven, recent data from the Galileo orbiter indicate that Io might have its own magnetic field. Io has an extremely thin atmosphere made up mostly of sulfur dioxide (SO). If a surface data or collection vessel were to land on Io in the future, it would have to be extremely tough (similar to the tank - like bodies of the Soviet Venera landers) to survive the radiation and magnetic fields that originate from Jupiter.
Europa (Jupiter II), the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometers in diameter, which is slightly smaller than the Moon. The name comes from a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and became the queen of Crete, though the name did not become widely used until the mid-20th century.
It has a smooth and bright surface, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life. Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity. Life may exist in Europa 's under - ice ocean. So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there.
The prominent markings that criss - cross the moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which emphasize low topography. There are few craters on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young. Some theories suggest that Jupiter 's gravity is causing these markings, as one side of Europa is constantly facing Jupiter. Also, volcanic water eruptions splitting the surface of Europa, and even geysers have been considered as a cause. The color of the markings, reddish - brown, is theorized to be caused by sulfur, but scientists can not confirm that, because no data collection devices have been sent to Europa. Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core. It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen.
Ganymede (Jupiter III), the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus 's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury -- although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core.
Ganymede is composed primarily of silicate rock and water ice, and a salt - water ocean is believed to exist nearly 200 km below Ganymede 's surface, sandwiched between layers of ice. The metallic core of Ganymede suggests a greater heat at some time in its past than had previously been proposed. The surface is a mix of two types of terrain -- highly cratered dark regions and younger, but still ancient, regions with a large array of grooves and ridges. Ganymede has a high number of craters, but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them. The satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O, and possibly O (ozone), and some atomic hydrogen.
Callisto (Jupiter IV) is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometers in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System, and barely smaller than Mercury, though only a third of the latter 's mass. It is named after the Greek mythological nymph Callisto, a lover of Zeus who was a daughter of the Arkadian King Lykaon and a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis. The moon does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites and thus does not experience appreciable tidal heating. Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices, which makes it the least dense of the Galilean moons. It is one of the most heavily cratered satellites in the Solar System, and one major feature is a basin around 3000 km wide called Valhalla.
Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and probably molecular oxygen. Investigation revealed that Callisto may possibly have a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths less than 300 kilometres. The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto indicates that it can or could harbour life. However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa. Callisto has long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of the Jupiter system since it is furthest from the intense radiation of Jupiter.
Fluctuations in the orbits of the moons indicate that their mean density decreases with distance from Jupiter. Callisto, the outermost and least dense of the four, has a density intermediate between ice and rock whereas Io, the innermost and densest moon, has a density intermediate between rock and iron. Callisto has an ancient, heavily cratered and unaltered ice surface and the way it rotates indicates that its density is equally distributed, suggesting that it has no rocky or metallic core but consists of a homogeneous mix of rock and ice. This may well have been the original structure of all the moons. The rotation of the three inner moons, in contrast, indicates differentiation of their interiors with denser matter at the core and lighter matter above. They also reveal significant alteration of the surface. Ganymede reveals past tectonic movement of the ice surface which required partial melting of subsurface layers. Europa reveals more dynamic and recent movement of this nature, suggesting a thinner ice crust. Finally, Io, the innermost moon, has a sulfur surface, active volcanism and no sign of ice. All this evidence suggests that the nearer a moon is to Jupiter the hotter its interior. The current model is that the moons experience tidal heating as a result of the gravitational field of Jupiter in inverse proportion to the square of their distance from the giant planet. In all but Callisto this will have melted the interior ice, allowing rock and iron to sink to the interior and water to cover the surface. In Ganymede a thick and solid ice crust then formed. In warmer Europa a thinner more easily broken crust formed. In Io the heating is so extreme that all the rock has melted and water has long ago boiled out into space.
Jupiter 's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk. They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean - mass satellites that formed early in Jupiter 's history.
Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively high mass at any given moment, over time a substantial fraction (several tenths of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the Solar nebula was processed through it. However, the disk mass of only 2 % that of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites. Thus there may have been several generations of Galilean - mass satellites in Jupiter 's early history. Each generation of moons would have spiraled into Jupiter, due to drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured from the Solar nebula. By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons ' orbits. The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede. Ganymede 's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io.
All four Galilean moons are bright enough to be viewed from Earth without a telescope, if they appear farther away from Jupiter. (They are, however, easily visible with even low - powered binoculars.) They have apparent magnitudes between 4.6 and 5.6 when Jupiter is in opposition with the Sun, and are about one unit of magnitude dimmer when Jupiter is in conjunction. The main difficulty in observing the moons from Earth is their proximity to Jupiter, since they are obscured by its brightness. The maximum angular separations of the moons are between 2 and 10 arcminutes from Jupiter, which is close to the limit of human visual acuity. Ganymede and Callisto, at their maximum separation, are the likeliest targets for potential naked - eye observation.
GIF animation of the resonance of Io, Europa, and Ganymede
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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my first girlfriend is a gal my first cultural festival | My first girlfriend is a Gal - Wikipedia
My First Girlfriend Is a Gal (Japanese: はじめて の ギャル, Hepburn: Hajimete no Gyaru), also known as Hajimete no Gal, is a Japanese manga series by Meguru Ueno. It has been serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's shōnen manga magazine Monthly Shōnen Ace since November 2015, and has been collected in four tankōbon volumes. A 10 - episode anime television series adaptation by NAZ aired between July 12, 2017 and September 13, 2017; the anime got very strong streaming numbers in the USA, so Crunchyroll and Funimation decided to release Limited Edition Blu - ray / DVD for the anime.
High school boy Junichi Hashiba laments not having a girlfriend as his classmates have seemed to be pairing up everywhere. His single unattached friends force him into boldly confessing his love to Yukana Yame, a beautiful "gal '' at the school. Although Yukana easily determines that Junichi really just wants to lose his virginity, she agrees to be his girlfriend. Junichi soon attracts the affections of other girls who have known Junichi or Yukana for a while, including his childhood friend and neighbor Nene, Yukana 's gal friend Ranko, and the school 's madonna Yui.
As of July 2017, the series has been released in four tankōbon volumes.
A 10 - episode anime television series adaptation by NAZ aired between July 12, 2017 and September 13, 2017. The show is directed and character designed by Hiroyuki Furukawa who also did the erotic comedy My Wife is the Student Council President. The script is supervised by Yuichiro Momose, and the music done by Yashikin of MAGES. The opening theme is "Hajimete no Season '' by Junjō no Afilia, and the ending theme is "Galtic Love '' by Erabareshi. An OVA episode has been announced. The anime series is licensed and streamed in North America by Crunchyroll, which arranged Funimation to release it on home video with an English dub. The anime 's streaming numbers in the North America was surprisingly strong.
The anime 's first episode was reviewed by various writers at Anime News Network. James Beckett found that the fanservice to be as expected and that it embodied "all of the most irritating sex comedy stereotypes that stopped being funny back when the American Pie sequels fizzled out over a decade ago. '' Nick Creamer found the censorship bars to be the only unique thing about the show, and that the central characters were not likable. Theron Martin held out some hope that Yukana would at least have some character depth. Paul Jensen found the premise of two characters from different social circles to have potential, but the first episode to be obnoxious and dumb, outside of some moments where Yukana reacts to Junichi 's confession. Rebecca Silverman regarded the episode as mostly fetishism and unless that was toned down and "starts to develop Yukana as a real person, it could be a somewhat smarty raunchy comedy, '' but did not plan to watch any more to find out.
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who was the last detroit tiger to hit for the cycle | List of Detroit Tigers team records - wikipedia
This is a list of Detroit Tigers single - season, career, and other team records.
Batting leaders
Pitching leaders
Career batting records
Career pitching records
Note: G = Games played; P = Position; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; BB = Bases on Balls; SO = Strikeouts; SB = Stolen bases; Avg. = Batting average; OBP = On Base Percentage; Slg. = Slugging Percentage
Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; PCT = Win percentage; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games; GS = Games started; CG = Complete games; SHO = Shutouts; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; HR = Home runs allowed; HBP = Hit by pitch; BB = Bases on balls; SO = Strikeouts
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what current member of the supreme court was once the solicitor general | Solicitor General of the United States - wikipedia
The United States Solicitor General is the third - highest - ranking official (co-equal in ranking with the United States Associate Attorney General) in the U.S. Department of Justice. The United States Solicitor General is the person appointed to represent the federal government of the United States before the Supreme Court of the United States. The current Solicitor General, Noel Francisco took office on September 19, 2017. The Solicitor General determines the legal position that the United States will take in the Supreme Court. In addition to supervising and conducting cases in which the government is a party, the office of the Solicitor General also files amicus curiae briefs in cases in which the federal government has a significant interest in the legal issue. The office of the Solicitor General argues on behalf of the government in virtually every case in which the United States is a party, and also argues in most of the cases in which the government has filed an amicus brief. In the federal courts of appeal, the Office of the Solicitor General reviews cases decided against the United States and determines whether the government will seek review in the Supreme Court. The Office of the Solicitor General also reviews cases decided against the United States in the federal district courts and approves every case in which the government files an appeal.
The Solicitor General is assisted by four Deputy Solicitors General and seventeen Assistants to the Solicitor General. Three of the deputies are career attorneys in the Department of Justice. The remaining deputy is known as the "Principal Deputy, '' sometimes called the "political deputy '' and, like the Solicitor General, typically leaves at the end of an administration. The current Principal Deputy is Jeffrey B. Wall, who succeeded Noel J. Francisco after Francisco was nominated to be Solicitor General in March 2017. The other deputies currently are Michael Dreeben, Edwin Kneedler, and Malcolm Stewart.
The Solicitor General or one of the deputies typically argues the most important cases in the Supreme Court. Cases not argued by the Solicitor General may be argued by one of the assistants or another government attorney. The Solicitors General tend to argue 6 -- 9 cases per Supreme Court term, while deputies argue 4 -- 5 cases and assistants each argue 2 -- 3 cases.
The Solicitor General, who has offices in the Supreme Court Building as well as the Department of Justice Headquarters, has been called the "tenth justice '' as a result of the close relationship between the justices and the Solicitor General (and their respective staffs of clerks and deputies). As the most frequent advocate before the Court, the Office of the Solicitor General generally argues dozens of times each term. As a result, the Solicitor General tends to remain particularly comfortable during oral arguments that other advocates would find intimidating. Furthermore, when the office of the Solicitor General endorses a petition for certiorari, review is frequently granted, which is remarkable given that only 75 -- 125 of the over 7,500 petitions submitted each term are granted review by the Court.
Other than the justices themselves, the Solicitor General is among the most influential and knowledgeable members of the legal community with regard to Supreme Court litigation. Six Solicitors General have later served on the Supreme Court: William Howard Taft (who served as the 27th President of the United States before becoming Chief Justice of the United States), Stanley Forman Reed, Robert H. Jackson, Thurgood Marshall, and Elena Kagan. Some who have had other positions in the office of the Solicitor General have also later been appointed to the Supreme Court. For example, Chief Justice John Roberts was the Principal Deputy Solicitor General during the George H.W. Bush administration and Associate Justice Samuel Alito was an Assistant to the Solicitor General. The last former Solicitor General to be successfully nominated to the court was Justice Elena Kagan. Only one former Solicitor General has been nominated to the Supreme Court unsuccessfully, that being Robert Bork; however, no sitting Solicitor General has ever been denied such an appointment. Eight other Solicitors General have served on the United States Courts of Appeals.
Within the Justice Department, the Solicitor General exerts significant influence on all appeals brought by the department. The Solicitor General is the only U.S. officer that is statutorily required to be "learned in law. '' Whenever the DOJ wins at the trial stage and the losing party appeals, the concerned division of the DOJ responds automatically and proceeds to defend the ruling in the appellate process. However, if the DOJ is the losing party at the trial stage, an appeal can only be brought with the permission of the Solicitor General. For example, should the tort division lose a jury trial in federal district court, that ruling can not be appealed by the Appellate Office without the approval of the Solicitor General.
When determining whether to grant certiorari in a case where the federal government is not a party, the Court will sometimes request the Solicitor General to weigh in, a procedure referred to as a "Call for the Views of the Solicitor General '' (CVSG). In response to a CVSG, the Solicitor General will file a brief opining on whether the petition should be granted and, usually, which party should prevail.
Although the CVSG is technically an invitation, the Solicitor General 's office treats it as tantamount to a command. Philip Elman, who served as an attorney in the Solicitor General 's office and who was primary author of the federal government 's brief in Brown v. Board of Education, wrote "When the Supreme Court invites you, that 's the equivalent of a royal command. An invitation from the Supreme Court just ca n't be rejected. ''
The Court typically issues a CVSG where the justices believe that the petition is important, and may be considering granting it, but would like a legal opinion before making that decision. Examples include where there is a federal interest involved in the case; where there is a new issue for which there is no established precedent; or where an issue has evolved, perhaps becoming more complex or affecting other issues.
Although there is no deadline by which the Solicitor General is required to respond to a CVSG, briefs in response to the CVSG are generally filed at three times of the year: late May, allowing the petition to be considered before the Court breaks for summer recess; August, allowing the petition to go on the "summer list '', to be considered at the end of recess; and December, allowing the case to be argued in the remainder of the current Supreme Court term.
Several traditions have developed since the Office of Solicitor General was established in 1870. Most obviously to spectators at oral argument before the Court, the Solicitor General and his or her deputies traditionally appear in formal morning coats, although Elena Kagan, the only woman to hold the office, elected to forgo the practice.
During oral argument, the members of the Court often address the Solicitor General as "General. ''
Another tradition, possibly unique to the United States, is the practice of confession of error. If the government prevailed in the lower court but the Solicitor General disagrees with the result, he or she may confess error, after which the Supreme Court will vacate the lower court 's ruling and send the case back for reconsideration.
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who wrote love so soft by kelly clarkson | Love So Soft - wikipedia
"Love So Soft '' is a song by American singer Kelly Clarkson, from her eighth studio album, Meaning of Life (2017). Written by Mozella, Priscilla Renea, and Jesse Shatkin, and produced by Shatkin, it features a session appearance by the American soul band Earth, Wind & Fire. A soul - trap R&B anthem, it was released by Atlantic Records alongside "Move You '' as a double A-side from the album on September 7, 2017. As of September 14, 2017, the song sold 36,100 copies in the United States. The song was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
"Love So Soft '' is a soul - trap R&B anthem written and produced by Mozella, Priscilla Renea, and Jesse Shatkin. It features session appearances by the American soul band Earth, Wind & Fire led by Verdine White and Gary Bias. Critics noted the song 's soulful sound and its departure from the usual mainstream pop sound of Clarkson 's previous releases. NPR 's Karen Gwee noted that the song makes a familiar emphasis on percussion over melody but was surprised that its chorus was chanted rather than belted -- a surprising move for Clarkson. Hugh McIntyre of Forbes described the trap verses as "odd '' on its own, but is complimentary harmonized "when the horns kick in and bring the soul the song needed ''. Idolator 's Mike Wass compared the song as from the ' 90s, but is also quintessentially 2017, describing it as falling closer to the Back to Basics - era Christina Aguilera in its blend of old and new.
"Love So Soft '' was released by Atlantic Records as the lead single from Meaning of Life alongside "Move You '' on September 7, 2017. Both songs marked as Clarkson 's first single release from the label. The track was sent to American radio stations from September 11 -- 12, 2017.
In her review of the track for NPR, Gwee praised Clarkson 's vocals as it pulls the song from ubiquitous - anonymous, grocery aisle territory, and noted that there are only few others who have her easy confidence and her vocal ability. Reviewing for Forbes, Hugh McIntyre despite the song failing to have the immediate punch that previous album - introducers like "Since U Been Gone '' or "My Life Would Suck Without You '' managed, that it appears to be the point -- that "This is an older, wiser, more experienced Kelly Clarkson, one who has now been in the business for 15 years, refused to accept the idea of what a pop star needs to look like, gotten married and become a mom, all while seemingly letting criticism slip away like water off a duck 's back. ''
"Love So Soft '' was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards but lost to Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You ''.
The accompanying music video for "Love So Soft '' was released the same day as the track. It was directed by Dave Meyers, whom Clarkson had previously collaborated with on "Breakaway '' (2004). The video features Clarkson and her background vocalists performing the track in various scenes -- including flowing yellow gown that transmutes into butterflies, a series of Clarkson clones with their eyes obscured by hat brims as a nod to Beyoncé 's "Formation '' video, and a bold zoom into Clarkson in the living room of an avant - garde, cliff - side abode. Critics praised the video as a successful showpiece to the song, with some noting its ' 90s influence and its "psychedelic '' visual effects.
Clarkson presented "Love So Soft '' in an intimate live performance at the Rainbow Room in New York City on September 6, 2017. She premiered the song live on The Today Show on September 8, 2017. She also performed it during the twelfth season finale of America 's Got Talent on September 20, 2017. On October 27, 2017, she performed it on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, again on The Today Show on October 30, 2017. On November 19, 2017, she performed it at the American Music Awards along with past hit "Miss Independent. ''
Digital download
Cash Cash Remix
Ryan Riback Remix
Dave Aude Remix
Credits lifted from Tidal.
Performance credits
Personnel
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who was prime minister when we joined europe | United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum, 1975 - wikipedia
Legislation
European Parliament Elections
The United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum, also known as the Referendum on the European Community (Common Market), the Common Market referendum and EEC membership referendum took place on 5 June 1975 in the United Kingdom to gauge support for the country 's continued membership of the European Communities (EC) -- often known at the time as the "European Community '' and the "Common Market '' which it had entered on 1 January 1973 under the Conservative government of Edward Heath under the provisions of the Referendum Act 1975. Labour 's manifesto for the October 1974 general election had promised that the people would decide "through the ballot box '' whether to remain in the EC.
This was the first national referendum ever to be held throughout the entire United Kingdom, and was the only national UK - wide referendum held in the 20th Century and remained the only UK - wide referendum until the 2011 referendum on alternative voting was held thirty - six years later and was the only referendum to be held on the UK 's relationship with Europe until the 2016 referendum on continued EU membership.
The electorate expressed significant support for EC membership, with 67 % in favour on a national turnout of 64 %. The referendum result was not legally binding, however, it was widely accepted that the vote would be the final say on the matter and would be politically binding on all future Westminster Parliaments. In a 1975 pamphlet, the then Prime Minister Harold Wilson said: "(...) I ask you to use your vote. For it is your vote that will now decide. The Government will accept your verdict. '' The pamphlet also said: "Now the time has come for you to decide. The Government will accept your decision - whichever way it goes. ''
The February 1974 general election had yielded a Labour minority government, which then won a majority in the October 1974 general election. Labour pledged in its February 1974 manifesto to renegotiate the terms of British accession to the EC, and then to consult the public on whether Britain should stay in the EC on the new terms, if they were acceptable to the government. The Labour Party had historically feared the consequences of EC membership, such as the large differentials between the high price of food under the Common Agricultural Policy and the low prices prevalent in Commonwealth markets, as well as the loss of both economic sovereignty and the freedom of governments to engage in socialist industrial policies, and party leaders stated their opinion that the Conservatives had negotiated unfavourable terms for Britain. The EC heads of government agreed to a deal in Dublin on 11 March 1975; Wilson declared "I believe that our renegotiation objectives have been substantially though not completely achieved '', and said that the government would recommend a vote in favour of continued membership. On 9 April the House of Commons voted by 396 to 170 to continue within the Common Market on the new terms. Along with these developments, the government drafted a Referendum Bill, to be moved in case of a successful renegotiation.
The referendum debate and campaign was an unusual time in British politics and was the third national vote to be held in seventeen months. During the campaign, the Labour Cabinet was split and its members campaigned on each side of the question, an unprecedented breach of Cabinet collective responsibility. Most votes in the House of Commons in preparation for the referendum were only carried thanks to opposition support, and the Government faced several defeats on technical issues such as the handling and format of the referendum counts. Finally, although the Government declared in advance that it would comply with the result, the referendum itself was not legally binding upon it.
When the European Coal and Steel Community was instituted in 1952, the United Kingdom decided not to become a member. The UK was still absent when the Treaty of Rome was signed in 1957, creating the European Economic Community (the Common Market). However, in the late 1950s the Conservative government of Harold Macmillan dramatically changed its attitude and appointed Edward Heath to submit an application and lead negotiations for Britain to enter the Common Market. At a meeting in January 1963, the French president Charles de Gaulle rebuffed and vetoed Macmillan 's request to join the Common Market. Despite the veto, Britain restarted talks with the European Communities countries in 1967; and in April 1970, shortly before the 1970 general election campaign, Heath -- who by this time was the Conservative Party leader -- said that further European integration would not happen "except with the full - hearted consent of the Parliaments and peoples of the new member countries ''. Heath included negotiating membership in the 1970 Conservative manifesto. Heath became Prime Minister, and personally led many of the negotiations: he struck up a friendship with the new French president Georges Pompidou, who oversaw the lifting of the veto and thus paved the way for UK membership. Between 21 and 28 October 1971 the House of Commons debated whether or not the UK should become a member of the EC, with then Prime Minister Edward Heath commenting just before the vote:
The House of Commons voted 356 - 244 in favour of the motion, with the Prime Minister commenting straight afterwards on behalf of the house.
No referendum was held when Britain agreed to an accession treaty on 22 January 1972 or when the European Communities Act 1972 went through the legislative process, on the grounds that to hold one would be unconstitutional. The United Kingdom joined the European Communities on 1 January 1973, along with Denmark and the Republic of Ireland. The EC would later become the European Union.
Throughout this period, the Labour Party was divided, both on the substantive issue of EC accession and on the question of whether accession ought to be approved by referendum. In 1971 pro-Market figures such as Roy Jenkins, the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, said a Labour government would have agreed to the terms of accession secured by the Conservatives. However, the National Executive Committee and the Labour Party Conference disapproved of the terms. In April 1972 the anti-EC Conservative MP Neil Marten tabled an amendment to the European Communities Bill, which called for a consultative referendum on entry. Labour had previously opposed a referendum, but the Shadow Cabinet decided to support Marten 's amendment. Jenkins resigned as Deputy Leader in opposition to the decision, and many Labour MPs abstained on the division.
At the February 1974 general election, Labour 's manifesto promised renegotiation of Britain 's terms of membership, to be followed by a consultative referendum on continued membership under the new terms if they were acceptable. In the October 1974 manifesto, this was changed to the promise that Labour would "give the British people the final say, which will be binding on the Government -- through the ballot box -- on whether we accept the terms and stay in or reject the terms and come out. '' This could be interpreted as including the option of an election in 1975; however, Labour won a working majority, and had no need of another general election.
The government produced a white paper on the proposed referendum on 26 February 1975: it recommended core public funding for both the "Yes '' and "No '' sides, voting rights for members of the armed forces and members of the House of Lords, and finally a proposed single central count of the votes for the whole country. This white paper was approved by the House of Commons. On 26 March a Referendum Bill was introduced to the Commons; at its second reading on 10 April, MPs voted 312 - 248 in favour. Prior to the bill 's passing there was no procedure or legislation within the United Kingdom for holding any such plebiscite. The vote, the only nationwide plebiscite to be held in the UK during the 20th century, was of constitutional significance. Referendums had been widely opposed in the past, on the grounds that they violated the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. The first major referendum to be held in any part of the UK had been the sovereignty referendum in Northern Ireland in 1973. The issue of how the votes should be counted caused much division as the Bill went though Parliament. The Government were of the opinion that as it was substantially different from that of a general election and that as a national referendum the United Kingdom was a single constituency and favoured an unprecedented single national count of all the votes for the whole country to take place at Earls Court in London over several days with a single declaration of the final result by the National Counting Officer (later in the legislation the title was changed to Chief Counting Officer) but the proposal did n't attract the wider support of the Labour Party or the opposition parties; the Liberal Party favoured individual counts in each of the parliamentary constituencies and tabled an amendment, but was defeated by 263 to 131 votes in the House of Commons; however, another amendment, tabled in the Commons by Labour MP Roderick MacFarquhar, sought to have separate counts for each administrative region (the post-1974 county council areas): this won cross-party support, and was carried by 272 to 155 votes. The Act did not specify any national supermajority of "Yes '' votes for approval of the terms; a simple majority of 50 % + 1 vote would suffice to win the vote. It received royal assent on 8 May 1975, just under a month before the vote took place.
During the legislative process, the Government also held informal talks with the Governments of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey to discuss the possibility of holding simultaneous referendums of their own on continued EC membership; however, the idea was dropped because the UK Parliament had no jurisdiction to pass or impose legislation on those islands, being as they were (and are) Crown dependencies.
The question that would be put to the British electorate, as set out in the Act was:
The Government has announced the results of the renegotiation of the United Kingdom 's terms of membership of the European Community.
Do you think that the United Kingdom should stay in the European Community (the Common Market)?
permitting a simple YES / NO answer (to be marked with a single (X)).
The question that was used was one of the options in the Government White Paper of February 1975, although during the passage of the Referendum Bill through Parliament, the Government agreed to add the words "Common Market '' in brackets at the end of the question. It should be noted that the referendum took place 25 years before the passing of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 by the then Labour Government of Tony Blair, which introduced into British law a general procedure for the holding of UK - wide referendums and effectively created the Electoral Commission, a body that would oversee such votes and also test and research proposed referendum questions.
The referendum was called in April 1975 after the renegotiation was formally concluded. Since Prime Minister Harold Wilson 's cabinet was split between supporters and opponents of the Common Market, and since members of each side held their views strongly, he made the decision, unprecedented outside coalition government, to suspend the constitutional convention of Cabinet collective responsibility. Cabinet members would be allowed to publicly campaign against each other. In total, seven of the twenty - three members of the cabinet opposed EC membership. Wilson 's solution was that ministers speaking in the House of Commons should reflect government policy (i.e. support for EC membership), but would be allowed to speak freely elsewhere, thus avoiding a mass dismissal of Cabinet ministers. In spite of this, one minister, Eric Heffer, was obliged to resign after speaking against EC membership in the House of Commons.
The "Yes '' campaign was officially supported by Wilson 's Government and the majority of his cabinet, including the holders of the three other Great Offices of State: Denis Healey, the Chancellor of the Exchequer; James Callaghan, the Foreign Secretary; and Roy Jenkins, the Home Secretary. It was also supported by the majority of the Conservative Party, including its newly elected leader Margaret Thatcher -- 249 of 275 party members in Parliament supported staying in the EC in a free vote in April 1975 -- the Liberal Party, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland and the Vanguard Unionist Progressive Party.
The influential Conservative Edward du Cann said that "the Labour party is hopelessly and irrevocably split and muddled over this issue ''. The "No '' campaign included the left wing of the Labour Party, including the cabinet ministers Michael Foot, Tony Benn, Peter Shore, Eric Varley, and Barbara Castle who during the campaign famously said "They lured us into the market with the mirage of the market miracle ''. Some Labour "No '' supporters, including Varley, were on the right wing of the party, but most were from the left. The No campaign also included a large number of Labour backbenchers; upon the division on a pro-EC White Paper about the renegotiation, 148 Labour MPs opposed their own government 's measure, whereas only 138 supported it and 32 abstained.
"Many Conservatives feel the European Community is not good for Britain... The Conservative party is divided on it too '', du Cann -- head of the Conservatives ' 1922 Committee -- added, although there were far fewer Eurosceptic figures in the Parliamentary Conservative Party in 1975 than there would be during later debates on Europe, such as the accession to the Maastricht Treaty. Most of the Ulster Unionist Party were for "No '' in the referendum, most prominently the former Conservative minister Enoch Powell, who after Benn was the second-most prominent anti-Marketeer in the campaign. Other parties supporting the "No '' campaign included the Democratic Unionist Party, the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru, and parties outside Parliament including the National Front and the Communist Party of Great Britain.
Conservative and Liberal Party conferences consistently supported EC membership for several years up to 1975. At a Labour Party conference on 26 April 1975, the Labour membership rejected continuing EC membership by almost a 2: 1 margin. Tony Benn said, ' We have had a conference and the decision is clear... It is very clear that there now must be a move for the Labour Party to campaign '. The majority of the Labour Party leadership was strongly for continuing membership, and the margin of the party vote was not a surprise, since only seven of forty - six trade unions present at the conference supported EC membership. Prior to the conference, the party had decided that if the conference voted by a margin of 2: 1 or more in favour of a particular option, it would then support that position in the referendum campaign. Otherwise, the ' party machine ' would remain neutral. Therefore, the Labour Party itself did not campaign on either side.
The government distributed pamphlets from the official Yes and No campaigns to every household in Britain, together with its own pamphlet which argued in support of EC membership. According to this pamphlet, "the most important (issues in the renegotiation) were FOOD and MONEY and JOBS ''.
During the campaign, almost the entire mainstream national British press supported the "Yes '' campaign. The left - wing Morning Star was the only notable national daily to back the "No '' campaign. Television broadcasts were used by both campaigns, like party political broadcasts during general elections. They were broadcast simultaneously on all three terrestrial channels: BBC 1, BBC 2 and ITV. They attracted audiences of up to 20 million viewers. The "Yes '' campaign advertisements were thought to be much more effective, showing their speakers listening to and answering people 's concerns, while the "No '' campaign 's broadcasts featured speakers reading from an autocue.
The "Yes '' campaign enjoyed much more funding, thanks to the support of many British businesses and the Confederation of British Industry. According to the treasurer of the "Yes '' campaign, Alastair McAlpine, "The banks and big industrial companies put in very large sums of money ''. At the time, business was "overwhelmingly pro-European '', and Harold Wilson met several prominent industrialists to elicit support. It was common for pro-Europeans to convene across party and ideological lines with businessmen. John Mills, the national agent of the "No '' campaign, recalled: "We were operating on a shoe - string compared to the Rolls Royce operation on the other side ''. However, it was also the case that many civil society groups supported the "Yes '' campaign, including the National Farmers Union and some trade unions.
Much of the "Yes '' campaign focused on the credentials of its opponents. According to Alistair McAlpine, "The whole thrust of our campaign was to depict the anti-Marketeers as unreliable people -- dangerous people who would lead you down the wrong path... It was n't so much that it was sensible to stay in, but that anybody who proposed that we came out was off their rocker or virtually Marxist. '' Tony Benn controversially claimed there had been "Half a million jobs lost in Britain and a huge increase in food prices as a direct result of our entry into the Common Market '', using his position as Secretary of State for Industry as an authority. His claims were ridiculed by the "Yes '' campaign and ministers; the Daily Mirror labelled Benn the "Minister of Fear '', and other newspapers were similarly derisive. Ultimately, the "No '' campaign lacked a popular, moderate figure to play the public leadership role for their campaign that Jenkins and Wilson fulfilled in the "Yes '' campaign.
The referendum was held nationally across all four countries of the United Kingdom as a single majority vote in 68 counting areas under the provisions of the Referendum Act, for which the then administrative counties of England and Wales and the then newly formed administrative regions of Scotland were used, with Northern Ireland as a single counting area.
The following table shows the breakdown of the voting areas for the referendum within the United Kingdom.
Voting in the referendum took place across the United Kingdom on Thursday 5 June between 07: 00 and 22: 00 BST. All counting areas started their counts the following day on Friday 6 June at 09: 00 BST, and the final result was announced just before 23: 00 BST by the Chief Counting Officer (CCO) Sir Phillip Allen at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in London, after all 68 counting areas had declared their totals. With a national turnout of 64 % across the United Kingdom, the target to secure a majority for the winning side was 12,951,598 votes. The result was a decisive "Yes '' to continued EC membership, which won by a huge majority of 8,908,508 votes (34.5 %) over those who had voted "No '' to reject continued membership.
In total, over two - thirds of voters supported continued EC membership. 67.2 percent voted Yes and 32.8 percent voted No. At council level, support for EC membership was positively correlated with support for the Conservative Party and with average income. In contrast, poorer areas that supported Labour gave less support to the question. Approval was well above 60 % in almost every council area in England and Wales, with the strongly Labour - supporting Mid Glamorgan being the exception. Scotland and Northern Ireland gave less support to the question than the British average. Once the voting areas had declared, their results were then relayed to Sir Philip Allen, the Chief Counting Officer, who later declared the final result.
All the counting areas within the United Kingdom returned large majority votes in favour of "Yes '' except for two Scottish regions, the Shetland Islands and the Western Isles, which returned majority votes in favour of a "No '' vote.
Both the BBC and ITV provided coverage throughout the following day, and the BBC programme was presented by David Dimbleby and David Butler. There were several programmes throughout the day. Part of the coverage was repeated to mark the 30th anniversary of the referendum in June 2005, and was also shown to mark the 40th anniversary in June 2015 on the BBC Parliament channel and was to be shown again to mark the 41st anniversary ahead of the 2016 EU Referendum.
On Friday 6 June 1975 at 18: 30 BST the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, gave his reaction outside 10 Downing Street as counting continued, although by this point the result was clear:
' The verdict has been given by a vote with a bigger majority than has been received by any Government in any general election. Nobody in Britain or the wider world should have any doubt about its meaning. It was a free vote, without constraint, following a free democratic campaign conducted constructively and without rancour. It means that fourteen years of national argument are over. It means that all those who have had reservations about Britain 's commitment should now join wholeheartedly with our partners in Europe, and our friends everywhere to meet the challenge confronting the whole nation. '
Enoch Powell gave this comment to the result in a newspaper a few days after the referendum:
' Never again by the necessity of an axiom, will an Englishman live for his country or die for his country: The country for which people live and die was obsolete and we have abolished it. Or not quite yet. No, not yet. The referendum is not a "verdict '' after which the prisoner is hanged forthwith. It is no more than provisional... This will be so as long Parliament can alter or undo whatever that or any other Parliament has done. Hence those Golden words in the Government 's Referendum pamphlet: "Our continued membership would depend on the continuing assent of Parliament ''. '
Roy Jenkins said ' It puts the uncertainty behind us. It commits Britain to Europe; it commits us to playing an active, constructive and enthusiastic role in it '. Tony Benn said, ' When the British people speak, everyone, including members of Parliament, should tremble before their decision and that 's certainly the spirit with which I accept the result of the referendum '. Jenkins was heavily rewarded for successfully leading the campaign for Britain to remain a member of the European Communities when two years later he became the first and to date only British politician to hold the post of President of the European Commission, which he held for four years from 1977 - 81.
The result strengthened Harold Wilson 's tactical position, by securing a further post-election public expression of support for his policies. According to Cook and Francis (1979), ' The left of his party had been appeased by the holding of a referendum, the right by its result '. Following the result, the Labour Party and British trade unions themselves joined European institutions, such as the Socialist Group in the European Parliament, to which they had been reluctant to commit before public approval of EC membership.
In the House of Commons, the issue of Europe had been effectively settled for two years, until the debate about direct elections to the European Parliament began in 1977.
The result went on to provide a major pro-European mandate to politicians, particularly in the UK Parliament, for the next forty - one years until the 2016 EU membership referendum was held on Thursday 23 June 2016, when the UK voted by 51.9 % to 48.1 % to leave the European Union. On that occasion the relative difference of enthusiasm for membership was reversed, with England and Wales voting to leave, whilst Scotland and Northern Ireland voted to stay.
The question of sovereignty was discussed in an internal document of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO 30 / 1048) before the European Communities Act 1972, but was not available to the public until January 2002 under the Thirty - year rule. Among "Areas of policy '' listed "in which parliamentary freedom to legislate will be affected by entry into the European Communities '' were: Customs duties, Agriculture, Free movement of labour, services and capital, Transport, and Social Security for migrant workers. The document concluded (paragraph 26) that it was advisable to put the considerations of influence and power before those of formal sovereignty.
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what percentage of hydropower is used in the united states | Hydroelectric power in the United States - wikipedia
Hydroelectric power stations in the United States are currently the largest renewable source of energy, but the second for capacity (behind Wind power in the United States). Hydroelectric power produced 35 % of the total renewable electricity in the U.S. in 2015, and 6.1 % of the total U.S. electricity.
According to IEA the United States was the 4th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world in 2008 after China, Canada and Brazil. Produced hydroelectricity was 282 TWh (2008). It was 8.6 % of the world 's total hydropower. The installed capacity was 80 GW in 2015. The amount of hydroelectric power generated is strongly affected by changes in precipitation and surface runoff.
Hydroelectric stations exist in at least 34 US states. The largest concentration of hydroelectric generation in the US is in the Columbia River basin, which in 2012 was the source of 44 % of the nation 's hydroelectricity. Hydroelectricity projects such as Hoover Dam, Grand Coulee Dam, and the Tennessee Valley Authority have become iconic large construction projects.
Of note, however, is that California does not consider power generated from large hydroelectric facilities (facilities greater than 30 megawatts) to meet its strictest definition of "renewable '', due to concerns over the environmental impact of large hydroelectric projects. As such, electricity generated from large hydroelectric facilities does not count toward California 's strict Renewable Portfolio Standards. Roughly about 10 to 15 percent of California 's energy generation is from large hydroelectric generation that is not RPS - eligible.
The earliest hydroelectric power generation in the U.S. was utilized for lighting and employed the better understood direct current (DC) system to provide the electrical flow. It did not flow far however, with ten miles being the system 's limit; solving electricity 's transmission problems would come later and be the greatest incentive to the new hydroelectric water - power developments.
The first DC powerhouse was in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where the water turbine at the Wolverine Chair factory was attached to a dynamo using a mechanical belt drive to illuminate sixteen street lights. This occurred in 1880, the same year Thomas Edison produced the long - lasting incandescent filament light bulb, which was a safety and convenience improvement over existing candles, whale oil lamps and kerosene lamps inside buildings. In 1881, also using DC for lighting at Niagara Falls, Jacob F. Schoellkopf diverted part of the output from his waterwheel - powered flour mills to drive one of Charles Brush 's improved generators to provide nighttime illumination for the tourists. Previously the attraction had been illuminated by burning bright calcium flares but arc - lights proved a better and cheaper alternative. In 1882, the world 's first commercial central DC hydroelectric power plant provided power for a paper mill in Appleton, Wisconsin; just months later the first investor - owned electric utility, Edison Illuminating Company, completed the first fossil fueled electrical power plant in New York City, to compete with hydroelectric power close to an area of high demand. By 1886, between 40 to 50 hydroelectric stations were operating in the United States and in Canada, and by 1888 about 200 electric companies relied on hydropower for at least part of their generation.
Recognizing that the great hydroelectric potential of the Falls exceeded the local demand for electricity, a large power company was established nonetheless at the prime location for development; it awaited the prospect of an effective long - distance power transmission system. Westinghouse Electric won the competition, developing their plans around an alternating current system. The station was completed in 1895 and in 1896, electricity transmission 20 miles away to Buffalo, New York began. This event also began the rise to dominance of the AC system over Thomas Edison 's direct current methods. Multiple permanent hydropower stations still exist on both the American and Canadian sides of the Falls, including the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant, the third largest in the United States.
The need to provide rural development in the early 20th century was often coupled to the availability of electric power and led to large - scale projects like the Tennessee Valley Authority which created numerous dams and, sometimes controversially, flooded large areas. In the 1930s, the need for power in the Southwest led to the building of the largest concrete construction in the world at that time, the Hoover Dam. The Grand Coulee Dam was both a power and irrigation project of the 1930s that was expanded for military industrial reasons during World War II which also saw other dams such as the TVA 's Fontana Dam built.
Dam building peaked in the 1960s and few dams were built in the 1970s. The growing awareness of environmental issues with dams saw the removal of some older and smaller dams and the installation of fish ladders at others. Instead of new dams, repowering old stations has increased the capacity of several facilities. For instance, Hoover Dam replaced its generators between 1986 and 1993. The need to alter downstream waterflow for ecological reasons (eliminating invasive species, sedimentation, etc.) has led to regulated seasonal drawdowns at some dams, changing the availability of water for power generation. Droughts and increased agricultural use of water can also lead to generation limits.
Another application of hydroelectricity is Pumped - storage hydroelectricity which does not create a net gain in power but enables peak demand balancing. Water is pumped from a lower elevation source into a higher one and only released through generators when electric demand is high. In 2009 the United States had 21.5 GW of pumped storage generating capacity, accounting for 2.5 % of baseload generating capacity. Bath County Pumped Storage Station is the largest such facility in the world. Other stations of this type include Raccoon Mountain Pumped - Storage Plant, Bear Swamp Hydroelectric Power Station and Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant on Lake Michigan and previously the largest in the world.
No significant tidal power plants exist in the United States. A project was proposed and run by the Snohomish County PUD in Washington but was ended when trouble was encountered obtaining enough funding.
The Rampart Dam was a proposed 5000MW project to dam the Yukon River in Alaska for hydroelectric power. The project was never built and laws would need to be changed for this project to be built.
According to a United States Department of Energy report, there exists over 12000MW of potential hydroelectricity capacity in the US existing 80,000 unpowered dams. Harnessing the currently unpowered dams could generate 45 TWhr / yr, equivalent to 16 percent of 2008 hydroelectricity generation.
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what year is it going to be in the jewish calendar | Year 6000 - wikipedia
-- Events --
According to classical Jewish sources, the Hebrew year 6000 (from sunset of 29 September 2239 until nightfall of 16 September 2240 on the Gregorian calendar) marks the latest time for the initiation of the Messianic Age. The Talmud, a Midrash, and the Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, state that the ' deadline ' by which the Messiah must appear is 6,000 years from creation. According to tradition, the Hebrew calendar started at the time of Creation, placed at 3761 BC. The current (2018 / 2019) Hebrew year is 5779.
The belief that the seventh millennium will correspond to the Messianic Age is founded upon a universalized application of the concept of Shabbat -- the 7th day of the week -- the sanctified ' day of rest '.
The Ten Commandments state (Exodus 20: 8):
"Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify it. Six days shall you work and perform all of your labors. And on the seventh day, which is the Sabbath day unto the Lord your God, you shall do no work... For in six days God made the heavens and the earth, the oceans and all therein, and He rested on the seventh day. Therefore God hath blessed the Sabbath day and sanctified it. ''
This tradition maintains that each day of the week corresponds to one thousand years of creation: Just as the six days of the workweek culminate in the sanctified seventh day of Shabbat, so too will the six millennia of creation culminate in the sanctified seventh millennium (Hebrew years 6000 -- 7000) -- the Messianic Age.
Just as Shabbat is the sanctified ' day of rest ' and peace, a time representing joyful satisfaction with the labors completed within the previous 6 days, so too the seventh millennium will correspond to a universal ' day of rest ' and peace, a time of ' completeness ' of the ' work ' performed in the previous six millennia.
The Talmud also draws parallels between the Shmita (Sabbatical) year and the seventh millennium: For six ' years ', or millennia, the earth will be worked, whilst during the seventh ' year ', or millennium, the world will remain ' fallow ', in a state of ' rest ' and universal peace.
The reconciliation between the traditional Judaic age of the world and the current scientifically derived age of the world is beyond the scope of this article, with some taking a literal approach, as with Young Earth creationism, and others, such as Gerald Schroeder, a scientific conciliatory approach.
The Talmud comments:
R. Katina said, "Six thousand years the world will exist and one (thousand, the seventh), it shall be desolate (haruv), as it is written, ' And the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day ' (Isa. 2: 11)... R. Katina also taught, "Just as the seventh year is the Shmita year, so too does the world have one thousand years out of seven that are fallow (mushmat), as it is written, ' And the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day ' (Isa. 2: 11); and further it is written, ' A psalm and song for the Shabbat day ' (Ps. 92: 1) -- meaning the day that is altogether Shabbat -- and also it is said, ' For one thousand years in Your (God 's) eyes are but a day that has passed. ' (Ps. 90: 4) (Sanhedrin 97a). ''
The Midrash in Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer comments:
Six eons for going in and coming out, for war and peace. The seventh eon is entirely Shabbat and rest for life everlasting.
The Zohar states:
In the 600th year of the sixth thousand, the gates of wisdom on high and the wellsprings of lower wisdom will be opened. This will prepare the world to enter the seventh thousand, just as man prepares himself toward sunset on Friday for the Sabbath.
The Zohar explains further:
The redemption of Israel will come about through the mystic force of the letter "Vav '' (which has the numerical value of six), namely, in the sixth millennium.... Happy are those who will be left alive at the end of the sixth millennium to enter the Shabbat, which is the seventh millennium; for that is a day set apart for the Holy One on which to effect the union of new souls with old souls in the world (Zohar, Vayera 119a).
There is a kabbalistic tradition that maintains that each of the seven days of creation in Genesis chapter one corresponds to one millennium of the existence of natural creation.
The tradition teaches that the seventh day of the week, the Sabbath day of rest, corresponds to the seventh millennium, the age of universal ' rest ' - the Messianic Era.
(In Hebrew and English)
Elaborating on the theme of the seventh millennium representing the Messianic Age are numerous early and late Jewish scholars, including Rashi, the Ramban, Chaim Vital, Isaac Abrabanel, Abraham Ibn Ezra, Rabbeinu Bachya, Rabbi Yaakov Culi author of Me'am Lo'ez, the Vilna Gaon, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, the Ramchal, and Aryeh Kaplan.
The acceptance of the idea of the seventh millennium representing the Messianic Age across the Ashkenazi - Sephardi divide, the Chassidim - Misnagdim divide, and across the rational Talmud and mystical Kabbalah perspectives, shows the centrality of this idea in traditional Judaism.
Rashi draws a parallel between the tranquility experienced presently on the seventh day of the week, Shabbat, and that which will be experienced in the seventh millennium:
The Talmud Avoda Zara folio 9a cites a teaching of the Academy of Elijah that "the world will exist for six thousand years ''. Rashi (s.v ששת אלפים שנים) comments on this: "The world is decreed to last for six thousand years, as the days of the week; the seventh day of the week is Shabbat, so too in the seventh millennium, will there be tranquility in the world. ''
In his Sha'ar Hagmul, Ramban writes that the sixth millennium will see the advent of the Messiah and the seventh millennium will be the Shabbat of the ' World to Come ', wherein the righteous will be resurrected and rejoice.
Ramban further writes that the Scriptural verse, "And God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it '' (Gen. 2: 3), refers to His blessing the World to Come which begins at the seventh millennium.
In his commentary to Genesis 2: 3, Rabbeinu Bachya writes that the seventh millennium will follow the Messiah and the resurrection, and will be a time of "great eternal delight '' for those who merit resurrection.
This being the case, he explains, just as one prepares during the six days of the week for the Shabbat, so too one should prepare during the six thousand years for the seventh.
Chaim Vital writes that whoever wants to know what will happen in the end days, should study the first seven days of creation. Each day of creation represents 1000 years, and the seventh ' day ', beginning in the year 6000, represents the day of rest.
Don Isaac Abrabanel writes that similar to the structure of the week of Creation, so too the world will exist for six thousand years, with the seventh millennium being a Hefsek (break) and a Shvita (rest), like Shabbat, Shmita, and Yovel.
In his famed work Me'am Lo'ez, in a section elaborating on the parallels between the Exodus from Egypt and the Final Redemption, Rabbi Yaakov Culi writes: "It seems logical to assume that prayers said today for the redemption are more acceptable than those said in earlier times... In earlier times, the redemption was far in the future. Therefore, in order for their prayers to be have any effect, people had to pray intensely. In those days, people were a thousand years from the time in which the redemption had to take place. Now, however, we are only 500, or 200, years away from the time, and the closer it comes, the easier it is for prayers to be accepted ''. In the footnote to this statement, Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan writes: "This was written in 5492 (1732). Since there was a tradition that the Messiah would have to come before the year 6000 (2240), there was only 500 years left until the redemption would have to come. There was also a tradition that the redemption would have to begin after 200 years, that is by 5700 (1940). This would seem to lend support to the contention that the formation of the modern state of Israel is the beginning of the redemption ''.
The Vilna Gaon writes:
Each day of Creation alludes to a thousand years of our existence, and every little detail that occurred on these days will have its corresponding event happen at the proportionate time during its millennium.
The עִקְּבוֹת מְשִׁיחַ (iqvot Meshiaḥ), footsteps of Messiah, began the first hour of Friday morning in the Sixth Millennium, that is the year Five Hundred (from nightfall of October 4, 1739 AD until nightfall of September 22, 1740 AD), and from hour to hour the footsteps have continued to progress from many aspects (cf. M Avot 1: 1; BT Sanhedrin 38a). As is known, every hour consists of forty - one years and eight months (alt., 41.666), counting from the time that the bonds on the Messiah 's heels were loosened, as it says, You have loosened my bonds (Psalms 116: 16), and as revealed in: A decree He declared it for Joseph... ' I delivered his shoulder from the burden his palms were loosed from the hod ' (Psalms 81: 6 - 7). Beginning with the second hour (i.e., from 5541 (1781 AD)), the entire House of Israel took the stage, both as a whole, and with regard to each individual member of the nation, as an order from above, of Messiah of the beginning of redemption, namely, Messiah Son of Joseph.
The Ramchal explains that the Shabbat Millennium will be a time of rest, which will be merited by the righteous.
The Lubavitcher Rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson explains that upon having reached the Hebrew year 5750 (1989 CE), the millennial ' time - clock ' had reached the time of the ' eve ' of Shabbat.
This is based on the teaching of the Talmud, which states that one thousand human years is equivalent to one ' day ' in the eyes of the Creator, which in turn is based upon the verse in Psalms, "For one thousand years in Your eyes are but a day that has passed (Psalms 90: 4) ''. Therefore, given that one human - time millennium is equal to one cosmic ' day ', the human - time seventh millennium is equivalent to the seventh cosmic ' day ', the ' Shabbat ', the Messianic age.
Given that the Jewish day begins at nightfall, the year 5750 represented 12: 00pm midday on the millennial ' Friday ', as per the table below.
The Lubavitcher Rebbe, as others, maintains that the Messiah must arrive at, or before, the onset of the Shabbat, the year 6000.
The English year 2018, corresponding to the Hebrew year 5779, thus marks 12: 41pm on the Millennial Friday. In Jewish law, a half - hour past midday or mincha gedola marks the time on Friday afternoon when the influence of Shabbat begins, and some authorities forbid keeping a business open past that point.
Kabbalist and grandfather of Rabbi Yosef Sholom Eliashiv, Rabbi Shlomo Elyashiv writes in Drushei Olam HaTohu:
... This is why so much time must transpire from the time of creation until the time of the Tikkun (lit. ' correction ', Moshiach 's coming). All the forces of Gevurot (strict judgement) are rooted in the six Sefirot -- Chesed, Gevurah, Tiferet, Netzach, Hod, Yesod -- which are the six days of creation... and also the 6,000 years of history that the world will exist. And within (the six Sefirot) are the roots of all that will happen from the six days of creation until the Final Tikkun... We find that all that transpires is the result of the sparks from the time of Tohu, Chaos...
Day of Creation:
Sefirah:
First (Sunday)
Chesed
Second (Monday)
Gevurah
Third (Tuesday)
Tiferet
Fourth (Wednesday)
Netzach
Fifth (Thursday)
Hod
Sixth (Friday)
Yesod
Seventh (Shabbat)
Malchut
Aryeh Kaplan writes:
Never before has mankind been faced with such a wide range of possibilities. Never before has it had such tremendous power at its disposal, to use for good or evil... We need not belabor the point, but the past hundred years or so have brought about an increase in knowledge unsurpassed in all human history... The ultimate goal of the historic process is the perfection of society... is what we call the Messianic Age... Almost 2000 years ago, the Zohar predicted, "In the 600th year of the sixth thousand, the gates of wisdom on high and the wellsprings of lower wisdom will be opened. This will prepare the world to enter the seventh thousand, just as man prepares himself toward sunset on Friday for the Sabbath. It is the same here. And a mnemonic for this is (Gen 7: 11), ' In the 600th year... all the foundations of the great deep were split '. Here we see a clear prediction that in the Jewish year 5600 (or 1840), the wellsprings of lower wisdom would be opened and there would be a sudden expansion of secular knowledge.
In an interview with Israel National Radio, Rebbetzin Esther Jungreis said the following:
Listen carefully, friends, to what I 'm telling you. Hashem, Elokei Yisrael, created this world that we are living in today in six days.
Every day was a thousand years. This world, as we know it today, can not last beyond 6,000 years. Right now, we are in the year 5769, which means it 's Erev Shabbos of the world. By the year 6,000, Mashiach has to be here. He could come much earlier. But by the year 6,000, he has to be here... the Vilna Gaon said that the last war, Milchemet Gog uMagog, is going to last only 12 minutes because they are going to have such weapons...
We know that the final redemption, the final Geula, it 's going to be like when you left Egypt -- only one - fifth of our people left Egypt. Four - fifths perished... during the plague of darkness.
So I 'm appealing to every Jew. Every negative prophecy can be changed. We can bring Mashiach today. Right now, we are living in a period called Erev (eve of) Shabbat.
It 's Erev Shabbat, because when Mashiach will come, it will be the day that will be all Shabbat, the seventh day...
Let 's bring Shabbos early, and let us to bring Shabbos with menucha (ease), with shalom (peace), with simchah (happiness) -- Is it possible? Absolutely?! Every negative prophecy can be changed.
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who sings when the walls come tumbling down | Walls Come Tumbling Down! - Wikipedia
"Walls Come Tumbling Down! '' is a song by the English band The Style Council which was their ninth single to be released. It was composed by lead singer Paul Weller, and was released in 1985. It is the first single from the band 's second album, Our Favourite Shop (1985). Our Favourite Shop was renamed Internationalists for the U.S. market.
As well as the song 's single release, it has featured on various compilation albums released by The Style Council. The song was included on The Singular Adventures of The Style Council, The Complete Adventures of The Style Council, and Greatest Hits.
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miracle of the relic of the true cross at the rialto bridge | Miracle of the relic of the Cross at the Ponte di Rialto - wikipedia
The Miracle of the Cross at the Ponte di Rialto, also known as The Healing of the Madman (Italian: Miracolo della Croce a Rialto) is a painting by Italian Renaissance artist Vittore Carpaccio, dating from c. 1496. It is now housed in the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice.
The painting was commissioned for the Grand Hall of the Scuola Grande di San Giovanni Evangelista, the seat of the eponymous brotherhood in Venice. The commission included a total of nine large canvasses, by prominent artists of the time such as Bellini, Perugino, Vittore Carpaccio, Giovanni Mansueti, Lazzaro Bastiani and Benedetto Rusconi.
The subject of the paintings was to be the miracles of a fragment of the True Cross. The item had been donated to the brotherhood by Philippe de Mézières (or Filippo Maser), chancellor of the Kingdom of Cyprus and Jerusalem in 1369, and soon became the object of veneration in the city.
The canvasses were all executed in 1496 - 1501. All survive today, aside from that by Perugino, and are now in the Gallerie dell'Accademia.
The painting shows the miracle of the healing of a madman through the relic of the Holy Cross, held by the Patriarch of Grado Francesco Querini, which took place in the Palazzo a San Silvestro on the Canal Grande, near the Rialto Bridge. The scene has an asymmetrical composition, with figures in the foreground at the left and, behind them, the façade of the buildings following the canal. They feature the typical inverted cone chimneys of medieval Venice.
The miraculous event is relegated in a wide loggia in the upper left corner: most of the canvas is occupied by a veduta with a great number of characters and naturalistic items. The people include a group of walkers who precede the religious procession following the relic. The bridge is still in wood, as it was before it collapsed in 1524. Like the current version (dating from 1591) it had a double row of shops at the sides and, at the top, a movable boardwalk needed to allow the passage of the taller vessels.
On the right is the 15th century appearance of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, destroyed by a fire in January 1505. Other architectural features include the bell tower of San Giovanni Crisostomo, the portico of Ca ' da Mosto and the bell tower of Santi Apostoli before its reconstruction in 1672.
Details of human activities include the private gondolas used as ferries, the presence of numerous foreigners with eastern style garments, women clearing carpets, and workers who are clearing their barrels.
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when were the current supreme court justices appointed | Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution, but it may act only within the context of a case, in which it has jurisdiction. The Court does not have power to decide political questions, and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government.
According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed after impeachment (though no justice has ever been removed). In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices ' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C.
The Supreme Court is sometimes colloquially referred to as SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the United States) similar to and in line with other acronyms such as POTUS (President of the United States).
The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by Congress. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of "justice '' to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as "judge '', even though it is the term used in the Constitution.
The Court first convened on February 2, 1790 with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: "(T) he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices -- William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia -- sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home. ''
The sixth member, James Iredell, was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two - thirds (voting four to two). However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court 's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789.
Under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789 -- 1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving a procedural issue. The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige, a situation not helped by the highest - profile case of the era, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment.
The Court 's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801 -- 35). Under Marshall, the Court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress, including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison) and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and the states (prominently, Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden).
The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshall 's tenure, although beyond the Court 's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 -- 05 helped cement the principle of judicial independence.
The Taney Court (1836 -- 64) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864 -- 1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York; Adair v. United States).
Under the White and Taft Courts (1910 -- 30), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states (Gitlow v. New York), grappled with the new antitrust statutes (Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription (Selective Draft Law Cases) and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (Adkins v. Children 's Hospital).
During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts (1930 -- 53), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935 and changed its interpretation of the Constitution, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wickard v. Filburn, United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler). During World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (Korematsu v. United States) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (Minersville School District v. Gobitis). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend.
The Warren Court (1953 -- 69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection (Brown v. Board of Education, Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd.) and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (Reynolds v. Sims). It created a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut), limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States -- prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule) and Gideon v. Wainwright (right to appointed counsel), -- and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (Miranda v. Arizona); At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.
The Burger Court (1969 -- 86) marked a conservative shift. It also expanded Griswold 's right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (Roe v. Wade), but divided deeply on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo), and dithered on the death penalty, ruling first that most applications were defective (Furman v. Georgia), then that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia).
The Rehnquist Court (1986 -- 2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism, emphasizing the limits of the Constitution 's affirmative grants of power (United States v. Lopez) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (Seminole Tribe v. Florida, City of Boerne v. Flores). It struck down single - sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (United States v. Virginia), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process (Lawrence v. Texas), and the line item veto (Clinton v. New York), but upheld school vouchers (Zelman v. Simmons - Harris) and reaffirmed Roe 's restrictions on abortion laws (Planned Parenthood v. Casey). The Court 's decision in Bush v. Gore, which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000, was especially controversial.
The Roberts Court (2005 -- present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court. Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption (Wyeth v. Levine), civil procedure (Twombly - Iqbal), abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart), climate change (Massachusetts v. EPA), same - sex marriage (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (First Amendment), Heller - McDonald (Second Amendment) and Baze v. Rees (Eighth Amendment).
Article III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six "judges ''. Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court 's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation 's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807, nine in 1837, and ten in 1863.
In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase, Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine, where it has since remained.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack '' the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt 's New Deal. The plan, usually called the "court - packing plan '', failed in Congress. Nevertheless, the Court 's balance began to shift within months when Justice van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.
The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court. '' Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice 's decisions may end up being contrary to a president 's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation.
In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group 's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee 's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street, and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955. Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987.
Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas 's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority 's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.
Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November, 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.
Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office. The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing - in date.
Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).
When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed.
No president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts. In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate '' resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances. '' Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress 's views in the hope of guiding executive action.
The 2014 Supreme Court ruling in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Justice Breyer writing for the Court, stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. '' This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions.
The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior '' (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior '' is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign, or retire. Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (Samuel Chase, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805). Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.
Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer 's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts ' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died).
Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court. Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment.
Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The court is currently filled with nine justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was Neil Gorsuch, who was nominated by President Donald Trump on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the Senate.
Roberts, John John Roberts (Chief Justice)
Kennedy, Anthony Anthony Kennedy
Thomas, Clarence Clarence Thomas
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Breyer, Stephen Stephen Breyer
Alito, Samuel Samuel Alito
Sotomayor, Sonia Sonia Sotomayor
Kagan, Elena Elena Kagan
Gorsuch, Neil Neil Gorsuch
The Court currently has six men and three women justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African - American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito 's parents were born in Italy, and Justice Ginsburg 's father was born in Russia. At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an Ivy League background. Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado.
In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.
Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 Presbyterians, 10 Unitarians, 5 Methodists, and 3 Baptists. The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836, and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis. Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices and three Jewish justices.
Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967. Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981. Marshall was succeeded by African - American Clarence Thomas in 1991. O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993. After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor, the first Latina justice; and in 2010 by Elena Kagan, for a total of four female justices in the Court 's history.
There have been six foreign - born justices in the Court 's history: James Wilson (1789 -- 1798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790 -- 1799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793 -- 1806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889 -- 1910), born in Smyrna, Turkey; George Sutherland (1922 -- 1939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939 -- 1962), born in Vienna, Austria.
There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals. Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice, on request of the chief judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.
The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria.
In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role. The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court 's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like - minded successor would be appointed.
John Paul Stevens
Sandra Day O'Connor
David Souter
Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by seniority of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service.
During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice 's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch).
In the justices ' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk. Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind with less than a month or just 29 days less at 4,199 days when Justice Samuel Alito was confirmed to the court on January 31, 2006.
As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300. Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice 's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement.
Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice.
Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas and Alito (appointed by Republican presidents) comprise the Court 's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan (appointed by Democratic presidents) comprise the Court 's liberal wing. Justice Kennedy (appointed by President Reagan) is generally considered "a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals '', and up until Justice Scalia 's death, he was often the swing vote that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings. Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit.
Tom Goldstein argued in an article in SCOTUSblog in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is "in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions. '' He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20 % were decided by a 5 - to - 4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal / conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court. Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal - defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation.
According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22 %) were decided by a 5 -- 4 vote, with an average of 70 % of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15 % of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62 % of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44 % of all the 5 -- 4 decisions.
In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case). Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48 %, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9 -- 0 or 8 -- 0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5 -- 4 vote (about 20 %, compared to 18 % in the October 2009 term, and 29 % in the October 2008 term). However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5 -- 4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote ''). This represents 87 % of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63 % of the 5 -- 4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts court.
In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44 %) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20 %, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5 -- 4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times.
In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49 % of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51 % of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5 -- 4 in 23 cases (29 % of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96 %) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54 %) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5 -- 4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83 %) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91 %) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote '' of the Court.
The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants ' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose - built home. The four - story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices ' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police.
Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue, the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4: 30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays. Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half - hour informational film. When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9: 30 am to 3: 30 pm and reservations are not necessary. When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two - week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first - come first - served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available. The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30 - minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis. Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.
Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court 's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states, but may decline to hear such cases. It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens. ''
In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp. The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court 's history. The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob -- aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded -- and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson 's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now. '' The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court 's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.
In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states.
The Court 's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari, certiorari before judgment, and certified questions), the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari), the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari), and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had '' (through certiorari). In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state 's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B.J.F., or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court 's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions. The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court 's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so - called "collateral review '' of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review '' often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.
Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases '' or "controversies '', the Supreme Court can not decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review '', the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff 's need for relief.
The United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice '' from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time.
Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to "ride circuit '', or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891.
Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court 's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death - penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus, and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted '' or "denied '' or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion -- referred to as an in - chambers opinion -- in such matters if he or she wishes.
A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.
The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.
As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is:
Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit).
A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings '' and "recesses. '' Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.
Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari, commonly referred to as "cert ''. The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case. '' The Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had '' if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law. The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent. All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona.
There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford, parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact. Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado.
A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices ' clerks are excluded. If four Justices vote to grant the petition, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition.
The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons '', spelled out in the court 's Rule 10. Such reasons include:
When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split. '' If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case.
To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "cert pool. '' Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.
When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae, or "friends of the court '', may also file briefs. The Court holds two - week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare), and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent 's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case.
In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court 's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one - time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys. Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument. Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.
At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court 's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court 's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court 's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions, circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns.
It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices. If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case can not be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there. This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945).
The Court 's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court 's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court 's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court 's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports -- or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations -- to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.
As of the beginning of October Term 2016, there are:
As of March 2012, the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012. This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, Parents v. Seattle, where Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, Miranda v. Arizona actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York, Westover v. United States, and California v. Stewart). A more unusual example is The Telephone Cases, which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports.
Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers ' Edition (simply known as Lawyers ' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct. '' representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed. '' representing the Lawyers ' Edition.
Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "vol U.S. page, pin (year) '', where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to "pinpoint '' to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___ ''.
The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way. Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well - established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute. ''
The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.
Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self - government, self - determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government. '' Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior '', and their pay may "not be diminished '' while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court, it is noted, can not directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court 's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it! ''; however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court 's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court 's ruling.
Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions:
When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.
In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt 's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. '' The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress ' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871).
On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss - Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court 's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey 's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974).
Each Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four. Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.
The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer - secretary ''. Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.
The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas. The first African - American, William T. Coleman, Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter. A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62 % of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School. Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.
Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William H. Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John G. Roberts, Jr. for William H. Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall and Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked.
Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John G. Roberts, Jr. for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia.
Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s '', according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School. "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts '', former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said. David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives '', Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists. ''
According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law. '' A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44 % of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three - quarters said justices ' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views.
The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them:
The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology. An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts, and which was reversed in the 1930s. An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the "right to privacy '' inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous. Legal scholars, justices, and presidential candidates have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater. More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations. Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court... the people will have ceased to be their own rulers. '' Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up. '' During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions. Critics from both sides complain that activist - judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead. Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano, Phyllis Schlafly, Mark R. Levin, Mark I. Sutherland, and James MacGregor Burns. Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan. Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, -- slow - moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless. '' Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like. '' One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects "certainly a legislative body. ''
Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery; Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal; Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine, as undermining property rights. Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters '' by siding with Indiana 's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver 's licenses, especially poor and minority voters '', according to one report. Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights. '' However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court 's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was "limited '' to sovereign territory.
This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance. '' It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009. A reporter wrote that "Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg 's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy '' left open the "possibility of further judicial review '' but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch. Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power '' it is likely to "self - indulge itself '' and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis ''. Larry Sabato wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court. ''
British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened. In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request.
There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton argued in The Federalist Papers that their then - proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments, others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers ' wishes. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. '' The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005. Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress 's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution. '' Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad. '' Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today. Advocates of states ' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy. One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law. '' However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level. ''
The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view. According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin 's expose The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed "cartel '', only revealing itself through "public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings ''. The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives. '' Larry Sabato complains about the Court 's "insularity. '' A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61 % of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would "be good for democracy '', and 50 % of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised. In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists. In a 2009 interview on C - SPAN, journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog) argued that the Court is a "very open '' institution with only the justices ' private conferences inaccessible to others. In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur.
Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore, has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals. Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting: in Baker v. Carr, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a "scathing dissent '' argued against the court wading into so - called political questions.
Senator Arlen Specter said the Court should "decide more cases ''. On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts.
Critic Larry Sabato wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day. '' Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity. James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times. '' Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson and Sabato as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein, among others. However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office. ''
The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday. Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors. Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications. Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause, said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial. ''
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where do you file a ucc-1 financing statement | UCC - 1 financing statement - wikipedia
A UCC - 1 financing statement (an abbreviation for Uniform Commercial Code - 1) is a legal form that a creditor files to give notice that it has or may have an interest in the personal property of a debtor (a person who owes a debt to the creditor as typically specified in the agreement creating the debt). This form is filed in order to "perfect '' a creditor 's security interest by giving public notice that there is a right to take possession of and sell certain assets for repayment of a specific debt with a certain priority. Such notices of sale are often found in the local newspapers. Once the form has been filed, the creditor establishes a relative priority with other creditors of the debtor. This process is also called "perfecting the security interest '' in the property, and this type of loan is a secured loan. A financing statement may also be filed in the real estate records by a lessor of fixtures to establish the priority of the lessor 's rights against a holder of a mortgage or other lien on the real property. The creditor 's rights against the debtor and the lessor 's rights against the lessee are based on the credit documents and the lease, respectively, and not the financing statement.
Pursuant to the standards set forth in the UCC, at 9 - 503 and 9 - 504, the financing statement need only contain three pieces of information:
The financing statement is generally filed with the office of the state secretary of state, in the state where the debtor is located - for an individual, the state where the debtor resides, for most kinds of business organizations the state of incorporation or organization. Many states have a state agency that operates under the secretary of state, which is tasked with overseeing business organizations and activities, including receipt of financing statements. However, an exception exists if the collateral is something that is tied to a particular piece of real property, such as timber, mineral rights, or fixtures. In that case, the filing must be made in the county where the property is located, usually in the recording office or county court, because that is where third parties are most likely to search for such record.
In the case of a loan secured by personal property collateral, the filing of a financing statement gives notice of a lien against the property so that other lenders or buyers of the personal property will know of the security interest. In the case of a filing of a financing statement by a lessor of fixtures, the filing of the financing statement gives notice of the lessor 's interests to others who acquire an interest in the real property and related fixtures. The financing statement does not create a lien nor does it create any additional rights against a lessee in favor of a lessor, the filing of a financing statement just gives notice of whatever rights the creditor or lessor have under their loan documents or lease, respectively.
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who is the actor that plays gandalf and dumbledore | Albus Dumbledore - wikipedia
Professor Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore is a fictional character in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series. For most of the series, he is the headmaster of the wizarding school Hogwarts. As part of his backstory, it is revealed that he is the founder and leader of the Order of the Phoenix, an organisation dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort.
Dumbledore is portrayed by Richard Harris in the film adaptations of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. After Harris ' death, Michael Gambon portrayed Dumbledore for all of the remaining Harry Potter films. Jude Law will portray Dumbledore in Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald.
Rowling stated she chose the name Dumbledore, which is an Early Modern English word for "bumblebee '', because of Dumbledore 's love of music: she imagined him walking around "humming to himself a lot ''.
The author has stated that she enjoys writing Dumbledore because he "is the epitome of goodness. '' Rowling said that Dumbledore speaks for her, as he "knows pretty much everything '' about the Harry Potter universe. Rowling mentioned that Dumbledore regrets "that he has always had to be the one who knew, and who had the burden of knowing. And he would rather not know. '' As a mentor to the central character Harry Potter, "Dumbledore is a very wise man who knows that Harry is going to have to learn a few hard lessons to prepare him for what may be coming in his life. He allows Harry to get into what he would n't allow another pupil to do, and he also unwillingly permits Harry to confront things he 'd rather protect him from. '' In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated that she imagined Dumbledore "more as a John Gielgud type, you know, quite elderly and -- and quite stately. '' During his time as a student, Dumbledore was in Gryffindor House. Rowling said in an interview that Dumbledore was about 150 years old. However, on her website, she states that Dumbledore was born in 1881, making him either 115 or 116 when he died.
On 19 October 2007, Rowling was asked by a young fan whether Dumbledore finds "true love. '' Rowling said that she always thought of Dumbledore as being homosexual and that he had fallen in love with Gellert Grindelwald, which was Dumbledore 's "great tragedy ''; Rowling did not explicitly state whether Grindelwald returned his affections. Rowling explains this further by elaborating on the motivations behind Dumbledore 's flirtation with the idea of wizard domination of Muggles: "He lost his moral compass completely when he fell in love and I think subsequently became very mistrustful of his own judgement in those matters so became quite asexual. He led a celibate and a bookish life. ''
In the opening chapter of the first novel of the series, Dumbledore arrives at number four, Privet Drive in Little Whinging, Surrey. When the evil wizard Lord Voldemort kills Harry 's parents before being reduced to a lesser form, Dumbledore decides to place the now - orphaned Harry in the home of Vernon and Petunia Dursley. He knows that Harry will be protected by the special magic caused by his mother 's sacrifice, after he evokes the magic of the bond of blood and Harry 's aunt, his mother 's sister - Petunia Evans Dursley, sealed it by accepting her nephew into her home. This old magic of binding love renders Voldemort incapable of touching Harry. Dumbledore leaves Harry upon the doorstep of the Dursley home with a letter explaining the situation. He departs with the final phrase, "Good luck, Harry. ''
When Harry arrives at Hogwarts, Dumbledore tells him about the secrets of the Mirror of Erised, claiming that when he looks into it, he sees himself "holding a pair of thick, woollen socks. '' Harry later recalls in the final book that this was probably the only dishonest answer Dumbledore ever gave him. He is also responsible for somehow enchanting the Mirror so that it hides the Philosopher 's Stone and only someone who looked into the Mirror and whose desire was "to find the Stone... but not use it '' would receive it, as anybody else would only see themselves using the Stone due to the Mirror 's special magic. He is called out to the Ministry of Magic by a false message on the night when Professor Quirinus Quirrell, Harry Potter, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger enter the dungeons to retrieve the Stone, but realises during the trip that he is needed at Hogwarts and returns in time to rescue Harry from Quirrell and Voldemort. He also has a final conversation with Harry after the events down in the dungeons and tells him that he is too young to comprehend the information about why Voldemort attempts to kill him.
In the second novel, Dumbledore suspects that Tom Riddle is somehow involved in the attacks on the muggle born students, as he says, when asked who is the culprit, "not who, but how? '' A younger Dumbledore appears in Riddle 's diary, when Harry sees his memory, and asks Riddle if he knows anything about the attacks on the students. During the last half of the novel, Lucius Malfoy forces the school 's other eleven governors to suspend Dumbledore as Headmaster in the wake of attacks by a basilisk in the school when the Chamber of Secrets is opened. Dumbledore is reinstated when the governors discover that Ginny Weasley was taken into the Chamber of Secrets and Lucius is found to have coerced the other governors into suspending him.
At the beginning of the third novel, Dumbledore is forced to accept Dementors onto his school 's grounds for the protection of his students from Sirius Black, the supposed murderer and accessory to murder, who had escaped from Azkaban. After Black 's breach into Hogwarts, Dumbledore issues orders to close every entrance to the school and grounds. After Harry falls off his broomstick during a Quidditch match because of the Dementors, Dumbledore becomes uncharacteristically angry with them and uses his wand to cause Harry to levitate safely to the ground. Later in that book, Dumbledore suggests Hermione Granger use her Ministry - approved Time - Turner to go back three hours to save Buckbeak the hippogriff and Sirius from their unjust executions.
In the fourth novel, Dumbledore introduces the Triwizard Tournament. He also serves as a judge during the entire event. When Harry 's name comes out of the Goblet of Fire, Dumbledore is not enraged, but remains calm; simply asking Harry whether he had himself, or had asked an older student to submit his name (although in the film version he does get angry to the point of manhandling Harry). When Harry answers no, he believes him. By the end of the book, Dumbledore 's fears are realised when Harry returns from his encounter with Voldemort clutching the dead body of Cedric Diggory and when Mad - Eye Moody (being impersonated by Barty Crouch Jr, through Polyjuice Potion) takes Harry away from Dumbledore and to his office inside the castle. Dumbledore immediately becomes suspicious and heads straight towards Moody 's office with Minerva McGonagall and Severus Snape to save Harry and to interrogate Crouch. Afterwards, Dumbledore listens to Harry 's eyewitness account about Voldemort 's return. Harry though, only wakes up later to find Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge in the hospital wing arguing with McGonagall and Dumbledore. In the end, Fudge and Dumbledore "part ways '' after an argument about the situation of Voldemort 's return and the consequences that would follow should Fudge remain in denial of this fact.
In the fifth book, Dumbledore is demoted from Chief Warlock of the Wizengamot, voted out of the Chairmanship of the International Confederation of Wizards, and is almost stripped of his Order of Merlin First Class due to his speeches regarding the return of Voldemort, although it is reported that he is unconcerned as long as he is not taken off the Chocolate Frog cards. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Magic does everything they can to discredit him and Harry -- mainly through the Daily Prophet. At the beginning of the book, Dumbledore enrages Fudge when he stops by at Harry 's hearing with a witness (Arabella Figg) to ensure that he is not expelled. While Harry feels better when Dumbledore assists him, he becomes annoyed to the point of being angry that the headmaster refuses to speak to or even look at him.
During the following year at Hogwarts, the Ministry passes Educational Decree Twenty - two, allowing Fudge to place Dolores Umbridge to the post of Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher (after Dumbledore failed to find a suitable candidate). Through her, Fudge gradually gains power over Hogwarts and Dumbledore, who he fears is building an under - age wizard army to overthrow the Ministry. Umbridge forbids practical defence practice in her classes, forcing Harry, Ron, and Hermione to form Dumbledore 's Army (a defence group led by Harry) with fellow friends. It is when the Ministry discovers the D.A. that Dumbledore, choosing to accept the responsibility, falsely claims that the organisation was his own subversive creation, and allows himself to be removed as headmaster (for the second time) rather than allow Harry to be expelled.
Dumbledore is not heard of again in the book until he arrives in the Department of Mysteries to aid the Order in the battle against the Death Eaters. He subdues all the Death Eaters, except for Bellatrix Lestrange, and binds them with an Anti-Disapparition Jinx to prevent them from magically escaping. He then saves Harry from the Avada Kedavra curse conjured by Voldemort and engages in a ferocious duel with the Dark Lord. This culminates in Voldemort 's attempting to possess Harry in an attempt to make Dumbledore kill the boy. Voldemort is forced to leave Harry 's body and flee with Bellatrix after this ruse fails. Many ministry officials ' having witnessed the end of the battle, Dumbledore is reinstated as headmaster and retrieves all his distinctions. Towards the end of the book, Dumbledore explains to Harry that Voldemort chose him as his equal and that one must kill the other in the end, and confesses that his great affection for Harry has clouded his judgement.
In the sixth book, Dumbledore fetches Harry from Privet Drive and takes him to persuade Horace Slughorn to rejoin the Hogwarts staff. Harry notices that Dumbledore 's right hand is shrivelled and black. During the school year, Dumbledore teaches Harry of events in Voldemort 's past that he feels are of immense importance. Using the Pensieve, they visit the memories of others, which contain important information about Voldemort 's life and his genocidal rise to power. While using the pensieve, Harry sees a vision of Dumbledore 's first encounter with Voldemort, then a disturbed young orphan named Tom Riddle; Dumbledore had known from the beginning that the boy was dangerous, but believed that Hogwarts would change him.
It is learned that Voldemort created six Horcruxes to gain immortality and that they must all be destroyed before Harry goes after the final piece of Voldemort 's soul in the Dark Lord 's body. Harry also repeatedly warns Dumbledore in most of their lessons that Draco Malfoy, is working for Voldemort. Dumbledore refuses to take any action against Draco, and instead tells Harry that he already knows more about what is happening than Harry does.
By the end of the book, Dumbledore and Harry set out to the cave where Dumbledore believes a Horcrux resides. In the cave, Dumbledore drinks a potion inside the Horcrux 's container; while drinking it, he begins to scream, seemingly enduring mental torture and being weakened. Dumbledore begins to call out for water after he finishes the potion, and Harry, realising he has no other choice, dips the goblet into the lake to give him a drink. When he does this though, all the Inferi that reside in the lake grab at Harry and attempt to drag him down and drown him in the lake. Dumbledore suddenly recovers, thanks to the water, and conjures a fire lasso around them. Dumbledore takes the horcrux (a locket) and both make their way back out of the cave and back to Hogsmeade. When they return, Madam Rosmerta informs them that the Dark Mark was conjured over the Astronomy Tower. In the tower, Dumbledore enjoins Harry not to interfere in the events that are about to take place there, and places him in a body - binding curse under his invisibility cloak. Hidden, Harry is unable to intervene as Dumbledore (now extremely weak) is disarmed by Draco. Dumbledore is conversing with Draco about the plot to kill him, when several other Death Eaters enter the tower and try to persuade Draco to kill Dumbledore. When Draco hesitates, Snape appears and performs the Killing Curse on Dumbledore, only after Dumbledore pleads with Snape saying, "Severus, please... ''. To what Dumbledore was referring is not revealed until the seventh book. Dumbledore dies in Hogwarts ' grounds.
Shortly after his death, Dumbledore 's portrait magically appears in the Headmaster 's office. His funeral is attended by students, Hogwarts staff, members of the Ministry of Magic, ghosts, centaurs, merpeople and others who wish to pay their respects. Shrouded in purple velvet, he is entombed in a white marble sarcophagus beside the lake at Hogwarts, and it is said that he is the only headmaster to be buried on the school grounds.
Rowling used several chapters in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows to reveal two main matters concerning Dumbledore: his early life and his death. The book introduces his parents, Percival and Kendra Dumbledore, as well as his little sister, Ariana; his brother, Aberforth Dumbledore, was mentioned in previous books. At six years old, Ariana was attacked by three Muggle boys who had witnessed her doing magic. Because of this attack, Ariana was seriously traumatised and never able to control her magic again, having recurring outbursts of magic. Enraged, Percival mercilessly attacked the Muggle boys (killing them in the film version), and was sentenced to life in Azkaban. After this, Kendra moved her family to the village of Godric 's Hollow. In one of her outbursts, Ariana accidentally kills Kendra around the time Albus has completed his education. Albus becomes the head of the family and is forced to remain in his house with his sister Ariana while Aberforth completes his education.
Soon afterward, a young Gellert Grindelwald arrived in Godric 's Hollow to live with his great - aunt, Bathilda Bagshot, author of A History of Magic. The two young men took to each other immediately, and together they dreamed of a world ruled by wizards over Muggles by uniting the legendary Deathly Hallows. They believed that if they were forced to destroy a few along the way, it would still be "for the greater good '', and the sufferings and losses would be rewarded a hundredfold in the end. This scenario would never happen, though. A discussion between Albus, Aberforth, and Grindelwald led to a duel that resulted in Ariana 's death. For the rest of his life, Albus felt guilty, never certain whether it was his own curse or another 's that had killed his sister. Grindelwald stormed back to Bagshot 's home and departed to begin his own rule, leaving the country hours later. As a result of his mistakes, Albus felt that he was not to be trusted with power and, because of this, never took the position of Minister for Magic, despite being offered it several times. Dumbledore returned to Hogwarts as professor of Transfiguration, and he served in recruiting students for the school.
Decades later, in 1945, Dumbledore finally defeated the now - Dark wizard Grindelwald, who had come to possess the Elder Wand. Grindelwald 's defeat made Dumbledore the master of the Elder Wand, which remained his until just before his death, when Draco used the Disarming Charm on him.
Dumbledore had another Hallow in his keeping since the death of James Potter: the Invisibility Cloak, which he had borrowed to examine. When James died, Dumbledore kept the cloak and decided to pass it on to Harry, James 's son.
The truth about Dumbledore 's death is revealed through Snape 's last memories in the Pensieve. Harry learns that Dumbledore made a terrible error by placing a cursed ring on his right hand, sometime between the fifth and sixth book, forgetting the curses that must be on the ring. The ring held the Resurrection Stone, which Dumbledore hoped to use to allow him to apologise to his sister and parents. Dumbledore called Snape to help him; however, when Snape arrived and assessed the curse, all he could do was contain it. Snape told Dumbledore that he had little more than a year to live. After hearing this news, Dumbledore revealed to Snape that he knew about Voldemort 's plan to have Draco kill him. He asked Snape to use the Killing Curse on him when the time came because he did not want Draco to have to kill him, saying that the boy 's soul was still intact; Draco 's soul would have been damaged in killing Dumbledore out of malice, whereas Snape was fully aware that he would be merely sparing Dumbledore pain and humiliation. He also intended for Snape to be the one to kill him and for the Elder Wand to be buried with him, in order to prevent the wand from being passed on again.
Dumbledore 's spirit appears to Harry towards the end of the book in a limbo - like King 's Cross, after Harry is struck with the Killing Curse which was conjured by Voldemort. During the last book, Harry finds out that he must die because he is a Horcrux. When Voldemort conjures the Killing Curse, Harry does not fight back, which stops him from dying. When they meet again, the boy comforts Dumbledore as he confesses all of his many regrets. Dumbledore then informs Harry of the choice he still has: of moving on to the next life or returning to his body to face Voldemort one last time. After returning from the mystical King 's Cross and defeating Voldemort for good, Harry has a short conversation with Dumbledore 's portrait in the Headmaster 's office about the fate of each of the three Deathly Hallows. He keeps the Cloak, leaves the Stone in the Forbidden Forest where he dropped it, and returns the Elder Wand to Dumbledore 's tomb (from which Voldemort had stolen it). In the epilogue, it is revealed that Harry names his second son Albus Severus Potter after Dumbledore and Snape.
In the film adaptations of Philosopher 's Stone (2001) and Chamber of Secrets (2002), Dumbledore was played by Richard Harris, who was expected to play Dumbledore throughout the series. Harris mentioned that he was originally not going to take the role, since he knew his own health was in decline. He accepted because his then - 11 - year - old granddaughter threatened never to speak to him again if he did not take it. Harris was determined to portray Dumbledore again in Prisoner of Azkaban (which was released in 2004), despite having been diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma, and asked David Heyman not to recast the role. However, his death on 25 October 2002 necessitated recasting.
Ian McKellen was offered the role, but he turned it down, having played the similar character Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as feeling it would have been inappropriate to take Harris 's role, as Harris had called McKellen a "dreadful '' actor. Harris 's family had expressed an interest in seeing Peter O'Toole being chosen as his replacement.
Michael Gambon was cast as Harris 's replacement four months after Harris 's death. Gambon was not concerned about bettering Harris, and he portrayed the character in his own way, putting on a slight Irish accent for the role, as well as completing his scenes in three weeks. Gambon reprised his role in all the remaining films.
Toby Regbo was chosen to portray Dumbledore in his youth in Deathly Hallows Part I and Part 2, for flashbacks scenes which provide essential information on the character 's backstory.
Jude Law was tapped to portray Dumbledore in the second prequel film, Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald.
In the Chamber of Secrets DVD interview, screenwriter Steve Kloves stated that he considers Dumbledore a fascinating character because of the wisdom he provides, but he feels that "Dumbledore bears such a tremendous dark burden, and he knows secrets and I think in many ways he bears the weight of the future of the wizard world '' and the "only way that he can keep that at bay, the darkness, is to be whimsical and humorous ''.
Albus Dumbledore was tall and thin, with silver hair and beard (auburn in his youth) so long that they could be tucked into his belt. He had a very long and crooked nose that looked as if it had been broken at least twice. (It is speculated that his brother 's punch during their sister 's funeral may have played a role in shaping his nose.) He was also said to have had long and skillful fingers. His eyes were described to be a brilliant, soul - piercing shade of blue, and usually twinkled with kindness and mischief.
Dumbledore wore half - moon spectacles and a colourful array of robes, ranging from purple to bright orange. He once claimed to have a scar above his left knee in the precise shape of a map of the London Underground, but whether or not he actually does is unknown. His demeanour is often -- if not always -- serene and ethereal, and he usually spoke in a calm, pleasant voice even when Harry thought that he was actually furious.
During the last year of his life, Dumbledore 's right hand was scarred when he donned Marvolo Gaunt 's Ring, which was cursed. Had Snape not intervened with a counter-curse, Dumbledore would have died much more quickly. Regardless, the curse left his hand blackened and dead - looking, and no amount of healing could repair the appearance. According to Snape, the curse would eventually spread itself from the contained hand, and Dumbledore was doomed to die in no more than one year 's time. Whether this means the blackening dead - look appearance would spread throughout the entire body is unknown.
Considered the most powerful wizard in the world, Dumbledore is benevolent and wise, a good wizard in the style of Merlin. He almost constantly gives off an aura of serenity and composure, rarely displaying intense emotions of anger or fear. Yet despite his benign nature, it is said that Dumbledore was the only wizard Lord Voldemort ever truly feared. Dumbledore is very eccentric and even slightly effeminate; he is very fond of knitting patterns and frequently wears flamboyant clothing (at one point, he is seen wearing a flowered bonnet). He is also known for his odd displays of whimsicality; he often uses humour to make people feel comfortable in his presence. As a supremely talented wizard, Dumbledore displays numerous examples of extraordinary powers. His abilities as a wizard are combined with a kind of cunning and subtlety of mind that allowed him to comprehend human nature and turn the better aspects of humanity (trust, love, and friendship) to Voldemort 's disadvantage in particular.
More than anything else, Dumbledore has a deep capacity for love, frequently reminding Harry that love was the greatest magic of all. Dumbledore believes in the good in everyone and insists on giving second chances. The greatest example of this is Dumbledore 's relationship with Snape, in whom Dumbledore is willing to place a considerable amount of faith because he showed remorse. Dumbledore is highly perceptive and emotionally intelligent; his knowledge of a person 's true personality goes beyond simply being a good judge of character. This is never more apparent than in his complex insights into Voldemort 's psyche, which he pieces together with Harry to deduce where Voldemort 's horcruxes are hidden.
However, in spite of Dumbledore 's many extraordinary qualities, he was no saint. According to Rowling, "Although Dumbledore seems to be so benign for six books, he 's quite a Machiavellian figure, really. He 's been pulling a lot of strings. '' In a 2005 interview, Rowling commented: "Immense brainpower does not protect you from emotional mistakes, and I think Dumbledore really exemplifies that. '' Dumbledore 's greatest personality flaw, which he explained to Harry, was his desire for power. He eventually found that those best suited for power are those who do not seek it. When he and Grindelwald met each other, they made plans to enslave Muggles and re-establish wizards as the natural rulers of the world. However, Dumbledore was disillusioned of this fantasy after his sister Ariana was killed during a duel between himself, his brother Aberforth, and Grindelwald.
Dumbledore was haunted by his sad family history. In particular, he was riddled with guilt over the circumstances surrounding the death of his sister. He felt enormous remorse for his selfishness and was tortured for the rest of his life by the possibility that he might have been the one who cast the spell that killed his sister. When he looked into the Mirror of Erised, he saw himself redeemed in the eyes of his brother and his entire family alive and together.
Since a young age, Dumbledore has always shown great magical abilities. During his education at Hogwarts, Dumbledore was known as the most brilliant student to have ever stepped into the school, winning "every prize of note that the school offered '', and in his N.E.W.T.s, "... did things with a wand (the examiner had) never seen before ''. Rowling has said that Dumbledore is primarily self - taught, although he "had access to superb teachers at Hogwarts, '' and, as far as his education is concerned, "Dumbledore 's family would be a profitable line of inquiry. '' While he is not vain, Dumbledore also exhibits no false modesty, readily acknowledging that he is unusually intelligent and an exceptionally powerful wizard. He admits a number of times to Harry in their occasional meetings in Half - Blood Prince that he makes mistakes, and since he is smarter than most men, his mistakes "tend to be correspondingly huger. ''
Dumbledore is an expert at nonverbal spells and is famous as an alchemist who has worked with Nicolas Flamel, the only known maker of the Philosopher 's Stone, and is credited with discovering the twelve uses of dragon 's blood. His Patronus takes the form of a phoenix, a recurring symbol in the books.
His knowledge of the most powerful kind of magic, love, is extensive. He taught Harry about its very essence, and the innate power of his ability to love his parents, which eventually helped Harry realise his destiny to kill Lord Voldemort.
He is known to be able to conjure Gubraithian fire (magical everlasting fire). He has claimed to be able to become invisible without using an invisibility cloak, which is a powerful Disillusionment Charm. Dumbledore is also skilled in Occlumency and Legilimency. Dumbledore is an expert at Transfiguration too, having taught the subject before becoming headmaster. He frequently creates complex objects like sofa chairs out of thin air (or from less comfortable chairs). Dumbledore is also proficient at Charms and Potions; according to the obituary written by Elphias Doge, his papers were published in journals such as Achievements in Charming and The Practical Potioneer. Dumbledore is famous for defeating Grindelwald, who is second on a list of Most Dangerous Dark Wizards of All Time only to Voldemort himself, in a "spectacular duel of legend '', succeeding in doing so despite the fact that Grindelwald possessed the Elder Wand, which supposedly guarantees invincibility in duels due to its power. His skill at duelling is further shown when he calmly engages Voldemort in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, overpowering him and eventually forcing him to possess Harry to be spared from total defeat. (It is known in retrospect that Dumbledore possessed the Elder Wand when duelling Voldemort, having taken it from Grindelwald.) Unlike most wizards who make a distinct popping sound when they apparate Dumbledore notably is able to apparate silently; the only other wizard shown to possess this skill is Voldemort. Dumbledore is known to be able to understand Mermish and Gobbledegook (Goblin language) and Parseltongue.
Dumbledore 's office houses "a number of curious (...) instruments. '' Among them is a Pensieve, a stone receptacle used to store and review memories, which witches and wizards are able to extract from their heads as a type of fluid. Harry first discovers this device in Goblet of Fire, and it is frequently used for flashback scenes throughout the remainder of the series. In the first chapter of Philosopher 's Stone, Dumbledore is seen using the Deluminator, a device for removing and later returning light, and for use as a homing device. It is confirmed in Deathly Hallows when the object is inherited by Ron that the Deluminator is of Dumbledore 's own design. Dumbledore is the possessor and master of the Elder Wand, an extremely powerful object known also as the "Wand of Destiny '' or the "Deathstick '', and one of the Deathly Hallows. Unlike many of the wand 's previous owners, Dumbledore keeps its identity a closely guarded secret. He also has a pet phoenix named Fawkes. It is revealed in Philosopher 's Stone by Mr. Ollivander that Harry 's wand carries a phoenix feather as its magical core and that particular phoenix only gave one other feather, the one in Voldemort 's wand that gave Harry his scar. It is later revealed in Goblet of Fire that Fawkes was the phoenix whose feathers provide the magical core in Harry 's and Voldemort 's wands.
Through various interviews and discussions about the character, Rowling has established that Albus Dumbledore was born in July or August 1881 to Percival and Kendra Dumbledore. The character had previously referenced his brother Aberforth, and in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, it is revealed that Albus is three years older than Aberforth. The same book established their sister Ariana who, at six years old, suffered a vicious attack by three male Muggle youths who had witnessed her doing magic. Frightened, they first tried to get her to repeat what they had seen, and upon her failure to recreate it due to her young age, they tried to stop her from being "different ''. It is not explicitly stated in the novel what form this attack took, but Percival was sentenced to life in Azkaban for tracking down and hexing the boys who seriously traumatised his daughter. The severe trauma of the attack left Ariana unable to function socially or to properly perform magic again. To prevent her being institutionalised in St. Mungo 's Hospital, or hurting someone accidentally with her uncontrolled magic, Kendra moved the family to Godric 's Hollow, and her illness was concealed. Neighbours assumed that Ariana was a non-magical squib.
When Dumbledore and his friend Elphias left Hogwarts, they planned to take their "then - traditional '' tour of the world. On the eve of their trip, the eighteen - year - old Dumbledore suffered the death of his mother Kendra, who was accidentally killed by Ariana during one of her uncontrolled outbursts of magic. Because Dumbledore 's parents were absent (his father in Azkaban and his mother dead), Albus became the head of the family and it became his duty to put food on the table, as they were not left with much gold. He was forced to remain in his house with his sister Ariana while Aberforth completed his education. Aberforth knew of his brother 's resentment and offered to care for Ariana himself, saying that she preferred him, but Albus refused by stating that it was his duty as eldest to care for the family.
When Grindelwald arrived at Godric 's Hollow, he immediately became friends with Dumbledore and together dreamed of a new world order in which wizards ruled over Muggles "for the greater good ''. Dumbledore and Grindelwald suggested that they had to move to carry on their plans, but Aberforth refused because Ariana 's state did not allow her to be moved. The discussion between Albus, Aberforth and Grindelwald turned into a duel that resulted in Ariana 's accidental death. According to the author, as a result of this incident, Albus 's boggart became Ariana 's corpse. In Philosopher 's Stone, he mentions to Harry that the deepest desire of his heart, revealed by the Mirror of Erised, is to have a pair of woollen socks. In the seventh novel, Harry realises that he and Dumbledore see the same thing in the Mirror: their reunited families.
The character of Albus Dumbledore has been compared to other archetypal "wise old man '' characters. Dumbledore acts much like Merlin from The Sword in the Stone, in the manner of an "absent - minded professor ''; both Merlin and Dumbledore educate a story 's main character in a castle. As writer Evelyn Perry notes, "Dumbledore resembles Merlin both personally and physically; he is an avid lover of books and wisdom who wears flowing robes and a long, white beard. '' Dumbledore has also been compared with Gandalf from Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings. Dave Kopel draws comparisons between Rowling 's writing and John Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress and states that, among the Christian symbols that Rowling has used in her books, Dumbledore acts like "the bearded God the Father '' figure in which Harry puts his faith to be saved from Voldemort and his servants. IGN also listed Dumbledore as their fifth favourite Harry Potter character, saying that "(f) or a character that was introduced into popular culture a mere twelve years ago, it speaks volumes that Professor Dumbledore has already taken his place among the great mentor figures in literature and film ''. IGN 's Joe Utichi called Dumbledore his third favourite Harry Potter character, calling the revelation that he was n't so "infallible '' one of the most heartbreaking themes of the final book. Actor Michael Gambon received some criticism for his louder, more aggressive, portrayal of the character, who is depicted as exhibiting a more subdued, unflappable calm in the books. This has been attributed to Gambon 's policy of not reading the source material from which his films are adapted.
As a main character of the series, major facts relating to Dumbledore have generated a vast number of essays and discussions. The death of Dumbledore at the end of Half - Blood Prince was discussed by fans and critics alike. A website named DumbledoreIsNotDead.com sought to understand the events of the sixth book in a different way and provided arguments to claim that the character did not really die. However, Rowling confirmed on 2 August 2006 that Dumbledore was, in fact, dead, humorously apologising to the website as she did so. Along with DumbledoreIsNotDead.com, a collection of essays, Who Killed Albus Dumbledore?: What Really Happened in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince? Six Expert Harry Potter Detectives Examine the Evidence, was published by Zossima Press in November 2006. In NextMovie. com 's Harry Potter Mega Poll, Dumbledore 's death was voted as the most unforgettable moment in the whole series.
Rowling 's statement that Dumbledore was gay caused a great debate among critics. Melissa Anelli, webmaster of the fan site The Leaky Cauldron, told The Associated Press, "J.K. Rowling calling any Harry Potter character gay would make wonderful strides in tolerance toward homosexuality... By dubbing someone so respected, so talented and so kind, as someone who just happens to be also homosexual, she 's reinforcing the idea that a person 's gayness is not something of which they should be ashamed. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Mark Harris said "her choice to make a beloved professor - mentor gay in a world where gay teachers are still routinely slandered as malign influences was, I am certain, no accident. '' The stars and director of the Harry Potter films were supportive of Rowling 's revelation as well.
Some critics discussed the implications of this statement. New York Times columnist Edward Rothstein said that "Ms. Rowling may think of Dumbledore as gay ''; however, "there is no reason why anyone else should ''. The East Tennessee State University 's student newspaper accused Rowling of lying, saying her answer was a publicity stunt. Michelle Smith quoted the Death of the Author principle, stating that Rowling 's subsequent commentary is irrelevant to the understanding of the books.
Dumbledore 's sexuality was also condemned by several right - wing Christian groups, such as Mission America and the Christian Coalition of America.
Slate quotes an attendee of the book talk who said, "It was clear that JKR did n't plan to out Dumbledore. She just cares about being true to her readers. '' Mike Thomas of the Orlando Sentinel said that upon reflection, Dumbledore was gay from the beginning, and that this neatly explains the behaviour of his character and his relationship with Grindelwald. Thomas notes the skill Rowling displays in writing a gay character without having to put a gay label on him.
Gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell stated that "It 's good that children 's literature includes the reality of gay people, since we exist in every society. But I am disappointed that she did not make Dumbledore 's sexuality explicit in the Harry Potter book. Making it obvious would have sent a much more powerful message of understanding and acceptance. '' A spokesperson for Stonewall praised Rowling, saying "It 's great that JK has said this. It shows that there 's no limit to what gay and lesbian people can do, even being a wizard headmaster. ''
Dumbledore has been parodied in several sketches and animated series:
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the handmaid's tale season 2 episode wikipedia | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American dystopian drama web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by the streaming service Hulu as a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, for which production began in late 2016. The plot follows a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War wherein fertile women, called "Handmaids '', are forced into sexual and child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes aired on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 25, 2018. At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, The Handmaid 's Tale won eight awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, becoming the first series on a streaming service to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series -- Drama and Best Actress for Elisabeth Moss.
In May 2018, Hulu announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.
In the near future, fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos, the totalitarian, theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along with a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of the Biblical account of Bilhah. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape by their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a similarly - styled plain dress in a specific color: Handmaids wear red, Marthas (who are housekeepers and cooks, named after the biblical figure) wear green, and Wives (who are expected to run their households) wear blue. Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are a sort of mixture of all these categories, and they wear gray (a departure from the book in which Econowives wear clothing striped with the aforementioned colors). Women prisoners are called Unwomen and are worked to death clearing toxic waste in the Colonies. Another class of women, Aunts (who train and oversee the Handmaids), wear brown. Additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of the Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). Offred is subject to strict rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master ("Of Fred '') like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married and had a daughter, a job, a bank account, and her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in hopes that she can someday live free again and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands upon or modernizes the book. She also played a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer, and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes would cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season consists of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel returned as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned 10 seasons of the show, stating, "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes were released on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo; the first two episodes premiered on April 30, 2017. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes. RTÉ also became the first broadcaster in Europe to debut Season 2 following its broadcast in the US and Canada.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand, on July 6, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 95 % based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump and Mike Pence 's elections as President and Vice President of the United States, respectively. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, under which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 69 reviews, with an average rating of 8.35 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully shot but dishearteningly relevant, The Handmaid 's Tale centers its sophomore season tightly around its compelling cast of characters, making room for broader social commentary through more intimate lenses. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
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supreme court cases that promote and protect civil rights | List of landmark Court decisions in the United States - wikipedia
The following is a partial list of landmark court decisions in the United States. Landmark decisions establish a significant new legal principle or concept or otherwise substantially change the interpretation of existing law. Such a decision may settle the law in more than one way:
In the United States, landmark court decisions come most frequently from the Supreme Court. United States courts of appeals may also make such decisions, particularly if the Supreme Court chooses not to review the case or if it adopts the holding of the lower court, such as in Smith v. Collin. Although many cases from state supreme courts are significant in developing the law of that state, only a few are so revolutionary that they announce standards that many other state courts then choose to follow.
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which leukocytes are raised in number in a parasitic infection | Leukocytosis - wikipedia
Leukocytosis is white cells (the leukocyte count) above the normal range in the blood. It is frequently a sign of an inflammatory response, most commonly the result of infection, but may also occur following certain parasitic infections or bone tumors as well as leukemia. It may also occur after strenuous exercise, convulsions such as epilepsy, emotional stress, pregnancy and labor, anesthesia, and epinephrine administration.
There are five principle types of leukocytosis:
This increase in leukocyte (primarily neutrophils) is usually accompanied by a "left upper shift '' in the ratio of immature to mature neutrophils and macrophages. The proportion of immature leukocytes decreases due to proliferation and inhibition of granulocyte and monocyte precursors in the bone marrow which is stimulated by several products of inflammation including C3a and G - CSF. Although it may indicate illness, leukocytosis is considered a laboratory finding instead of a separate disease. This classification is similar to that of fever, which is also a test result instead of a disease. "Right shift '' in the ratio of immature to mature neutrophils is considered with reduced count or lack of "young neutrophils '' (metamyelocytes, and band neutrophils) in blood smear, associated with the presence of "giant neutrophils ''. This fact shows suppression of bone marrow activity, as a hematological sign specific for pernicious anemia and radiation sickness.
A leukocyte count above 25 to 30 x 10 / L is termed a leukemoid reaction, which is the reaction of a healthy bone marrow to extreme stress, trauma, or infection. It is different from leukemia and from leukoerythroblastosis, in which either immature white blood cells (acute leukemia) or mature, yet non-functional, white blood cells (chronic leukemia) are present in peripheral blood.
Leukocytosis can be subcategorized by the type of white blood cell that is increased in number. Leukocytosis in which neutrophils are elevated is neutrophilia; leukocytosis in which lymphocyte count is elevated is lymphocytosis; leukocytosis in which monocyte count is elevated is monocytosis; and leukocytosis in which eosinophil count is elevated is eosinophilia.
An extreme form of leukocytosis, in which the WBC count exceeds 100,000 / μL, is leukostasis. In this form there are so many WBCs that clumps of them block blood flow. This leads to ischemic problems including transient ischemic attack and stroke.
Leukocytosis is very common in acutely ill patients. It occurs in response to a wide variety of conditions, including viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection, cancer, hemorrhage, and exposure to certain medications or chemicals including steroids.
For lung diseases such as pneumonia and tuberculosis, WBC count is very important for the diagnosis of the disease, as leukocytosis is usually present.
The mechanism that causes leukocytosis can be of several forms: an increased release of leukocytes from bone marrow storage pools, decreased margination of leukocytes onto vessel walls, decreased extravasation of leukocytes from the vessels into tissues, or an increase in number of precursor cells in the marrow.
Certain medications, including corticosteroids, lithium and beta agonists, may cause leukocytosis.
Below are blood reference ranges for various types leucocytes / WBCs. The 97.5 percentile (right limits in intervals in image, showing 95 % prediction intervals) is a common limit for defining leukocytosis.
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where does the royal family live in denmark | List of Danish royal residences - wikipedia
The Danish Royal Family inhabit a range of residences around Denmark. Historically all the residences of the royal family were privately owned. With the introduction of the new Constitution in 1849, some of the residences were claimed as property of the "Kingdom of Denmark ''. Some of the palaces are still privately owned by the Queen or other members of the Royal Family. The Agency for Palaces and Cultural Properties (the Danish equivalent of the Historic Royal Palaces Agency) is responsible for the management and upkeep of some of the royal palaces and gardens.
The Danish Royal Family traditionally occupy different royal residences during different seasons of the year. In summer, Queen Margarethe and Prince Henrik reside at Marselisborg Palace or Graasten Palace. In the winter, they reside at Amalienborg, whereas their residence during spring and autumn is Fredensborg Palace. Sometimes members of the royal couple spend time on the Royal Yacht Dannebrog, especially when on official visits overseas and on summer cruises in Danish waters.
Amalienborg Palace is the winter home of the monarch, and is located in Copenhagen, Denmark. It consists of four identical classicizing palace façades with rococo interiors around an octagonal courtyard; in the centre of the square is a monumental equestrian statue of Amalienborg 's founder, King Frederik V.
Amalienborg was originally built for four noble families; however, when Christiansborg Palace burnt down on 26 February 1794, the royal family bought the palaces and moved in. Over the years various kings and their families have resided in the four different palaces. Currently, the Queen herself resides in Christian IX 's Palace and the Crown Prince in Frederik VIII 's Palace. Christian VIII 's Palace has apartments for other members of the royal family, whereas Christian VII 's Palace is used for official events and to accommodate guests.
Historically, Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen, was the main residence of the Danish kings. But after the fire of the first Christiansborg Palace in 1794, the royal family moved their residence to Amalienborg. However, even though the royal family does not reside in the palace, parts of Christiansborg has continued to be used by the monarch for official purposes and state ceremonies. It is the site of public audiences, meetings of the Council of State, state dinners, receptions and other ceremonies. Also, the Royal Stables which provide the ceremonial transport by horse - drawn carriage for the royal family, is located here. The royal parts of the palace are open to the public when they are not in use for official purposes.
Fredensborg Palace is a palace located on the eastern shore of Lake Esrum (Danish, Esrum Sø) in Fredensborg on the island of Zealand (Sjælland) in Denmark. It is the Danish Royal Family 's spring and autumn residence, and is often the site of important state visits and events in the Royal Family. It is the most used of the Royal Family 's residences.
Marselisborg Palace is the summer residence of the royal family in Aarhus. Historically, the Palace was the property of the Marselis dynasty, its namesake. Marselisborg became a royal residence when Crown Prince Christian (later Christian X) and his consort Princess Alexandrine were given the Palace as a wedding present by the people of Denmark. As such the palace is the property of the Kingdom of Denmark, and will remain in possession of all future monarchs of Denmark. The royal couple used it as their summer residence. The building was rebuilt by the Danish architect Hack Kampmann. The present Queen Margrethe II was given the palace by her father, King Frederick IX of Denmark in 1967.
Gråsten Palace is the second summer residence of the Danish royal family. It is located in Gråsten in the Jutland region of southern Denmark. The main house has a modern, all - white facade, with Venetian doors opening onto sweeping, manicured lawns and gravel walkways. The grounds include a huge stables court.
The Eremitage Hunting Lodge (Danish: Eremitageslottet or Eremitagen) is located in Dyrehaven north of Copenhagen, Denmark. It was built by architect Lauritz de Thurah in Baroque style from 1734 to 1736 for Christian VI of Denmark in order to host banquets during royal hunts in Dyrehaven.
Never intended for residence, the Eremitage was built as a setting for hosting royal banquets during hunts in Dyrehaven, which surrounds the building. It originally featured a hoisting apparatus able to raise the table from the basement to the dining room, allowing the king and his guests to dine without any waiters present, or "en ermitage '' (in solitude), hence the name of the castle. The apparatus was removed in the late 18th century as it was causing endless mechanical problems, and no signs of it remain. The previous building on the site, the Hubertus Chalet, had a similar apparatus and was nicknamed Heremitagen for the same reason.
Sorgenfri Palace is a royal residence of the Danish monarch located in the Lyngby - Taarbæk municipality in Greater Copenhagen. Originally a country seat, Sorgenfri Palace was built for the Danish nobleman Count Carl Ahlefeldt in 1706. The palace first became a royal residence in 1730 after coming into the possession of the Danish Royal Family.
Sorgenfri was the preferred summer residence of King Christian X and his wife Queen Alexandrine. Both of Alexandrine 's children Frederik and his brother, Knud, were born there. Both Knud and his wife Caroline - Mathilde lived at Sorgenfri Palace until their respective deaths in 1976 and 1995.
Today the palace is closed to the public but the palace gardens are accessible when the monarch is not in residence. Countess Anne - Dorte, the widow of Count Christian of Rosenborg (a younger son of Prince Knud), presently resides in a wing of the palace.
Château de Cayx is a residence of the Danish Royal Family located in the wine district of Cahors in southern France.
The château was first fortified during the fourteenth century. Since then it has been rebuilt and renovated several times. The Lefrancs built the extensive wine cellars under the château.
The phylloxera infestation devastated the vineyards during the late nineteenth century, and the owners emigrated to Indo - China. They did not return to Europe until 1955. In 1965 the family 's heir, Henri Marie Jean André de Laborde de Monpezat, married Princess Margrethe, then heiress presumptive to the Danish throne, becoming Prince Consort of Denmark after she succeeded to Denmark 's throne.
The royal couple purchased the château and the estate in 1974. Since then they have renovated it extensively. According to the official website of the Danish monarchy, the residence has become a "relaxed setting for reunions of the entire Danish Royal Family and their French relatives ''. It has been the setting for holiday photocalls for the Danish Royal Family, including for Prince Henrik 's 80th birthday.
The residence is not open to the public. A guided tour of the gardens is available during the summer. The château still produces wine.
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name the raw material used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate by solvay process | Solvay process - wikipedia
The Solvay process or ammonia - soda process is the major industrial process for the production of sodium carbonate (soda ash, Na CO). The ammonia - soda process was developed into its modern form by Ernest Solvay during the 1860s. The ingredients for this are readily available and inexpensive: salt brine (from inland sources or from the sea) and limestone (from quarries). The worldwide production of soda ash in 2005 has been estimated at 42 million metric tons, which is more than six kilograms (13 lb) per year for each person on Earth. Solvay - based chemical plants now produce roughly three - quarters of this supply, with the remainder being mined from natural deposits. The method superseded Leblanc process.
The name "soda ash '' is based on the principal historical method of obtaining alkali, which was by using water to extract it from the ashes of certain plants. Wood fires yielded potash and its predominant ingredient potassium carbonate (K CO), whereas the ashes from these special plants yielded "soda ash '' and its predominant ingredient sodium carbonate (Na CO). The word "soda '' (from the Middle Latin) originally referred to certain plants that grow in salt solubles it was discovered that the ashes of these plants yielded the useful alkali soda ash. The cultivation of such plants reached a particularly high state of development in the 18th century in Spain, where the plants are named barrilla; the English word is "barilla ''. The ashes of kelp also yield soda ash, and were the basis of an enormous 18th century industry in Scotland. Alkali was also mined from dry lakebeds in Egypt.
By the late 18th century these sources were insufficient to meet Europe 's burgeoning demand for alkali for soap, textile, and glass industries. In 1791, the French physician Nicolas Leblanc developed a method to manufacture soda ash using salt, limestone, sulphuric acid, and coal. Although the Leblanc process came to dominate alkali production in the early 19th century, the expense of its inputs and its polluting byproducts (including hydrogen chloride gas) made it apparent that it was far from an ideal solution.
It has been reported that in 1811 French physicist Augustin Jean Fresnel discovered that sodium bicarbonate precipitates when carbon dioxide is bubbled through ammonia - containing brines -- which is the chemical reaction central to the Solvay process. The discovery was n't published. As has been noted by Desmond Reilly, "The story of the evolution of the ammonium - soda process is an interesting example of the way in which a discovery can be made and then laid aside and not applied for a considerable time afterwards. '' Serious consideration of this reaction as the basis of an industrial process dates from the British patent issued in 1834 to H.G. Dyan and J. Henning. There were several attempts to reduce this reaction to industrial practice, with varying success.
In 1861, Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay turned his attention to the problem; he was apparently largely unaware of the extensive earlier work. His solution, a 24 metres (79 ft) gas absorption tower in which carbon dioxide bubbled up through a descending flow of brine. This, together with efficient recovery and recycling of the ammonia, proved effective. By 1864 Solvay and his brother Alfred had acquired financial backing and constructed a plant in the Belgian town of Charleroi. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than the Leblanc method, and its use spread. In 1874, the Solvays expanded their facilities with a new, larger plant at Nancy, France.
In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay in Belgium and acquired rights to use the new technology. He and John Brunner formed the firm of Brunner, Mond & Co., and built a Solvay plant at Winnington, near Northwich, Cheshire, England. The facility began operating in 1874. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could slow or halt the process.
In 1884, the Solvay brothers licensed Americans William B. Cogswell and Rowland Hazard to produce soda ash in the US, and formed a joint venture (Solvay Process Company) to build and operate a plant in Solvay, New York.
By the 1890s, Solvay - process plants produced the majority of the world 's soda ash.
In 1938 large deposits of the mineral trona were discovered near the Green River in Wyoming from which sodium carbonate can be extracted more cheaply than produced by the process. With the closing of the original Solvay, New York plant in 1986, there have been no Solvay - based plants operating in North America. Throughout the rest of the world the Solvay process remains the major source of soda ash.
The Solvay process results in soda ash (predominantly sodium carbonate (Na CO)) from brine (as a source of sodium chloride (NaCl)) and from limestone (as a source of calcium carbonate (CaCO)). The overall process is:
The actual implementation of this global, overall reaction is intricate. A simplified description can be given using the four different, interacting chemical reactions illustrated in the figure. In the first step in the process, carbon dioxide (CO) passes through a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl) and ammonia (NH).
In industrial practice, the reaction is carried out by passing concentrated brine (salt water) through two towers. In the first, ammonia bubbles up through the brine and is absorbed by it. In the second, carbon dioxide bubbles up through the ammoniated brine, and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) precipitates out of the solution. Note that, in a basic solution, NaHCO is less water - soluble than sodium chloride. The ammonia (NH) buffers the solution at a basic (high) pH; without the ammonia, a hydrochloric acid byproduct would render the solution acidic, and arrest the precipitation.
The necessary ammonia "catalyst '' for reaction (I) is reclaimed in a later step, and relatively little ammonia is consumed. The carbon dioxide required for reaction (I) is produced by heating ("calcination '') of the limestone at 950 -- 1100 ° C. The calcium carbonate (CaCO) in the limestone is partially converted to quicklime (calcium oxide (CaO)) and carbon dioxide:
The sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) that precipitates out in reaction (I) is filtered out from the hot ammonium chloride (NH Cl) solution, and the solution is then reacted with the quicklime (calcium oxide (CaO)) left over from heating the limestone in step (II).
CaO makes a strong basic solution. The ammonia from reaction (III) is recycled back to the initial brine solution of reaction (I).
The sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) precipitate from reaction (I) is then converted to the final product, sodium carbonate (washing soda: Na CO), by calcination (160 -- 230 ° C), producing water and carbon dioxide as byproducts:
The carbon dioxide from step (IV) is recovered for re-use in step (I). When properly designed and operated, a Solvay plant can reclaim almost all its ammonia, and consumes only small amounts of additional ammonia to make up for losses. The only major inputs to the Solvay process are salt, limestone and thermal energy, and its only major byproduct is calcium chloride, which is sold as road salt.
In the modified Solvay process developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in 1930s, the first few steps are the same as the Solvay process. However, the CaCl is supplanted by ammonium chloride (NH Cl). Instead of treating the remaining solution with lime, carbon dioxide and ammonia are pumped into the solution, then sodium chloride is added until the solution saturates at 40 ° C. Next, the solution is cooled to 10 ° C. Ammonium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, and the solution is recycled to produce more sodium carbonate. Hou 's process eliminates the production of calcium chloride. The byproduct ammonium chloride can be refined, used as a fertilizer and may have greater commercial value than CaCl, thus reducing the extent of waste beds.
Additional details of the industrial implementation of this process are available in the report prepared for the European Soda Ash Producer 's Association.
Soda ash is used in many industrial processes, and its production is sometimes used as an indicator of economic health. The principal current uses include:
The principal byproduct of the Solvay process is calcium chloride (CaCl) in aqueous solution. The process has other waste and byproducts as well. Not all of the limestone that is calcined is converted to quicklime and carbon dioxide (in reaction II); the residual calcium carbonate and other components of the limestone become wastes. In addition, the salt brine used by the process is usually purified to remove magnesium and calcium ions, typically to form carbonates; otherwise, these impurities would lead to scale in the various reaction vessels and towers. These carbonates are additional waste products.
In inland plants, such as that in Solvay, New York, the byproducts have been deposited in "waste beds ''; the weight of material deposited in these waste beds exceeded that of the soda ash produced by about 50 %. These waste beds have led to water pollution, principally by calcium and chloride. The waste beds in Solvay, New York substantially increased the salinity in nearby Onondaga Lake, which used to be among the most polluted lakes in the U.S. and is a superfund pollution site. As such waste beds age, they do begin to support plant communities which have been the subject of several scientific studies.
At seaside locations, such as those at Saurashtra, Gujarat, India, the CaCl solution may be discharged directly into the sea, apparently without substantial environmental harm, the major concern is discharge location falls within the Marine National Park of Gulf of Kutch which serves as habitat for coral reefs, seagrass and seaweed community. At Osborne, South Australia, a settling pond is now used to remove 99 % of the CaCl as the former discharge was silting up the shipping channel.
Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed for carbon sequestration. One idea is to react carbon dioxide, produced perhaps by the combustion of coal, to form solid carbonates (such as sodium bicarbonate) that could be permanently stored, thus avoiding carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed to convert carbon dioxide emissions into sodium carbonates, but carbon sequestration by calcium or magnesium carbonates appears more promising. However, the amount of carbon dioxide exhausted by mankind as compared to the amount which can be used for carbon sequestration with calcium or magnesium is very low. Moreover, variation on the Solvay process will most probably add an additional energy step, which will increase carbon dioxide emissions.
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where do they film star wars the last jedi | Star Wars: the Last Jedi - wikipedia
Star Wars: The Last Jedi (also known as Star Wars: Episode VIII -- The Last Jedi) is a 2017 American epic space opera film written and directed by Rian Johnson. It is the second installment of the Star Wars sequel trilogy and the eighth main installment of the Star Wars franchise, following Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The ensemble cast includes Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Andy Serkis, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Anthony Daniels and Gwendoline Christie in returning roles, with Kelly Marie Tran, Laura Dern and Benicio del Toro joining the cast. The film features the final film performance by Fisher, who died in December 2016, and it is dedicated to her memory. The plot follows Rey as she receives Jedi training from Luke Skywalker, in hopes of turning the tide for the Resistance in the fight against Kylo Ren and the First Order.
The Last Jedi is part of a new trilogy of films announced after Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm in October 2012. It was produced by Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman, with Force Awakens director J.J. Abrams as an executive producer. John Williams, composer for the previous films, returned to compose the score. Scenes that required shooting at Skellig Michael in Ireland were filmed during pre-production in September 2015, with principal photography beginning at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom in February 2016 and ending in July 2016. Post-production wrapped in September 2017.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 15, 2017. It has grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film of 2017, the 7th - highest - ever grossing film in North America and the 9th - highest - grossing film of all time. It is also the second - highest - grossing film of the Star Wars franchise, and turned a net profit of over $417 million. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised its ensemble cast, visual effects, musical score, action sequences and emotional weight; some considered it the best Star Wars film since The Empire Strikes Back. The film received four nominations at the 90th Academy Awards, including Best Original Score and Best Visual Effects, as well two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. A sequel, provisionally titled Star Wars: Episode IX, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019.
Resistance forces, led by General Leia Organa, flee D'Qar when a First Order fleet arrives. Poe Dameron leads a costly counterattack that destroys a First Order dreadnought, but after the Resistance escapes to hyperspace, the First Order tracks them and attacks the Resistance convoy. Kylo Ren, Leia 's son, hesitates to fire on the lead Resistance ship after sensing his mother 's presence, but his TIE fighter wingmen destroy the bridge, incapacitating Leia and killing most of their leadership, including Admiral Ackbar. Disapproving of new leader Vice Admiral Holdo 's passive strategy, Poe helps Finn, BB - 8, and mechanic Rose Tico embark on a secret mission to disable the tracking device on the lead ship.
Meanwhile, Rey arrives on Ahch - To with Chewbacca and R2 - D2 aboard the Millennium Falcon to recruit Luke Skywalker to the Resistance. Disillusioned by his failure to train Kylo as a Jedi, and under self - imposed exile from the Force, Luke refuses to help -- even after he learns of Han Solo 's death at Kylo 's hands -- and believes that the Jedi should become extinct. Unbeknownst to Luke, Rey and Kylo can communicate through the Force, puzzling the two enemies. As the rival Force users learn about each other, each has future visions of themselves as partners.
R2 - D2 persuades Luke to train Rey. After Kylo tells Rey what happened between him and Luke that caused him to choose the dark side of the Force, Luke confesses that he momentarily contemplated killing Kylo upon sensing that Supreme Leader Snoke was corrupting him, causing Kylo to destroy Luke 's new Jedi Order in retaliation. Convinced that Kylo can be redeemed, Rey leaves Ahch - To to confront Kylo without Luke. Luke prepares to burn the Ahch - To Jedi temple and library, but hesitates. Yoda 's ghost appears and destroys the temple by summoning a thunderstorm, claiming Rey has all she needs to learn, and encourages Luke to learn from his failure.
Holdo reveals her plan to discreetly evacuate the remaining Resistance members using small transports. Believing her actions cowardly and risky, Poe leads a mutiny. Finn, Rose, and BB - 8 travel to the Canto Bight casino and acquire the help of the hacker DJ, who says he can help them disable the tracking device. They infiltrate Snoke 's ship, but all but BB - 8 are captured by Captain Phasma. Meanwhile, Rey lands on the ship, and Kylo brings her to Snoke, who claims that he facilitated the mental connection between her and Kylo as part of a plan to destroy Luke. Ordered to kill Rey, Kylo instead kills Snoke and, with Rey, defeats Snoke 's guards. Rey believes that Kylo has returned to the light side of the Force, but he instead invites her to rule the galaxy with him, which she refuses. They use the Force to fight for possession of Anakin Skywalker 's lightsaber, which splits in two.
Leia recovers and stuns Poe, allowing the evacuation to begin. Holdo remains on the ship to mislead Snoke 's fleet as the others flee to an abandoned Rebel Alliance base on Crait. DJ reveals the Resistance 's plan to the First Order, and the evacuation transports are slowly destroyed. Holdo sacrifices herself by ramming Snoke 's fleet at lightspeed; Rey escapes in the chaos, while Kylo declares himself Supreme Leader. BB - 8 frees Finn and Rose, who escape after defeating Phasma, and they join survivors on Crait. When the First Order arrives, Poe, Finn, and Rose attack with old speeders. Rey and Chewbacca draw the TIE fighters away with the Falcon, while Rose stops Finn from completing a suicide run against the enemy siege cannon, which penetrates the Resistance fortress.
Luke appears and confronts the First Order to enable surviving Resistance members to escape. Kylo orders the First Order 's forces to fire on Luke to no effect. He then engages Luke in a lightsaber duel; upon striking Luke, Kylo realizes he has been fighting a Force projection of him. Rey uses the Force to help the Resistance escape on the Falcon. Luke, exhausted, dies peacefully on Ahch - To. His death is sensed by Rey and Leia, but Leia tells surviving rebels that the Resistance has all it needs to rise again. At Canto Bight, one of the children who helped Finn and Rose escape grabs a broom with the Force and gazes into space.
Joonas Suotamo appears as Chewbacca, taking over the role from Peter Mayhew after previously serving as his body double for The Force Awakens. Mayhew, who was 73 years old and suffering from chronic knee and back pain, is credited as "Chewbacca consultant. '' Billie Lourd, Mike Quinn, and Timothy D. Rose reprise their roles as Lieutenant Connix, Nien Nunb, and Admiral Ackbar respectively from previous films. Due to the death of Erik Bauersfeld, Admiral Ackbar is now voiced by Tom Kane. Amanda Lawrence appears as Commander D'Acy, and Mark Lewis Jones and Adrian Edmondson play Captains Canady and Peavey respectively. BB - 8 is controlled by puppeteers Dave Chapman and Brian Herring, with initial voice work by Ben Schwartz and final sound effects voiced by Bill Hader modulated through a synthesizer. Jimmy Vee portrays R2 - D2, taking over the role from Kenny Baker who died on August 13, 2016. Veronica Ngo portrays Rose 's sister Paige Tico, a Resistance gunner who sacrifices her life to destroy a First Order dreadnought.
Justin Theroux plays the master codebreaker, while Lily Cole plays his companion. Joseph Gordon - Levitt has a voice cameo as Slowen Lo. Warwick Davis plays Wodibin. Gareth Edwards, director of the Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One, has a cameo appearance as a Resistance Soldier, as does Gary Barlow. Directors Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish also cameo in the film. Hermione Corfield appears as Tallissan "Tallie '' Lintra, a Resistance A-Wing pilot and squadron leader. Noah Segan and Jamie Christopher appear as Resistance pilots Starck and Tubbs. Hamill 's children, Griffin, Nathan, and Chelsea, cameo as Resistance soldiers. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry filmed cameo appearances as stormtroopers. Tom Hardy also filmed an appearance as a stormtrooper, but his cameo was ultimately dropped from the final cut. Hugh Skinner cameos as a Resistance Officer.
In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney announced a new trilogy of Star Wars films. J.J. Abrams was named director of the first episode in the trilogy, The Force Awakens, in January 2013. In June 2014, director Rian Johnson was reported to be in talks to write and direct its sequel, dubbed Episode VIII, and to write a treatment for the third film, Episode IX, with Ram Bergman producing both films. Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII. In September, filmmaker Terry Gilliam asked Johnson about what it felt like to take over something that was made famous by another filmmaker, to which Johnson responded:
I 'm just starting into it, but so far, honestly, it 's the most fun I 've ever had writing. It 's just joyous. But also for me personally, I grew up not just watching those movies but playing with those toys, so as a little kid, the first movies I was making in my head were set in this world. A big part of it is that direct connection, almost like an automatic jacking back into childhood in a weird way. But I do n't know, ask me again in a few years and we 'll be able to talk about that.
The story begins immediately after the last scene of The Force Awakens. He had his story group watch films such as Twelve O'Clock High, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Gunga Din, Three Outlaw Samurai, Sahara, and Letter Never Sent for inspiration while developing ideas. He felt it was difficult to work on the film while The Force Awakens was being finished.
In December 2015, Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that "we have n't mapped out every single detail (of the sequel trilogy) yet ''. She said that Abrams was collaborating with Johnson and that Johnson would in turn work with (then) Episode IX director Colin Trevorrow to ensure a smooth transition. Abrams is an executive producer along with Jason McGatlin and Tom Karnowski. Lucasfilm announced the film 's title, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, on January 23, 2017.
In September 2015, Disney shortlisted the female cast members to Gina Rodriguez, Tatiana Maslany, and Olivia Cooke. Later that month, Benicio del Toro confirmed that he would play a villain in the film, and Mark Hamill was also confirmed. In October 2015, Gugu Mbatha - Raw was rumored to have been cast in the film. In November, Jimmy Vee was cast as R2 - D2. In November, Kennedy announced at the London premiere for The Force Awakens that the entire cast would return for Episode VIII, along with "a handful '' of new cast members. In February 2016, at the start of filming, it was confirmed that Laura Dern and Kelly Marie Tran had been cast in unspecified roles. In April 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Lucasfilm announced that Tran plays Resistance maintenance worker Rose Tico, which Johnson described as the film 's largest new role. To keep Frank Oz 's return as Yoda a secret, producers excluded Oz 's name in the billing for the film 's pre-release marketing and ensured that Oz stayed on set during filming.
Second unit photography began during pre-production at Skellig Michael in Ireland on September 14, 2015, due to the difficulties of filming at that location during other seasons. It would have lasted four days, but filming was canceled for the first day due to poor weather and rough conditions. In November 2014, Ivan Dunleavy, chief executive of Pinewood Studios, confirmed that the film would be shot at Pinewood, with additional filming in Mexico. In September 2015, del Toro revealed that principal photography would begin in March 2016; Kennedy later stated that filming would begin in January 2016. The production began work on the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios on November 15, 2015. Rick Heinrichs served as production designer.
In January 2016, production of Episode VIII was delayed until February 2016, due to script rewrites. Additionally, filming was potentially in danger of being delayed further due to an upcoming strike between the Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television and the Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union. On February 10, 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that principal photography had begun, under the working title Space Bear. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik, Croatia from March 9 to 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May. Malin Head in County Donegal and a mountain headland, Ceann Sibeal in County Kerry, served as additional filming locations. To increase the scenes ' intimacy Driver and Ridley were both present when filming Kylo and Rey 's Force visions. Location filming for the battle scenes on the planet Crait took place in July 2016 at the Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia.
Principal photography wrapped on July 22, 2016, though as of early September 2016, Nyong'o had not filmed her scenes. In February 2017, it was announced that sequences from the film were shot in IMAX. Production designer Rick Heinrichs said the original screenplay called for 160 sets, double what might be expected, but that Johnson did some "trimming and cutting ''. Ultimately 125 sets were created on 14 sound stages at Pinewood Studios.
According to creature designer Neal Scanlan, The Last Jedi uses more practical effects than any Star Wars film, with 180 to 200 creatures created with practical effects, some cut from the final edit. For Yoda 's appearance in the film as a Force ghost, the character was created using puppetry, as was done in the original Star Wars trilogy (as opposed to computer - generated imagery, which was used to create Yoda in most of the prequel trilogy).
The film 's Canto Bight sequence contains a reference to the 1985 Terry Gilliam film Brazil, in which Finn and Rose are arrested for committing parking violation 27B / 6.
In July 2013, Kennedy announced at Star Wars Celebration Europe that John Williams would return to score the Star Wars sequel trilogy. Williams confirmed his assignment for The Last Jedi at a Tanglewood concert in August 2016, stating he would begin recording the score "off and on '' in December 2016 until March or April 2017. On February 21, 2017, it was confirmed that recording was underway, with both Williams and William Ross conducting the sessions.
In lieu of a traditional spotting session with Johnson, Williams was provided a temp track of music from his previous film scores as a reference for scoring The Last Jedi. The score briefly quotes "Aquarela do Brasil '' by Ary Barroso in its "Canto Bight '' track as another reference to the film Brazil. It also contains a brief quote of Williams performing his own theme for The Long Goodbye (co-composed by Johnny Mercer) during Finn and Rose 's escape, although this quote is not heard in the official soundtrack release.
The official soundtrack album was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2017 in digipak CD, digital formats, and streaming services.
In January 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Episode VIII would be released in 2017, and in March, Lucasfilm announced a release date of May 26, 2017. In January 2016, The Last Jedi was rescheduled for December 15, 2017 in 3D and IMAX 3D. On January 23, 2017, the film 's title was announced as Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Similarly to The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens, "Episode VIII '' was included in the film 's opening crawl, although not in its official title.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017. The European premiere was held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on December 12, 2017, with a red carpet event.
It was reported that Disney had placed notable conditions on U.S. cinemas screening The Last Jedi, which some operators described as being "onerous ''. Disney required that the film be screened in a cinema 's largest auditorium for a four - week period (other Disney releases have had similar clauses, but only for two weeks), and was given a 65 % cut of ticket sales (a percentage higher than the 55 -- 60 % average of other major films, and cited as the highest split ever demanded by a Hollywood film behind the 64 % split of The Force Awakens). The agreement, which was required to be kept confidential, also contained regulations on promotions and restrictions on removing any scheduled screening. Violations were to be penalized with an additional 5 % cut of ticket sales. Some cinemas declined to screen the film due to these conditions, particularly smaller or one - screen cinemas that would otherwise be barred from screening any other film during the commitment period. Industry representatives considered this policy to be reasonable, citing the performance of Disney releases and the Star Wars franchise, and that the guaranteed business attracted by the film, and concession sales, would make up for the larger cut of ticket sales.
A set of eight promotional postage stamps were released on October 12, 2017 in the UK by the Royal Mail with artwork by Malcolm Tween. On September 19, 2017, Australia Post released a set of stamp packs. Tie - in promotional campaigns were done with Nissan Motors and Bell Media, among others. Two main trailers were released, followed by numerous television spots. Figurines of many of the characters were released in October, and advance tickets for Last Jedi went on sale in October.
Several tie - in books were released on the same day of the North American release of the movie, including The Last Jedi: Visual Dictionary, and various children 's reading and activity books. Related novelizations included the prequel book Cobalt Squadron, and the Canto Bight, a collection of novellas about the Canto Bight Casino.
As with The Force Awakens, there is no official tie - in game for The Last Jedi, in favor of integrating content from the film into other Star Wars video games, including Star Wars Battlefront II, which introduced various content from the film, during the second week of the game 's first "season ''. An update to the MOBA mobile game Star Wars: Force Arena added new content from the sequel era, including some characters as they appeared in The Last Jedi. Characters from the film also appeared in the mobile RPG Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Star Wars: The Last Jedi digitally in HD and 4K via digital download and Movies Anywhere on March 13, 2018, with an Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD physical release on March 27. It was the first Star Wars film to be released on the Ultra HD Blu - ray format.
The official novelization is by Jason Fry, with an audiobook version narrated by Marc Thompson. There is a "junior novel '' by Michael Kogge (2018 Lucasfilm Press), and an audiobook version narrated by Jessica Almasy.
As of April 8, 2018, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has grossed $620.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $712.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.333 billion. It had a worldwide opening of $450.8 million, the fifth - biggest of all time, including $40.6 million that was attributed to IMAX screenings, the second biggest for IMAX. It was estimated that the film would need to gross $800 million worldwide to break even; Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $417.5 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the most profitable release of 2017.
On December 31, 2017, its 17th day of release, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the fourth film of 2017, the fifteenth Disney film, the fourth Star Wars film and the thirty - second film overall to pass the mark. The film was the highest - grossing film of 2017, the second highest - grossing film in the franchise (behind The Force Awakens), the fourth highest - grossing film released by Walt Disney Studios, the sixth highest - grossing film in North America and the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time.
Pre-sale tickets went on sale in the United States on October 9, 2017, and as with The Force Awakens and Rogue One, ticket service sites such as Fandango had their servers crash due to heavy traffic and demand. In the United States and Canada, industry tracking had The Last Jedi grossing around $200 million from 4,232 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $45 million from Thursday night previews, the second - highest amount ever (behind The Force Awakens ' $57 million). It went on to make $104.8 million on its first day (including previews) and $220 million over the weekend, both the second - highest amounts of all time. The opening weekend figure included an IMAX opening - weekend of $25 million, the biggest IMAX opening of the year and the second biggest ever behind The Force Awakens.
After dropping by 76 % on its second Friday, the worst Friday - to - Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 67.5 % in its second weekend, grossing $71.6 million. It was the largest second - weekend drop of the franchise, although it remained atop the box office. The three day total was the 14th biggest second weekend of all time. It grossed an additional $27.5 million on Christmas Day, the second biggest Christmas Day gross of all time behind The Force Awakens ($49.3 million), for a four - day weekend total of $99 million. It made $52.4 million in its third weekend, again topping the box office. It also brought its domestic total to $517.1 million, overtaking fellow Disney vehicle Beauty and the Beast as the highest of 2017. It was the 6th biggest third weekend of all time. It had the 7th biggest New Year 's Day gross of all time with $14.3 million, bringing the four day total to $66.8 million. It grossed $23.7 million and was surpassed the following weekend by Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (which was in its third week) and Insidious: The Last Key.
In its first two days of release the film made $60.8 million from 48 markets. The top countries were the United Kingdom ($10.2 million), Germany ($6.1 million), France ($6 million), Australia ($5.6 million) and Brazil ($2.5 million). By the end of the weekend, the film made $230.8 million outside North America, the ninth - highest of all time. This included $36.7 million in the UK (third - highest), $23.6 million in Germany (second - highest), $18.1 million in France, $15.9 million in Australia (second - highest), $14.4 million in Japan, $8.5 million in Russia, $8.3 million in Spain, $7.2 million in Brazil, $7 million in Italy and Mexico, $6.0 million in Sweden and $5.1 million in South Korea. On its second weekend, it grossed $76.1 million overseas and became the fourth - highest - grossing film of the year in Europe. As of January 21, the largest markets outside of the United States and Canada are the United Kingdom ($109.3 million), Germany ($79.8 million), France ($63.5 million), Japan ($60.8 million) and Australia ($43.5 million).
The film had a $28.7 million opening weekend in China, the lowest for a Star Wars film in that country since 2005. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened to $52 million two years prior and Rogue One, which featured Chinese stars Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen, opened to $30 million in 2016. The Last Jedi added only $7 million during the week, to reach a total of $34.2 million in its first seven days. A week after its debut, China 's movie exhibitors dropped the film 's showtimes by 92 percent, from its 34.5 % percent share of the territory 's total screenings. The film grossed $910,000 in its third weekend, dropping to ninth place at the Chinese box office, overshadowed by new releases including Bollywood film Secret Superstar, Hollywood films Ferdinand and Wonder, and Chinese film A Better Tomorrow 2018. The Last Jedi grossed $41 million in China, as of January 21, 2018.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has an approval rating of 91 % based on 373 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi honors the saga 's rich legacy while adding some surprising twists -- and delivering all the emotion - rich action fans could hope for. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 56 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, praising the surprises and risks that it took, writing that "The movie works equally well as an earnest adventure full of passionate heroes and villains and a meditation on sequels and franchise properties... (The film) is preoccupied with questions of legacy, legitimacy and succession, and includes multiple debates over whether one should replicate or reject the stories and symbols of the past. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast and the direction: "You 're in hyper - skilled hands with Johnson who makes sure you leave the multiplex feeling euphoric. The middle part of the current trilogy, The Last Jedi ranks with the very best Star Wars epics (even the pinnacle that is The Empire Strikes Back) by pointing the way ahead to a next generation of skywalkers -- and, thrillingly, to a new hope. ''
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 / 4 stars, saying, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi... does n't pack quite the same emotional punch (as The Force Awakens) and it lags a bit in the second half, (but) this is still a worthy chapter in the Star Wars franchise, popping with exciting action sequences, sprinkled with good humor and containing more than a few nifty ' callbacks ' to previous characters and iconic moments. '' For The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "Loaded with action and satisfying in the ways its loyal audience wants it to be, writer - director Rian Johnson 's plunge into George Lucas ' universe is generally pleasing even as it sometimes strains to find useful and / or interesting things for some of its characters to do. ''
Will Gompertz, arts editor of BBC News, gave the film 4 / 5 stars, writing "Rian Johnson... has not ruined your Christmas with a turkey. His gift to you is a cracker, a blockbuster movie packed with invention, wit, and action galore. '' Mark Kermode, British film critic, gave the film 4 / 5 stars saying Johnson "proves himself the master of the balancing act, keeping the warring forces of this intergalactic franchise in near - perfect harmony. '' The unpredictability of the plot was appreciated by reviewers such as Alex Leadbeater of Screen Rant, who commented specifically that the death of Snoke was "the best movie twist in years ''.
Conversely, Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "Despite a few stunning decorative touches (most of which involve the color red) and that brief central sequence of multiple Reys, the movie comes off as a work that 's ironed out, flattened down, appallingly purified. Above all, it delivers a terrifyingly calculated consensus storytelling, an artificial universality that is achieved, in part, through express religious references. '' Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail gave the film 2 / 4 stars, saying the film suffered from too many new additions and writing, "Nifty new animals, a maturing villain, a flagging heroine, muffled humour -- as it seeks to uphold a giant cultural legacy, this unfolding trilogy struggles to maintain a balance that often seems just out of reach. ''
Audience reception measured by scientific polling methods was highly positive. Audiences randomly polled by CinemaScore on opening day gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale. Surveys from SurveyMonkey and comScore 's PostTrak found that 89 % of audience members graded the film positively, including a rare five - star rating.
The user - generated review sections of Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic contained scores that were significantly more negative, achieving ratings of 47 % and 4.6 / 10, respectively. Several reviewers speculated that the low user scores are the result of manipulation, either by coordinated vote brigading from internet groups or from bots. Quartz noted that some new accounts gave negative ratings to both The Last Jedi and Thor: Ragnarok, while Bleeding Cool stated that reviews for Thor had tapered off up to that point but skyrocketed afterwards. In response to tampering claims, Rotten Tomatoes released a statement that they did not detect any unusual activity aside from a noticeable "uptick in the number of written user reviews '' on The Last Jedi.
Reviewers characterized The Last Jedi as divisive among audiences. Todd VanDerWerff of Vox found that disgruntled fans saw the film as too progressive, disliked its humor, plot, or character arcs, or felt betrayed that it ignored fan theories. Other reviewers made similar observations. Particularly divisive was the reveal that Rey 's parents are insignificant; many fans had expected her to be Luke 's daughter or to share a lineage with another character from the original trilogy. There was also sentiment that Snoke 's character was underdeveloped and that Luke 's actions contrasted his previous heroic portrayal. Reviewers stated that fan theories were held so strongly among some viewers that it was difficult for them to accept different stories, but that other viewers appreciated the film 's action, tone and deviation from Star Wars tradition.
Episode IX, the final installment of the sequel trilogy, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019. Principal photography is set to begin in June 2018. Colin Trevorrow was expected to direct the film; however, on September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm announced that he had stepped down. A week later, Lucasfilm announced that J.J. Abrams would return to direct Episode IX and co-write it with Chris Terrio. Abrams and Terrio stated that Episode IX will bring together all three trilogies, with elements from the previous two trilogies.
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in blood promise when does rose find dimitri | Blood Promise (novel) - wikipedia
Blood Promise is the fourth book in the Vampire Academy series by Richelle Mead. Previously in the series, the main character, Rose, and her true love Dimitri made a pact that if either of them were turned into strigoi, the other would kill them rather than let them roam as an evil vampire. Blood Promise follows Rose 's emotional struggle as she travels to Russia to hunt down Dimitri and fulfill this promise.
Blood Promise 's opening week sales put the Vampire Academy series on the New York Times list for children 's series, making its best rank to date at # 2, just behind the dominant Twilight series.
In Blood Promise, Rose leaves St. Vladimir 's Academy to go after Dimitri, who has become Strigoi. The only clue she has is that he might be somewhere in Siberia. After meeting an Alchemist named Sydney, they travel to Siberia, where she eventually finds Dimitri 's family in the small town of Baia. While in Baia, she meets another "Shadow - Kissed '' bonded pair, Oksana and Mark, and a mysterious Moroi man named Abe, who tries to force her to go back to St. Vladimir 's. He eventually coerces her into leaving, and Rose agrees after a falling out with Dimitri 's sister Viktoria. She then travels to Novosibirsk with other unpromised guardians to stake out Strigoi in the hopes of finding Dimitri. When she does meet him, she is too stunned by his Strigoi appearance to attempt to kill him, and ends up being held hostage by him. He refuses to kill her, and instead, says he will keep her until she decides to turn Strigoi to be with him.
All the while, Rose keeps checking up with Lissa back at St. Vladimir 's through the bond. Avery, a secret Spirit user, has been using compulsion to control Lissa. During a visit to Lissa 's head, Rose gets pushed out by Avery. While held hostage by Dimitri, who has been feeding off her and thus weakening her, Rose eventually manages to escape, grabbing a stake on the way out. Dimitri catches up with her, and they eventually battle on a bridge, where Rose manages to plunge her stake into his chest.
Exhausted, Rose ends up at the home of an Alchemist friend of Sydney 's, where Oksana, Mark, and Abe are waiting. When she wakes up, she realizes Lissa is in danger with Avery, who wants to kill Lissa and then heal her back so that Lissa would be "shadow - kissed '' and bonded to Avery. With help from Oksana, Rose manages to guide Lissa and Adrian through the fight against Avery and her brother, Reed, and Avery 's guardian Simon. After saving Lissa, Rose asks Oksana and Mark whether there is a way a Strigoi can be restored to their former selves. Reluctantly, they tell her of a Spirit user they knew named Robert Doru, who claimed to have restored a Strigoi back to life. However, only Victor Dashkov, his half - brother, would have any idea where he currently was. Realizing the situation was hopeless because she already staked Dimitri, Rose goes back to St. Vladimir 's Academy.
Back at St. Vladimir 's, Rose reunites with Lissa and shares what happened to her in Russia. Rose 's mother, Janine, is also there, and reveals to Rose that Abe is actually her father. After agreeing to re-enroll in school to graduate, Rose goes back to her normal life at St. Vladmir 's. However, she soon receives a package from Russia, enclosed with the stake she used on Dimitri, and a note from him saying he was not really staked properly, and was still alive, waiting for Rose to finish school to find him. Rose realizes that with Dimitri still a Strigoi, she has a chance to restore him to his former life, but only by finding Robert Doru.
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song i always feel like somebody is watching me | Somebody 's Watching Me - wikipedia
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' is a song recorded by American singer Rockwell, released by the Motown label on January 14, 1984, as the lead single from his debut studio album of the same name. Rockwell 's debut single release, the song features guest vocals by brothers Michael Jackson (in the chorus) and Jermaine Jackson (additional backing vocals).
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' became a major commercial success internationally, topping the charts in Belgium, France and Spain, and reaching the Top 5 in Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States (peaking at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100). The song reached No. 6 in the United Kingdom, Rockwell 's only Top 40 hit there.
Rockwell is a son of Motown CEO Berry Gordy. At the time of the recording, Rockwell was estranged from his father and living with Ray Singleton, his father 's ex-wife and the mother of his older half - brother, Kerry Gordy. Singleton served as executive producer on the project and would occasionally play some demo tracks to Berry. The elder Gordy was less than enthusiastic about Rockwell 's music until he heard the single with a familiar voice featuring prominently on background vocals.
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' was written in the key of C - sharp minor in time with a tempo of 124 beats per minute. The vocals span from C# to C#.
Produced by Curtis Anthony Nolen, the song featured backing vocals by Michael and Jermaine Jackson, with Alan Murray on percussion.
The music video to "Somebody 's Watching Me '' (which uses the radio edit instead of the album version) underscores the song 's paranoid tone with a haunted house - inspired theme, including imagery of floating heads, ravens, graveyards, and shower scenes referencing Psycho.
The video opens with Rockwell coming home to discover that a newspaper in Chinese has been delivered to his doorstep. As he takes a quick shower, he begins to have strange visions (in a manner recalling The Dead Zone) of himself being pursued around his house by assorted ghoulish appartions, of the looming figure of a cadaverous - looking man, and of finding a tombstone engraved with his own name. His shower is interrupted when he hears something outside and goes out on his balcony to investigate. He is shocked to see the man from his visions standing at his gate, but as he struggles to get a better look in spite of the sun in his face he is greatly relieved to see that he is merely a mailman, coming to deliver the correct newspaper. As the mailman walks up the path towards the front porch, however, a brief close - up of his arm reveals that he is, in fact, a zombie. Rockwell emerges onto the porch to receive the paper, which the mailman genially hands over. As the mailman brings his other arm around to strike, Rockwell has just enough time to notice that he is not human.
Due in part to the popularity of the music video, the song is sometimes used for Halloween celebrations, with cover versions found in various collections of Halloween music.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
DJ BoBo based his 1992 single "Somebody Dance with Me '' on "Somebody 's Watching Me '' with new lyrics and rap. The DJ BoBo single reached No. 1 in Sweden and Switzerland, and the Top 5 in Austria, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Norway. In 2012, a remix of the hit was made by Remady titled "Somebody Dance With Me (Remady 2013 Mix) '' by DJ BoBo featuring Manu - L. Released early in 2013, it charted on the Swiss Hitparade, reaching No. 4. The mix was made on the 20th anniversary of the initial hit by DJ BoBo in November 1992.
In 2006, Dutch dance group Beatfreakz recorded a pseudo-cover of the song which sampled the chorus but omitted the verses. This version was a Top 10 hit in Belgium, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.
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who sings i love to love but my baby just loves to dance | I Love to Love (But My Baby Loves to Dance) - wikipedia
"I Love to Love (But My Baby Loves to Dance) '' was a popular single by Tina Charles, from her debut album, I Love to Love; the song was composed by Jack Robinson and James Bolden. The track was an international success both upon its original 1976 release and also when - remixed by The DMC (Disco Mix Club) - it was reissued ten years later (the DMC version features the instrumental "Sunburn '' by the Biddu Orchestra as its B - side).
Charles had already been recording for seven years and had sung lead on the international hit "I 'm on Fire '' by 5000 Volts (1975), but her contribution was unacknowledged, with Luan Peters cited as vocalist in promotion for the group. It was through a mutual friend, singer Lee Vanderbilt, that Charles met record producer Biddu who encouraged her to record "I Love to Love (But My Baby Loves to Dance) '', utilizing Manchester musicians Richie Close (keyboard), Clive Allen (guitar), Des Browne (bass) and Tom Daley (percussion) to create a signature hit sound for Charles. Reaching number 1 on the UK Singles Chart in March 1976 and topping the chart for three weeks, "I Love to Love... '' was followed by seven more chart records for Charles; only her Top Ten entries "Dance Little Lady Dance '' and "Doctor Love '' reached the Top 20.
"I Love to Love... '' afforded Charles an international hit, reaching # 1 in Ireland, # 2 in France, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Sweden while in Austria, Germany and Spain the single peaked at respectively # 20, # 6 and # 3. The track was also a hit in Australia (# 6) and New Zealand (# 7). In Canada "I Love to Love... '' won the Juno for bestselling international single for the year 1976 having sold over 200,000 copies in the province of Quebec: due to receiving virtually no radio airplay in the rest of Canada "I Love to Love '' rose no higher than # 17 on the national chart.
The track reached # 2 on the U.S. Disco Singles Chart.
The British television series River used this song at the start of the first episode and at the end of the last episode.
International renderings of "I Love to Love (But My Baby Loves to Dance) '' include:
Remix
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who plays meow meow kitty on mutt and stuff | Mutt & Stuff - wikipedia
Mutt & Stuff is an American children 's television series airing on Nick Jr. The series premiered on March 6, 2015, with an hour - long pilot and began airing regularly on July 10, 2015. It was created by Sid and Marty Krofft (in their first new product in over a decade) and Bradley Zweig. It stars Calvin Millan, the son of the series producer Cesar Millan. On February 5, 2017, the show was put on hiatus, with no word on season 3.
Calvin Millan and his giant talking dog, Stuff, are in charge of a school for dogs. They are best friends.
One season has been ordered as of 2015.
2016: Mutt & Stuff was nominated for two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Pre-School Children 's Series and Outstanding Directing in a Children 's or Preschool Children 's Series
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what was the sixth creation according to the bundahishn text | Bundahishn - wikipedia
Bundahishn, meaning "Primal Creation '', is the name traditionally given to an encyclopediaic collection of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology written in Book Pahlavi. The original name of the work is not known.
Although the Bundahishn draws on the Avesta and develops ideas alluded to in those texts, it is not itself scripture. The content reflects Zoroastrian scripture, which, in turn, reflects both ancient Zoroastrian and pre-Zoroastrian beliefs. In some cases, the text alludes to contingencies of post-7th century Islam in Iran, and in yet other cases, such as the idea that the Moon is farther than the stars, it reiterates scripture even though science had, by then, determined otherwise.
The traditionally given name seems to be an adoption of the sixth word from the first sentence of the younger of the two recensions. The older of the two recensions has a different first line, and the first translation of that version adopted the name Zand - Ākāsīh, meaning "Zand - knowing '', from the first two words of its first sentence.
Most of the chapters of the compendium date to the 8th and 9th centuries, roughly contemporary with the oldest portions of the Denkard, which is another significant text of the "Pahlavi '' (i.e. Zoroastrian Middle Persian) collection. The later chapters are several centuries younger than the oldest ones. The oldest existing copy dates to the mid-16th century.
The Bundahishn survives in two recensions. A shorter was found in India, and is thus known as the Lesser Bundahishn, or Indian Bundahishn. A copy of this version was brought to Europe by Abraham Anquetil - Duperron in 1762. A longer version was brought to India from Iran by T.D. Anklesaria around 1870, and is thus known as the Greater Bundahishn or Iranian Bundahishn or just Bundahishn. The greater recension (the name of which is abbreviated GBd or just Bd) is about twice as long as the lesser (abbreviated IBd).
The two recensions derive from different manuscript traditions, and in the portions available in both sources, vary (slightly) in content. The greater recension is also the older of the two, and was dated by West to around 1540. The lesser recension dates from about 1734.
Traditionally, chapter - verse pointers are in Arabic numerals for the lesser recension, and Roman numerals for the greater recension. The two series ' are not synchronous since the lesser recension was analyzed (by Duperrron in 1771) before the extent of the greater recension was known. The chapter order is also different.
The Bundahishn is the concise view of the Zoroastrianism 's creation myth, and of the first battles of the forces of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu for the hegemony of the world. According to the text, in the first 3,000 years of the cosmic year, Ahura Mazda created the Fravashis and conceived the idea of his would - be creation. He used the insensible and motionless Void as a weapon against Angra Mainyu, and at the end of that period, Angra Mainyu was forced to submission and fell into a stupor for the next 3,000 years. Taking advantage of Angra Mainyu 's absence, Ahura Mazda created the Amesha Spentas (Bounteous Immortals), representing the primordial elements of the material world, and permeated his kingdom with Ard (Asha), "Truth '' in order to prevent Angra Mainyu from destroying it. The Bundahishn finally recounts the creation of the primordial bovine, Ewagdad (Avestan Gavaevodata), and Gayomard (Avestan Gayomaretan), the primordial human.
Following MacKenzie, the following chapter names in quotation marks reflect the original titles. Those without quotation marks are summaries of chapters that have no title. The chapter / section numbering scheme is based on that of B.T. Anklesaria for the greater recension, and that of West for the lesser recension. The chapter numbers for the greater recension are in the first column and in Roman numerals, and the chapter numbers for the lesser recension are in the second column, and are noted in Arabic numerals and in parenthesis.
Excerpt from Chapter 2: - On the formation of the luminaries.
1. Ohrmazd produced illumination between the sky and the earth, the constellation stars and those also not of the constellations, then the moon, and afterwards the sun, as I shall relate.
2. First he produced the celestial sphere, and the constellation stars are assigned to it by him; especially these twelve whose names are Varak (the Lamb), Tora (the Bull), Do - patkar (the Two - figures or Gemini), Kalachang (the Crab), Sher (the Lion), Khushak (Virgo), Tarazhuk (the Balance), Gazdum (the Scorpion), Nimasp (the Centaur or Sagittarius), Vahik (Capricorn), Dul (the Water - pot), and Mahik (the Fish);
3. which, from their original creation, were divided into the twenty - eight subdivisions of the astronomers, of which the names are Padevar, Pesh - Parviz, Parviz, Paha, Avesar, Beshn, Rakhvad, Taraha, Avra, Nahn, Miyan, Avdem, Mashaha, Spur, Husru, Srob, Nur, Gel, Garafsha Varant, Gau, Goi, Muru, Bunda, Kahtsar, Vaht, Miyan, Kaht.
4. And all his original creations, residing in the world, are committed to them; so that when the destroyer arrives they overcome the adversary and their own persecution, and the creatures are saved from those adversities.
5. As a specimen of a warlike army, which is destined for battle, they have ordained every single constellation of those 6480 thousand small stars as assistance; and among those constellations four chieftains, appointed on the four sides, are leaders.
6. On the recommendation of those chieftains the many unnumbered stars are specially assigned to the various quarters and various places, as the united strength and appointed power of those constellations.
7. As it is said that Tishtar is the chieftain of the east, Sataves the chieftain of the west, Vanand the chieftain of the south, and Haptoring the chieftain of the north.
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when was the last time toronto played montreal in playoffs | Canadiens -- Maple Leafs rivalry - Wikipedia
1944 Semi-finals: Canadiens, 4 -- 1 1945 Semi-finals: Maple Leafs, 4 -- 2 1947 Stanley Cup Finals: Maple Leafs, 4 -- 2 1951 Stanley Cup Finals: Maple Leafs, 4 -- 1 1959 Stanley Cup Finals: Canadiens, 4 -- 1 1960 Stanley Cup Finals: Canadiens, 4 -- 0 1963 Semi-finals: Maple Leafs, 4 -- 1 1964 Semi-finals: Maple Leafs, 4 -- 3 1965 Semi-finals: Canadiens, 4 -- 2 1966 Semi-finals: Canadiens, 4 -- 0 1967 Stanley Cup Finals: Maple Leafs, 4 -- 2 1978 Semi-finals: Canadiens, 4 -- 0
The Canadiens -- Maple Leafs rivalry is a National Hockey League (NHL) rivalry between the Montreal Canadiens and Toronto Maple Leafs. Dating back to 1917, it is the oldest rivalry in the NHL. From 1944 -- 78, the two teams met each other in the playoffs 15 times and faced each other in five Stanley Cup Finals. While the on - ice competition is fierce, the Leafs -- Habs rivalry is symbolic of the rivalry between Canada 's two largest cities: Toronto and Montreal. Both teams have fans across Canada (and beyond); allegiances are no longer as strongly determined by language spoken as in their early histories.
From the time of the French loss of Quebec City at the Plains of Abraham in 1759, the chief tension in what eventually became Canada has been between English - and French - speaking Canadians. The English Canadians were for the most part of British ethnic stock and Protestant, and were associated with the British Crown. By contrast, the French Canadians (from Quebec and other provinces), were not only of French descent, but were also heavily Roman Catholic in religion and as a group did not possess strong allegiances with the British Crown.
When the NHL was created in 1917, these differences continued to play themselves out in the rivalry between the Maple Leafs and Canadiens. The Maple Leafs ' fanbase consisted mainly of English - speaking Canadians of British descent; in fact, the team 's logo from 1927 onward was in essence a stylized version of the Canadian Army 's Cap Badge Insignia during World War I. This held particular significance for longtime Leafs owner Conn Smythe, who had served as an artillery officer during the Great War. As late as the 1970s, a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, was hung in the Leafs ' home arena, Maple Leaf Gardens, and "God Save the Queen '' was sung as an anthem before the game (the former practice was famously discontinued by the team 's owner at the time, Harold Ballard, who asked, "The Queen does n't pay anything to get in, does she? ''). The Canadiens, meanwhile, captured the imaginations of French - speaking fans, mainly concentrated in the province of Quebec (and to a slightly lesser degree, English - speaking Catholic and Jewish fans in Montreal, as well as English - speaking Catholic fans in eastern Ontario and the Maritimes). In contrast to the anthem practice in Toronto at the time, the Canadiens pioneered the use of the current Canadian national anthem, "O Canada, '' at the Montreal Forum with bilingual lyrics.
Ironically, the Canadiens were responsible for the Maple Leafs ' entrance to the League. The NHL had been formed when four of the five teams in the National Hockey Association -- including the Canadiens -- wanted to get rid of Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone. When they discovered the League constitution did not allow them to simply expel the Blueshirts, they simply created a new league, the NHL, and did not invite the Blueshirts to join them, effectively leaving Livingstone in a one - team league. However, Canadiens owner George Kennedy felt it would be unthinkable not to have a team from Toronto in the new league. The NHL also needed a fourth team to balance the schedule after the Quebec Bulldogs suspended operations due to financial problems (and as it turned out, did not take the ice until 1919). At his suggestion, the NHL granted a temporary franchise to the Blueshirts ' landlords, the Toronto Arena Company. The Arena Company was granted a permanent franchise for the next season, known as the Toronto Arenas. The Arenas became the Toronto St. Patricks in 1919 and the Maple Leafs in 1927.
The rivalry became especially heated after the Montreal Maroons (a team representing Montreal 's Anglophone community) suspended operations (and as it turned out, never returned) in 1938. For the next 32 years, the Habs and Leafs were the only Canadian teams in the league.
While certainly heated during the 1940s and 1950s, the Habs -- Leafs rivalry was particularly acute during the 1960s; the two teams reigned exclusively as Stanley Cup champions during the decade, with the exception of 1961, which was won by the Chicago Black Hawks (their last championship until 2010). The rivalry perhaps reached its zenith in the 1967 Stanley Cup Finals during the centennial year of Canadian Confederation. The city of Montreal was hosting Expo 67 that year, and the Canadiens were expected to beat the Leafs quite handily. Still, underdog Toronto upset the Habs to capture their most recent Cup.
After 1967, the rivalry cooled slightly due to NHL expansion and realignment. The fanbases of both teams began to erode somewhat: new franchises in Vancouver (the Canucks), Calgary (the Flames), Edmonton (the Oilers) and Winnipeg (the Jets) captured the allegiances of Canadians in Western Canada, while the Quebec Nordiques competed with the Canadiens for the loyalties of Quebecers from 1979 to 1995.
From 1981 to 1998, Toronto and Montreal were in opposite conferences -- the Maple Leafs in the Clarence Campbell / Western Conference and the Canadiens in the Prince of Wales / Eastern Conference. The fortunes of the two teams since 1967 have also seen a marked difference; the Habs have won ten Stanley Cup championships since that year, while the Maple Leafs have yet to reach the Stanley Cup Finals. Toronto came close to reaching the Finals in 1993, where they would have faced the Wales Conference champion Habs in the 100th anniversary year of the Stanley Cup. However, they were narrowly defeated in the Campbell Conference Finals by the Los Angeles Kings. At the 1994 NHL All - Star Game in New York City the following January, however, the then - starting goaltenders of the two teams -- Montreal 's Patrick Roy and Toronto 's Felix Potvin -- were the starting goalies, Potvin substituting for future Maple Leafs goaltender Ed Belfour. The Eastern Conference, coached by the Canadiens ' Jacques Demers, won the game, 9 -- 8. This rivalry is featured in the children 's book The Hockey Sweater, in which the protagonist, a Canadiens fan and presumably author Roch Carrier as a child, is forced to wear a Leafs sweater. The rivalry is also featured in the murals of Toronto 's College subway station, in a work by Charles Pachter called Hockey Knights in Canada, in which the Leafs are depicted on the southbound side mural and the Canadiens are depicted on the northbound side mural. The two murals are installed appropriately in opposition, with one facing the other across the subway tracks.
On May 29, 1992, Pat Burns resigned as the Canadiens head coach and was hired as the Maple Leafs head coach that same day, adding more fuel to the fire. Burns coached the Canadiens to the 1989 Stanley Cup Finals, but lost to the Calgary Flames in six games. However, he would win the Stanley Cup as coach of the New Jersey Devils in 2003.
In 1998, the Leafs moved into the Eastern Conference 's Northeast Division. This has served to rekindle the rivalry, although the two teams have yet to appear in a playoff series against each other. For the Maple Leafs, this realignment also put them in the same division as the Ottawa Senators, their in - province rivals.
Another realignment in 2013 kept the Canadiens, Maple Leafs, and Senators in the same division, now going by the Atlantic Division name (the old Atlantic Division was renamed the Metropolitan Division).
On October 14th, 2017, the Maple Leafs beat the Canadiens 4 - 3 in overtime, ending a record breaking 14 game losing streak against their rivals dating back over three years to January 18th, 2014. It was also their first win in Montreal in over four years, stretching back to October 1st, 2013.
The Canadiens and Maple Leafs have met in the playoffs 15 times. To date, Montreal has won 8, Toronto 7. Scores of games won by the series winning team are in bold.
* Stanley Cup Finals were between the NHL and PCHA champions prior to 1927. * * Total goals series.
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what is the range of a micrometer screw gauge | Micrometer - wikipedia
A micrometer (/ maɪˈkrɒmɪtər / my - KROM - i - tər), sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for precise measurement of components in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades, along with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers are usually, but not always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a frame). The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to be measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both the spindle and the anvil.
Micrometers are also used in telescopes or microscopes to measure the apparent diameter of celestial bodies or microscopic objects. The micrometer used with a telescope was invented about 1638 by William Gascoigne, an English astronomer.
Colloquially the word micrometer is often shortened to mike or mic (/ maɪk / MYKE).
The word micrometer is a neoclassical coinage from Greek micros, meaning ' small ', and metron, meaning ' measure '. The Merriam - Webster Collegiate Dictionary says that English got it from French and that its first known appearance in English writing was in 1670. Neither the metre nor the micrometre (μm) nor the micrometer (device) as we know them today existed at that time. However, the people of that time did have much need for, and interest in, the ability to measure small things and small differences. The word was no doubt coined in reference to this endeavor, even if it did not refer specifically to its present - day senses.
The first ever micrometric screw was invented by William Gascoigne in the 17th century, as an enhancement of the vernier; it was used in a telescope to measure angular distances between stars and the relative sizes of celestial objects.
Henry Maudslay built a bench micrometer in the early 19th century that was jocularly nicknamed "the Lord Chancellor '' among his staff because it was the final judge on measurement accuracy and precision in the firm 's work. In 1844 details of Whitworth 's workshop micrometer were published. This was described as having a strong frame of cast iron, the opposite ends of which were two highly finished steel cylinders, which traversed longitudinally by action of screws. The ends of the cylinders where they met was of hemispherical shape. One screw was fitted with a wheel graduated to measure to the ten thousandth of an inch. His object was to furnish ordinary mechanics with an instrument which, while it afforded very accurate indications, was yet not very liable to be deranged by the rough handling of the workshop.
The first documented development of handheld micrometer - screw calipers was by Jean Laurent Palmer of Paris in 1848; the device is therefore often called palmer in French, tornillo de Palmer ("Palmer screw '') in Spanish, and calibro Palmer ("Palmer caliper '') in Italian. (Those languages also use the micrometer cognates: micromètre, micrómetro, micrometro.) The micrometer caliper was introduced to the mass market in anglophone countries by Brown & Sharpe in 1867, allowing the penetration of the instrument 's use into the average machine shop. Brown & Sharpe were inspired by several earlier devices, one of them being Palmer 's design. In 1888 Edward W. Morley added to the precision of micrometric measurements and proved their accuracy in a complex series of experiments.
The culture of toolroom accuracy and precision, which started with interchangeability pioneers including Gribeauval, Tousard, North, Hall, Whitney, and Colt, and continued through leaders such as Maudslay, Palmer, Whitworth, Brown, Sharpe, Pratt, Whitney, Leland, and others, grew during the Machine Age to become an important part of combining applied science with technology. Beginning in the early 20th century, one could no longer truly master tool and die making, machine tool building, or engineering without some knowledge of the science of metrology, as well as the sciences of chemistry and physics (for metallurgy, kinematics / dynamics, and quality).
Each type of micrometer caliper can be fitted with specialized anvils and spindle tips for particular measuring tasks. For example, the anvil may be shaped in the form of a segment of screw thread, in the form of a v - block, or in the form of a large disc.
Micrometers use the principle of a screw to amplify small distances (that are too small to measure directly) into large rotations of the screw that are big enough to read from a scale. The accuracy of a micrometer derives from the accuracy of the thread - forms that are central to the core of its design. In some cases it is a differential screw. The basic operating principles of a micrometer are as follows:
For example, if the lead of a screw is 1 mm, but the major diameter (here, outer diameter) is 10 mm, then the circumference of the screw is 10π, or about 31.4 mm. Therefore, an axial movement of 1 mm is amplified (magnified) to a circumferential movement of 31.4 mm. This amplification allows a small difference in the sizes of two similar measured objects to correlate to a larger difference in the position of a micrometer 's thimble. In some micrometers, even greater accuracy is obtained by using a differential screw adjuster to move the thimble in much smaller increments than a single thread would allow.
In classic - style analog micrometers, the position of the thimble is read directly from scale markings on the thimble and sleeve (for names of parts see next section). A vernier scale is often included, which allows the position to be read to a fraction of the smallest scale mark. In digital micrometers, an electronic readout displays the length digitally on an LCD on the instrument. There also exist mechanical - digit versions, like the style of car odometers where the numbers "roll over ''.
A micrometer is composed of:
The spindle of a micrometer graduated for the Imperial and US customary measurement systems has 40 threads per inch, so that one turn moves the spindle axially 0.025 inch (1 ÷ 40 = 0.025), equal to the distance between adjacent graduations on the sleeve. The 25 graduations on the thimble allow the 0.025 inch to be further divided, so that turning the thimble through one division moves the spindle axially 0.001 inch (0.025 ÷ 25 = 0.001). Thus, the reading is given by the number of whole divisions that are visible on the scale of the sleeve, multiplied by 25 (the number of thousandths of an inch that each division represents), plus the number of that division on the thimble which coincides with the axial zero line on the sleeve. The result will be the diameter expressed in thousandths of an inch. As the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., appear below every fourth sub-division on the sleeve, indicating hundreds of thousandths, the reading can easily be taken.
Suppose the thimble were screwed out so that graduation 2, and three additional sub-divisions, were visible on the sleeve (as shown in the image), and that graduation 1 on the thimble coincided with the axial line on the sleeve. The reading would then be 0.2000 + 0.075 + 0.001, or. 276 inch.
The spindle of an ordinary metric micrometer has 2 threads per millimetre, and thus one complete revolution moves the spindle through a distance of 0.5 millimeter. The longitudinal line on the sleeve is graduated with 1 millimetre divisions and 0.5 millimetre subdivisions. The thimble has 50 graduations, each being 0.01 millimetre (one - hundredth of a millimetre). Thus, the reading is given by the number of millimetre divisions visible on the scale of the sleeve plus the particular division on the thimble which coincides with the axial line on the sleeve.
Suppose that the thimble were screwed out so that graduation 5, and one additional 0.5 subdivision were visible on the sleeve (as shown in the image), and that graduation 28 on the thimble coincided with the axial line on the sleeve. The reading then would be 5.00 + 0.5 + 0.28 = 5.78 mm.
Some micrometers are provided with a vernier scale on the sleeve in addition to the regular graduations. These permit measurements within 0.001 millimetre to be made on metric micrometers, or 0.0001 inches on inch - system micrometers.
The additional digit of these micrometers is obtained by finding the line on the sleeve vernier scale which exactly coincides with one on the thimble. The number of this coinciding vernier line represents the additional digit.
Thus, the reading for metric micrometers of this type is the number of whole millimeters (if any) and the number of hundredths of a millimeter, as with an ordinary micrometer, and the number of thousandths of a millimeter given by the coinciding vernier line on the sleeve vernier scale.
For example, a measurement of 5.783 millimetres would be obtained by reading 5.5 millimetres on the sleeve, and then adding 0.28 millimetre as determined by the thimble. The vernier would then be used to read the 0.003 (as shown in the image).
Inch micrometers are read in a similar fashion.
Note: 0.01 millimetre = 0.000393 inch, and 0.002 millimetre = 0.000078 inch (78 millionths) or alternatively, 0.0001 inch = 0.00254 millimetres. Therefore, metric micrometers provide smaller measuring increments than comparable inch unit micrometers -- the smallest graduation of an ordinary inch reading micrometer is 0.001 inch; the vernier type has graduations down to 0.0001 inch (0.00254 mm). When using either a metric or inch micrometer, without a vernier, smaller readings than those graduated may of course be obtained by visual interpolation between graduations.
A micrometer reading is not accurate if the thimble is over - or under - torqued. A useful feature of many micrometers is the inclusion of a torque - limiting device on the thimble -- either a spring - loaded ratchet or a friction sleeve. Without this device, workers may overtighten the micrometer on the work, causing the mechanical advantage of the screw to tighten the screw threads or squeeze the material, giving an inaccurate measurement. However, with a thimble that will ratchet or friction slip at a certain torque, the micrometer will not continue to advance once sufficient resistance is encountered. This results in greater accuracy and repeatability of measurements -- most especially for low - skilled or semi-skilled workers, who may not have developed the light, consistent touch of a skilled user.
It might seem that there would be no such thing as too little torque on the thimble, because if zero tightening of the threads is the goal, then the less torque, the better. However, there is a practical limit on this ideal. Some tiny amount of torque, although very slight, is involved in the normal hand movements of well - practiced micrometer use. It is light but not truly zero, because zero is impractical for a skillful feel of how the contact is being made. And the calibration reflects this amount, as tiny as it is. If one then changes to an "afraid to even touch it '' sort of gingerliness, one is being inconsistent with the norm that the calibration reflects, resulting in a reading that is 1 to 3 tenths too big (on a typical metal part).
Related to this torque topic is interuser variation in what is normal. It is important to try not to have an idiosyncratic touch, because although it works perfectly well for intrauser consistency, it interferes with interuser consistency. Some people use a rather heavy touch as a matter of habit, and this is fine in that they can get highly accurate readings as long as they calibrate their micrometer accordingly. The problem arises when they use someone else 's micrometer, or when someone uses theirs. The heavy - touch user gets false - small readings, and the normal - touch user gets false - big readings. This may not arise in one - person shops, but teams of workers sharing company - owned instruments must be capable of interpersonal consistency to do close - tolerance work successfully. There is a good and easy way to synchronize on this topic: it is simply to get used to the "feel '' of how much torque it takes to slip the typical friction sleeve or click the typical ratchet thimble -- and then incorporate that same feel into every use of a micrometer, even those that have no sleeve or ratchet. This is proper training for the machining trade, although it is not uncommon to encounter coworkers who were not well trained on this point. In many cases it seems that in drilling the "do n't overtorque '' idea into trainees ' heads, an opposite extreme is mistakenly taught, where the user thinks the goal is to compete with everyone else on who can generate the lightest touch. Individuals naturally differ in their touch, so such a competition is not as effective at generating interuser consistency as is "imagining that every thimble has a sleeve to slip. ''
Bench micrometers of the "super-mic '' class entirely obviate this interuser variation by having the user dial the handwheel until a needle reads zero on a gauge, producing the same pressure on every reading.
On most micrometers, a small pin spanner is used to turn the sleeve relative to the barrel, so that its zero line is repositioned relative to the markings on the thimble. There is usually a small hole in the sleeve to accept the spanner 's pin. This calibration procedure will cancel a zero error: the problem that the micrometer reads nonzero when its jaws are closed.
A standard one - inch micrometer has readout divisions of. 001 inch and a rated accuracy of + / -. 0001 inch ("one tenth '', in machinist parlance). Both the measuring instrument and the object being measured should be at room temperature for an accurate measurement; dirt, abuse, and low operator skill are the main sources of error.
The accuracy of micrometers is checked by using them to measure gauge blocks, rods, or similar standards whose lengths are precisely and accurately known. If the gauge block is known to be 0.7500 '' ±. 00005 '' ("seven - fifty plus or minus fifty millionths '', that is, "seven hundred fifty thou plus or minus half a tenth ''), then the micrometer should measure it as 0.7500 ". If the micrometer measures 0.7503 '', then it is out of calibration. Cleanliness and low (but consistent) torque are especially important when calibrating -- each tenth (that is, ten - thousandth of an inch), or hundredth of a millimeter, "counts ''; each is important. A mere spec of dirt, or a mere bit too much squeeze, obscure the truth of whether the instrument is able to read correctly. The solution is simply conscientiousness -- cleaning, patience, due care and attention, and repeated measurements (good repeatability assures the calibrator that his / her technique is working correctly).
Calibration typically checks the error at 3 to 5 points along the range. Only one can be adjusted to zero. If the micrometer is in good condition, then they are all so near to zero that the instrument seems to read essentially "- on '' all along its range; no noticeable error is seen at any locale. In contrast, on a worn - out micrometer (or one that was poorly made to begin with), one can "chase the error up and down the range '', that is, move it up or down to any of various locales along the range, by adjusting the sleeve, but one can not eliminate it from all locales at once.
Calibration can also include the condition of the tips (flat and parallel), any ratchet, and linearity of the scale. Flatness and parallelism are typically measured with a gauge called an optical flat, a disc of glass or plastic ground with extreme accuracy to have flat, parallel faces, which allows light bands to be counted when the micrometer 's anvil and spindle are against it, revealing their amount of geometric inaccuracy.
Commercial machine shops, especially those that do certain categories of work (military or commercial aerospace, nuclear power industry, and others), are required by various standards organizations (such as ISO, ANSI, ASME, ASTM, SAE, AIA, the U.S. military, and others) to calibrate micrometers and other gauges on a schedule (often annually), to affix a label to each gauge that gives it an ID number and a calibration expiration date, to keep a record of all the gauges by ID number, and to specify in inspection reports which gauge was used for a particular measurement.
Not all calibration is an affair for metrology labs. A micrometer can be calibrated on - site anytime, at least in the most basic and important way (if not comprehensively), by measuring a high - grade gauge block and adjusting to match. Even gauges that are calibrated annually and within their expiration timeframe should be checked this way every month or two, if they are used daily. They usually will check out OK as needing no adjustment.
The accuracy of the gauge blocks themselves is traceable through a chain of comparisons back to a master standard such as the international prototype meter. This bar of metal, like the international prototype kilogram, is maintained under controlled conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures headquarters in France, which is one of the principal measurement standards laboratories of the world. These master standards have extreme - accuracy regional copies (kept in the national laboratories of various countries, such as NIST), and metrological equipment makes the chain of comparisons. Because the definition of the meter is now based on a light wavelength, the international prototype meter is not quite as indispensable as it once was. But such master gauges are still important for calibrating and certifying metrological equipment. Equipment described as "NIST traceable '' means that its comparison against master gauges, and their comparison against others, can be traced back through a chain of documentation to equipment in the NIST labs. Maintaining this degree of traceability requires some expense, which is why NIST - traceable equipment is more expensive than non-NIST - traceable. But applications needing the highest degree of quality control mandate the cost.
A micrometer that has been zeroed and tested and found to be off might be restored to accuracy by further adjustment. If the error originates from the parts of the micrometer being worn out of shape and size, then restoration of accuracy by this means is not possible; rather, repair (grinding, lapping, or replacing of parts) is required. For standard kinds of instruments, in practice it is easier and faster, and often no more expensive, to buy a new one rather than pursue refurbishment
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when was the last time portugal was in a war | Military history of Portugal - Wikipedia
The military history of Portugal is as long as the history of the country, from before the emergence of the independent Portuguese state.
Before the emergence of Portugal, between the 9th and the 12th centuries, its territory was part of important military conflicts -- these were mainly the result of three processes.
The invasions during the Migration Period and the Decline of the Roman Empire, in the beginning of the 5th century, and the subsequent conflicts between conquerors (until the 8th century), namely:
The county of Portugal slowly grew in power and its counts started to style themselves as dukes, one of which became regent of the Kingdom of Leon between 999 and 1008. In 1070, the Portuguese count Nuno Mendes wished the Portuguese title and the Battle of Pedroso was fought on February 18 1071, the count was killed in combat led by Garcia II of Galicia. The later annexed the county and started to styled himself as "King of Portugal and Galicia '' (Garcia Rex Portugallie et Galleciae). Garcia 's brothers Sancho II of Castille and Alfonso VI of Leon united and annexed Garcia 's Kingdom during that same year who agreed to split it among themselves, however the king of Castille was killed by a noble in that same year and Alfonso took Castille for himself and Garcia recovered his kingdom of Portugal and Galicia, but in 1073 the Alfonso VI gathered all power and started to style himself as Imperator totius Hispaniæ (Emperor of All Hispania) since 1077. When the Emperor died, the Crown was left for his daughter Urraca, while Teresa inherited the County of Portugal.
On 24 and 25 July 1803, in Campo de Ourique, Lisbon, a regiment of infantry commanded by liberal army man Gomes Freire de Andrade and the Legion of Light Troops commanded by the also liberal - leaning Marquis of Alorna mutinied against the state authorities, entering in confrontation with the then recently created Royal Guard of the Police. The end of the mutinies, of forcing political liberalism on Portuguese government, did not succeed.
In 1805, then Princess regent (soon afterwards Queen) Carlota Joaquina promoted a conspiracy in Mafra with the objective of removing her husband Prince João from regency by claiming him to be mentally incapable, assuming regency on her own in his place, being aided in the attempted coup by the Count of Sabugal, the Marquis of Ponte de Lima, the Count of Sarzedas, the Marquis of Alorna and Francisco de Melo. The attempted conspiracy did not succeed, but it did increase the tension between the couple to the point of a divorce or separation being considered, which was never advanced due to the damage that it would bring to the Portuguese state, and the couple still had two children after the attempted conspiracy of Carlota (Maria da Assunção, born in 1805, and Ana de Jesus Maria, born in 1806), although there are suspicions about the possibility of the four children of the couple born after 1801, including the 1802 - born Miguel, were not children of João but of one or several of the lovers of Carlota Joaquina).
The riots of Saint Torcato was a popular uprising in the Portuguese country side with a strong mixture of religious influence and zealotry.
During the Napoleonic Wars, Portugal was, for a time, Britain 's only ally on the continent. Throughout the war, Portugal maintained a military of about 200 -- 250 thousand troops worldwide. In 1807, after the Portuguese government 's refusal to participate in the Continental System, French troops under General Junot invaded Portugal, taking Lisbon. However, a popular revolt against Junot 's government broke out in the summer of 1808 and Portuguese irregulars took up arms against the French. This enabled a British army under Arthur Wellesley to be landed in Portugal where, aided by Portuguese troops, they defeated Junot at the Battle of Vimeiro; this first French invasion was ended by the Convention of Sintra negotiated by his superiors, which allowed Junot 's men to withdraw unmolested with their plunder. Meanwhile, the general revolt against the French in Spain led to the landing of Sir John Moore in the north of that country, forcing Napoleon himself to lead an army into the Peninsula. Though Moore was killed, the British managed to extricate themselves from the Peninsula in the Battle of La Coruña. Portugal itself, however, remained independent of the French, and Napoleon left things in the Iberian Peninsula in the hands of Marshal Soult.
Soult proceeded to invade Portugal in the north. However, the Portuguese held on, giving the British the impetus to send Wellesley back with additional regiments of troops to help recover the Iberian peninsula. Wellesley, aided by the remaining Portuguese regiments hastily scraped together, liberated Portugal. A third invasion took place, led by Marshal André Masséna. The Anglo - Portuguese Army managed to halt the French advance at the fortifications of Torres Vedras and successfully defeat Masséna 's troops, and slowly recovered the Iberian peninsula. Wellesley was made Duke of Wellington in recognition of his services. The Portuguese army was put under the command of Marshal Beresford and was most heavily engaged under his leadership in the bloody Battle of Albuera. Portuguese forces also formed part of Wellington 's advance into southern France, in 1813 -- 14.
The Setembrizada was the arrest and deportation of a group of personalities connected to the Portuguese Freemasonry, Jacobinist currents and following of the ideals of the French Revolution who had collaborated with the French occupation during the First Invasion, with the first detentions occurring between 10 and 13 September 1810 (hence the name setembrizada), after the entry of the Second Invasion led by general Jean - de-Dieu Soult. By 1814, King João VI gave an amnesty to all the former collaborationists.
On 11 November 1820 (day of St. Martin, hence the name of the revolt, also known in slang as "o imbróglio '', "the plot '' or "a pavorosa '', "the dreadful one ''), a group of military leaders known as exaltados (exaulted ones), who challenged the civilian rule in which the 1820 liberal Provisional Junt of Supreme Government of the Kingdom was falling and also what they considered to be the moderate proposals of a constitutional being drawn under influence of the liberal orator Manuel Fernandes Tomás, defending instead the immediate adoption of the Cadiz Constitution or even a more advancedly liberal one. These groups rose up in a paradoxical wide informal coalition with conservative military and politicians and radical bourgeois people. It had a brief success, but by 17 November of the same year a counter-coup restores Manuel Fernandes do leadership of the Junta, forcing some Martinhada leaders, like Gaspar Teixeira de Magalhães e Lacerda, António da Silveira Pinto da Fonseca and Bernardo de Sá Nogueira, forced to exile, and only the sections of the Constitution relating to electoral instructions are adopted, at 22 November 1820, with the first elections after the 1820 Revolution (the elections for the General Extraordinary and Constituting Courts, that is, the Constitution writing constituting assembly) occurring under those instructions between 10 and 27 December 1820.
The Vilafrancada was the first of two uprisings of Prince D. Miguel 's uprisings supported by several other people of traditionalist and absolutist leanings, against the liberalism adopted by his father D. João VI in the later phase of his rule.
At 30 April 1824, Prince D. Miguel rose again against his father. The King took refuge abord the British ship Windsor Castle, with aid of the Portuguese diplomatic corp, while grandes of the kingdom like the Duke of Palmela are arrested in Belém, being then moved to imprisonment in Peniche, with the then intendent - general of police Baron of Rendufe being persecuted by the Miguelist rise - up, which then turns its attentions to the Count of Vila Flor (later more famous for its future title of Duke of Terceira) and the Count of Paraty. The reactionary philosopher José Agostinho de Macedo was one of the leaders of the rallying up of support among the masses for the movement, denouncing the prisoners the movement makes at political rallies. At 13 May, D. Miguel was finally forced to leave for exile on board of the frigate Pérola towards France, while in the following day D. João returns to Bemposta, and impeaches the brutal pro-Miguelist Minister of Justice José António de Oliveira Leite de Barros, replacing him by Friar Patrício da Silva, and the Duke of Palmela is risen to Minister of the Kingdom.
After the Napoleonic War, the British ruled Portugal in the name of the absent king in Brazil, with Beresford as de facto Regent, until the Liberal Revolution of 1820 when they were driven out and the king was forced to return as a constitutional monarch. Over the next 25 years the fledgling Portuguese democracy experienced several military upheavals, especially the Liberal Wars fought between the brothers Dom Pedro, ex-Emperor of Brazil and the absolutist usurper Dom Miguel. To assert the cause of the rightful Queen, his daughter Maria da Glória, Pedro sailed from Terceira in the Azores with an expeditionary force consisting of 60 vessels, 7500 men including the Count of Vila Flor, Alexandre Herculano, Almeida Garrett, Joaquim António de Aguiar, José Travassos Valdez and a volunteer British contingent under the command of Colonels George Lloyd Hodges and Charles Shaw and effected a Landing at Mindelo on the shores north of Porto. On 9 July Porto was taken by the liberal forces, and after an inconclusive result at the Battle of Ponte Ferreira on 22 -- 23 July were besieged in the city by the Miguelites for nearly a year until, in July 1833, the Duke of Terceira (as Vila Flor had now been created) was able to land in the Algarve and defeat Miguel 's forces at the Battle of Almada. Meanwhile, Miguel 's fleet was comprehensively defeated by Pedro 's much smaller squadron, commanded by Charles Napier, in the fourth Battle of Cape St. Vincent. The Miguelites were driven out of Lisbon but returned and attacked the city in force, unsuccessfully. Miguel was finally defeated at the Battle of Asseiceira, 16 May 1834, and capitulated a few days later with the Concession of Evoramonte. He was exiled, though his supporters continued to plot for his return and cause trouble up to the 1850s.
In the period of instability after the end of the Portuguese Civil War, several guerrillas happened between pro-governmental and anti-governmental local groups and between local groups and government forces, both by forces of the defeated Miguelites who kept the guerrillas and between different factions of Portuguese liberals. Among these were included:
The Revolt of Pinotes was the uprising at Viana do Castelo within the bigger Patuleia revolution.
A failed badly planned attempt of revolt against the government in the afternoon of 29 April 1847, which ended with the imprisonment of several of the involved members.
A conspiratorial movement in Lisbon and Coimbra in August 1848, inspired by the popular and students ' uprising of Paris from 22 -- 24 February 1848 (which led to the fall of King Louis Philippe I and the proclamation of the Second Republic). It was controlled by the government of the Duke of Saldanha (with detaining of some of the heads of the conspiracy, the remaining ones falling in clandestinity), with the name by which the conspiracy became known deriving from the term used by Saldanha to define the organization ("revolutionary hydra '')
In the 19th century, Portugal became involved in the scramble for Africa, enlarging its territories in Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Mozambique, Portuguese Cabinda, and Portuguese Guinea.
A raid by Paul von Lettow - Vorbeck 's remaining troops evaded British troops and managed to penetrate relatively far into Portuguese Mozambique, seizing arms, capturing troops, and sparking unrest among the population (African and European).
Portugal sent an Expeditionary Corps of two reinforced divisions (40,000 men) to France and Belgium, which fought alongside the British XI Corps. German offensives in the British sector hit the Portuguese hard, with one division destroyed in the Battle of La Lys, April 9, 1918, as it became known in Portugal, or Operation Georgette or the Battle of Estaires to the British. In the Treaty of Versailles, the Portuguese acquired the territory of Kionga from what was once German East Africa.
Salazar gave material and diplomatic aid to Francisco Franco 's nationalist forces while maintaining a formal neutrality. A special volunteer force of 18,000, called Os Viriatos (in honour of Lusitanian leader and Portuguese national hero Viriatus), led by regular army officers, was recruited to fight as part of Franco 's army, even if unofficially. When the civil war ended in 1939, Portugal and Spain negotiated the Treaty of Friendship and Nonaggression (Iberian Pact). The pact committed the two countries to defend the Iberian Peninsula against any power that attacked either country and helped to ensure Iberian neutrality during World War II.
Although Portugal proclaimed neutrality in the conflict, the Japanese Imperial Army invaded the Portuguese Timor colony in distant Oceania, killing thousands of natives and dozens of Portuguese. In response, the Portuguese civilians joined Australia, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States against the Japanese. See Battle of Timor.
The Portuguese -- Indian War was a conflict with the Republic of India 's armed forces that ended Portuguese rule in its Indian enclaves in 1961. The armed action involved defensive action against air, sea and land strikes by a numerically superior Indian force for over 36 hours, and terminated in Portuguese surrender, ending 451 years of Portuguese rule in Goa. Thirty - one Portuguese and thirty - five Indians were killed in the fighting.
Portugal remained steadfastly neutral in World War II, but became involved in counterinsurgency campaigns against scattered guerrilla movements in Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Mozambique, and Portuguese Guinea. Except in Portuguese Guinea, where the revolutionary PAIGC quickly conquered most of the country, Portugal was able to easily contain anti-government forces through the imaginative use of light infantry, home defense militia, and air - mobile special operations forces, despite arms embargoes from other European countries. During the counterinsurgency campaigns in Angola and Mozambique, Portugal was significantly aided by intelligence provided by native residents who did not support revolutionary forces. However, a left - wing military coup in Lisbon by Portuguese military officers in 1974 toppled the Caetano government and forced a radical change in government attitudes. Faced with international condemnation of its colonial policies and the increasing cost of administering its colonies, Portugal quickly moved to grant the remainder of its African colonies independence.
Portugal was a founding member of NATO, and, although it had scarce forces, it played a key role in the European approaches. After 1991, Portugal committed several infantry and air - landing battalions to international operations. The Portuguese Army keeps soldiers in Bosnia, Kosovo, Macedonia and East Timor (around 6,000 men overall) and it has 128 Guardsmen military police in Iraq (Nasiriyah) under control of the Italian Army. Portugal also sent its soldiers to Afghanistan, which controlled the Kabul airport during 2005. As international observers, Portuguese were also in Croatia, Georgia and Western Sahara.
Portugal has also used its naval forces in NATO security operation aimed at combatting piracy in the East African coast. In May 2009, a naval vessel encountered an armed Somali pirate ship and arrested all occupants without any exchange of fire.
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jill scott let's take a long walk | A Long Walk (song) - wikipedia
"A Long Walk '' is a song released in 2001 by American recording artist Jill Scott, from her debut studio album, Who Is Jill Scott? Words and Sounds Vol. 1. The song peaked at No. 9 on Billboard 's R&B Singles chart. It was sampled on the track "Stimulation '' from Disclosure 's 2013 album Settle.
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who composed the score to the 1935 version of bride of frankenstein | Bride of Frankenstein - wikipedia
Bride of Frankenstein (advertised as The Bride of Frankenstein) is a 1935 American science - fiction horror film, the first sequel to Universal Pictures ' 1931 hit Frankenstein. It is considered one of the few sequels to a great film that is even better than the original film on which it is based. As with the first film, Bride of Frankenstein was directed by James Whale and stars Boris Karloff as The Monster. The sequel features Elsa Lanchester in the dual role of Mary Shelley and the Monster 's mate at the end of the film. Colin Clive reprises his role as Henry Frankenstein, and Ernest Thesiger plays the role of Doctor Septimus Pretorius.
The movie starts as an immediate sequel to the events that concluded the earlier film, and is rooted in a subplot of the original Mary Shelley novel, Frankenstein (1818). In the film, a chastened Henry Frankenstein abandons his plans to create life, only to be tempted and finally coerced by his old mentor Dr. Pretorius, along with threats from the Monster, into constructing a mate for the Monster.
The preparation to film the sequel began shortly after the premiere of the first film, but script problems delayed the project. Principal photography began in January 1935, with creative personnel from the original returning in front of and behind the camera. Bride of Frankenstein was released to critical and popular acclaim, although it encountered difficulties with some state and national censorship boards. Since its release the film 's reputation has grown, and it has been hailed as Whale 's masterpiece. In 1998, the film was added to the United States National Film Registry, having been deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''.
On a stormy night, Percy Bysshe Shelley (Douglas Walton) and Lord Byron (Gavin Gordon) praise Mary Shelley (Elsa Lanchester) for her story of Frankenstein and his Monster. Reminding them that her intention was to impart a moral lesson, Mary says she has more of the story to tell. The scene shifts to the end of the 1931 Frankenstein.
Villagers gathered around the burning windmill cheer the apparent death of the Monster (Boris Karloff). Their joy is tempered by the realization that Henry Frankenstein (Colin Clive) is also apparently dead. Hans (Reginald Barlow), father of the girl the creature drowned in the previous film, wants to see the Monster 's bones. He falls into a flooded pit underneath the mill, where the Monster -- having survived the fire -- strangles him. Hauling himself from the pit, the Monster casts Hans ' wife (Mary Gordon) to her death. He next encounters Minnie (Una O'Connor), who flees in terror.
Henry 's body is returned to his fiancée Elizabeth (Valerie Hobson) at his ancestral castle home. Minnie arrives to sound the alarm about the Monster, but her warning goes unheeded. Elizabeth, seeing Henry move, realizes he is still alive. Nursed back to health by Elizabeth, Henry has renounced his creation, but still believes he may be destined to unlock the secret of life and immortality. A hysterical Elizabeth cries that she sees death coming, foreshadowing the arrival of Henry 's former mentor, Doctor Septimus Pretorius (Ernest Thesiger). In his rooms, Pretorius shows Henry several homunculi he has created, including a miniature queen, king, archbishop, devil, ballerina, and mermaid. Pretorius wishes to work with Henry to create a mate for the Monster and offers a toast to their venture: "To a new world of gods and monsters! '' Upon forcing Henry to help him, Pretorius will grow an artificial brain while Henry gathers the parts for the mate.
The Monster saves a young shepherdess (Anne Darling) from drowning. Her screams upon seeing him alert two hunters, who shoot and injure the creature. The hunters raise a mob that sets out in pursuit. Captured and trussed to a pole, the Monster is hauled to a dungeon and chained. Left alone, he breaks his chains, kills the guards and escapes into the woods.
That night, the Monster encounters a gypsy family and burns his hand in their campfire. Following the sound of a violin playing "Ave Maria '', the Monster encounters an old blind hermit (O.P. Heggie) who thanks God for sending him a friend. He teaches the monster words like "friend '' and "good '' and shares a meal with him. Two lost hunters stumble upon the cottage and recognize the Monster. He attacks them and accidentally burns down the cottage as the hunters lead the hermit away.
Taking refuge from another angry mob in a crypt, the Monster spies Pretorius and his cronies Karl (Dwight Frye) and Ludwig (Ted Billings) breaking open a grave. The henchmen depart as Pretorius stays to enjoy a light supper. The Monster approaches Pretorius, and learns that Pretorius plans to create a mate for him.
Henry and Elizabeth, now married, are visited by Pretorius. He is ready for Henry to do his part in their "supreme collaboration ''. Henry refuses and Pretorius calls in the Monster who demands Henry 's help. Henry again refuses and Pretorius orders the Monster out, secretly signaling him to kidnap Elizabeth. Pretorius guarantees her safe return upon Henry 's participation. Henry returns to his tower laboratory where in spite of himself he grows excited over his work. After being assured of Elizabeth 's safety, Henry completes the Bride 's body.
A storm rages as final preparations are made to bring the Bride to life. Her bandage - wrapped body is raised through the roof. Lightning strikes a kite, sending electricity through the Bride. Henry and Pretorius lower her and realize their success. "She 's alive! Alive! '' Henry cries. They remove her bandages and help her to stand. "The bride of Frankenstein! '' Doctor Pretorius declares.
The Monster comes down the steps after killing Karl on the rooftop and sees his mate (Elsa Lanchester). The excited Monster reaches out to her, asking, "Friend? '' The Bride, screaming, rejects him. "She hate me! Like others '' the Monster dejectedly says. As Elizabeth races to Henry 's side, the Monster rampages through the laboratory. The Monster tells Henry and Elizabeth "Yes! Go! You live! '' To Pretorius and the Bride, he says "You stay. We belong dead. '' While Henry and Elizabeth flee, the Monster sheds a tear and pulls a lever to trigger the destruction of the laboratory and tower.
Universal considered making a sequel to Frankenstein as early as its 1931 preview screenings, following which the film 's original ending was changed to allow for Henry Frankenstein 's survival. James Whale initially refused to direct Bride, believing he had "squeezed the idea dry '' on the first film. Following the success of Whale 's The Invisible Man, producer Carl Laemmle, Jr. realized that Whale was the only possible director for Bride; Whale took advantage of the situation in persuading the studio to let him make One More River. Whale believed the sequel would not top the original, so he decided instead to make it a memorable "hoot ''. According to a studio publicist, Whale and Universal 's studio psychiatrist decided "the Monster would have the mental age of a ten - year old boy and the emotional age of a lad of fifteen ''.
Screenwriter Robert Florey wrote a treatment entitled The New Adventures of Frankenstein -- The Monster Lives!, but it was rejected without comment early in 1932. Universal staff writer Tom Reed wrote a treatment under the title The Return of Frankenstein, a title retained until filming began. Following its acceptance in 1933, Reed wrote a full script that was submitted to the Hays office for review. The script passed its review, but Whale, who by then had been contracted to direct, complained that "it stinks to heaven ''. L.G. Blochman and Philip MacDonald were the next writers assigned, but Whale also found their work unsatisfactory. In 1934, Whale set John L. Balderston to work on yet another version, and it was he who returned to an incident from the novel in which the creature demands a mate. In the novel Frankenstein creates a mate, but destroys it without bringing it to life. Balderston also created the Mary Shelley prologue. After several months Whale was still not satisfied with Balderston 's work and handed the project to playwright William J. Hurlbut and Edmund Pearson. The final script, combining elements of a number of these versions, was submitted for Hays office review in November 1934. Kim Newman reports that Whale planned to make Elizabeth the heart donor for the bride, but film historian Scott MacQueen states that Whale never had such an intention.
Sources report that Bela Lugosi and Claude Rains were considered, with varying degrees of seriousness, for the role of Frankenstein 's mentor, Pretorius; others report that the role was created specifically for Ernest Thesiger. Because of Mae Clarke 's ill health, Valerie Hobson replaced her as Henry Frankenstein 's love interest, Elizabeth. Early in production, Whale decided that the same actress cast to play the Bride should also play Mary Shelley in the film 's prologue, to represent how the story -- and horror in general -- springs from the dark side of the imagination. He considered Brigitte Helm and Phyllis Brooks before deciding on Elsa Lanchester. Lanchester, who had accompanied husband Charles Laughton to Hollywood, had met with only moderate success while Laughton had made a strong impact with several films including The Private Life of Henry VIII (for which he had won an Oscar) and Whale 's own The Old Dark House. Lanchester had returned alone to London when Whale contacted her to offer her the dual role. Lanchester modeled the Bride 's hissing on the hissing of swans. She gave herself a sore throat while filming the hissing sequence, which Whale shot from multiple angles.
Colin Clive and Boris Karloff reprised their roles from Frankenstein as creator and creation, respectively. Hobson recalled Clive 's alcoholism had worsened since filming the original, but Whale did not recast the role because his "hysterical quality '' was necessary for the film. Karloff strongly objected to the decision to allow the Monster to speak. "Speech! Stupid! My argument was that if the monster had any impact or charm, it was because he was inarticulate -- this great, lumbering, inarticulate creature. The moment he spoke you might as well... play it straight. '' This decision also meant that Karloff could not remove his dental plate, so now his cheeks did not have the sunken look of the original film. Whale and the studio psychiatrist selected 44 simple words for the Monster 's vocabulary by looking at test papers of ten - year - olds working at the studio. Dwight Frye returned to play the doctor 's assistant, Karl, having played the hunchback Fritz in the original. Frye also filmed a scene as an unnamed villager and the role of "Nephew Glutz '', a man who murdered his uncle and blamed the death on the Monster. Boris Karloff is credited simply as KARLOFF, which was Universal 's custom during the height of his career. Elsa Lanchester is credited for Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, but in a nod to the earlier film, the Monster 's bride is credited only as "? '' just as Boris Karloff had been in the opening credits of Frankenstein.
Universal makeup artist Jack Pierce paid special attention to the Monster 's appearance in this film. He altered his 1931 design to display the after - effects of the mill fire, adding scars and shortening the Monster 's hair. Over the course of filming, Pierce modified the Monster 's makeup to indicate that the Monster 's injuries were healing as the film progressed. Pierce co-created the Bride 's makeup with strong input from Whale, especially regarding the Bride 's iconic hair style, based on Nefertiti. Lanchester 's hair was given a Marcel wave over a wire frame to achieve the style. Lanchester disliked working with Pierce, who she said "really did feel that he made these people, like he was a god... in the morning he 'd be dressed in white as if he were in hospital to perform an operation. '' To play Mary Shelley, Lanchester wore a white net dress embroidered with sequins of butterflies, stars, and moons, which the actress had heard required 17 women 12 weeks to make.
Kenneth Strickfaden created and maintained the laboratory equipment. Strickfaden recycled a number of the fancifully named machines he had created for the original Frankenstein for use in Bride, including the "Cosmic Ray Diffuser '', and the "Nebularium ''. A lightning bolt generated by Strickfaden 's equipment has become a stock scene, appearing in any number of films and television shows. The man behind the film 's special photographic effects was John P. Fulton, head of the special effects department at Universal Studios at the time. Fulton and David S. Horsely created the homunculi over the course of two days by shooting the actors in full - size jars against black velvet and aligning them with the perspective of the on - set jars. The foreground film plate was rotoscoped and matted onto the rear plate. Diminutive actor Billy Barty is briefly visible from the back in the finished film as a homunculus infant in a high chair, but Whale cut the infant 's reveal before the film 's release.
Whale met Franz Waxman at a party and asked him to score the picture. "Nothing will be resolved in this picture except the end destruction scene. Would you write an unresolved score for it? '' asked Whale. Waxman created three distinctive themes: one for the Monster; one for the Bride; and one for Pretorius. The score closes, at Whale 's suggestion, with a powerful dissonant chord, intended to convey the idea that the on - screen explosion was so powerful that the theater where the film was being screened was affected by it. Constantin Bakaleinikoff conducted 22 musicians to record the score in a single nine - hour session.
Shooting began on January 2, 1935, with a projected budget of US $293,750 ($5.24 million as of 2018) -- almost exactly the budget of the original -- and an estimated 36 - day shooting schedule. On the first day, Karloff waded in the water below the destroyed windmill wearing a rubber suit under his costume. Air got into the suit and expanded it like an "obscene water lilly ''. Later that day, Karloff broke his hip, necessitating a stunt double. Clive had also broken his leg. Shooting was completed on March 7, 1935. The film was ten days over schedule because Whale shut down the picture for ten days until Heggie became available to play the Hermit. With a final cost of $397,023 ($8.87 million as of 2018), Bride was more than $100,000 ($1.78 million as of 2018) over budget. As originally filmed, Henry died fleeing the exploding castle. Whale re-shot the ending to allow for their survival, although Clive is still visible on - screen in the collapsing laboratory. Whale completed his final cut, shortening the running time from about 90 to 75 minutes and re-shooting and re-editing the ending, only days before the film 's scheduled premiere date.
Bride of Frankenstein was subjected to censorship, both during production by the Hays office and following its release by local and national censorship boards. Joseph Breen, lead censor for the Hays office, objected to lines of dialogue in the originally submitted script in which Henry Frankenstein and his work were compared to that of God. He continued to object to such dialogue in revised scripts, and to a planned shot of the Monster rushing through a graveyard to a figure of a crucified Jesus and attempting to "rescue '' the figure from the cross. Breen also objected to the number of murders, both seen and implied by the script and strongly advised Whale to reduce the number. The censor 's office, upon reviewing the film in March 1935, required a number of cuts. Whale agreed to delete a sequence in which Dwight Frye 's "Nephew Glutz '' kills his uncle and blames the Monster, and shots of Elsa Lanchester as Mary Shelley in which Breen felt too much of her breasts were visible. Curiously, despite his earlier objection, Breen offered no objection to the cruciform imagery throughout the film -- including a scene with the Monster lashed Christ - like to a pole -- nor to the presentation of Pretorius as a coded homosexual. Bride of Frankenstein was approved by the Production Code office on April 15, 1935.
Following its release with the Code seal of approval, the film was challenged by the censorship board in the state of Ohio. Censors in England and China objected to the scene in which the Monster gazes longingly upon the as - yet unanimated body of the Bride, citing concerns that it looked like necrophilia. Universal voluntarily withdrew the film from Sweden because of the extensive cuts demanded, and Bride was rejected outright by Trinidad, Palestine, and Hungary. One unusual objection, from Japanese censors, was that the scene in which Pretorius chases his miniature Henry VIII with tweezers constituted "making a fool out of a king ''.
Bride of Frankenstein was profitable for Universal, with a 1943 report showing that the film had by then earned approximately $2 million ($28.3 million in 2018 money) for the studio, a profit of about $950,000 ($13.4 million as of 2018). The film was critically praised upon its release, although some reviewers did qualify their opinions based on the film 's being in the horror genre. The New York World - Telegram called the film "good entertainment of its kind ''. The New York Post described it as "a grotesque, gruesome tale which, of its kind, is swell ''. The Hollywood Reporter similarly called the film "a joy for those who can appreciate it ''.
Variety did not so qualify its review. "(It is) one of those rare instances where none can review it, or talk about it, without mentioning the cameraman, art director, and score composer in the same breath as the actors and director. '' Variety also praised the cast, writing that "Karloff manages to invest the character with some subtleties of emotion that are surprisingly real and touching... Thesiger as Dr Pretorious (is) a diabolic characterization if ever there was one... Lanchester handles two assignments, being first in a preamble as author Mary Shelley and then the created woman. In latter assignment she impresses quite highly. ''
In another unqualified review, Time wrote that the film had "a vitality that makes their efforts fully the equal of the original picture... Screenwriters Hurlbut & Balderston and Director James Whale have given it the macabre intensity proper to all good horror pieces, but have substituted a queer kind of mechanistic pathos for the sheer evil that was Frankenstein. '' The Oakland Tribune concurred it was "a fantasy produced on a rather magnificent scale, with excellent stagecraft and fine photographic effects ''. While the Winnipeg Free Press thought that the electrical equipment might have been better suited to Buck Rogers, nonetheless the reviewer praised the film as "exciting and sometimes morbidly gruesome '', declaring that "All who enjoyed Frankenstein will welcome his Bride as a worthy successor. '' The New York Times called Karloff "so splendid in the role that all one can say is ' he is the Monster. ' '' The Times praised the entire principal cast and Whale 's direction in concluding that Bride is "a first - rate horror film '', and presciently suggested that "The Monster should become an institution, like Charlie Chan. '' Bride was nominated for one Academy Award, for Best Sound Recording (Gilbert Kurland).
The film 's reputation has persisted and grown since its release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 100 % based on 41 reviews, with an average rating of 9.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "An eccentric, campy, technically impressive, and frightening picture, James Whale 's Bride of Frankenstein has aged remarkably well. '' In 1998, the film was added to the United States National Film Registry, having been deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''. Frequently identified as James Whale 's masterpiece, the film is lauded as "the finest of all gothic horror movies ''. Time rated Bride of Frankenstein in its "ALL - TIME 100 Movies '', in which critics Richard Corliss and Richard Schickel overruled the magazine 's original review to declare the film "one of those rare sequels that is infinitely superior to its source ''. In 2008, Bride was selected by Empire magazine as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. Also in 2008, the Boston Herald named it the second greatest horror film after Nosferatu. In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film # 7 on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals. Entertainment Weekly considers the film superior to Frankenstein.
Christian imagery appears throughout the film. In addition to the scenes of the Monster trussed in a cruciform pose and the crucified figure of Jesus in the graveyard, the hermit has a crucifix on the wall of his hut -- which, to Whale 's consternation, editor Ted Kent made glow during a fade - out -- and the Monster consumes the Christian sacraments of bread and wine at his "last supper '' with the hermit. Horror scholar David J. Skal suggests that Whale 's intention was to make a "direct comparison of Frankenstein 's monster to Christ ''. Film scholar Scott MacQueen, noting Whale 's lack of any religious convictions, disputes the notion that the Monster is a Christ - figure. Rather, the Monster is a "mockery of the divine '' since, having been created by Man rather than God, it "lacks the divine spark ''. In crucifying the Monster, he says, Whale "pushes the audience 's buttons '' by inverting the central Christian belief of the death of Christ followed by the resurrection. The Monster is raised from the dead first, then crucified.
In the decades since its release, modern film scholars have noted the possible queer reading of the film. Director James Whale was openly gay, and some of the actors in the cast, including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive, were believed to be gay or bisexual. Although James Curtis, Whale 's biographer, rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective, scholars have perceived a gay subtext suffused through the film, especially a camp sensibility, particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius and his relationship with Henry.
Gay film historian Vito Russo, in considering Pretorius, stops short of identifying the character as gay, instead referring to him as "sissified '', "sissy '' itself being Hollywood code for "homosexual ''. Pretorius serves as a "gay Mephistopheles '', a figure of seduction and temptation, going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of creating non-procreative life. A novelization of the film published in England made the implication clear, having Pretorius say to Frankenstein "' Be fruitful and multiply. ' Let us obey the Biblical injunction: you of course, have the choice of natural means; but as for me, I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way. ''
The Monster, whose affections for the male hermit and the female Bride he discusses with identical language ("friend '') has been read as sexually "unsettled '' and bisexual. Gender studies author Elizabeth Young writes: "He has no innate understanding that the male - female bond he is to forge with the bride is assumed to be the primary one or that it carries a different sexual valence from his relationships with (Pretorius and the hermit): all affective relationships are as easily ' friendships ' as ' marriages '. '' Indeed, his relationship with the hermit has been interpreted as a same - sex marriage that heterosexual society will not tolerate: "No mistake -- this is a marriage, and a viable one... But Whale reminds us quickly that society does not approve. The monster -- the outsider -- is driven from his scene of domestic pleasure by two gun - toting rubes who happen upon this startling alliance and quickly, instinctively, proceed to destroy it '', writes cultural critic Gary Morris for Bright Lights Film Journal. The creation of the Bride scene, Morris continues, is "Whale 's reminder to the audience -- his Hollywood bosses, peers, and everyone watching -- of the majesty and power of the homosexual creator ''.
Filmmaker Curtis Harrington, a friend and confidant of Whale 's, dismissed this as "a younger critic 's evaluation. All artists do work that comes out of the unconscious mind and later on you can analyze it and say the symbolism may mean something, but artists do n't think that way and I would bet my life that James Whale would never have had such concepts in mind. '' Specifically in response to the "majesty and power '' reading, Harrington stated, "My opinion is that 's just pure bullshit. That 's a critical interpretation that has nothing to do with the original inspiration. '' He concludes, "I think the closest you can come to a homosexual metaphor in his films is to identify that certain sort of camp humor. '' Whale 's companion David Lewis stated flatly that Whale 's sexual orientation was "not germane '' to his filmmaking, saying, "Jimmy was first and foremost an artist, and his films represent the work of an artist -- not a gay artist, but an artist. ''
Universal Pictures has sought to remake Bride of Frankenstein on several occasions. While the novel Frankenstein has been adapted to film many times, Bride of Frankenstein 's closest remake was The Bride (1985), starring Sting, Clancy Brown, and Jennifer Beals. In 1991, the studio sought to remake the film for cable television, and Martin Scorsese expressed interest in directing.
In the first decade of the 21st century, Universal paired with Imagine Entertainment and contracted Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini, who wrote the screenplay for American Splendor, to write a remake. The screenwriters set the story in contemporary New York. Jacob Estes was also involved with the project at one point and wrote a draft. In June 2009, Universal and Imagine entered discussions with director Neil Burger and his writing partner Dirk Wittenborn, and producer Brian Grazer was assigned to oversee the development of the remake. In December 2015, Variety reported that David Koepp will write the script. In May 2017, Universal Pictures announced their shared universe film series of rebooted, modern - day interpretations of their classic Universal Monsters titled, Dark Universe. The film series began with the 2017 film The Mummy, and is expected to continue with Bride of Frankenstein on February 14, 2019 with Bill Condon directing the film.
In October 2017, it was reported that pre-production had begun when the creative team and studio decided to postpone the release in order to further work on the script with intentions being to improve the story. Deadline reported that Javier Bardem and Angelina Jolie are still attached to the movie as Frankenstein 's monster and the film 's reluctant bride, respectively. The same month Condon stated that should Jolie decide to leave the project, he would be interested in seeing Gal Gadot play the titular character. But on November 8, 2017, Alex Kurtzman and Chris Morgan moved on to other projects, leaving the future of the Dark Universe in doubt.
In January 2018, the project was seemingly revived, with Condon reportedly assembling a production team, consisting of cinematographer Tobias A. Schliessler, production designer Sarah Greenwood, composer Carter Burwell, and costume designer Jacqueline Durran.
Notes
Bibliography
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hiw old do you have to be to get a tatto | Legal status of tattooing in the european union - wikipedia
You may get a tattoo at the age of 16 with parental consent (this can be written) and without parental consent from the age of 18 upwards.
In Belgium, there is not a specific implementation decree regulating the sector of piercing and tattooing practices.
No legislation exists.
You may get a tattoo or piercing at the age of 16 with parental consent (parents must be present) and without parental consent from the age of 18 upwards. (tattooing or piercing of minors may vary depending on studios policy, some refuse to tattoo or pierce minors completely)
The legal age to get a tattoo in Cyprus is 16.
No legislation found.
The Danish tattoo law was valid from June 15, 1966. It is unlawful to tattoo someone under the age of 18. In addition to this it is unlawful to tattoo someone on the head, neck and hands.
No legislation found.
You need to be 18 + to get a tattoo in Finland, however, you may be able to get a permit to get a tattoo under the age of 18.
The legal minimum age is 10 in france.
You must be over 18 years of age to get a tattoo freely without parental consent. You need to have parental or guardian consent at the ages of 16 and 17.
The minimum age is 18.
Greek tattoo law only covers tattoos and not permanent make - up.
Other key provisions (non exhaustive summary):
No legislation found.
"There is no legislation regulating body piercing and tattooing. As a result there is no legal minimum age at which you can get a body piercing or tattoo. '' However, many tattoo shops will refuse to tattoo anyone under the age of 18.
You must be over 18 years of age to get a tattoo freely without parental consent. You need to have parental or guardian consent at the ages of 16 and 17.
The legal age is 16.
The age is 18 or 16 with consent of parents.
No legislation found.
The minimum age is 18.
In the Netherlands, the age at which persons may decide for themselves to have a tattoo and piercing is 16 years. This age limit is suspended for earlobe piercing but pertains to all other areas. Informed consent forms, with information concerning health (including allergies) must be available and must be signed by the client. In the case of children under 16 years, a parent or guardian must sign. If they have signed but are not present with the client, the tattooist or piercer must verify their consent by telephone. Signed consent forms must be kept by the studio in a locked file for ten years.
No regulation.
Reportedly the age limit is 14.
The minimum without parental consent is 18. With parental consent you can get away at some salons from the age 14. (Parental supervision)
No legislation found.
No legislation found.
16 with parent 's consent. 14 or 15 in some parts of the country with parent 's consent.
No legislation, but most tattoo shops will refuse to tattoo you if you 're under 18.
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who does ken jeong play in despicable me | Despicable Me 2 - wikipedia
Despicable Me 2 is a 2013 American 3D computer - animated comedy film and the sequel to the 2010 animated film Despicable Me. Produced by Illumination Entertainment for Universal Pictures and animated by Illumination Mac Guff, the film was directed by Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud, and written by Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio. Steve Carell, Russell Brand, Miranda Cosgrove, Elsie Fisher, and Dana Gaier reprise their roles as Gru, Dr. Nefario, Margo, Agnes, and Edith respectively. Kristen Wiig, who played Miss Hattie in the first film, voices agent Lucy Wilde, while Ken Jeong, who played the Talk Show Host, voices Floyd Eagle - san. New cast members include Benjamin Bratt as Eduardo "El Macho '' Pérez and Steve Coogan as Silas Ramsbottom, head of the fictional Anti-Villain League (AVL).
Despicable Me 2 premiered on June 5, 2013 in Australia, and was released in the United States on July 3, 2013. The film received mostly positive reviews from critics, and was nominated for Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and for Academy Award for Best Original Song (for "Happy ''), losing both to Walt Disney Animation Studios ' Frozen. Grossing over $970.8 million worldwide against its budget of $76 million, the film became the second - highest - grossing animated film of 2013 and the third - highest - grossing film of 2013. It is also the most profitable film in the 101 - year history of Universal Studios. A spinoff / prequel film, Minions, focusing on the little yellow henchmen before they met Gru, was released on July 10, 2015. A sequel, Despicable Me 3, was released on June 30, 2017.
A mysterious vehicle using a huge magnet steals a highly potent mutagen known as PX - 41 from a secret laboratory in the Arctic Circle. The Anti-Villain League (AVL), headed by Silas Ramsbottom, tries to recruit former supervillain Gru to track down those responsible and recover the mutagen, but Gru refuses, claiming that he is now a legitimate businessman as well as the devoted father of Margo, Edith, and Agnes. Dr. Nefario, Gru 's friend and assistant, "misses being evil '' and leaves Gru for new employment. Gru reluctantly agrees to investigate the theft, and is partnered with undercover AVL agent Lucy Wilde.
The pair begin their search in the Paradise Shopping Mall, disguised as bakery employees. Gru immediately comes to suspect Mexican restaurant owner, Eduardo Pérez, of being the infamous "El Macho '', a legendary supervillain who supposedly died "in the most macho way possible '' of riding a shark into the mouth of an active volcano with 250 pounds of dynamite strapped to his chest. Gru and Lucy break into Eduardo 's restaurant at night, but find no proof. Meanwhile, Agnes, confiding in her dream to one day have a mother, believes that Gru will fall in love with Lucy, though Gru states that his relationship with Lucy is professional.
Although holding Eduardo as his chief suspect, Gru agrees to pursue others, including wig merchant Floyd Eagle - san. After witnessing Eduardo 's two - timing son, Antonio, woo Margo and invite everyone to his Cinco de Mayo party, Gru renews his focus on Eduardo. He is then set up on a dinner date with a vacuous woman named Shannon. The date goes horribly, and Shannon is about to humiliate Gru after she spots his wig, until Lucy, visiting the restaurant herself, saves Gru and renders Shannon unconscious with a tranquilizer gun. While they take Shannon home, Gru and Lucy spend personal time together, and Gru falls in love with her, proving Agnes right.
The next day, the AVL arrest Eagle - san after finding an almost - empty jar of the mutagen in his shop, and the investigation is closed by Ramsbottom. Lucy is reassigned to Australia, but gives Gru her lipstick Taser as a gift before leaving. A heartbroken Gru, having lacked the courage to ask Lucy out on a date, instead takes his girls to the Cinco de Mayo party. While there, he follows Eduardo and discovers a secret musical steps - activated elevator, where he finally finds proof that Eduardo is El Macho.
On her flight, Lucy, realizing that she has also fallen in love with Gru, jumps out of the plane and hang glides down to the party. Gru discovers that Macho and his partner, Nefario, have been abducting Gru 's Minions and using the stolen PX - 41 serum to mutate them into purple, savage and hairy "Evil Minions ''. Macho plans to launch rockets full of the mutated Minions into major cities in order to achieve world domination. He gives Gru the chance to team up with him, but Gru walks away.
Lucy later arrives at the party, but Macho captures Lucy after Pollito, Macho 's pet chicken, retrieves her AVL ID badge from her purse. Nefario rejoins Gru, who fakes being captured with two other minions to help him rescue Lucy. Fighting alongside his daughters and Nefario, Gru and his team return the Minions to their normal, friendly, yellow state using jelly containing a powerful antidote that was created by Nefario. Macho then takes the mutagen himself and turns into a giant, violent and vicious purple - haired monster, but Gru and Nefario defeat him using Lucy 's lipstick Taser and a fart gun.
Gru finds Lucy strapped to a TNT - loaded shark rocket and starts to untie her, but Pollito launches the rocket, sending it flying towards the same volcano where Macho previously faked his death. Lucy accepts Gru 's invitation for a date, and the pair dive into the ocean seconds before the rocket enters the volcano and violently explodes. After a comical 147 dates, Gru and Lucy get married, and Margo, Edith and Agnes finally have someone close to a mother.
Chris Meledandri, CEO of Illumination Entertainment, said in July 2010 that a sequel was in the works. Release was tentatively scheduled for July 3, 2013. Miranda Cosgrove stated on her official Facebook and Twitter page on October 14, 2011 that she had recorded her first lines, while Meledandri confirmed in February 2012 that they had started working on the film.
In October 2011, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Javier Bardem was negotiating to voice a villain, named El Macho, but the negotiations failed. By February 2012, Al Pacino had joined the cast to voice the villain. In April 2012, producers confirmed that Steve Carell, Russell Brand, Miranda Cosgrove, Dana Gaier and Elsie Fisher were returning to reprise their roles. Kristen Wiig, who voiced Miss Hattie in the original film, voices Lucy Wilde, an agent of the Anti-Villain League (AVL) who recruits Gru to track and take down a tough, Mexican villain named El Macho. Steve Coogan joined the cast as Silas Ramsbottom, the head of the Anti-Villain League.
On May 3, 2013, just a month before the film 's premiere, producers announced that Al Pacino had left the film over creative differences about how his character should come to life. At the time of his departure, Pacino 's character had already been fully voiced and animated. Chris Renaud, co-director of the film, commented on Pacino 's departure: "So we do n't want an unhappy actor, and we want something that is well - realized on all sides. If you do n't see eye to eye, sometimes it 's easier to (part company) and move on from there. '' Benjamin Bratt, who had already been considered before Pacino, stepped in to voice Eduardo. Chris Meledandri, producer of the film, admitted that he was not "aware of any of the major animated films of the last 15 years that has brought an actor in at such a late stage ''. Due to the finished animation, Bratt had to match his timing exactly to the character 's mouth movement. Initially, during his five - day recording, he tried to imitate Pacino 's voice, but found it impossible, saying "no one can out - Al Pacino Al Pacino ''. He ended up only using Pacino as an inspiration, and resolved to go with his own interpretation of the character. His work was commended by Variety, saying: "You 'd never guess he was n't the filmmakers ' first choice. ''
Despicable Me 2 premiered on June 5, 2013, at Event Cinemas in Bondi Junction, New South Wales, Australia. Steve Carell and Miranda Cosgrove were present at the red carpet premiere. In France, it premiered on June 12, 2013, as part of the Annecy International Animated Film Festival. The American premiere was held at Universal CityWalk in Los Angeles on June 22, 2013; Steve Carell, Miranda Cosgrove, Kristen Wiig, Benjamin Bratt, Ken Jeong, Elsie Fisher, Dana Gaier, Nasim Pedrad and composer Pharrell Williams were present at the "yellow carpet '' premiere. The film was theatrically released in the United States on July 3, 2013. It was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D format and released in select international IMAX theatres. This film was also shown in the 4DX format, featuring tilting seats, water sprays, strobe lightning, aroma, wind, pops, and ticklers, in selected countries. Cinépolis opened its first 4DX room at the Centro Comercial Limonar Premier mall in Cali, Colombia, with the release of the film.
As with the first film, which did not have a theatrical release in China, the film 's distributor Universal Pictures had troubles releasing the sequel. When it was reported in July 2013 that the film had been denied a theatrical release in China, then the second largest film market in the world, some analysts attributed this to the protection of locally produced animation. There were also rumors that the film 's release was banned in China because the film 's minions too much resembled former Chinese president Jiang Zemin. China 's Film Bureau was "furious '' about the negative comments, stating that the film was not submitted for censorship approval. In fact, there was reportedly a "commercial conflict '' between Universal and Edko Films, the film 's local distributor, over which titles are to be imported. Edko had decided that the film "would not do well in China and decided against using one of the precious quota slots for the film. '' In December 2013, a few weeks after the Universal Pictures ' announcement that it would open a Beijing office, it was reported that Despicable Me 2 would be theatrically released in China on January 10, 2014.
A blimp dressed to appear as a Minion, named "Despicablimp, '' toured the United States from March 2013 in a six - month tour to promote the film 's release. As one of the largest airships in the world, measuring 165 feet (50 m) in length, 55 feet (17 m) in height, and weighing 8,000 pounds (3.6 t), it crossed the country three times during its 20,000 miles (32,000 km) - long tour, visiting hundreds of events, including the film 's premiere in Hollywood. The blimp, an American Blimp Corporation A-150 model, could be tracked in real - time via GPS at the Despicablimp Command Center website, which allowed fans to post photos of sightings, and compete for various prizes, including for a ride in the blimp.
A free mobile action video game inspired by the Despicable Me franchise, titled Despicable Me: Minion Rush, was released on June 13, 2013. The game, developed by Gameloft, was adapted for iPhone, iPad and Android devices. Played as one of the Minions, it allows customization of the character, who must perform various tasks, including defeating Vector and a new villain created for the game, to earn the title of Minion of the Year. The game was downloaded more than 100 million times in the first three months after its release, and won a BAFTA 's British Academy Children 's Award in the category BAFTA 's Kids Vote. For the film 's release, Roblox, a massively multiplayer online game, released two virtual items, a Minion and goggles. Six books were released for the film: The Junior Novel, The Anti-Villain League Handbook, Undercover Super Spies, Attack of the Evil Minions!, Make a Minion, and Meet the Minions.
Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment partnered with more than 100 licensing and promotional partners in a deal valued at an unprecedented $250 million. One of the partners was McDonald 's, which included in its Happy Meals various Minion toys, some of them unique to a specific country. To take advantage of banana - loving Minions, Chiquita Brands International ran various sweepstakes, and a Minion, voiced by Pierre Coffin, performed the song "Chiquita Banana '' in the film. Thinkway Toys released various toys and figures, and Hasbro made special Monopoly and Operation games. Custom 3D glasses, modelled after the Minions ' goggles, were released exclusively at Best Buy and Look3D, the producer of the glasses, for use in RealD 3D theatres and with passive 3D home theatre systems.
Despicable Me 2 was released in Digital HD on November 26, 2013, and on DVD and Blu - ray on December 10, 2013. The DVD and Blu - ray combo pack features three "mini movies '' titled Puppy, Panic in the Mailroom, and Training Wheels. A Walmart exclusive Blu - ray / DVD combo pack included two limited edition Minion toys. In its first week of home entertainment release, 4.5 million physical and digital units had been sold, earning $80 million and breaking several records. The film had the highest first - week sales for a digital title ever and became the best selling animated Blu - ray title in its first week, surpassing its predecessor, which previously held the record. Despicable Me 2 was the best selling Blu - ray of 2013 with 4,689,747 sold for a total of $93,734,824 in sales. It was also the second best selling DVD for the year 2013 with 4,566,911 sold for sales totaling $77,250,269. As of January 2015, Despicable Me 2 has sold 6,998,018 DVDs and 5,560,038 Blu - ray discs totalling $112,572,748 and $114,061,866 respectively totalling $226,634,614 in North America.
Despicable Me 2 was released on Ultra HD Blu - ray on June 6, 2017.
Despicable Me 2: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album for the film, released on June 18, 2013 through Back Lot Music. The original music was composed by Heitor Pereira and Pharrell Williams. The album was promoted by the highly successful single "Happy '' performed by Williams.
All music composed by Heitor Pereira, except where noted.
Despicable Me 2 received adequate reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 73 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.6 / 10 based on 173 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Despicable Me 2 offers plenty of eye - popping visual inventiveness and a number of big laughs. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating from mainstream critics, gave the film a score of 62 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The film earned an "A '' from audiences polled by CinemaScore, on an A+ to F scale.
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Steve Carell 's Slavic inflections as Gru do the trick, as before. Wiig 's clever hesitations and comic timing help save the day. '' Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying "The new edition does n't quite catch that inspired spark. '' Stephen Whitty of The Star - Ledger gave the film three out four stars, saying "Not only a fun cartoon but -- that rare thing -- a sequel which actually improves on the original. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film two out of five stars, saying "Armed with masses of minions and an excess of adorability, Despicable Me 2 is guaranteed to charm anyone who 's out of school and already bored. '' Soren Anderson of The Seattle Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "It 's fun. It 's cheerful. It 's lollipop colorful. Best of all, it features lots of minion mischief, which guarantees plenty of laughs. But what it does n't have is an edge. '' Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "It feels at times as if Despicable Me 2 actually is The Minions Movie. Coffin and Renaud and returning screenwriters Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio have n't managed to come up with a dastardly plot to rival the shrinking and stealing of the moon from the previous film. ''
Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying "It is consistently diverting and so cute you 'll want to pet it. Yet it is also weightless and lacks a center. '' Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Better, or at least sweeter, than the first, with Wiig adding some much - needed romantic charm to the toddler - level humor. '' Tirdad Derakhshani of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying "If you 're looking for quality prepackaged, predigested Hollywood family fun this summer, you could do a lot worse than Despicable Me 2. '' Keith Uhlich of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "A fleeter film than its predecessor, Despicable Me 2 delights more often than it disappoints. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap gave the film a negative review, saying "The minions are still wacky scene - stealers -- and once again, we do n't get nearly enough of them -- but Gru and his daughters have been blanded down to bad - sitcom level. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two out of four stars, saying "With its predecessor having made a whopping $540 million globally, it 's no wonder that Universal saw fit to order a sequel. But it 's not enough just to trot out legions of minions and cobble together a plot. Audiences deserve more imagination and inventiveness than this wan recycling. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a ' C ' grade, saying "By the end, every child in the audience will want his or her own monster - minion toy. Adults will just regret the way that Despicable Me 2 betrays the original film 's devotion to bad - guy gaiety. ''
Sara Stewart of the New York Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Sure, it 's not as novel as the first time we were here, but directors Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud stay true to the clever, slapstick vibe. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Despicable Me 2 feels like an opportunity to get together with some old friends, hang out, and discover what they 've been up to. '' Tom Russo of The Boston Globe gave the film a positive review, saying "The scope of the ' toon espionage - adventure goings - on is surprisingly limited. But the filmmakers so clearly love working on these characters, their creative joy is infectious. '' Stephanie Merry of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The animation is beguiling, particularly when Lucy drives her car into the ocean, transforming it into a submarine that scoots around sharks and fish. '' Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "While not quite as charming or unique as the original, Despicable Me 2 comes awfully close, extending co-directors Chris Renaud and Pierre Coffin 's delightfully silly sensibility to a bit larger universe. '' Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It 's a credit that the writing can be so funny in the moment, that it takes time to realize there 's no cohesive story, zero dramatic tension and nary a practical lesson for either the characters in the film or the people watching in the theater. ''
James Rocchi of MSN Movies gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Heartfelt and hilarious, smart and silly, action - packed but never violent, Despicable Me 2 is that rare sequel that outshines its beginnings. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film three out of four stars, saying "For an adult, the predictability could turn you blasé. For kids, revisiting these jokes is a howl. Pinkie promise. '' Mary F. Pols of Time gave the film a positive review, saying "As a sequel it stands level with the first film, and may have the edge on it. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Co-directors Chris Renaud and Pierre Coffin, who do Minion voices expertly, never let up on the laughs. A fart joke in 3 - D may not be three times as wacky, but the high spirits of Despicable Me 2 are irresistible fun. '' A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave the film a ' C ' grade, saying "What 's missing -- and this was the crucial component of part one -- is a little sour to undercut the sweet. Like its protagonist, a bad guy gone boringly good, Despicable Me 2 has no edge. It 's fatally nice and insufficiently naughty. '' Laremy Legel of Film.com gave the film a 6.3 out of 10, saying "Despicable Me 2 is fun, especially near the culmination. Structural issues aside, it 's impossible not to like these characters, all of them, rendered with love, always entertaining even when the story around them does n't make much sense. ''
Despicable Me 2 grossed $368 million in North America, and $602.7 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $970.8 million. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $394.5 million. It is currently the thirtieth highest - grossing film, the sixth highest - grossing animated film, the third highest - grossing 2013 film (behind Frozen and Iron Man 3), the second highest - grossing 2013 animated film, the second highest - grossing Illumination Entertainment film, and the fifth highest - grossing Universal Studios film. With a budget of $76 million, the film is the most profitable film in the 101 - year history of Universal Studios.
Despicable Me 2 is the twenty - sixth highest - grossing film, the fourth highest - grossing 2013 film, the sixth highest - grossing animated film, the seventh highest - grossing 3 - D film, and the second highest - grossing Illumination Entertainment film. It is the sixth animated film to pass the $300 million mark. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 40 million tickets in North America. The film opened on Wednesday, July 3, 2013 at first place with $35.0 million (including $4.7 million from Tuesday night showings). Its opening - day gross stands as third highest for an animated feature, and the seventh highest among films opening on a Wednesday. The film then dropped 30 % to $24.5 million on Thursday, marking the second - largest non-opening Thursday gross. Over the five - day Independence Day weekend (Wednesday - to - Sunday, including Tuesday night showings), the film earned $143.1 million, the highest five - day start for an animated film (ahead of Toy Story 3 's $141.0 million five - day debut). During the traditional three - day opening weekend (Friday - to - Sunday), the film earned $83.5 million. The film 's three - day opening - weekend gross was the largest among Illumination Entertainment films, the third largest for an Independence Day holiday, the fourth largest among animated films, the seventh largest among films released in July, and the tenth largest among films not released on a Friday. The film remained in the first position at the box office for two consecutive weekends.
Despicable Me 2 is the twenty - seventh highest - grossing film, the third highest - grossing animated film, the fourth highest - grossing Universal film, and the third highest - grossing 2013 film. It is also only the fourth animated film to have grossed over $600 million. On its first weekend, Despicable Me 2 opened only in Australia with $6.66 million, ahead of Monsters University which opened on the same weekend. The film set an opening - day record in Latvia. In total, it opened at number one in 67 territories, and set opening - weekend records among animated films in Latin America, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and Lebanon, as well as opening - weekend records among all films in South Africa and Venezuela. The film remained in the first position at the box office for two consecutive weekends during July 2013. The film 's largest openings occurred in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($22.5 million), China ($15.4 million) and Mexico ($14.9 million). In total earnings, its largest markets were the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($72.2 million), China ($53.0 million) and Mexico ($47.7 million).
A prequel feature film titled Minions, featuring the Minions as the main characters, was released on July 10, 2015. Written by Brian Lynch, it was directed by Pierre Coffin and Kyle Balda, and produced by Chris Meledandri and Janet Healy. The film, set in the 1960s, focuses on the Minions before they met Gru, where they compete for the right to become henchmen of an ambitious villain, Scarlet Overkill, voiced by Sandra Bullock.
A sequel, titled Despicable Me 3, was released on June 30, 2017. The film was directed by Pierre Coffin and Kyle Balda, with Eric Guillon serving as co-director, and was produced by Chris Meledandri and Janet Healy. Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio returned to write the screenplay for the film. Steve Carell, Kristen Wiig, Miranda Cosgrove, Dana Gaier, Julie Andrews and Steve Coogan reprised their roles from previous films as Gru, Lucy Wilde, Margo, Edith, Marlena Gru, and Silas Ramsbottom, respectively. New cast members include Trey Parker as former child star - turned - supervillain Balthazar Bratt, Jenny Slate as AVL member Valerie Da Vinci, and Nev Scharrel as the new voice of Agnes. Steve Carell and Steve Coogan also voiced new characters: Gru 's long - lost twin brother Dru, and his courteous butler, Fritz. Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud reprised their roles as the Minions, respectively.
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sally's mom has got it goin on | Stacy 's Mom - Wikipedia
"Stacy 's Mom '' is a pop rock song recorded by the American rock band Fountains of Wayne for their third studio album, Welcome Interstate Managers. "Stacy 's Mom '' was released to radio on May 20, 2003. The song was released as the lead single from Welcome Interstate Managers on September 29, 2003 through S - Curve Records and Virgin Records. "Stacy 's Mom '' was written by bassist Adam Schlesinger and vocalist Chris Collingwood, both of whom produced the song alongside Mike Denneen. Its subject matter was inspired by a friend of Schlesinger 's when he was young who had a crush on his grandmother. A power pop song, the group hoped to emulate the sound of The Cars with the track.
"Stacy 's Mom '' reached number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's highest - charting hit in the United States. Additionally, the song peaked within the top 10 in Ireland, and the top 20 in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over 500,000 copies. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Vocal Pop Performance. The song was accompanied with a music video in which model Rachel Hunter plays the titular role. "Stacy 's Mom '' was the only mainstream hit by Fountains of Wayne.
The song has been frequently misattributed to pop punk band Bowling for Soup, who in 2011 released their own cover version of the song.
"Stacy 's Mom '' was written by Chris Collingwood and Adam Schlesinger. Stylistically it is power pop. Part of the song 's inspiration was a friend Schlesinger had growing up who thought Schlesinger 's grandmother was hot. "One of my best friends, when we were maybe 11 or 12, came to me and announced that he thought my grandmother was hot. And I said, ' Hey, you 're stepping over the line, ' but at that point in life, I would n't put it past anyone, '' he recalled. He hoped to strike a balance "between humor and personality '' with the song. In writing the song, he was hoping to take influence from new wave and power pop music: "I was thinking a little bit about "Mrs. Robinson '' and sonically I was thinking about the Cars, a Rick Springfield sort of thing. '' He acknowledged that stylistically, the song "owes a debt '' to the Cars ' "Just What I Needed ''; its opening guitar riff is similar. Cars frontman Ric Ocasek thought that the intro was a sample from "Just What I Needed '' but the band says they performed it in the studio and just "got it right. ''
"Stacy 's Mom '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 the week of October 11, 2003 at number 59, making this their first song to appear on that chart. It entered the top 40 the week after by moving twenty - one spots to number 38 and moved nine spots to number 31 on the week of October 25, 2003. It peaked at number 21 the week of November 21, 2003 and stayed there for two weeks. It stayed on the chart for seventeen weeks.
It was one of the first songs to reach the No. 1 spot on the "Most Downloaded Songs '' list of the iTunes Music Store. It reached No. 11 in the UK Singles Chart. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Vocal Pop Performance at the 2004 awards. The single 's sales were last estimated at 888,000, according to Nielsen SoundScan, in 2011.
Richard Harrington of The Washington Post dubbed it "nicely naughty. '' Ben Greenman, writing for The New Yorker, considered it the "second - catchiest song ever written about a girlfriend 's parent, '' after "Mrs. Robinson ''. The song ranks No. 350 on Blender 's 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born and No. 88 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 00s.
The music video, directed by Chris Applebaum, features several comedic scenes illustrating the boy 's attempts to get closer to Stacy 's mother. "We looked at a lot of treatments and some directors were trying to be kind of arty and subtle with it, but Chris Applebaum went completely for the jugular, '' said Schlesinger. Model Rachel Hunter plays the title role, which she accepted because she was a fan of the band and the song. The group had previously hoped to get Paulina Porizkova for the role. The clip was shot in Los Angeles in late May 2003. "It was 7 a.m., and there was Rachel Hunter doing a striptease on the kitchen counter, '' remembered Schlesinger. The video was first sent to television in July 2003.
The video begins with the boy (Shane Haboucha), Stacy (Gianna Dispenza) and some other children standing at a school crossing. Stacy 's mother (Rachel Hunter) then pulls up in a red convertible in front of them to pick up Stacy. The boy and his friends gaze at her in awe. The boy later goes over to Stacy 's house and is seen lying on a pool toy in her backyard swimming pool while wearing large, dark sunglasses. Through a window he sees Stacy 's mother, and then watches her undress. Stacy gives the boy a bottle of soda and, as he sees Stacy 's mother remove her bra, he spills soda on himself. As his eyes are hidden by his shades, Stacy laughs, thinking that he is just clumsy. After a scene with the band during the chorus, Stacy, in red heart - shaped sunglasses and swimsuit, is shown sunbathing while the boy mows her lawn. Stacy 's mother comes out wearing just a towel and is given a massage on both her back and front. The masseur gives the boy a look of amusement, since he gets to look at Stacy 's mother naked and the boy does not. The boy is distracted by the massage and ends up knocking over Stacy 's birdhouse with the lawnmower. The video then cuts to him and Stacy watching Fountains of Wayne on TV, before the boy imagines Stacy 's mother, while scrubbing the floors, as a pole dancer teasing him. Near the end of the video it is implied that the boy begins to masturbate by the bathroom window while Stacy 's mother climbs out of the pool in her red bikini. Moments later, Stacy opens the bathroom door, ignoring a sign saying Ocupado, and catches him in the act. Stacy quickly closes the door and starts smiling, implying that she believes the boy is masturbating to her and not her mother.
Fountains of Wayne had asked Ric Ocasek to be in the video for the song. Schlesinger explains that while Ocasek claims that he "politely declined ''; he actually just never responded to the request. There are several references to The Cars in the video: a license plate reads "I ♥ RIC '', a reference to Ric; one of the boys in the opening scene has dark hair, sunglasses, and clothes such that he looks like an adolescent version of Ocasek; the trademark Elliot Easton "bouncing '' (at approximately 1: 15 into the video) and hairdo as he plays his guitar for The Cars; and the re-creation of the Fast Times scene, which featured The Cars ' "Moving in Stereo ''. Further links to The Cars and New Wave music are given by the magazine Nu Wave that is featured in the video, the Roland Juno - 6 keyboard (a synthesizer of the 1980s), and the record sleeve showing ' Stacy 's Mom ' in a car. The video reached No. 1 on both MTV 's TRL and VH1 's VSpot Top 20 Countdown.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In 2011, pop punk band Bowling for Soup released a cover version of "Stacy 's Mom '' as a B - side to their single "I 've Never Done Anything Like This ''.
The cover version came about because the original Fountains of Wayne song was often misattributed to Bowling For Soup. The song was misidentified as a Bowling for Soup song on YouTube and other video sites. In multiple interviews, Bowling For Soup bandleader Jaret Reddick has said that he regularly encountered fans at their concerts who mistakenly thought "Stacy 's Mom '' was a Bowling for Soup song. In 2011, they recorded and released a cover version of the song. Jaret said that by finally releasing their own version of the song, "I 've basically just taken care of a large part of the population that 's been wrong for years, and I 've made them right. '' Alluding to the mistaken identity issue, the cover art for the song release reads: "Finally you can say this is your favorite song by BFS and not look like an idiot! ''
Bowling for Soup has since made the song part of their live set list.
The song was included on the setlist for Guitar Hero: Van Halen as a guest act. It also appeared in the 4th episode of the 1st season of the television series Psych, Woman Seeking Dead Husband, Smokers Ok, No Pets. The song was parodied on The Howard Stern Show to mock Wack Pack character Hanzi (Imran Kahn). It has also been performed by Postmodern Jukebox ft. Casey Abrams. A cover of the song by the Northeastern University pep band has become an unofficial theme song for the Northeastern Huskies men 's ice hockey team. At each game, the pep band plays the song during a stoppage of play with the fan sections continuing to sing through the chorus without accompaniment once gameplay begins again.
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name any six countries where equatorial forest are found | Pacific Equatorial Forest - wikipedia
The Pacific Equatorial Forest is a tropical forest ecosystem located at 0 ° latitude in coastal Ecuador, in the province of Manabí. The ecosystem is most notable for its high diversity of forest types unusually close in proximity. Tropical rainforest, moist evergreen forest, premontane cloud forest, and tropical deciduous forest can all be encountered over the course of a one - day hike, and the change from one type of forest to another can occur in as little as 100 meters.
The Pacific Equatorial Forests, along with the rest of the coastal forests of Ecuador, is considered the most threatened tropical forest in the world and is part of the Tumbes - Chocó - Magdalena biodiversity hotspot. As much as 98 % of coastal tropical forest have already been lost in Ecuador, almost all occurring during the last three generations. The Pacific Equatorial Forest, in particular, represents the greatest concentration of unprotected forest in coastal Ecuador and has been designated by several international conservation organizations as a global conservation priority.
The Pacific Equatorial Forests is bound by the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the west and the peaks of the long and narrow Jama - Coaque Coastal Mountain Range, which stretches along the coast at an average distance of 10 km inland. The Pacific Equatorial Forest extends as far south as Cabo Posado, at 0 degrees and 22 minutes south of the equator, and as far north as Pedernales, at 0 degrees and 3 minutes north of the equator. However, patches of the ecosystem can be found as far north as Punta Tortuga and Galera at 0 degrees and 46 minutes north of the equator.
The core area of the Pacific Equatorial Forest covers two counties, Jama and Pedernales, in the northwest of the province of Manabí in Ecuador. The Jama - Coaque mountains (pronounced "Hama Ko - Ah - Kay '') takes its name from the ancient civilization that thrived in the region from 355 B.C. to 1532 A.D; whose territory is believed to have been limited to this specific ecosystem and the adjacent coastline. The Pacific Equatorial Forest covers 650 square kilometres, or 65,000 hectares of land, of which approximately 19,000 hectares are still forested.
The Pacific Equatorial Forest is subject to what is known as a tropical monsoon climate. The ecosystem is located directly adjacent to the changeover from the cold and dry Humboldt ocean current from southern Chile and the warm El Niño ocean current (also known as the Equatorial Counter Current) from Panama. The cold water and air temperatures associated with the Humboldt Current inhibit rainfall in southern coastal Ecuador and Peru, creating dry to arid conditions, whereas the warm temperaturas associated with the El Nino current create humid conditions with high rainfall in northern Ecuador and coastal Colombia.
For its location at the confluence of these two ocean currents, the Pacific Equatorial Forest is a transition zone between the wettest forests (the Chocó in Colombia) and the driest desert (the Atacama in Peru) recorded on earth. This complex climatological effect is multiplied by the Jama - Coaque Coastal Mountain Range, whose sharp changes in altitude so close to the ocean account for wide variations in precipitation in very small expanses of land. The mountains rise to 845 metres (2,772 feet) above sea level at the highest peak, although the rest of the mountain range is a series of peaks that average 500 -- 650 metres (1,640 - 2,132 feet) of altitude, which are shrouded in fog most of the year.
Starting in late December, a change in atmospheric pressure shifts ocean currents so that warm waters come closer to shore and displace the cold waters. During this time, air and water temperatures, tides, sea levels and wave heights, and relative humidity all rise. These conditions produce heavy rainfall that used to last through August, but now usually only lasts into May. Rain during the rainy season is punctuated by sunny weather.
The dry season, which now begins in June or July and lasts sometimes into mid January, is characterized by cooler temperatures and more overcast skies. The Bamboo House research station in the Jama - Coaque Ecological Reserve has recorded an average daily temperature range of 24 - 31 ° Celsius (75 - 88 ° Fahrenheit) in the rainy season, and 19 - 29 ° Celsius (66 - 84 ° Fahrenheit) in the dry season. Throughout the entire coast of Ecuador, annual precipitation varies widely according to latitude, with as much as 8,000 mm of rain in the extreme north, close to the Colombian border, to as little as 300 mm in the extreme south, close to the Peruvian border.
In the Pacific Equatorial Forest, which is located in between these two extremes, precipitation primarily varies according to elevation and proximity to the ocean. In the premontane cloud forest along the peaks of the coastal mountains, which strip wáter from the nearly constant cloud cover, annual precipitation is 2,000 - 3,000 mm, and the vegetation is green and lush year - round. Along the shoreline, annual rainfall can be as little as 800 mm, and in these much drier conditions the majority of trees shed their leaves during the dry season, creating tropical deciduous forest (also known as tropical dry forest).
The Pacific Equatorial Forest provides habitat for serves as habitat and key migratory channel for two endangered species of primates; the (mantled howler monkey and white - fronted capuchin monkey) and six endangered species of felines, the (jaguar, puma, ocelot, oncilla, margay and jaguarundi). Other endangered mammals include the tayra, the three - toed sloth, the western agouti, and the spotted paca.
Endemic and / or rare species of birds include the Red - Masked Parakeet, Pale - browed Tinamou, Pacific Pygmy Owl, Esmeralda Woodstar hummingbird, Gray - backed Hawk, Guayaquil Woodpecker, Pacific Royal - Flycatcher, Plumbeous Kite, Rufous - headed Chachalaca, and the Chocó Toucan.
In 2009, herpetologist Paul S. Hamilton discovered thirty new species of frog and one new species of snake in three remnants of Pacific Equatorial Forest (Lalo Loor Dry Forest Reserve, Jama - Coaque Ecological Reserve, and Cerro Pata de Pajaro).
The primary cause of deforestation in the region is the conversion of native forest into cattle pasture, a process which is aided by illegal logging and slash - and - burn agriculture. The deforestation figure in all of coastal Ecuador is 98 %. The Pacific Equatorial Forest, which has suffered an estimated loss of 75 % of its native forest, has thus fared somewhat better than the rest of the region owing to its limited access and more challenging topography. However, the construction of a new coastal highway through the region threatens to facilitate the deforestation of the last remnants of Pacific Equatorial Forest.
In 2001, the Centro de Investigación de Bosques Tropicales (Tropical Forest Research Center) reported: "Due to the high rate of endemism, the mass elimination of forest habitat in the Coastal region over the last half - century represents one of the greatest species extinction events in history. '' The human consequences of regional deforestation have likewise been significant. The dramatic loss of forest cover over the last 50 years has altered the rain cycle and caused a sharp decline in regional precipitation.
Whereas three generations ago the rainy season lasted eight months per year and the dry season four, that ratio has inverted, and now the rainy season barely lasts four months, followed by eight months of drought. Rivers that used to be viable year - round now run dry half of the year, crops fail, and droughts result in high death rates of livestock, an effect which is particularly acute during periods of theLa Nina ocean - atmosphere phenomenon.
There are three small ecological reserves that protect remnants of the Pacific Equatorial Forest: Cerro Pata de Pajaro (Fundación Tercer Mundo), the Lalo Loor Dry Forest Reserve (Ceiba Foundation) and the Jama - Coaque Ecological Reserve (Third Millennium Alliance), which protect 1,000 acres, 500 acres, and 1250 acres respectively.
The Three Forest Trail, established in 2010, is a 25 - km - long trail that connects the dry forest of the Lalo Loor Dry Forest Reserve with the rainforest of the Jama - Coaque Ecological Reserve via the cloud - forested mountain ridges. The trail is meant to function as an incentive for conservation, as all forest owners along the trail receive a percentage of the trail fees.
However, the vast majority of the Pacific Equatorial Forest remains unprotected and continue to be logged and cleared for agriculture and cattle ranching. In 2009 the Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment launched its Socio Bosque (Forest Partners) program, which provides forest owners with an annual conservation subsidy of $30 per hectare ($12 / acre), has had some traction in the region but the long - term efficacy is still uncertain.
A small tropical tree in the Pacific Equatorial Forest.
A small under the canopy.
A bird 's eye view above the tall trees and evergreen forest.
A densely packed area of jungle.
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why is australia's flag designed the way it is | Flag of Australia - Wikipedia
The flag of Australia is a defaced Blue Ensign: a blue field with the Union Jack in the canton (upper hoist quarter), and a large white seven - pointed star known as the Commonwealth Star in the lower hoist quarter. The fly contains a representation of the Southern Cross constellation, made up of five white stars -- one small five - pointed star and four, larger, seven - pointed stars. There are other official flags representing Australia, its people and core functions of government.
The flag 's original design (with a six - pointed Commonwealth Star) was chosen in 1901 from entries in a competition held following Federation, and was first flown in Melbourne on 3 September 1901, the date proclaimed as Australian National Flag Day. A slightly different design was approved by King Edward VII in 1903. The seven - pointed commonwealth star version was introduced by a proclamation dated 23 February 1908. The dimensions were formally gazetted in 1934, and in 1954 the flag became recognised by, and legally defined in, the Flags Act 1953, as the "Australian National Flag ''.
Flags forming the Union Jack
Southern Cross
Commonwealth Star
The Australian flag uses three prominent symbols: the Union Flag, the Commonwealth Star (also the Federation Star) and the Southern Cross (or Crux).
In its original usage as the flag of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Union Flag combined three heraldic crosses which represent the constituent countries of the United Kingdom (as constituted in 1801):
The Union Flag is thought to symbolise Australia 's history as six British colonies and the principles upon which the Australian Federation is based, although a more historic view sees its inclusion in the design as demonstrating loyalty to the British Empire.
The Commonwealth Star, also known as the Federation Star, originally had six points, representing the six federating colonies. In 1908, a seventh point was added to symbolise the Papua and any future territories. Another rationale for the change was to match the star used on the Coat of Arms, which was created in the same year. The Commonwealth Star does not have any official relation to Beta Centauri, despite the latter 's brightness and location in the sky; however, the 1870 version of the flag of South Australia featured the "pointer '' stars, Alpha and Beta Centauri.
The Southern Cross is one of the most distinctive constellations visible in the Southern Hemisphere, and has been used to represent Australia since the early days of British settlement. Ivor Evans, one of the flag 's designers, intended the Southern Cross to also refer to the four moral virtues ascribed to the four main stars by Dante: justice, prudence, temperance and fortitude. The number of points on the stars of the Southern Cross on the modern Australian flag differs from the original competition - winning design, in which they ranged between five and nine points each, representing their relative brightness in the night sky. The stars are named after the first five letters of the Greek alphabet, in decreasing order of brightness in the sky. In order to simplify manufacture, the British Admiralty standardised the four larger outer stars at seven points each, leaving the smaller, more central star with five points. This change was officially gazetted on 23 February 1903.
A complete specification for the official design was published in the Commonwealth Gazette in 1934.
Under the Flags Act, the Australian National Flag must meet the following specifications:
The location of the stars is as follows:
The outer diameter of the Commonwealth Star is ⁄ of the flag 's width, while that of the stars in the Southern Cross is ⁄ of the flag 's width, except for Epsilon, for which the fraction is ⁄. Each star 's inner diameter is ⁄ of the outer diameter. The flag 's width is the measurement of the hoist edge of the flag (the distance from top to bottom).
The colours of the flag, although not specified by the Flags Act, have been given Pantone specifications by the Awards and Culture Branch of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Australian Government 's Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers also gives CMYK and RGB specifications for depicting the flag in print and on screen respectively.
The blue shade also has a web - safe colour of # 000099, used for certain digital screens that may have trouble displaying the shade of blue in the table above. The flag may be reproduced in a single colour, with the colour being either black or one of the two colours of the flag, albeit blue is generally preferred for single - colour productions.
Guidelines for flying the flag are laid out in the 1953 Flags Act and in a pamphlet entitled "The Australian National Flag '', which is published by the Australian Government on an infrequent basis. The guidelines say that the Australian National Flag is allowed to be flown on every day of the year, and that it "should be treated with respect and dignity it deserves as the nation 's most important national symbol ''.
The National Flag must always be flown in a position superior to that of any other flag or ensign when flown in Australia or on Australian territory, and it should always be flown aloft and free. The flag must be flown in all government buildings and displayed in polling stations when there is a national election or referendum. Private pleasure craft can fly either the Red Ensign or the Australian National Flag. The British Blue Ensign can be flown on an Australian owned ship instead of the Australian Flag if the owner has a warrant valid under British law.
The Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet also advises that the flag should only be flown during daylight hours, unless it is illuminated. Two flags should not be flown from the same flagpole. The flag should not be displayed upside down under any circumstances, not even to express a situation of distress. The flag is not to be placed or dropped on the ground, nor should it be used to cover an object in the lead - up to an unveiling ceremony, or to hide other material. Flags that have decayed or faded should not be displayed.
According to a government publication, old or decayed flags should be disposed of in private "in a dignified way ''; a method given as an example is to cut the flag into small pieces before being placed in the waste.
When the flag is flown at half - mast, it should be recognisably at half - mast, for example, a third of the way down from the top of the pole. The Australian Flag should never be flown half mast at night. Flags are flown at half - mast on government buildings:
The Department provides a subscription - based email service called the Commonwealth Flag Network, which gives information on national occasions to fly the flag at half - mast as well as national days of commemoration and celebration of the flag.
The Australian National Flag may be used for commercial or advertising purposes without formal permission as long as the flag is used in a dignified manner and reproduced completely and accurately; it should not be defaced by overprinting with words or illustrations, it should not be covered by other objects in displays, and all symbolic parts of the flag should be identifiable. It also must sit first (typically, left) where more than one flag is used. For this reason the Collingwood Football Club had to reverse its logo, which features the flag.
There have been several attempts to make desecration of the Australian flag a crime. In 1953, during the second reading debate on the Flags Act, the leader of the Opposition, Arthur Calwell, unsuccessfully called for provisions to be added to the bill to criminalise desecration. Michael Cobb introduced private member 's bills in 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992 to ban desecration, but on each occasion the bill lapsed. In 2002, the leader of the National Party, John Anderson, proposed to introduce laws banning desecration of the Australian flag, a call that attracted support from some parliamentarians both in his own party and the senior Coalition partner, the Liberal Party. The Prime Minister, John Howard, rejected the calls stating that "... in the end I guess it 's part of the sort of free speech code that we have in this country ''. In 2003, the Australian Flags (Desecration of the Flag) Bill was tabled in Parliament by Trish Draper without support from Howard and subsequently lapsed. In 2006, following a flag - burning incident during the 2005 Cronulla riots and a burnt flag display by a Melbourne artist, Liberal MP Bronwyn Bishop introduced the Protection of the Australian National Flag (Desecration of the Flag) Bill 2006. This bill sought to make it "a criminal offence to wilfully destroy or otherwise mutilate the Flag in circumstances where a reasonable person would infer that the destruction or mutilation is intended publicly to express contempt or disrespect for the Flag or the Australian Nation. '' The bill received a second reading but subsequently lapsed and did not go to vote in the House of Representatives.
Before 1901, what is now Australia was six separate British colonies. The Union Flag, as the flag of the British Empire, was first used on Australian soil on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay, and it was again used at the start of European settlement of the country on 26 January 1788. This was the original Union Flag introduced in 1606 that did not include the Saint Patrick 's Saltire, included from 1801 after the Acts of Union 1801. It is the second version post 1801 that is depicted on the Australian Flag. It was often used to represent them collectively, and each colony also had its own flag based on the Union Flag. As an Australian national consciousness began to emerge, several flag movements were formed and unofficial new flags came into common usage. Two attempts were made throughout the nineteenth century to design a national flag. The first such attempt was the National Colonial Flag created in 1823 -- 1824 by Captains John Nicholson and John Bingle. This flag consisted of a red cross on a white background, with an eight - point star on each of the four limbs of the cross, while incorporating a Union Flag in the canton. The most popular "national '' flag of the period was the 1831 Federation Flag, also designed by Nicholson. This flag was the same at the National Colonial Flag, except that the cross was blue instead of resembling that of St. George. Although the flag was designed by Nicholson in 1831, it did not become widely popular until the latter part of the century, when calls for federation began to grow louder. These flags, and many others such as the Eureka Flag (which came into use at the Eureka Stockade in 1854), featured stars representing the Southern Cross. The oldest known flag to show the stars arranged as they are seen in the sky is the Anti-Transportation League Flag, which is similar in design to the present National Flag. The differences were that there was no Commonwealth Star, while the components of the Southern Cross are depicted with eight points and in gold. This flag was only briefly in usage, as two years after the formation of the Anti-Transportation League in 1851, the colonial authorities decided to stop the intake of convicts, so the ATL ceased its activities. The Eureka Flag is often viewed as the first "Australian '' flag as it was the first notable example of a design that had the Southern Cross while excluding the Union Flag. The Murray River Flag, popular since the 1850s, is still widely used by boats that traverse Australia 's main waterway. It is the same as the National Colonial Flag, except that the white background in the three quadrants other the canton were replaced with four alternating blue and white stripes, representing the four major rivers that run into the Murray River.
As Federation approached, thoughts turned to an official federal flag. In 1900, the Melbourne Herald conducted a design competition with a prize of 25 Australian pounds (2017: A $3,700) in which entries were required to include the Union Flag and Southern Cross, resulting in a British Ensign style flag. The competition conducted by the Review of Reviews for Australasia -- a Melbourne - based publication -- later that year thought such a restriction seemed unwise, despite observing that designs without these emblems were unlikely to be successful; nonetheless, it suggested that entries incorporate the two elements in their design. After Federation on 1 January 1901 and following receipt of a request from the British government to design a new flag, the new Commonwealth Government held an official competition for a new federal flag in April. The competition attracted 32,823 entries, including those originally sent to the Review of Reviews. One of these was submitted by an unnamed governor of a colony. The two contests were merged after the Review of Reviews agreed to being integrated into the government initiative. The £ 75 prize money of each competition were combined and augmented by a further £ 50 donated by Havelock Tobacco Company. Each competitor was required to submit two coloured sketches, a red ensign for the merchant service and public use, and a blue ensign for naval and official use. The designs were judged on seven criteria: loyalty to the Empire, Federation, history, heraldry, distinctiveness, utility and cost of manufacture. The majority of designs incorporated the Union Flag and the Southern Cross, but native animals were also popular, including one that depicted a variety of indigenous animals playing cricket. The entries were put on display at the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne and the judges took six days to deliberate before reaching their conclusion. Five almost identical entries were chosen as the winning design, and the designers shared the £ 200 (2009: $25,000) prize money. They were Ivor Evans, a fourteen - year - old schoolboy from Melbourne; Leslie John Hawkins, a teenager apprenticed to an optician from Sydney; Egbert John Nuttall, an architect from Melbourne; Annie Dorrington, an artist from Perth; and William Stevens, a ship 's officer from Auckland, New Zealand. The five winners received £ 40 each. The differences to the current flag were the six - pointed Commonwealth Star, while the components stars in the Southern Cross had different numbers of points, with more if the real star was brighter. This led to five stars of nine, eight, seven, six and five points respectively.
The flag 's initial reception was mixed. The then republican magazine The Bulletin labelled it:
a staled réchauffé of the British flag, with no artistic virtue, no national significance... Minds move slowly: and Australia is still Britain 's little boy. What more natural than that he should accept his father 's cut - down garments, -- lacking the power to protest, and only dimly realising his will. That bastard flag is a true symbol of the bastard state of Australian opinion.
As the design was basically the Victorian flag with a star added, many critics in both the Federal Government and the New South Wales government objected to the chosen flag for being "too Victorian ''. They wanted the Australian Federation Flag, and Prime Minister Barton, who had been promoting the Federation Flag, submitted this flag along with that chosen by the judges to the Admiralty for final approval. The Admiralty chose the Red for private vessels and Blue Ensigns for government ships. The Barton government regarded both the Blue and Red Ensigns as colonial maritime flags and "grudgingly '' agreed to fly it only on naval ships. Later governments, that of Chris Watson in 1904 and Andrew Fisher in 1910, were also unhappy with the design, wanting something "more distinctive '' and more "indicative of Australian unity. ''
On 3 September 1901, the new Australian flag flew for the first time from the dome of the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne. The names of the joint winners of the design competition were announced by Hersey, Countess of Hopetoun (the wife of the Governor - General, the 7th Earl of Hopetoun) and she unfurled the flag for the first time. Since 1996 this date has been officially known as Australian National Flag Day.
The competition - winning designs were submitted to the British Colonial Secretary in 1902. Prime Minister Edmund Barton announced in the Commonwealth Gazette that King Edward VII had officially approved the design as the flag of Australia on 11 February 1903. The published version made all the stars in the Southern Cross seven - pointed apart from the smallest, and is the same as the current design except the six - pointed Commonwealth Star.
The Red Ensign was the only flag private citizens could fly on land or have in their possession. By traditional British understanding, the Blue Ensign was reserved for Commonwealth Government use though the Australian Army always used the red ensign until after the 1953 changes, so Gallipoli, the First and Second world wars were fought under the Red Ensign. State and local governments, private organisations and individuals were expected to use the Red Ensign. The official painting of the opening of Australia 's new Parliament House in 1927 shows Red Ensigns and Union Flags being flown. However a lithograph by an unknown artist featuring only Blue Ensigns has since emerged. As the commissioned artist, Septimus Power may have chosen red for dramatic effect or because it was the colour the public used. There was a photograph taken that day which appears to show a Blue Ensign hanging behind a Union Jack at the easternmost end of the building. The correspondent for The West Australian newspaper would report that: "The sunlight streamed through the crimson of drooping flags ''. Altogether this means there is a strong possibility that both ensigns were actually used on the day.
Despite executive branch proclamations as to the respective roles of the two red, white and blue ensigns there remained confusion until the Flags Act 1953 declared the Blue Ensign to be the national flag as the Red ensign looked too much like a communist flag for the government of the day, the Red Ensign as the flag of the Australian mercantile marine. Red Ensigns continued to be used in Anzac Day marches into the 1960s as it was the flag that the soldiers had fought under.
Technically, private non-commercial vessels were liable to a substantial fine if they did not fly the British Red Ensign. However, an Admiralty Warrant was issued on 5 December 1938, authorising these vessels to fly the Australian Red Ensign. The Shipping Registration Act 1981 reaffirmed that the Australian Red Ensign was the proper "colours '' for commercial ships over 24 metres (79 ft) in tonnage length.
As a result of the declaration of 3 September as Merchant Navy Day in 2008, the Red Ensign can be flown on land alongside the Australian national flag on this occasion as a matter of protocol.
The Blue Ensign replaced the Union Jack at the Olympic Games at St Louis in 1904. In the same year, due to lobbying by Richard Crouch MP, it had the same status as the Union Flag in the UK, when the House of Representatives proclaimed that the Blue Ensign "should be flown upon all forts, vessels, saluting places and public buildings of the Commonwealth upon all occasions when flags are used ''. The government agreed to fly the Blue Ensign on special flag days, but not if it meant additional expense, which undermined the motion. The Blue Ensign could only be flown on a state government building if a state flag was not available.
On 2 June 1904 a resolution was passed by parliament to replace the Union Jack with the "Australian Flag '' on forts. Initially the Department of Defence resisted using the Flag, considering it to be a marine ensign and favouring King 's Regulations that specified the use of the Union Jack. After being approached by the Department of Defence, Prime Minister Chris Watson stated in parliament that he was not satisfied with the design of the Australian flag and that implementation of the 1904 resolution could wait until consideration was given to "adopt another (flag) which in our opinion is more appropriate. '' In 1908, Australian Army Military Order, No 58 / 08 ordered the "Australian Ensign '' replace the Union Flag at all military establishments. From 1911 it was the saluting flag of the Australian army at all reviews and ceremonial parades,
The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) was promulgated on 5 October 1911 and was directed to fly the British White Ensign on the stern and the flag of Australia on the Jackstaff. Despite the government wanting to use the Blue Ensign on Australian warships, officers continued to fly the Union Flag, and it was not until 1913, following public protest in Fremantle after its use for the review of HMAS Melbourne, that the government "reminded '' them of the 1911 legislation. The British White Ensign was finally replaced by a distinctively Australian White Ensign on 1 March 1967.
Despite the new Australian Flags official use, from 1901 until the 1920s the Federation Flag remained the most popular Australian flag for public and even some official events. It was flown at the 1907 State Premiers conference in Melbourne and during the 1927 visit to Australia of the Duke and Duchess of York, the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth.
In the 1920s there was debate over whether the Blue Ensign was reserved for Commonwealth buildings only, culminating in a 1924 agreement that the Union Flag should take precedence as the National Flag. As the Union Flag was recognised as the National flag, it was considered disloyal to fly either ensign without the Union flag alongside, and it was the Union Flag that covered the coffins of Australia 's war dead.
In 1940 the Victorian government passed legislation allowing schools to purchase Blue Ensigns, which in turn allowed its use by private citizens. Prime Minister Robert Menzies then encouraged schools, government building and private citizens to use the Blue Ensign, issuing a statement the following year allowing Australians to use either ensign providing it was done so respectfully.
Prime Minister Ben Chifley issued a similar statement in 1947.
On 4 December 1950, the Prime Minister Robert Menzies proclaimed the Blue ensign as the National flag and in 1951 King George VI approved the Government 's recommendation.
When the Flags Bill was introduced into parliament on 20 November 1953, Menzies said:
"This bill is very largely a formal measure which puts into legislative form what has become almost the established practice in Australia... The design adopted was submitted to His Majesty King Edward VII, and he was pleased to approve of it as the Australian flag in 1902. However, no legislative action has ever been taken to determine the precise form of the flag or the circumstances of its use, and this bill has been brought down to produce that result. ''
This status was formalised on 14 February 1954, when Queen Elizabeth II gave Royal Assent to the Flags Act 1953, which had been passed two months earlier. The monarch 's Assent was timed to coincide with the Queen 's visit to the country and came after she had opened the new session of Parliament. The Act confers statutory powers on the Governor - General to appoint ' flags and ensigns of Australia ' and authorise warrants and make rules as to use of flags. Section 8 ensures that the ' right or privilege ' of a person to fly the Union Flag is not affected by the Act.
South Australia chose to continue with the Union Flag as National flag until 1956, when schools were given the option of using either the Union or Australian flags. The Union Flag was still regarded as the National flag by many Australians well into the 1970s, which inspired Arthur Smout 's campaign from 1968 to 1982 to encourage Australians to give the Australian flag precedence.
By the mid-1980s, the Commonwealth Government no longer reminded Australians they had the right to fly the Union Flag alongside the National Flag or provided illustrations of how to correctly display them together.
In 1998, the Flags Act was amended to provide that any change to the national flag must be approved by a referendum which must offer the existing flag alongside any alternative designs. The requirement for a referendum is not binding on Parliament, which would need to amend the Flags Act to alter the design.
In 1996, the Governor - General, Sir William Deane, issued a proclamation recognising the annual commemoration of Australian National Flag Day, to be held on 3 September. Flag Day celebrations had been occurring in Sydney since 1985. The inaugural event was held under the auspices of the New South Wales branch of the Australian National Flag Association to commemorate the anniversary of the flag being first flown in 1901. On Flag Day, ceremonies are held in schools, major centres, and the Governor - General, Governors and some politicians attend or release statements to the media. Australian National Flag Day is not a public holiday.
On the centenary of the first flying of the flag, 3 September 2001, the Australian National Flag Association presented the Prime Minister with a flag intended to replace the missing original flag. This flag was not a replica of the original flag, on which the Commonwealth Star had only six points, but was a current Australian National Flag with a seven pointed Commonwealth Star. The flag has a special headband, including a cardinal red stripe and the inscription
The Centenary Flag. Presented to the Hon John Howard MP, Prime Minister of Australia on behalf of the people of Australia by the Australian National Flag Association on 3 September 2001 at the Royal Exhibition Building, Melbourne to commemorate the first flying of the Australian National Flag on 3 September 1901 attended by the Rt Hon Sir Edmund Barton MHR, Prime Minister of Australia.
A warrant authorising the use of the Centenary Flag under section 6 of the Flags Act was issued by the Governor - General and the flag is now used as the official flag of state on important occasions. These included the opening of new parliamentary terms and when visiting heads of state arrive. The flag has been transported across the country for flying in every state and territory. It was later used on Remembrance Day in 2003 for the opening of the Australian War Memorial in Hyde Park in London.
On the 18 September 2001 during the centenary of federation the federal member for Hinkler, Paul Neville, would request of the speaker that:
"before it (the flag) becomes too faded or too tattered, (it) be taken down and perhaps offered to a museum or an art gallery as the seminal flag that flew over this building 100 years from the time the first flag was flown? ''
The parliament house centenary flag was subsequently entrusted to the Australian Flag Society and has been paraded at schools to mark Australian National Flag Day on a tour of the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland.
Under Section 5 of the Flags Act 1953, the Governor - General may proclaim flags other than the National Flag and the Red Ensign as flags or ensigns of Australia. Five flags have been appointed in this manner. The first two were the Royal Australian Navy Ensign and the Royal Australian Air Force Ensign, the flags used by the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. The Australian Army has no ensign of its own, but they are given the ceremonial task to be the defender of the National Flag. The Air Force and the Navy flew the appropriate British ensigns (the White Ensign and the Royal Air Force Ensign) until the adoption of similar ensigns based on the Australian National Flag in 1948 and 1967 respectively. The current Navy and Air Force Ensigns were officially appointed in 1967 and 1982 respectively.
In 1995, the Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag were also appointed flags of Australia. While mainly seen as a gesture of reconciliation, this recognition caused a small amount of controversy at the time, with then opposition leader John Howard describing it as divisive. Some indigenous people, such as the flag 's designer Harold Thomas, felt that the government was appropriating their flag, saying it "does n't need any more recognition ''.
The Australian Defence Force Ensign was proclaimed in 2000. This flag is used to represent the Defence Force when more than one branch of the military is involved, such as at the Australian Defence Force Academy, and by the Minister for Defence.
The Legislative Instruments Act 2003 required the proclamations of these flags to be lodged in a Federal Register. Due to an administrative oversight they were not, and the proclamations were automatically repealed. The governor - general issued new proclamations dated 25 January 2008, with effect from 1 January 2008 (or 1 October 2006 in the case of the Defence Force Ensign).
In addition to the seven flags declared under the Flags Act, there are two additional Commonwealth flags, the Australian Civil Aviation Ensign and Australian Customs Flag, eight Vice-Regal flags and nine state and territory flags that are recognised as official flags through other means.
Two variants of the Australian flag have been used only on the prime minister 's car.
There have been mild but persistent debates over whether or not the Union Flag should be removed from the canton of the Australian flag. This debate has culminated on several occasions, such as the period preceding the Australian Bicentenary in 1988, and during the Prime Ministership of Paul Keating, who publicly supported a change in the flag and said:
I do not believe that the symbols and the expression of the full sovereignty of Australian nationhood can ever be complete while we have a flag with the flag of another country on the corner of it.
There are two lobby groups involved in the flag debate: Ausflag (est. 1981), which supports changing the flag, and the Australian National Flag Association (ANFA) (est. 1983), which wants to keep the existing flag. The primary arguments for keeping the flag cite historic precedence, while those for changing the flag are based around the idea that the status quo does not accurately depict Australia 's status as an independent and multicultural nation, nor is its design unique enough to easily distinguish it from similar flags, such as that of New Zealand, Cook Islands and Tuvalu (despite the counter argument that this is not uncommon, as seen with Romania and Chad sharing identical flags). The similarity between the flag of Australia and those of other countries is often derived from a common colonial history.
The Coalition government under John Howard in 1996 formally recognised the commemoration of Australian National Flag Day, in 1998 sponsored an amendment to the Flags Act to require any changes to the national flag design to be passed at a plebiscite along the same lines of the 1977 national song poll, in 2002 supplied ANFA 's promotional video free to all primary schools and in 2004 required all schools receiving federal funds to fly the Australian flag.
Ausflag periodically campaigns for flag change in association with national events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics, and holds flag design competitions, while ANFA 's activities include promotion of the existing flag through events such as National Flag Day. A 2004 Newspoll that asked: "Are you personally in favour or against changing the Australian flag so as to remove the Union Jack emblem? '' was supported by 32 % of respondents and opposed by 57 %, with 11 % uncommitted. A 2010 Morgan Poll that asked: "Do you think Australia should have a new design for our National Flag? '' was supported by 29 % of respondents and opposed by 66 %, with 5 % uncommitted.
The connection with the Australian flag is also notable the highest response to it is "extremely proud '' and it is the "most embraced Australian symbol. ''
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how to work out odds of winning euromillions | Lottery mathematics - wikipedia
Lottery mathematics is used to calculate probabilities in a lottery game.
In a typical 6 / 49 game, each player chooses six non-duplicate numbers from a range of 1 - 49. If the six numbers on a ticket match the numbers drawn by the lottery, the ticket holder is a jackpot winner -- regardless of the order of the numbers. The probability of this happening is 1 in 13,983,816.
The chance of winning can be demonstrated as follows: The first number drawn has a 1 in 49 chance of matching. When the draw comes to the second number, there are now only 48 balls left in the bag (because the balls already drawn are not returned to the bag) so there is now a 1 in 48 chance of predicting this number.
Thus for each of the 49 ways of choosing the first number there are 48 different ways of choosing the second. This means that the probability of correctly predicting 2 numbers drawn from 49 in the correct order is calculated as 1 in 49 × 48. On drawing the third number there are only 47 ways of choosing the number; but of course we could have arrived at this point in any of 49 × 48 ways, so the chances of correctly predicting 3 numbers drawn from 49, again in the correct order, is 1 in 49 × 48 × 47. This continues until the sixth number has been drawn, giving the final calculation, 49 × 48 × 47 × 46 × 45 × 44, which can also be written as 49! (49 − 6)! (\ displaystyle (49! \ over (49 - 6)!)) or 49 factorial divided by 43 factorial. This works out to 10,068,347,520, which is much bigger than the ~ 14 million stated above.
However; the order of the 6 numbers is not significant. That is, if a ticket has the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, it wins as long as all the numbers 1 through 6 are drawn, no matter what order they come out in. Accordingly, given any set of 6 numbers, there are 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 6! or 720 orders in which they could be drawn. Dividing 10,068,347,520 by 720 gives 13,983,816, also written as 49! 6! ∗ (49 − 6)! (\ displaystyle (49! \ over 6! * (49 - 6)!)), or more generally as
This function is called the combination function; in Microsoft Excel, this function is implemented as COMBIN (n, k). For example, COMBIN (49, 6) (the calculation shown above), would return 13,983,816. For the rest of this article, we will use the notation (n k) (\ displaystyle (n \ choose k)). "Combination '' means the group of numbers selected, irrespective of the order in which they are drawn.
An alternative method of calculating the odds is to note that the probability of the first ball corresponding to one of the six chosen is 6 / 49; the probability of the second ball corresponding to one of the remaining five chosen is 5 / 48; and so on. This yields a final formula of
The range of possible combinations for a given lottery can be referred to as the "number space ''. "Coverage '' is the percentage of a lottery 's number space that is in play for a given drawing.
One must divide the number of combinations producing the given result by the total number of possible combinations (for example, (49 6) = 13, 983, 816 (\ displaystyle (49 \ choose 6) = 13,983,816)). The numerator equates to the number of ways to select the winning numbers multiplied by the number of ways to select the losing numbers.
For a score of n (for example, if 3 choices match three of the 6 balls drawn, then n = 3), (6 n) (\ displaystyle (6 \ choose n)) describes the odds of selecting n winning numbers from the 6 winning numbers. This means that there are 6 - n losing numbers, which are chosen from the 43 losing numbers in (43 6 − n) (\ displaystyle (43 \ choose 6 - n)) ways. The total number of combinations giving that result is, as stated above, the first number multiplied by the second. The expression is therefore (6 n) (43 6 − n) (49 6) (\ displaystyle (6 \ choose n) (43 \ choose 6 - n) \ over (49 \ choose 6)).
This can be written in a general form for all lotteries as: (K B) (N − K K − B) (N K) (\ displaystyle (K \ choose B) (N-K \ choose K-B) \ over (N \ choose K)), where N (\ displaystyle N) is the number of balls in lottery, K (\ displaystyle K) is the number of balls in a single ticket, and B (\ displaystyle B) is the number of matching balls for a winning ticket.
The generalisation of this formula is called the hypergeometric distribution.
This gives the following results:
When a bonus number is included, the adjusted odds are:
The Pick8 - 32 Lottery game by Trillion Coins implements a lotto game ticket where 8 numbers from 01 to 32 are selected in any order and can be repeated. The odds of a play ticket matching all 8 numbers is simple to calculate and is illustrated by the following math.
Which means there is a 1 in 27,269,633 chance of matching all 8 numbers. The Trillion Coins lottery is a pay - out - on - every - drawing lotto game. The odds are dependent on the total number of tickets that are played. The player who matches the most of the picked numbers wins.
Many lotteries have a powerball (or "bonus ball ''). If the powerball is drawn from a pool of numbers different from the main lottery, the odds are multiplied by the number of powerballs. For example, in the 6 from 49 lottery, given 10 powerball numbers, then the odds of getting a score of 3 and the powerball would be 1 in 56.66 × 10, or 566.6 (the probability would be divided by 10, to give an exact value of 8815 / 4994220). Another example of such a game is Mega Millions, albeit with different jackpot odds.
Where more than 1 powerball is drawn from a separate pool of balls to the main lottery (for example, in the EuroMillions game), the odds of the different possible powerball matching scores are calculated using the method shown in the "other scores '' section above (in other words, the powerballs are like a mini-lottery in their own right), and then multiplied by the odds of achieving the required main - lottery score.
If the powerball is drawn from the same pool of numbers as the main lottery, then, for a given target score, the number of winning combinations includes the powerball. For games based on the Canadian lottery (such as the lottery of the United Kingdom), after the 6 main balls are drawn, an extra ball is drawn from the same pool of balls, and this becomes the powerball (or "bonus ball ''). An extra prize is given for matching 5 balls and the bonus ball. As described in the "other scores '' section above, the number of ways one can obtain a score of 5 from a single ticket is (6 5) (43 1) (\ displaystyle (6 \ choose 5) (43 \ choose 1)) or 258. Since the number of remaining balls is 43, and the ticket has 1 unmatched number remaining, 1 / 43 of these 258 combinations will match the next ball drawn (the powerball), leaving 258 / 43 = 6 ways of achieving it. Therefore, the odds of getting a score of 5 and the powerball are 6 (49 6) (\ displaystyle (6) \ over (49 \ choose 6)) = 1 in 2,330,636.
Of the 258 combinations that match 5 of the main 6 balls, in 42 / 43 of them the remaining number will not match the powerball, giving odds of 258 ⋅ 42 43 (49 6) (\ displaystyle (258 \ cdot ((42) \ over (43))) \ over (49 \ choose 6)) = 3 / 166,474 (approximately 55,491.33) for obtaining a score of 5 without matching the powerball.
Using the same principle, the odds of getting a score of 2 and the powerball are (6 2) (43 4) (\ displaystyle (6 \ choose 2) (43 \ choose 4)) = 1,851,150 for the score of 2 multiplied by the probability of one of the remaining four numbers matching the bonus ball, which is 4 / 43. Since 1,851,150 × (4 / 43) = 172,200, the probability of obtaining the score of 2 and the bonus ball is 172, 200 (49 6) (\ displaystyle (172,200) \ over (49 \ choose 6)) = 1025 / 83237. This gives approximate decimal odds of 1 in 81.2.
The general formula for B (\ displaystyle B) matching balls in a N (\ displaystyle N) choose K (\ displaystyle K) lottery with one bonus ball from the N (\ displaystyle N) pool of balls is: K − B N − K (K B) (N − K K − B) (N K) (\ displaystyle (K-B \ over N-K) (K \ choose B) (N-K \ choose K-B) \ over (N \ choose K))
The general formula for B (\ displaystyle B) matching balls in a N (\ displaystyle N) choose K (\ displaystyle K) lottery with zero bonus ball from the N (\ displaystyle N) pool of balls is: N − K − K + B N − K (K B) (N − K K − B) (N K) (\ displaystyle (N-K - K + B \ over N-K) (K \ choose B) (N-K \ choose K-B) \ over (N \ choose K))
The general formula for B (\ displaystyle B) matching balls in a N (\ displaystyle N) choose K (\ displaystyle K) lottery with one bonus ball from a separate pool of P (\ displaystyle P) balls is: 1 P (K B) (N − K K − B) (N K) (\ displaystyle (1 \ over P) (K \ choose B) (N-K \ choose K-B) \ over (N \ choose K))
The general formula for B (\ displaystyle B) matching balls in a N (\ displaystyle N) choose K (\ displaystyle K) lottery with no bonus ball from a separate pool of P (\ displaystyle P) balls is: P − 1 P (K B) (N − K K − B) (N K) (\ displaystyle (P - 1 \ over P) (K \ choose B) (N-K \ choose K-B) \ over (N \ choose K))
It is a hard (and often open) problem to calculate the minimum number of tickets one needs to purchase to guarantee that at least one of these tickets matches at least 2 numbers. In the 5 - from - 90 lotto, the minimum number of tickets that can guarantee a ticket with at least 2 matches is 100.
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what kind of dog is daisy from blondie | Blondie (comic strip) - wikipedia
Blondie is an American comic strip created by cartoonist Chic Young. The comic strip is distributed by King Features Syndicate, and has been published in newspapers since September 8, 1930. The success of the strip, which features the eponymous blonde and her sandwich - loving husband, led to the long - running Blondie film series (1938 -- 1950) and the popular Blondie radio program (1939 -- 1950).
Chic Young drew Blondie until his death in 1973, when creative control passed to his son Dean Young, who continues to write the strip. Young has collaborated with a number of artists on Blondie, including Jim Raymond, Mike Gersher, Stan Drake, Denis Lebrun, and John Marshall. Despite these changes, Blondie has remained popular, appearing in more than 2,000 newspapers in 47 countries and translated into 35 languages. Since 2006, Blondie has also been available via email through King Features ' DailyINK service.
Originally designed to follow in the footsteps of Young 's earlier "pretty girl '' creations Beautiful Bab and Dumb Dora, Blondie focused on the adventures of Blondie Boopadoop -- a carefree flapper girl who spent her days in dance halls along with her boyfriend Dagwood Bumstead, heir to a railroad fortune. The name "Boopadoop '' derives from the scat singing lyric that was popularized by Helen Kane 's 1928 song "I Wanna Be Loved by You. ''
On February 17, 1933, after much fanfare and build - up, Blondie and Dagwood were married. After a month - and - a-half - long hunger strike by Dagwood to get his parents ' blessing, as they strongly disapproved of his marrying beneath his class, they disinherited him. Left only with a check to pay for their honeymoon, the Bumsteads were forced to become a middle - class suburban family. The marriage was a significant media event, given the comic strip 's popularity. The catalog for the University of Florida 's 2005 exhibition, "75 Years of Blondie, 1930 -- 2005, '' notes:
"Dagwood Bumstead and family, including Daisy and the pups, live in the suburbs of Joplin, Missouri, '' according to the August 1946 issue of The Joplin Globe, citing Chic Young.
The Bumstead family has grown, with the addition of a son named Alexander (originally "Baby Dumpling '') on April 15, 1934, a daughter named Cookie on April 11, 1941, a dog, Daisy, and her litter of five unnamed pups. In the 1960s, Cookie and Alexander grew into teenagers (who uncannily resemble their parents), but they stopped growing during the 1960s when Young realized that they had to remain teenagers to maintain the family situation structured into the strip for so many decades.
Dagwood is the office manager at the office of the J.C. Dithers Construction Company under his dictatorial boss, Julius Caesar Dithers. Mr. Dithers is a "sawed - off, tin pot Napoleon '' who is always abusing his employees, both verbally and physically. He frequently threatens to fire Dagwood when Dagwood inevitably botches or does not finish his work, sleeps on the job, comes in late, or pesters Dithers for a raise. Dithers characteristically responds by kicking Dagwood in the backside and ordering him back to work. The tyrannical Dithers is lord and master over all he surveys, with one notable exception -- his formidable and domineering wife, Cora.
Blondie and Dagwood 's best friends are their next - door neighbors Herb and Tootsie Woodley, although Dagwood and Herb 's friendship is frequently volatile. Lou is the burly, tattooed owner of Lou 's Diner, the less - than - five - star establishment where Dagwood often eats during his lunch hour. Other regular supporting characters include the long - suffering mailman, Mr. Beasley; Elmo Tuttle, a pesky neighborhood kid who often asks Dagwood to play; and a never - ending parade of overbearing door - to - door salesmen.
There are several running gags in Blondie, reflecting the trend after Chic Young 's death for the strip to focus almost entirely on Dagwood as the lead character:
During the early years of the strip, the Sunday installments were much in the vein of the then - popular genre of "pretty girl '' strips (including a variety of regular suitors), rather than spoofing them like in the daily continuities. Dagwood would actually not appear in a Sunday page until January 1, 1933.
From 1930 to 1935, Young drew The Family Foursome as a topper, being replaced by the pantomime strip Colonel Potterby and the Duchess, which ran until 1963 (becoming a stand - alone strip in 1958).
For years, the Sunday installments were noted by their histrionic humor as well for having 12 panels, switching to the standard half - page format in 1986.
While the distinctive look and running gags of Blondie have been carefully preserved through the decades, a number of details have been altered to keep up with changing times. The Bumstead kitchen, which remained essentially unchanged from the 1930s through the 1960s, has slowly acquired a more modern look (no more legs on the gas range and no more refrigerators shown with the compressor assembly on the top).
Dagwood no longer wears a hat when he goes to work, nor does Blondie wear her previous hat and gloves when leaving the house. Although some bedroom and bathroom scenes still show him in polka - dot boxer shorts, Dagwood no longer wears garters to hold up his socks. When at home, he frequently wears sport shirts, his standard dress shirt with one large button in the middle is slowly disappearing, and he no longer smokes a pipe at all. Blondie now often wears slacks, and she is no longer depicted as a housewife since she teamed with Tootsie Woodley to launch a catering business in 1991. Dagwood still knocks heads with his boss, Mr. Dithers, but now does so in a more modern office at J.C. Dithers Construction Company where desks now sport flat panel computer monitors, and Mr. Dithers, when in a rage, attempts to smash his laptop into Dagwood 's head instead of his old manual typewriter. The staff no longer punches in at a mechanical "time clock '', nor do they wear green eyeshades and plastic "sleeve protectors. '' Telephones have changed from candlestick style to more modern dial phones, to Touch - Tone, and on to cellphones. The round bedside alarm clock has been replaced by a more compact digital unit. Dagwood now begins each morning racing to meet his carpool rather than chasing after a missed streetcar or city bus. Even Mr. Beasley, the mail carrier, now dresses in short - sleeve shirts and walking shorts, rather than the military - style uniform of days gone by.
During the late 1990s and 2000 -- 2001, Alexander worked part - time after high school at the order counter of a fast food restaurant, the Burger Barn. There are still occasional references to Cookie and her babysitting. Daisy, who once had a litter of puppies that lived with the family, is now the only dog seen in the Bumstead household. Cookie and Alexander can be seen in modern clothing trends and sometimes use cellphones, reference current television shows and social networking sites, while talking about attending rock concerts of popular current Rock, Pop, and Hip Hop music acts.
In this period, when in his basement woodworking shop, Dagwood was shown wearing safety eyeglasses.
Dagwood sometimes breaks the fourth wall by delivering the punchline to the strip while looking directly at the reader, as in the above panel. Daisy occasionally does the same, though her remarks are limited to "? '' and "! '' with either a puzzled or a pained expression.
Strips in recent years have included references to recent developments in technology and communication, such as Facebook, Twitter, email, and text messaging.
In 2005, the strip celebrated its 75th anniversary with an extended story arc in which characters from other strips, including Curtis, Garfield, Beetle Bailey, and Hägar the Horrible, made appearances in Blondie. The strip Pearls Before Swine made fun of the fact that their cast was not invited, and decided to invite themselves. This cross-over promotion began July 10, 2005 and continued until September 4, 2005.
Blondie has been translated to various languages, including a French version that appeared in Canada.
Blondie was adapted into a long - running series of 28 low - budget theatrical B - features, produced by Columbia Pictures. Beginning with Blondie in 1938, the series lasted 12 years, through Beware of Blondie (1950). The two major roles were Penny Singleton as Blondie and Arthur Lake (whose first starring role was another comic strip character, Harold Teen) as Dagwood. Faithfulness to the comic strip was a major concern of the creators of the series. Little touches were added that were iconic to the strip, like the appearance of Dagwood 's famous sandwiches -- and the running gag of Dagwood colliding with the mailman amid a flurry of letters, which preceded the title sequence in almost every film.
Columbia was careful to maintain continuity, so each picture progressed from where the last one left off. Thus the Bumstead children grew from toddlers to young adults onscreen. Larry Simms played the Bumsteads ' son in all the films; his character was originally called Baby Dumpling, and later became Alexander. Marjorie Kent (born Marjorie Ann Mutchie) joined the series in 1943 as daughter Cookie. Daisy had pups in the 12th feature, Blondie for Victory (1942). Danny Mummert, who had originally been chosen to play Baby Dumpling, took the continuing role of wiseguy neighbor Alvin Fuddle. Rounding out the regular supporting cast, character actor Jonathan Hale played Dagwood 's irascible boss, J.C. Dithers. Hale left the series in 1945 and was succeeded by Jerome Cowan as George M. Radcliffe in Blondie 's Big Moment. In the last film, Beware of Blondie, the Dithers character returned, played by Edward Earle and shown from the back. The Bumsteads ' neighbors, the Woodleys, did not appear in the series until Beware of Blondie. They were played by Emory Parnell and Isabel Withers.
In 1943 Columbia felt the series was slipping, and ended the string with It 's a Great Life and Footlight Glamour, deliberately omitting "Blondie '' from the titles to attract unwary moviegoers. After 14 Blondies, stars Singleton and Lake moved on to other productions. During their absence from the screen, Columbia heard from many exhibitors and fans who wanted the Blondies back. The studio reactivated the series, which ran another 14 films until discontinued permanently in 1950. Because there was still some demand from movie theaters, Columbia began reissuing the older films, beginning with the 1938 Blondie, and continued to release them in their original sequence well into the 1950s.
Singleton and Lake reprised their film roles for radio; the Blondie radio program had a long run spanning several networks. Initially a 1939 summer replacement program for The Eddie Cantor Show (sponsored by Camel Cigarettes), Blondie was heard on CBS until June 1944, when it moved briefly to NBC. Returning to CBS later that year, Blondie continued there under a new sponsor (Colgate - Palmolive) until June 1949. In its final season, the series was heard on ABC from October 1949 to July 1950.
Two Blondie TV sitcoms have been produced to date, each lasting only one season.
Blondie and Dagwood made a brief animated appearance in The Fantastic Funnies, a TV special focusing on newspaper comics that aired on CBS in 1980. They appeared in the beginning, singing a song to host Loni Anderson with other comic strip characters. Later on, after a short interview with Dean Young and Jim Raymond (who was drawing the strip at the time), they featured a short sequence where Blondie urges a reluctant Dagwood to get a haircut. The animation was produced by Bill Melendez Productions.
An animated cartoon TV special featuring the characters was made in 1987 by Marvel Productions, (who had earlier collaborated with King Features for the animated series Defenders of the Earth, starring King Feature 's adventure characters) and shown on CBS, with a second special, Second Wedding Workout, telecast in 1989. Blondie was voiced by Loni Anderson, Dagwood by Frank Welker. Both animated specials are available on the fourth DVD of the Advantage Cartoon Mega Pack. Both of these specials were paired with other comic strip - based specials; the first special was paired with a special based on Cathy; the second one was paired with Hägar the Horrible. In Video (VHS) In UK: Leisureview Video In 1989.
In the episode "Comic Caper '' (season six episode six) of Jim Henson 's Muppet Babies (also produced by Marvel and aired on CBS), both Blondie and Dagwood make a cameo appearance. Blondie tells Dagwood that he is going to be late for work. As Dagwood rushes to the door where he knocks into the Muppet Babies who accidentally fall in their comic strip. Frank Welker who voiced Dagwood in the TV special also voiced Baby Kermit and Skeeter on Muppet Babies. Baby Kermit and Baby Piggy even parodied Blondie and Dagwood in one scene.
Dagwood appeared in the CGI animated film, Garfield Gets Real. He first appeared in the cafeteria scene in which he is holding a sandwich. He was later seen behind a folding door taking a bath. He appeared in the auditorium scene watching Garfield and Odie. He finally appeared in a crowd cheering Garfield and Odie. He did not appear in the sequels, Garfield 's Fun Fest or Garfield 's Pet Force.
Over the years, Blondie characters have been merchandised as dolls, coloring books, toys, salt and pepper shakers, paint sets, paper doll cutouts, coffee mugs, cookie jars, neckties, lunchboxes, puzzles, games, Halloween costumes, Christmas ornaments, music boxes, refrigerator magnets, lapel pinbacks, greeting cards, and other products. In 2001, Dark Horse Comics issued two collectible figures of Dagwood and Blondie as part of their line of Classic Comic Characters -- statues No. 19 and 20 respectively.
A counter-service restaurant called Blondie 's opened at Universal Orlando 's Islands of Adventure in May 1999, serving a traditional Dagwood - style sandwich. In fact, Blondie 's bills itself as "Home of the Dagwood Sandwich. '' Lunch meats featuring Dagwood can be purchased at various grocery stores.
On May 11, 2006, Dean Young announced the opening of the first of his Dagwood 's Sandwich Shoppes that summer in Clearwater, Florida, and the comic strip characters discussed the notion of Dagwood opening his own sandwich shop. The official Dagwood sandwich served at Dagwood 's Sandwich Shoppes has the following ingredients: three slices of deli bread, hard salami, pepperoni, cappicola, mortadella, deli ham, cotto salami, cheddar, Provolone, red onion, green leaf lettuce, tomato, fresh and roasted red bell peppers, mayo, mustard, and a secret Italian olive salad oil.
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what did the algonquins and the iroquois have in common | Economy of the Iroquois - Wikipedia
The economy of the Iroquois (also known as Haudenosaunee) historically was based on communal production and combined elements of both horticulture and hunter - gatherer systems. The tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy and other Northern Iroquoian - speaking peoples, including the Huron, had their traditional territory in what is now New York State and the southern areas bordering the Great Lakes.
The Iroquois Confederacy was composed of Five Nations: Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca, who had created an alliance long before European contact. The Tuscarora were added as a sixth nation in the early eighteenth century after they migrated from North Carolina. The Huron peoples, located mostly in what is now Canada, were also Iroquioan - speaking and shared some culture, but were never part of the Iroquois.
The Iroquoian people were predominantly agricultural, harvesting the "Three Sisters '' commonly grown by Native American groups: corn, beans, and squash. They developed certain cultural customs. Among these developments were ideas concerning the nature and management of property. The Iroquois developed a system very different from the now - dominant Western variety. This system was characterized by such components as common ownership of land, division of labor by gender, and trade mostly based on gift economy.
Contact with Europeans in the early 17th century had a profound impact on the economy of the Iroquoians. At first, they became important trading partners, but the expansion of European settlement upset the balance of the Iroquois economy. By 1800, following the American Revolutionary War, in which most of the nations supported the British and had to share their defeat, the Iroquois were reduced to reservations, primarily in New York in the United States, and Quebec and Ontario in Canada. They had to adapt their traditional economic system to dramatic changes. In the 20th century, some of the Iroquois nations in the United States have benefited from their sovereign status by founding gambling and recreation facilities, which have yielded greater revenues than some other enterprises. Individually, Iroquois have also become part of the larger economies in cities off the reservation.
The Iroquois had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals. The Huron had "as much land as they need (ed). '' As a result, the Huron could give families their own land and still have a large amount of excess land owned communally. Any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate and tend the fields. Once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. While the Huron did seem to have lands designated for the individual, the significance of this possession may be of little relevance; the placement of corn storage vessels in the longhouses, which contained multiple families in one kinship group, suggests the occupants of a given longhouse held all production in common.
The Iroquois had a similar communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation. The land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers ' Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned and eventually punished by the Clan Mothers ' Council by having the land redistributed to another clan. Land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the women 's job to cultivate food and not the men 's.
The Clan Mothers ' Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans. Food from such lands, called kěndiǔ "gwǎ'ge ' hodi'yěn'tho, would be used at festivals and large council gatherings.
The division of labor reflected the complementary aspects common in Iroquois culture: The twin gods Sapling (East) and Flint (West) embodied the two complementary halves. Each gender had defined roles in labor to support the people, which complemented each other. Women did all work involving the field, including planting, cultivating and harvesting the crops; while men did all work involving the forest, including the manufacture of anything involving wood. The Iroquois men carried out hunting and fishing, trading, and fighting, while the women took care of farming, food gathering and processing, rearing of children, and housekeeping. This gendered division of labor was the predominant means of dividing work in Iroquois society. At the time of contact with Europeans, Iroquois women produced about 65 % of the goods and the men 35 %. The combined production of food made famine and hunger extremely rare; early Europeans settlers often envied the success of Iroquois food production.
The Iroquois system of work reflected their communal land system. Since the Iroquois owned property together, they worked together as well. The women performed difficult work in large groups, going from field to field helping one another work each other 's land. Together they would sow the fields as a "mistress of the field '' distributed a set amount of seeds to each of the women. The Iroquois women of each agricultural group would select an old but active member of their group to act as their leader for that year and agree to follow her directions. The women performed other work cooperatively as well. The women individually cut wood for family use, but their leader would oversee the collective carrying of the wood back to the village. The women 's clans performed other work. According to Mary Jemison, a white woman assimilated with the Seneca while a young woman, the collective effort averted "every jealousy of one having done more or less work than another. ''
The Iroquois men also organized in a cooperative fashion. The men acted collectively during military actions. The other jobs of men, such as hunting and fishing, also involved cooperative elements. The men more often organized as a whole village rather than as a clan. The men organized hunting parties where they used extensive cooperation to kill a large amount of game. One firsthand account told of a hunting party that built a large brush fence in a forest to form a V. The hunters set a fire across from the open side of the V, forcing the animals to run towards the point where the hunters awaited them. They could kill one hundred deer at a time by such a plan.
The men also fished in large groups. Fishing expeditions included men in canoes using weirs and nets to cover entire streams and harvest large amounts of fish, sometimes a thousand in half of a day. A hunting or fishing party 's takings were considered common property; they were divided among the party by the leader or taken to the village for a feast. Hunting and fishing were not always cooperative efforts, but the Iroquois generally did better in parties than as individuals.
The Iroquois traded excess corn and tobacco for the pelts from the tribes to the north and the wampum from the tribes to the east. The Iroquois used present - giving more often than any other mode of exchange. Present - giving reflected the reciprocity in Iroquois society. The exchange would begin with one clan giving another tribe or clan a present with the expectation of some sort of needed commodity being given in return. This form of trade ties to the Iroquois culture 's tendency to share property and cooperate in labor. In all cases no explicit agreement is made, but one service is performed for the community or another member of the community 's good with the expectation that the community or another individual would give back. External trade offered one of the few opportunities for individual enterprise in Iroquois society. A person who discovered a new trading route had the exclusive right to trade along the same route in the future. Often clans collectivized trading routes to gain a monopoly on a certain type of trade.
The arrival of Europeans created the opportunity for greatly expanded trade. Furs were in demand in Europe, and they could be acquired cheaply from Indians in exchange for manufactured goods the Indians could not make themselves. Trade did not always benefit the Natives. The British took advantage of the gift - giving culture. They showered the Iroquois with European goods, making them dependent on such items as rifles and metal axes. For a time, the access to guns gave the Mohawk and other Iroquois advantages over other tribes, and they entered trading seriously. The British primarily used these gifts to gain support among the Iroquois for fighting against the French.
The Iroquois also traded for alcohol, which the Europeans introduced. Eventually, this would have a very negative influence on their society, as they suffered a high rate of alcoholism. By 1753 Scarrooyady, a chief, petitioned the Governor of Pennsylvania to intervene in trade:
"Your Traders now bring scarce anything but Rum and Flour; they bring little powder and lead, or other valuable goods... and get all the skins that should go to pay the debts we have contracted for goods bought of the Fair Traders; by this means we not only ruin ourselves but them too. These wicked Whiskey Sellers, when they have once got the Indians in liquor, make them sell their very clothes from their backs. In short, if this practice be continued, we must be inevitably ruined. ''
The structure of the Iroquois economy created a unique property and work ethic. The threat of theft was almost nonexistent, since little was held by the individual except basic tools and implements that were so prevalent they had little value. The only goods worth stealing would have been wampum. While a theft - free society can be respected by all, communal systems such as that of the Iroquois are often criticized for providing less of an incentive to work. In order for the Iroquois to succeed without an individual incentive, they had to develop a communal work ethic. Virtue became synonymous with productivity. The idealized Iroquois man was a good warrior and productive hunter while the perfect woman excelled in agriculture and housekeeping. By emphasizing an individual 's usefulness to society, the Iroquois created a mindset that encouraged their members to contribute even though they received similar benefits no matter how hard they worked.
As a result of their communal system, some would expect the Iroquois to have a culture of dependence without individuality. The Iroquois, however, had a strong tradition of autonomous responsibility. Iroquois men were taught to be self - disciplined, self - reliant, and responsible as well as stoic. The Iroquois attempted to eliminate any feelings of dependency during childhood and foster a desire for responsibility. At the same time, the child would have to participate in a communal culture, children were taught to think as individuals but work for the community.
The Iroquois system of land management changed somewhat after encounter with the Europeans. The Mohawk were the first to deal with them and "sold '' some land to settlers, although it is unlikely either side understood the other 's conception of property.
After the American Revolutionary War, the victorious Americans forced the nations into reservations much reduced in size from their former territories, even those two, the Oneida and Onondaga, that had supported them. Most of the other Iroquois nations were forced to give up their territory and retreated to Canada, where they received some land in compensation from the Crown, in addition to existing settlements along the St. Lawrence River.
The Iroquois had a system of collectively owned land free to be used as needed by their members. While this system was not wholly collective, as land was distributed for use to individual family groups, the Iroquois lacked the Western conception of property as a commodity. Despite the influence of Western culture, the Iroquois have maintained a unique view of property over the years.
The contemporary Mohawk Doug George - Kanentiio sums up his perception of the Iroquois property view: The Iroquois have
"no absolute right to claim territory for purely monetary purposes. Our Creator gave us our aboriginal lands in trust with very specific rules regarding its uses. We are caretakers of our Mother Earth, not lords of the land. Our claims are valid only so far as we dwell in peace and harmony upon her. ''
In 1981 the Iroquois Council of Chiefs (or Haudenosaunee) expressed similar ideas. The Council distinguished the
"Western European concepts of land ownership '' from the Iroquois view that "the earth is sacred '' and "was created for all to use forever -- not to be exploited merely for this present generation. '' Land is not just a commodity and "In no event is land for sale. '' The statement continues, "Under Haudenosaunee law, ' Gayanerkowa, ' the land is held by the women of each clan. It is principally the women who are responsible for the land, who farm it, and who care for it for the future generations. When the Confederacy was formed, the separate nations formed one union. The territory of each nation became Confederacy land even though each nation continued to have a special interest in its historic territory. ''
The Council 's statement reflects its unique view of property among the Iroquois.
The system of the Grand River Iroquois (two Iroquois reservations in Canada) integrated the traditional Iroquois property structure with the new way of life after being confined to a reservation. The reservation was established under two deeds by the Crown in the 18th century following the American Revolutionary War. These deeds gave corporate ownership of the lands to the Six Nations of the Iroquois. Individuals were granted leases for a specific plot by the Confederacy. The Iroquois idea that land came into one 's possession if cared for and reverted to public control if left alone was used in reservation property law. In one property dispute case, the Iroquois Council sided with a claimant who had made improvements and cultivated the land over one who had left it alone.
The natural resources of the land are considered to belong to the tribe as a whole and not to those who possessed the particular parcel. The Iroquois leased the right to extract stone from the lands in one instance and fixed royalties on all the production. After natural gas had been discovered on the reservation, the Six Nations took direct ownership of the natural gas wells. They paid persons who had wells on their land compensation only for damages done by gas extraction. This setup closely resembled the precontact land distribution system where the tribes owned the land and distributed it for use, but not unconditional ownership.
Many Iroquois have been fully integrated into the surrounding Western economy of the United States and Canada. For others their economic involvement is more isolated in the reservation. Whether directly involved in the outside economy or not, most of the Iroquois economy is now greatly influenced by national and world economies. The Iroquois have been involved in the steel construction industry for over a hundred years, with many men from the Mohawk nations working on such high - steel projects as the Empire State Building and the World Trade Center.
Inside the reservations, which are sometimes isolated from larger cities, the economic situation has often been bleak. For instance, the U.S. side of the Mohawk St. Regis reservation in northern New York has recently had unemployment as high as 46 percent.
But many reservations have successful businesses. The Seneca reservation contains the City of Salamanca, New York, a center of the hardwoods industry. The Seneca make use of their sovereignty to sell gasoline and cigarettes tax - free and run high - stakes bingo operations. The Senecas have also opened several Indian casinos, the Seneca Niagara Casino in Niagara Falls, New York and one in Salamanca. In 2007 the Seneca opened a third in Buffalo, the Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino.
The Oneida also operate casinos on their reservations in New York and Wisconsin. The Oneida are one of the largest employers in northeastern Wisconsin with over 3,000 employees, including 975 people in tribal government. The Tribe manages more than $16 million in federal and private grant monies, and a wide range of programs, including those authorized by the Indian Self - Determination and Education Assistance Act. The Oneida business ventures have brought millions of dollars into the community and improved the standard of living.
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what does it mean for a landscape to have cultural value | Cultural landscape - wikipedia
A cultural landscape, as defined by the World Heritage Committee, is the "cultural properties (that) represent the combined works of nature and of man. ''
The concept of ' cultural landscapes ' can be found in the European tradition of landscape painting. From the 16th century onwards, many European artists painted landscapes in favor of people, diminishing the people in their paintings to figures subsumed within broader, regionally specific landscapes.
The word "landscape '' itself combines ' land ' with a verb of Germanic origin, "scapjan / schaffen '' to mean, literally, ' shaped lands '. Lands were then considered shaped by natural forces, and the unique details of such landshaffen (shaped lands) became themselves the subject of ' landscape ' paintings.
The geographer Otto Schlüter is credited with having first formally used "cultural landscape '' as an academic term in the early 20th century. In 1908, Schlüter argued that by defining geography as a Landschaftskunde (landscape science) this would give geography a logical subject matter shared by no other discipline. He defined two forms of landscape: the Urlandschaft (transl. original landscape) or landscape that existed before major human induced changes and the Kulturlandschaft (transl. ' cultural landscape ') a landscape created by human culture. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes.
It was Carl O. Sauer, a human geographer, who was probably the most influential in promoting and developing the idea of cultural landscapes. Sauer was determined to stress the agency of culture as a force in shaping the visible features of the Earth 's surface in delimited areas. Within his definition, the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium with and through which human cultures act. His classic definition of a ' cultural landscape ' reads as follows:
"The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group. Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result ''
Since Schlüter 's first formal use of the term, and Sauer 's effective promotion of the idea, the concept of ' cultural landscapes has been variously used, applied, debated, developed and refined within academia, when, in 1992, the World Heritage Committee elected to convene a meeting of the ' specialists ' to advise and assist redraft the Committee 's Operational Guidelines to include ' cultural landscapes ' as an option for heritage listing properties that were neither purely natural nor purely cultural in form (i.e. ' mixed ' heritage).
The World Heritage Committee 's adoption and use of the concept of ' cultural landscapes ' has seen multiple specialists around the world, and many nations identifying ' cultural landscapes ', assessing ' cultural landscapes ', heritage listing ' cultural landscapes ', managing ' cultural landscapes ', and effectively making ' cultural landscapes ' known and visible to the world, with very practical ramifications and challenges.
A 2006 academic review of the combined efforts of the World Heritage Committee, multiple specialists around the world, and nations to apply the concept of ' cultural landscapes ', observed and concluded that:
"Although the concept of landscape has been unhooked for some time from its original art associations... there is still a dominant view of landscapes as an inscribed surface, akin to a map or a text, from which cultural meaning and social forms can simply be read. ''
Within academia, any system of interaction between human activity and natural habitat is regarded as a cultural landscape. In a sense this understanding is broader than the definition applied within UNESCO, including, as it does, almost the whole of the world 's occupied surface, plus almost all the uses, ecologies, interactions, practices, beliefs, concepts, and traditions of people living within cultural landscapes. Following on this, geographer Xoán Paredes defines cultural landscape as:
"... the environment modified by the human being in the course of time, the long - term combination between anthropic action on this environment and the physical constraints limiting or conditioning human activity. It is a geographical area -- including natural and cultural resources -- associated to historical evolution, which gives way to a recognizable landscape for a particular human group, up to the point of being identifiable as such by others. ''
Some Universities now offer specialist degrees in the study of cultural landscapes, including, for instance, the Universities of Naples, St. - Étienne, and Stuttgart who offer a Master of Cultural Landscapes diploma.
The World Heritage Committee has identified and listed a number of areas or properties as cultural landscapes of universal value to humankind, including the following:
"In 1993 Tongariro National Park, became the first property to be inscribed on the World Heritage List under the revised criteria describing cultural landscapes. The mountains at the heart of the park have cultural and religious significance for the Maori people and symbolize the spiritual links between this community and its environment. The park has active and extinct volcanoes, a diverse range of ecosystems and some spectacular landscapes. ''
"This park, formerly called Uluru (Ayers Rock -- Mount Olga) National Park, features spectacular geological formations that dominate the vast red sandy plain of central Australia. Uluru, an immense monolith, and Kata Tjuta, the rock domes located west of Uluru, form part of the traditional belief system of one of the oldest human societies in the world. The traditional owners of Uluru - Kata Tjuta are the Anangu Aboriginal people. ''
"For 2,000 years, the high rice fields of the Ifugao have followed the contours of the mountains. The fruit of knowledge handed down from one generation to the next, and the expression of sacred traditions and a delicate social balance, they have helped to create a landscape of great beauty that expresses the harmony between humankind and the environment. ''
"In the 19th century Sintra became the first centre of European Romantic architecture. Ferdinand II turned a ruined monastery into a castle where this new sensitivity was displayed in the use of Gothic, Egyptian, Moorish and Renaissance elements and in the creation of a park blending local and exotic species of trees. Other fine dwellings, built along the same lines in the surrounding serra, created a unique combination of parks and gardens which influenced the development of landscape architecture throughout Europe ''.
"The Ligurian coast between Cinque Terre and Portovenere is a cultural landscape of great scenic and cultural value. The layout and disposition of the small towns and the shaping of the surrounding landscape, overcoming the disadvantages of a steep, uneven terrain, encapsulate the continuous history of human settlement in this region over the past millennium. ''
Hortobágy National Park is the largest continuous natural grassland in Europe, which means that it was not formed as a result of deforestation or river control. The first Hungarian national park (established in 1973), it is the country 's largest protected area (82 thousand hectares). A significant part of it is Biosphere Reserve and a quarter of its area enjoys international protection under the Ramsar Convention on the conservation of wetlands.
The area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The large boulders provide abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from the early Stone Age right through to early historical times, and intermittently since. They also feature an outstanding collection of rock paintings. The Matopo Hills continue to provide a strong focus for the local community, which still uses shrines and sacred places closely linked to traditional, social and economic activities.
"The 18th - and 19th - century cultural landscape of Dresden Elbe Valley... features low meadows, and is crowned by the Pillnitz Palace and the centre of Dresden with its numerous monuments and parks from the 16th to 20th centuries. The landscape also features 19th - and 20th - century suburban villas and gardens and valuable natural features. ''
This landscape was struck from the World Heritage list in 2009, due to the construction of a four lane highway across the Elbe.
This site is an extensive Inca communication, trade and defence network of roads covering 30,000 km. Constructed by the Incas over several centuries and partly based on pre-Inca infrastructure, this extraordinary network through one of the world 's most extreme geographical terrains linked the snow - capped peaks of the Andes -- at an altitude of more than 6,000 m -- to the coast, running through hot rainforests, fertile valleys and absolute deserts. It reached its maximum expansion in the 15th century, when it spread across the length and breadth of the Andes. The Qhapac Ñan, Andean Road System includes 273 component sites spread over more than 6,000 km that were selected to highlight the social, political, architectural and engineering achievements of the network, along with its associated infrastructure for trade, accommodation and storage, as well as sites of religious significance. (16)
"The West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou, comprising the West Lake and the hills surrounding its three sides, has inspired famous poets, scholars and artists since the 9th century. It comprises numerous temples, pagodas, pavilions, gardens and ornamental trees, as well as causeways and artificial islands. ''
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why does temperature increase with height in thermosphere | Thermosphere - wikipedia
The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization / photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about 85 kilometres (53 mi) above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass (see turbosphere). Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2,000 ° C (3,630 ° F). Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged (see ionosphere), enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at 500 to 1,000 kilometres (310 to 620 mi) above the Earth 's surface, the atmosphere turns into space, although by the criteria set for the definition of the Kármán line, the thermosphere itself is part of space.
The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2,500 ° C (4,530 ° F) during the day. Even though the temperature is so high, one would not feel warm in the thermosphere, because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat. A normal thermometer might indicate significantly below 0 ° C (32 ° F), at least at night, because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact. In the anacoustic zone above 160 kilometres (99 mi), the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound.
The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides, which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating. Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma.
The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere, between 330 and 435 kilometres (205 and 270 mi).
It is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude (the tropopause) and at about 85 km (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above 85 km, while the region between the tropopause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (stratosphere and mesosphere) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near 45 km altitude and causes the ozone layer.
The density of the Earth 's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρ H ≃ 1 kg / cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg / m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height). 80 % of that mass is concentrated within the troposphere. The mass of the thermosphere above about 85 km is only 0.002 % of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the lower atmospheric regions can be expected.
Turbulence causes the air within the lower atmospheric regions below the turbopause at about 110 km to be a mixture of gases that does not change its composition. Its mean molecular weight is 29 g / mol with molecular oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) as the two dominant constituents. Above the turbopause, however, diffusive separation of the various constituents is significant, so that each constituent follows its own barometric height structure with a scale height inversely proportional to its molecular weight. The lighter constituents atomic oxygen (O), helium (He), and hydrogen (H) successively dominate above about 200 km altitude and vary with geographic location, time, and solar activity. The ratio N / O which is a measure of the electron density at the ionospheric F region is highly affected by these variations. These changes follow from the diffusion of the minor constituents through the major gas component during dynamic processes.
The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental sodium located in a 10 - km thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, 80 to 100 km above Earth 's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors. Astronomers have begun utilizing this sodium band to create "guide stars '' as part of the optical correction process in producing ultra-sharp ground - based observations.
The thermospheric temperature can be determined from density observations as well as from direct satellite measurements. The temperature vs. altitude z in Fig. 1 can be simulated by the so - called Bates profile:
(1) T = T ∞ − (T ∞ − T 0) exp (− s (z − z 0)) (\ displaystyle T = T_ (\ infty) - (T_ (\ infty) - T_ (0)) \ exp \ (- s (z - z_ (0)) \))
with T the exospheric temperature above about 400 km altitude, T = 355 K, and z = 120 km reference temperature and height, and s an empirical parameter depending on T and decreasing with T. That formula is derived from a simple equation of heat conduction. One estimates a total heat input of q ≃ 0.8 to 1.6 mW / m above z = 120 km altitude. In order to obtain equilibrium conditions, that heat input q above z is lost to the lower atmospheric regions by heat conduction.
The exospheric temperature T is a fair measurement of the solar XUV radiation. Since solar radio emission F at 10.7 cm wavelength is a good indicator of solar activity, one can apply the empirical formula for quiet magnetospheric conditions.
(2) T ∞ ≃ 500 + 3.4 F 0 (\ displaystyle T_ (\ infty) \ simeq 500 + 3.4 F_ (0))
with T in K, F in 10 W m Hz (the Covington index) a value of F averaged over several solar cycles. The Covington index varies typically between 70 and 250 during a solar cycle, and never drops below about 50. Thus, T varies between about 740 and 1350 K. During very quiet magnetospheric conditions, the still continuously flowing magnetospheric energy input contributes by about 250 K to the residual temperature of 500 K in eq. (2). The rest of 250 K in eq. (2) can be attributed to atmospheric waves generated within the troposphere and dissipated within the lower thermosphere.
The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170 nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various ionospheric layers as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1). While the solar visible light (380 to 780 nm) is nearly constant with a variability of not more than about 0.1 % of the solar constant, the solar XUV radiation is highly variable in time and space. For instance, X-ray bursts associated with solar flares can dramatically increase their intensity over preflare levels by many orders of magnitude over a time span of tens of minutes. In the extreme ultraviolet, the Lyman α line at 121.6 nm represents an important source of ionization and dissociation at ionospheric D layer heights. During quiet periods of solar activity, it alone contains more energy than the rest of the XUV spectrum. Quasi-periodic changes of the order of 100 % or greater, with periods with period of 27 days and 11 years, belong to the prominent variations of solar XUV radiation. However, irregular fluctuations over all time scales are present all the time. During low solar activity, about half of the total energy input into the thermosphere is thought to be solar XUV radiation. Evidently, that solar XUV energy input occurs only during daytime conditions, maximizing at the equator during equinox.
A second source of energy input into the thermosphere is solar wind energy which is transferred to the magnetosphere by mechanisms that are not well understood. One possible way to transfer energy is via a hydrodynamic dynamo process. Solar wind particles penetrate into the polar regions of the magnetosphere where the geomagnetic field lines are essentially vertically directed. An electric field is generated, directed from dawn to dusk. Along the last closed geomagnetic field lines with their footpoints within the auroral zones, field aligned electric currents can flow into the ionospheric dynamo region where they are closed by electric Pedersen and Hall currents. Ohmic losses of the Pedersen currents heat the lower thermosphere (see e.g., Magnetospheric electric convection field). In addition, penetration of high energetic particles from the magnetosphere into the auroral regions enhance drastically the electric conductivity, further increasing the electric currents and thus Joule heating. During quiet magnetospheric activity, the magnetosphere contributes perhaps by a quarter to the thermosphere 's energy budget. This is about 250 K of the exospheric temperature in eq. (2). During very large activity, however, this heat input can increase substantially, by a factor of four or more. That solar wind input occurs mainly in the auroral regions during both day and night.
Two kinds of large - scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which can not transport wave energy. Atmospheric gravity waves and most of the atmospheric tides generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq. (2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, − 2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq - current within the ionospheric dynamo region between about 100 and 200 km height.
Heating, predominately by tidal waves, occurs mainly at lower and middle latitudes. The variability of this heating depends on the meteorological conditions within troposphere and middle atmosphere, and may not exceed about 50 %.
Within the thermosphere above about 150 km height, all atmospheric waves successively become external waves, and no significant vertical wave structure is visible. The atmospheric wave modes degenerate to the spherical functions P with ma meridional wave number and n the zonal wave number (m = 0: zonal mean flow; m = 1: diurnal tides; m = 2: semidiurnal tides; etc.). The thermosphere becomes a damped oscillator system with low - pass filter characteristics. This means that smaller - scale waves (greater numbers of (n, m)) and higher frequencies are suppressed in favor of large - scale waves and lower frequencies. If one considers very quiet magnetospheric disturbances and a constant mean exospheric temperature (averaged over the sphere), the observed temporal and spatial distribution of the exospheric temperature distribution can be described by a sum of spheric functions:
(3) T (φ, λ, t) = T ∞ (1 + Δ T 2 0 P 2 0 (φ) + Δ T 1 0 P 1 0 (φ) cos (ω a (t − t a)) + Δ T 1 1 P 1 1 (φ) cos (τ − τ d) + ⋯) (\ displaystyle T (\ varphi, \ lambda, t) = T_ (\ infty) \ (1 + \ Delta T_ (2) ^ (0) P_ (2) ^ (0) (\ varphi) + \ Delta T_ (1) ^ (0) P_ (1) ^ (0) (\ varphi) \ cos (\ omega _ (a) (t - t_ (a))) + \ Delta T_ (1) ^ (1) P_ (1) ^ (1) (\ varphi) \ cos (\ tau - \ tau _ (d)) + \ cdots \))
Here, it is φ latitude, λ longitude, and t time, ω the angular frequency of one year, ω the angular frequency of one solar day, and τ = ω t + λ the local time. t = June 21 is the date of northern summer solstice, and τ = 15: 00 is the local time of maximum diurnal temperature.
The first term in (3) on the right is the global mean of the exospheric temperature (of the order of 1000 K). The second term (with P = 0.5 (3 sin (φ) − 1)) represents the heat surplus at lower latitudes and a corresponding heat deficit at higher latitudes (Fig. 2a). A thermal wind system develops with wind toward the poles in the upper level and wind away from the poles in the lower level. The coefficient ΔT ≈ 0.004 is small because Joule heating in the aurora regions compensates that heat surplus even during quiet magnetospheric conditions. During disturbed conditions, however, that term becomes dominant, changing sign so that now heat surplus is transported from the poles to the equator. The third term (with P = sin φ) represents heat surplus on the summer hemisphere and is responsible for the transport of excess heat from the summer into the winter hemisphere (Fig. 2b). Its relative amplitude is of the order ΔT ≃ 0.13. The fourth term (with P (φ) = cos φ) is the dominant diurnal wave (the tidal mode (1, − 2)). It is responsible for the transport of excess heat from the daytime hemisphere into the nighttime hemisphere (Fig. 2d). Its relative amplitude is ΔT ≃ 0.15, thus on the order of 150 K. Additional terms (e.g., semiannual, semidiurnal terms and higher order terms) must be added to eq. (3). However, they are of minor importance. Corresponding sums can be developed for density, pressure, and the various gas constituents.
In contrast to solar XUV radiation, magnetospheric disturbances, indicated on the ground by geomagnetic variations, show an unpredictable impulsive character, from short periodic disturbances of the order of hours to long - standing giant storms of several days ' duration. The reaction of the thermosphere to a large magnetospheric storm is called thermospheric storm. Since the heat input into the thermosphere occurs at high latitudes (mainly into the auroral regions), the heat transport represented by the term P in eq. (3) is reversed. In addition, due to the impulsive form of the disturbance, higher - order terms are generated which, however, possess short decay times and thus quickly disappear. The sum of these modes determines the "travel time '' of the disturbance to the lower latitudes, and thus the response time of the thermosphere with respect to the magnetospheric disturbance. Important for the development of an ionospheric storm is the increase of the ratio N / O during a thermospheric storm at middle and higher latitude. An increase of N increases the loss process of the ionospheric plasma and causes therefore a decrease of the electron density within the ionospheric F - layer;) (negative ionospheric storm).
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where is the petra located on a map | Jordan - wikipedia
Jordan (/ ˈdʒɔːrdən /; Arabic: الْأُرْدُنّ Al - ' Urdunn (al. ʔur. dunn)), officially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية Al - Mamlakah Al - Urdunnīyah Al - Hāshimīyah), is a sovereign Arab state in western Asia, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south, Iraq to the north - east, Syria to the north, Israel and Palestine to the west. The Dead Sea lies along its western borders and the country has a small shoreline on the Red Sea in its extreme south - west, but is otherwise landlocked. Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. The capital, Amman, is Jordan 's most populous city as well as the country 's economic, political and cultural centre.
What is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age: Ammon, Moab and Edom. Later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned by Britain and France. The Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the Hashemite, then Emir, Abdullah I, and the emirate became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state officially known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan, but was renamed in 1949 to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan after the country captured the West Bank during the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War and annexed it until it was lost to Israel in 1967. Jordan renounced its claim to the territory in 1988, and became one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1994. Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation. The country is a constitutional monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers.
Jordan is a relatively - small, semi-arid, almost - landlocked country with an area of 89,342 km (34,495 sq mi) and a population numbering 10 million, making it the 11th-most populous Arab country. Sunni Islam, practiced by around 95 % of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan that coexists with an indigenous Christian minority. Jordan remains to be considered as among the safest of countries in the Middle East, even after the deteriorating situation of the region following the Arab spring in 2010s. Jordan prides itself on being an "oasis of stability '' in a turbulent region. In the midst of surrounding turmoil, it has been greatly hospitable, accepting refugees from almost all surrounding conflicts as early as 1948. An estimated 2.1 million Palestinian and 1.4 million Syrian refugees are present. The kingdom is also a refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing persecution by ISIL. While Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure.
Jordan is classified as a country of "high human development '' with an "upper middle income '' economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce. The country is a major tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due to its well developed health sector. Nonetheless, a lack of natural resources, large flow of refugees and regional turmoil have hampered economic growth.
Jordan is named after the Jordan River, where Jesus is said to have been baptised. The origin of the river 's name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word "yarad '' (the descender, "Yarden '' is the Hebrew name for the river), found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard the name as having an Indo - Aryan origin, combining the words "yor '' (year) and "don '' (river), reflecting the river 's perennial nature. Another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word "wrd '' (to come to), as in people coming to a major source of water.
The first recorded use of the name Jordan appears in Anastasi I, an ancient Egyptian papyrus that dates back to around 1000 BC. The lands of modern - day Jordan were historically called Transjordan, meaning "beyond the Jordan River ''. The name was Arabized into Al - Urdunn during the 636 Muslim conquest of the Levant. During crusader rule in the beginning of the second millennium, it was called Oultrejordain. In 1921, the Emirate of Transjordan was established and after it gained its independence in 1946, it became The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. The name was changed in 1949 to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Hashemite is the house name of the royal family.
Jordan is rich in Paleolithic remains, holding evidence of inhabitance by Homo erectus, Neanderthal and modern humans. The oldest evidence of human habitation dates back around 250,000 years. The Kharanah area in eastern Jordan has evidence of human huts from about 20,000 years ago. Other Paleolithic sites include Pella and Al - Azraq. In the Neolithic period, several settlements began to develop, most notably an agricultural community called ' Ain Ghazal in what is now Amman, one of the largest known prehistoric settlements in the Near East. Plaster statues estimated to date back to around 7250 BC were uncovered there, and are among the oldest large human statues ever found. Villages of Bab edh - Dhra in the Dead Sea area, Tal Hujayrat Al - Ghuzlan in Aqaba and Tulaylet Ghassul in the Jordan Valley all date to the Chalcolithic period.
The prehistoric period of Jordan ended at around 2000 BC when the Semitic nomads known as the Amorites entered the region. During the Bronze Age and Iron Age, present - day Jordan was home to several ancient kingdoms, whose populations spoke Semitic languages of the Canaanite group. Among them were Ammon, Edom and Moab, which are described as tribal kingdoms rather than states. They are mentioned in ancient texts such as the Old Testament. Archaeological finds have shown that Ammon was in the area of the modern city of Amman, Moab in the highlands east of the Dead Sea and Edom in the area around Wadi Araba.
These Transjordanian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with the neighbouring Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah, centered west of the Jordan River, though the former was known to have at times controlled small parts east of the River. Frequent confrontations ensued and tensions between them increased. One record of this is the Mesha Stele erected by the Moabite king Mesha in around 840 BC on which he lauds himself for the building projects that he initiated in Moab and commemorates his glory and victory against the Israelites. The stele constitutes one of the most important direct accounts of Biblical history. Subsequently, the Assyrian Empire reduced these kingdoms to vassals. When the region was later under the influence of the Babylonians, the Old Testament mentions that these kingdoms aided them in the 597 BC sack of Jerusalem.
These kingdoms are believed to have existed throughout fluctuations in regional rule and influence. They were under the control of several distant empires, including the Akkadian Empire (2335 -- 2193 BC), Ancient Egypt (1500 -- 1300 BC), the Hittite Empire (1400 -- 1300 BC), the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365 -- 1020 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 -- 605 BC), the Neo-Babylonian Empire (604 -- 539 BC), the Achaemenid Empire (539 -- 332 BC) and the Hellenistic Empire of Macedonia. However, by the time of Roman rule in the Levant around 63 BC, the people of Ammon, Edom and Moab had lost their distinct identities, and were assimilated into Roman culture.
Alexander the Great 's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 332 BC introduced Hellenistic culture to the Middle East. After Alexander 's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals and in the end, much of the land of modern - day Jordan was disputed between the Ptolemies based in Egypt and the Seleucids based in Syria. In the south and east, the Nabataeans had an independent kingdom. The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who derived wealth from their capital Petra, whose proximity to major trade routes led to it becoming a regional trading hub. Campaigns by different Greek generals aspiring to annex the Nabataean Kingdom were unsuccessful.
The Ptolemies were eventually displaced from the region by the Seleucid Empire. The conflict between these two groups enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom northwards well beyond Petra in Edom. The Nabataeans are known for their great ability in constructing efficient water collecting methods in the barren desert and their talent in carving structures into solid rocks -- notably the Khazneh (treasury). These nomads spoke Arabic and wrote in Nabataean alphabets, which were developed from Aramaic script during the 2nd century BC, and are regarded by scholars to have evolved into the Arabic alphabet around the 4th century AD.
The Greeks founded new cities in Jordan including Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa (Jerash), Gedara (Umm Qays), Pella (Tabaqat Fahl) and Arbila (Irbid). Later under Roman rule, these cities joined other Hellenistic cities in Palestine and Syria to form the Decapolis League, a loose confederation linked by economic and cultural interests: Scythopolis, Hippos, Capitolias, Canatha and Damascus were among its members. The most remarkable Hellenistic site in Jordan is Qasr Al - Abd at Iraq Al - Amir, just west of modern - day Amman.
Roman legions under Pompey conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted for centuries. In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed the nearby Nabataean Kingdom without any opposition, and rebuilt the King 's Highway which became known as the Via Traiana Nova road. During Roman rule the Nabataeans continued to flourish and replaced their local gods with Christianity. Roman remains in Amman include: the Temple of Hercules at the Amman Citadel and the Roman theater. Jerash contains a well - preserved Roman city that had 15,000 inhabitants at its zenith. Jerash was visited by Emperor Hadrian during his journey to Palestine. In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD. Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD and the official state religion in 390 AD, after Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity.
Ayla city (modern day Aqaba) in southern Jordan also came under Byzantine Empire rule. The Aqaba Church was built around 300 AD, and is considered to be the world 's first purpose built Christian church. The Byzantines built 16 churches just south of Amman in Umm ar - Rasas. Administratively the area of Jordan fell under the Diocese of the East, and was divided between the provinces of Palaestina Secunda in the north - west and Arabia Petraea in the south and east. Palaestina Salutaris in the south was split off from Arabia Petraea in the late 4th century. The Sassanian Empire in the east became the Byzantines ' rivals, and frequent confrontations sometimes led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the region, including Transjordan.
Muslims under the Rashidun Caliphate from what is now Saudi Arabia, invaded the region from the south. The Arab Christian Ghassanids, clients of the Byzantines, were defeated despite imperial support. While the Muslim forces lost to the Byzantines in their first direct engagement during the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, in what is now the Karak Governorate, the Byzantines lost control of the Levant when they were defeated by the Rashidun army in 636 at the Battle of Yarmouk just north of modern - day Jordan. The region was Arabized, and the Arabic language became widespread.
Transjordan was an essential territory for the conquest of nearby Damascus. The first, or Rashidun, caliphate was followed by that of the Ummayad (661 -- 750). Under Umayyads rule, several desert castles were constructed, such as: Qasr Al - Mshatta, Qasr Al - Hallabat, Qasr Al - Kharanah, Qasr Tuba, Qasr Amra, and a large administrative palace in Amman. The Abbasid campaign to take over the Umayyad empire began in the region of Transjordan. After the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the area was ruled by the Fatimid Caliphate, then by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1115 -- 1189).
The Crusaders constructed about nine Crusader castles as part of the lordship of Oultrejordain, including those of Montreal, Al - Karak and Wu'ayra (in Petra). In the 12th century, the Crusaders were defeated by Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubids dynasty (1189 -- 1260). The Ayyubids built a new castle at Ajloun and rebuilt the former Roman fort of Qasr Azraq. Several of these castles were used and expanded by the Mamluks (1260 -- 1516), who divided Jordan between the provinces of Karak and Damascus. During the next century Transjordan experienced Mongol attacks, but the Mongols were ultimately repelled by the Mamluks after the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260).
In 1516, Ottoman forces conquered Mamluk territory. Agricultural villages in Jordan witnessed a period of relative prosperity in the 16th century, but were later abandoned. For the next centuries, Ottoman rule in the region, at times, was virtually absent and reduced to annual tax collection visits. This led to a short - lived occupation by the Wahhabi forces (1803 -- 1812), an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement that emerged in Najd in modern - day Saudi Arabia. Ibrahim Pasha, son of the governor of the Egypt Eyalet under the request of the Ottoman sultan, rooted out the Wahhabis between 1811 and 1818. In 1833 Ibrahim Pasha turned on the Ottomans and established his rule over the Levant. His oppressive policies led to the unsuccessful peasants ' revolt in Palestine in 1834. The cities of Al - Salt and Al - Karak were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha 's forces for harbouring a peasants ' revolt leader. Egyptian rule was later forcibly ended, with Ottoman rule restored.
Russian persecution of Sunni Muslim Circassians and Chechens led to their immigration into the region in 1867, where today they form a small part of the country 's ethnic fabric. Overall population however declined due to oppression and neglect. Urban settlements with small populations included: Al - Salt, Irbid, Jerash and Al - Karak. The under - development of urban life in Jordan was exacerbated by the settlements being sometimes raided. Ottoman oppression provoked the region 's both non-Bedouin and Bedouin tribes to revolt, Bedouin tribes like: Adwan, Bani Hassan, Bani Sakhr and the Howeitat. The most notable revolts were the Shoubak Revolt (1905) and the Karak Revolt (1910), which were brutally suppressed. Jordan 's location lies on a pilgrimage route taken by Muslims going to Mecca, which helped the population economically when the Ottomans constructed the Hejaz Railway linking Mecca with Istanbul in 1908. Before the construction of the railway, the Ottomans built fortresses along the Hajj route to secure pilgrims ' caravans.
Four centuries of stagnation during Ottoman rule came to an end during World War I by the 1916 Arab Revolt; driven by long - term Arab resentment towards the Ottoman authorities, and growing Arab nationalism. The revolt was launched by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, a member of the Hashemite clan of Hejaz who claim descent from Muhammad. Locally, the revolt garnered the support of the Transjordanian tribes, including Bedouins, Circassians and Christians. The Allies of World War I, including Britain and France, offered support.
The Great Arab Revolt started on 5 June 1916 from Medina and pushed northwards until the fighting reached Transjordan in the Battle of Aqaba on 6 July 1917. By 1918, the revolt -- with the Allies ' support -- successfully gained control of most of the territories of the Hejaz and the Levant, including Damascus. However, it failed to gain international recognition as an independent state, due mainly to the secret 1916 Sykes -- Picot Agreement and the 1917 Balfour Declaration. This was seen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as a betrayal of their previous agreements with the British, including the 1915 McMahon -- Hussein Correspondence, in which the British stated their willingness to recognise the independence of a unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden under the rule of the Hashemites. The region was divided into French and British spheres of influence. Abdullah I, the second son of Sharif Hussein arrived from Hejaz by train in Ma'an in southern Jordan on 11 November 1920, where he was greeted by Transjordanian leaders. Abdullah established the Emirate of Transjordan on 11 April 1921, which then became a British protectorate.
In September 1922, the Council of the League of Nations recognised Transjordan as a state under the British Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum, and excluded the territories east of the Jordan River from the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement. Transjordan remained a British mandate until 1946, but it had been granted a greater level of autonomy than the region west of the Jordan River.
The first organised army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion ''. The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 in 1946. Multiple difficulties emerged upon the assumption of power in the region by the Hashemite leadership. In Transjordan, small local rebellions at Kura in 1921 and 1923 were suppressed by Emir Abdullah with the help of British forces. Wahhabis from Najd regained strength and repeatedly raided the southern parts of his territory in (1922 -- 1924), seriously threatening the Emir 's position. The Emir was unable to repel those raids without the aid of the local Bedouin tribes and the British, who maintained a military base with a small RAF detachment close to Amman.
The Treaty of London, signed by the British Government and the Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946, recognised the independence of Transjordan upon ratification by both countries ' parliaments. On 25 May 1946, the Emirate of Transjordan became The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan, as the ruling Emir was re-designated as King by the parliament of Transjordan on the day it ratified the Treaty of London. The name was changed to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949. Jordan became a member of the United Nations on 14 December 1955.
On 15 May 1948, as part of the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War, Jordan invaded Palestine together with other Arab states. Following the war, Jordan controlled the West Bank and on 24 April 1950 Jordan formally annexed these territories. In response, some Arab countries demanded Jordan 's expulsion from the Arab League. On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared that the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a "trustee '' pending a future settlement. King Abdullah was assassinated at the Al - Aqsa Mosque in 1951 by a Palestinian militant, amid rumours he intended to sign a peace treaty with Israel.
Abdullah was succeeded by his son Talal, who would soon abdicate due to illness in favour of his eldest son Hussein. Talal established the country 's modern constitution in 1952. Hussein ascended to the throne in 1953 at the age of 17. Jordan witnessed great political uncertainty in the following period. The 1950s were a period of political upheaval, as Nasserism and Pan-Arabism swept the Arab World. On 1 March 1956, King Hussein Arabized the command of the Army by dismissing a number of senior British officers, an act made to remove remaining foreign influence in the country. In 1958, Jordan and neighbouring Hashemite Iraq formed the Arab Federation as a response to the formation of the rival United Arab Republic between Nasser 's Egypt and Syria. The union lasted only six months, being dissolved after Iraqi King Faisal II (Hussein 's cousin) was deposed by a bloody military coup on 14 July 1958.
Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt just before Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the Six - Day War in June 1967, where Jordan and Syria joined the war. The Arab states were defeated and Jordan lost control of the West Bank to Israel. The War of Attrition with Israel followed, which included the 1968 Battle of Karameh where the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) repelled an Israeli attack on the Karameh camp on the Jordanian border with the West Bank. Despite the fact that the Palestinians had limited involvement against the Israeli forces, the events at Karameh gained wide recognition and acclaim in the Arab world. As a result, the time period following the battle witnessed an upsurge of support for Palestinian paramilitary elements (the fedayeen) within Jordan from other Arab countries. The fedayeen activities soon became a threat to Jordan 's rule of law. In September 1970, the Jordanian army targeted the fedayeen and the resultant fighting led to the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from various PLO groups into Lebanon, in a civil war that became known as Black September.
In 1973, Egypt and Syria waged the Yom Kippur War on Israel, and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease - fire line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory. At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan agreed, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people ''. Subsequently, Jordan renounced its claims to the West Bank in 1988.
At the 1991 Madrid Conference, Jordan agreed to negotiate a peace treaty sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union. The Israel - Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed on 26 October 1994. In 1997, Israeli agents entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior Hamas leader. Israel provided an antidote to the poison and released dozens of political prisoners, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin after King Hussein threatened to annul the peace treaty.
On 7 February 1999, Abdullah II ascended the throne upon the death of his father Hussein. Abdullah embarked on aggressive economic liberalisation when he assumed the throne, and his reforms led to an economic boom which continued until 2008. Abdullah II has been credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public - private partnerships and providing the foundation for Aqaba 's free - trade zone and Jordan 's flourishing information and communication technology (ICT) sector. He also set up five other special economic zones. However, during the following years Jordan 's economy experienced hardship as it dealt with the effects of the Great Recession and spillover from the Arab Spring.
Al - Qaeda under Abu Musab al - Zarqawi 's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman on 9 November 2005, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians. The attack is considered to be a rare event in the country, and Jordan 's internal security was dramatically improved afterwards. No major terrorist attacks have occurred since then. Abdullah and Jordan are viewed with contempt by Islamic extremists for the country 's peace treaty with Israel and its relationship with the West.
The Arab Spring were large - scale protests that erupted in the Arab World in 2011, demanding economic and political reforms. Many of these protests tore down regimes in some Arab nations, leading to instability that ended with violent civil wars. In Jordan, in response to domestic unrest, Abdullah replaced his prime minister and introduced a number of reforms including: reforming the Constitution, and laws governing public freedoms and elections. Proportional representation was re-introduced to the Jordanian parliament in the 2016 general election, a move which he said would eventually lead to establishing parliamentary governments. Jordan was left largely unscathed from the violence that swept the region despite an influx of 1.4 million Syrian refugees into the natural resources - lacking country and the emergence of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).
Jordan sits strategically at the crossroads of the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe, in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of civilization. It is 89,341 square kilometres (34,495 sq mi) large, and 400 kilometres (250 mi) long between its northernmost and southernmost points; Umm Qais and Aqaba respectively. The kingdom lies between 29 ° and 34 ° N, and 34 ° and 40 ° E. The east is an arid plateau irrigated by oases and seasonal water streams. Major cities are overwhelmingly located on the north - western part of the kingdom due to its fertile soils and relatively abundant rainfall. These include Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in the northwest, the capital Amman and Al - Salt in the central west, and Madaba, Al - Karak and Aqaba in the southwest. Major towns in the eastern part of the country are the oasis towns of Azraq and Ruwaished.
In the west, a highland area of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenly into the Jordan Rift Valley. The rift valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israel and the Palestinian Territories. Jordan has a 26 kilometres (16 mi) shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea, but is otherwise landlocked. The Yarmouk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan, forms part of the boundary between Jordan and Syria (including the occupied Golan Heights) to the north. The other boundaries are formed by several international and local agreements and do not follow well - defined natural features. The highest point is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, while the lowest is the Dead Sea − 420 m (− 1,378 ft), the lowest land point on earth.
Jordan has a diverse range of habitats, ecosystems and biota due to its varied landscapes and environments. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature was set up in 1966 to protect and manage Jordan 's natural resources. Nature reserves in Jordan include the Dana Biosphere Reserve, the Azraq Wetland Reserve, the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve and the Mujib Nature Reserve.
The climate in Jordan varies greatly. Generally, the further inland from the Mediterranean, greater contrasts in temperature occur and the less rainfall there is. The country 's average elevation is 812 m (2,664 ft) (SL). The highlands above the Jordan Valley, mountains of the Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far south as Ras Al - Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean climate, while the eastern and northeastern areas of the country are arid desert. Although the desert parts of the kingdom reach high temperatures, the heat is usually moderated by low humidity and a daytime breeze, while the nights are cool.
Summers, lasting from May to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures averaging around 32 ° C (90 ° F) and sometimes exceeding 40 ° C (104 ° F) between July and August. The winter, lasting from November to March, is relatively cool, with temperatures averaging around 13 ° C (55 ° F). Winter also sees frequent showers and occasional snowfall in some western elevated areas.
Over 2,000 plant species have been recorded in Jordan. Many of the flowering plants bloom in the spring after the winter rains and the type of vegetation depends largely on the levels of precipitation. The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in forests, while further south and east the vegetation becomes more scrubby and transitions to steppe - type vegetation. Forests cover 1.5 million dunums (1,500 km), less than 2 % of Jordan, making Jordan among the world 's least forested countries, the international average being 15 %.
Plant species include, Aleppo pine, Sarcopoterium, Salvia dominica, black iris, Tamarix, Anabasis, Artemisia, Acacia, Mediterranean cypress and Phoenecian juniper. The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in natural forests of pine, deciduous oak, evergreen oak, pistachio and wild olive. Mammal and reptile species include, the long - eared hedgehog, Nubian ibex, wild boar, fallow deer, Arabian wolf, desert monitor, honey badger, glass snake, caracal, golden jackal and the roe deer, among others. Bird include the hooded crow, Eurasian jay, lappet - faced vulture, barbary falcon, hoopoe, pharaoh eagle - owl, common cuckoo, Tristram 's starling, Palestine sunbird, Sinai rosefinch, lesser kestrel, house crow and the white - spectacled bulbul.
Jordan is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Jordan 's constitution, adopted in 1952 and amended a number of times since, is the legal framework that governs the monarch, government, bicameral legislature and judiciary. The king retains wide executive and legislative powers from the government and parliament. The king exercises his powers through the government that he appoints for a four - year term, which is responsible before the parliament that is made up of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judiciary is independent according to the constitution.
The king is the head of state and commander - in - chief of the army. He can declare war and peace, ratify laws and treaties, convene and close legislative sessions, call and postpone elections, dismiss the government and dissolve the parliament. The appointed government can also be dismissed through a majority vote of no confidence by the elected House of Representatives. After a bill is proposed by the government, it must be approved by the House of Representatives then the Senate, and becomes law after being ratified by the king. A royal veto on legislation can be overridden by a two - thirds vote in both houses. The parliament also has the right of interpellation.
The 65 members of the upper Senate are directly appointed by the king, the constitution mandates that they be veteran politicians, judges and generals who previously served in the government or in the House of Representatives. The 130 members of the lower House of Representatives are elected through party - list proportional representation in 23 constituencies for a 4 - year term. Minimum quotas exist in the House of Representatives for women (15 seats, though they won 20 seats in the 2016 election), Christians (9 seats) and Circassians and Chechens (3 seats).
Courts are divided into three categories: civil, religious, and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts which hear cases relating to administrative matters, and the Constitutional Court which was set up in 2012 in order to hear cases regarding the constitutionality of laws. Although Islam is the state religion, the constitution preserves religious and personal freedoms. Religious law only extends to matters of personal status such as divorce and inheritance in religious courts, and is partially based on Islamic Sharia law. The special court deals with cases forwarded by the civil one.
The capital city of Jordan is Amman, located in north - central Jordan. Jordan is divided into 12 governorates (muhafazah) (informally grouped into three regions: northern, central, southern). These are subdivided into a total of 52 nawahi, which are further divided into neighbourhoods in urban areas or into towns in rural ones.
The current monarch, Abdullah II, ascended to the throne in February 1999 after the death of his father Hussein. Abdullah re-affirmed Jordan 's commitment to the peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. He refocused the government 's agenda on economic reform, during his first year. King Abdullah 's eldest son, Prince Hussein, is the current Crown Prince of Jordan. The current prime minister is Hani Al - Mulki who received his position on 29 May 2016. Abdullah had announced his intentions of turning Jordan into a parliamentary system, where the largest bloc in parliament forms a government. However, the underdevelopment of political parties in the country have hampered such moves. Jordan has around 50 political parties representing nationalist, leftist, Islamist, and liberal ideologies. Political parties contested a fifth of the seats in the 2016 elections, the remainder belonging to independent politicians.
According to Freedom House, Jordan is ranked as the 3rd freest Arab country, and as "partly free '' in the Freedom in the World 2017 report. The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of 15 Arab countries. Jordan ranked first among the Arab states and 78th globally in the Human Freedom Index in 2015, and ranked 55th out of 175 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International in 2014, where 175th is most corrupt. In the 2016 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 135th out of 180 countries worldwide, and 5th of 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan 's score was 44 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free). The report added "the Arab Spring and the Syrian conflict have led the authorities to tighten their grip on the media and, in particular, the Internet, despite an outcry from civil society ''. Jordanian media consists of public and private institutions. Popular Jordanian newspapers include Al Ghad and the Jordan Times. The two most - watched local TV stations are Ro'ya TV and Jordan TV. Internet penetration in Jordan reached 76 % in 2015.
The first level subdivision in Jordan is the muhafazah or governorate. The governorates are divided into liwa or districts, which are often further subdivided into qda or sub-districts. Control for each administrative unit is in a "chief town '' (administrative centre) known as a nahia.
The kingdom has followed a pro-Western foreign policy and maintained close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. During the first Gulf War (1990), these relations were damaged by Jordan 's neutrality and its maintenance of relations with Iraq. Later, Jordan restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq and in the Southwest Asia peace process. After King Hussein 's death in 1999, relations between Jordan and the Persian Gulf countries greatly improved.
Jordan is a key ally of the USA and UK and, together with Egypt, is one of only two Arab nations to have signed peace treaties with Israel, Jordan 's direct neighbour. Jordan views an independent Palestinian state with the 1967 borders, as part of the two - state solution and of supreme national interest. The ruling Hashemite dynasty has had custodianship over holy sites in Jerusalem since 1924, a position re-inforced in the Israel -- Jordan peace treaty. Turmoil in Jerusalem 's Al - Aqsa mosque between Israelis and Palestinians created tensions between Jordan and Israel concerning the former 's role in protecting the Muslim and Christian sites in Jerusalem.
Jordan is a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the Arab League. It enjoys "advanced status '' with the European Union and is part of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims to increase links between the EU and its neighbours. Jordan and Morocco tried to join the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 2011, but the Gulf countries offered a five - year development aid programme instead.
The first organised army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion ''. Jordan 's capture of the West Bank during the 1948 Arab - Israeli War proved that the Arab Legion, known today as the Jordan Armed Forces, was the most effective among the Arab troops involved in the war. The Royal Jordanian Army, which boasts around 110,000 personnel, is considered to be among the most professional in the region, due to being particularly well - trained and organised. The Jordanian military enjoys strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to Jordan 's critical position in the Middle East. The development of Special Operations Forces has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the military to react rapidly to threats to homeland security, as well as training special forces from the region and beyond. Jordan provides extensive training to the security forces of several Arab countries.
There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions across the world. Jordan ranks third internationally in participation in U.N. peacekeeping missions, with one of the highest levels of peacekeeping troop contributions of all U.N. member states. Jordan has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the region.
In 2014, Jordan joined an aerial bombardment campaign by an international coalition led by the United States against the Islamic State as part of its intervention in the Syrian Civil War. In 2015, Jordan participated in the Saudi Arabian - led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 uprising.
Jordan 's law enforcement is under the purview of the Public Security Directorate (which includes approximately 50,000 persons) and the General Directorate of Gendarmerie, both of which are subordinate to the country 's Ministry of Interior. The first police force in the Jordanian state was organised after the fall of the Ottoman Empire on 11 April 1921. Until 1956 police duties were carried out by the Arab Legion and the Transjordan Frontier Force. After that year the Public Safety Directorate was established. The number of female police officers is increasing. In the 1970s, it was the first Arab country to include females in its police force. Jordan 's law enforcement was ranked 37th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East, in terms of police services ' performance, by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index.
Jordan is classified by the World Bank as an "upper - middle income '' country. However, approximately 14.4 % of the population lives below the national poverty line on a longterm basis (as of 2010), while almost a third fell below the national poverty line during some time of the year -- known as transient poverty. The economy, which boasts a GDP of $38.210 billion (as of 2015), grew at an average rate of 4.3 % per annum between 2005 and 2010, and around 2.5 % 2010 onwards. GDP per capita rose by 351 % in the 1970s, declined 30 % in the 1980s, and rose 36 % in the 1990s. The Jordanian economy is one of the smallest economies in the region, and the country 's populace suffers from relatively high rates of unemployment and poverty.
Jordan 's economy is relatively well diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly one - third of GDP; transportation and communication, public utilities, and construction account for one - fifth, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearly another fifth. Despite plans to expand the private sector, the state remains the dominant force in Jordan 's economy. Net official development assistance to Jordan in 2009 totalled USD 761 million; according to the government, approximately two - thirds of this was allocated as grants, of which half was direct budget support.
The official currency is the Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to the IMF 's special drawing rights (SDRs), equivalent to an exchange rate of 1 US $ ≡ 0.709 dinar, or approximately 1 dinar ≡ 1.41044 dollars. In 2000, Jordan joined the World Trade Organization and signed the Jordan -- United States Free Trade Agreement, thus becoming the first Arab country to establish a free trade agreement with the United States. Jordan also has free trade agreements with Turkey and Canada. Jordan enjoys advanced status with the EU, which has facilitated greater access to export to European markets. Due to slow domestic growth, high energy and food subsidies and a bloated public - sector workforce, Jordan usually runs annual budget deficits. These are partially offset by international aid.
The Great Recession and the turmoil caused by the Arab Spring have depressed Jordan 's GDP growth, damaging trade, industry, construction and tourism. Tourist arrivals have dropped sharply since 2011. Since 2011, the natural gas pipeline in Sinai supplying Jordan from Egypt was attacked 32 times by Islamic State affiliates. Jordan incurred billions of dollars in losses because it had to substitute more expensive heavy - fuel oils to generate electricity. In November 2012, the government cut subsidies on fuel, increasing its price. The decision, which was later revoked, caused large scale protests to break out across the country.
Jordan 's total foreign debt in 2012 was $22 billion, representing 72 % of its GDP. In 2016, the debt reached $35.1 billion representing 90.6 % of its GDP. This substantial increase is attributed to effects of regional instability causing: decrease in tourist activity; decreased foreign investments; increased military expenditure; attacks on Egyptian pipeline; the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria; expenses from hosting Syrian refugees and accumulated interests from loans. According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year, amounting to 6 % of the GDP and 25 % of the government 's annual revenue. Foreign aid covers only a small part of these costs, 63 % of the total costs are covered by Jordan. An austerity programme was adopted by the government which aims to reduce Jordan 's debt - to - GDP ratio to 77 percent by 2021.
The proportion of well - educated and skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region in sectors such as ICT and industry, due to a relatively modern educational system. This has attracted large foreign investments to Jordan and has enabled the country to export its workforce to Persian Gulf countries. Flows of remittances to Jordan grew rapidly, particularly during the end of the 1970s and 1980s, and remains an important source of external funding. Remittances from Jordanian expatriates were $3.8 billion in 2015, a notable rise in the amount of transfers compared to 2014 where remittances reached over $3.66 billion listing Jordan as fourth largest recipient in the region.
Jordan 's well developed industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26 % of the GDP in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2 %; construction, 4.6 %; and mining, 3.1 %). More than 21 % of Jordan 's labor force was employed in industry in 2002. In 2014, industry accounted for 6 % of the GDP. The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, cement, clothes, and fertilisers. The most promising segment of this sector is construction. Petra Engineering Industries Company, which is considered to be one of the main pillars of Jordanian industry, has gained international recognition with its air - conditioning units reaching NASA. Jordan is now considered to be a leading pharmaceuticals manufacturer in the MENA region led by Jordanian pharmaceutical company Hikma.
Jordan 's military industry thrived after the King Abdullah Design and Development Bureau (KADDB) defence company was established by King Abdullah II in 1999, to provide an indigenous capability for the supply of scientific and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces, and to become a global hub in security research and development. It manufactures all types of military products, many of which are presented at the bi-annually held international military exhibition SOFEX. In 2015, KADDB exported $72 million worth of industries to over 42 countries.
The tourism sector is considered a cornerstone of the economy, being a large source of employment, hard currency and economic growth. In 2010, there were 8 million visitors to Jordan. The majority of tourists coming to Jordan are from European and Arab countries. The tourism sector in Jordan has been severely affected by regional turbulence. The most recent blow to the tourism sector was caused by the Arab Spring, which scared off tourists from the entire region. Jordan experienced a 70 % decrease in the number of tourists from 2010 to 2016.
According to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Jordan is home to around 100,000 archaeological and tourist sites. Some very well preserved historical cities include Petra and Jerash, the former being Jordan 's most popular tourist attraction and an icon of the kingdom. Jordan is part of the Holy Land and has several biblical attractions that attract pilgrimage activities. Biblical sites include: Al - Maghtas -- a traditional location for the Baptism of Jesus, Mount Nebo, Umm ar - Rasas, Madaba and Machaerus. Islamic sites include shrines of the prophet Muhammad 's companions such as ' Abd Allah ibn Rawahah, Zayd ibn Harithah and Muadh ibn Jabal. Ajlun Castle built by Muslim Ayyubid leader Saladin in the 12th century AD during his wars with the Crusaders, is also a popular tourist attraction.
Modern entertainment and recreation in urban areas, mostly in Amman, also attract tourists. Recently, the nightlife in Amman, Aqaba and Irbid has started to emerge and the number of bars, discos and nightclubs is on the rise. However, most nightclubs have a restriction on unescorted males. Alcohol is widely available in tourist restaurants, liquor stores and even some supermarkets. Valleys like Wadi Mujib and hiking trails in different parts of the country attract adventurers. Moreover, seaside recreation is present on the shores of Aqaba and the Dead Sea through several international resorts.
Jordan has been a medical tourism destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. A study conducted by Jordan 's Private Hospitals Association found that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 billion in revenue. Jordan is the region 's top medical tourism destination, as rated by the World Bank, and fifth in the world overall. The majority of patients come from Yemen, Libya and Syria due to the ongoing civil wars in those countries. Jordanian doctors and medical staff have gained experience in dealing with war patients through years of receiving such cases from various conflict zones in the region. Jordan also is a hub for natural treatment methods in both Ma'in Hot Springs and the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is often described as a ' natural spa '. It contains 10 times more salt than the average ocean, which makes it impossible to sink in. The high salt concentration of the Dead Sea has been proved as being therapeutic for many skin diseases. The uniqueness of this lake attracts several Jordanian and foreign vacationers, which boosted investments in the hotel sector in the area.
Jordan is the world 's second poorest country in terms of water resources per capita, and scarce water resources were aggravated by the influx of Syrian refugees. Water from Disi aquifer and ten major dams historically played a large role in providing Jordan 's need for fresh water. The Jawa Dam in northeastern Jordan is the world 's oldest dam. The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate. Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many problems. The Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to neighbouring countries, while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its levels. The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and to be completed in 2021. Phosphate mines in the south have made Jordan one of the largest producers and exporters of this mineral in the world.
Despite the fact that reserves of crude oil are non-commercial, Jordan has the 5th largest oil - shale reserves in the world, which could be commercially exploited in the central and northwestern regions of the country. Official figures estimate the kingdom 's oil shale reserves at more than 70 billion tonnes. Attarat Power Plant, which started construction in late 2017, is a $2.2 billion oil shale - dependent power plant that will be completed in 2020 with a total capacity of 470 megawatts. The project is part of the kingdom 's visionary plan that aims to diversify its energy resources by 2025. The extraction of shale oil had been delayed by a couple of years due to: the advanced level of technology that is required for extraction; and the relatively higher cost.
Jordan aims to benefit from its large uranium reserves with two nuclear plants, 1000 MW each, scheduled for completion in 2025. Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987. The estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, a modest quantity compared with its other Arab neighbours. The Risha field, in the eastern desert beside the Iraqi border, produces nearly 35 million cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power plant to produce a minimal amount of Jordan 's electricity needs. Jordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m / s in the mountainous areas. King Abdullah inaugurated several large - scale projects like the 117 MW Tafila Wind Farm and the 53 MW Shams Ma'an Power Plant in the 2010s. In May 2017, it was announced that more than 200 MW of solar energy projects had been completed, which contributed to 5 % of Jordan 's electrical consumption. The government plans to increase this percentage to 20 % by 2020, which amounts to a total of around 1800 MW. A report by pv magazine described Jordan as the "Middle East 's solar powerhouse ''.
Jordan is ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, one of the highest rankings in the developing world, according to the 2010 World Economic Forum 's Index of Economic Competitiveness. This high infrastructural development is necessitated by its role as a transit country for goods and services to Palestine and Iraq. Palestinians use Jordan as a transit country due to the Israeli restrictions and Iraqis use Jordan due to the instability in Iraq.
According to data from the Jordanian Ministry of Public Works and Housing, as of 2011, the Jordanian road network consisted of 2,878 km (1,788 mi) of main roads; 2,592 km (1,611 mi) of rural roads and 1,733 km (1,077 mi) of side roads. The Hejaz Railway built during the Ottoman Empire which extended from Damascus to Mecca will act as a base for future railway expansion plans. Currently, the railway has little civilian activity; it is primarily used for transporting goods. A national railway project is currently undergoing studies and seeking funding sources.
Jordan has three commercial airports, all receiving and dispatching international flights. Two are in Amman and the third is in Aqaba, King Hussein International Airport. Amman Civil Airport serves several regional routes and charter flights while Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and is the hub for Royal Jordanian, the flag carrier. Queen Alia International Airport expansion was completed in 2013 with new terminals costing $700 million, to handle over 16 million passengers annually. It is now considered a state - of - the - art airport and was awarded ' the best airport by region: Middle East ' for 2014 and 2015 by Airport Service Quality (ASQ) survey, the world 's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark programme.
The Port of Aqaba is the only port in Jordan. In 2006, the port was ranked as being the "Best Container Terminal '' in the Middle East by Lloyd 's List. The port was chosen due to it being a transit cargo port for other neighbouring countries, its location between four countries and three continents, being an exclusive gateway for the local market and for the improvements it has recently witnessed.
Science and technology is the country 's fastest developing economic sector. This growth is occurring across multiple industries, including information and communications technology (ICT) and nuclear technology. Jordan contributes 75 % of the Arabic content on the Internet. In 2014, the ICT sector accounted for more than 84,000 jobs and contributed to 12 % of the GDP. More than 400 companies are active in telecom, information technology and video game development. There are 600 companies operating in active technologies and 300 start - up companies.
Nuclear science and technology is also expanding. The Jordan Research and Training Reactor, which was inaugurated in 2016, is a 5 MW training reactor located at the Jordan University of Science and Technology in Ar Ramtha. The facility is the first nuclear reactor in the country and will provide Jordan with radioactive isotopes for medical usage and provide training to students to produce a skilled workforce for the country 's planned commercial nuclear reactors. Jordan signed a contract with Russian company Rosatom in 2014 for the construction of two $5 billion nuclear reactors which are currently at the planning stage and are expected to start delivering electricity in 2025.
Jordan was also selected as the location for the Synchrotron - Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME) facility, supported by UNESCO and CERN. This particle accelerator, which was inaugurated in 2017, will allow collaboration between scientists from various rival Middle Eastern countries. The facility is the only synchrotron radiation facility in the Middle East, and one of only 60 in the world.
The 2015 census showed Jordan 's population to be 9,531,712 (Female: 47 %; Males: 53 %). Around 2.9 million (30 %) were non-citizens, a figure including refugees, and illegal immigrants. There were 1,977,534 households in Jordan in 2015, with an average of 4.8 persons per household (compared to 6.7 persons per household for the census of 1979). The capital and largest city of Jordan is Amman, which is one of the world 's oldest continuously inhabited cities and one of the most liberal in the Arab world. The population of Amman was 65,754 in 1946, but came to be over 4 million in 2015.
Arabs make up about 98 % of the population. The rest 2 % is attributed to other ethnic groups such as Circassians, and Armenians and other minorities. About 84.1 % of the population live in urban towns and cities.
Jordan is a home to 2,175,491 Palestinian refugees as of Dec - 2016; most of them, but not all, were granted Jordanian citizenship. The first wave of Palestinian refugees arrived during the 1948 Arab Israeli war and peaked in the 1967 Six Day War and the 1990 Gulf War. In the past, Jordan had given many Palestinian refugees citizenship, however recently Jordanian citizenship is given only in rare cases. 370,000 of these Palestinians live in UNRWA refugee camps. Following the capture of the West Bank by Israel in 1967, Jordan revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians to thwart any attempt to permanently resettle from the West Bank to Jordan. West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or Jordanian citizenship were issued yellow cards guaranteeing them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship if requested.
Up to 1,000,000 Iraqis came to Jordan following the Iraq War in 2003, and most of them have returned. In 2015, their number in Jordan was 130,911. Many Iraqi Christians (Assyrians / Chaldeans) however settled temporarily or permanently in Jordan. Immigrants also include 15,000 Lebanese who arrived following the 2006 Lebanon War. Since 2010, over 1.4 million Syrian refugees have fled to Jordan to escape the violence in Syria. The kingdom has continued to demonstrate hospitality, despite the substantial strain the flux of Syrian refugees places on the country. The effects are largely affecting Jordanian communities, as the vast majority of Syrian refugees do not live in camps. The refugee crisis effects include competition for job opportunities, water resources and other state provided services, along with the strain on the national infrastructure.
In 2007, there were up to 150,000 Assyrian Christians; most are Eastern Aramaic speaking refugees from Iraq. Kurds number some 30,000, and like the Assyrians, many are refugees from Iraq, Iran and Turkey. Descendants of Armenians that sought refuge in the Levant during the 1915 Armenian Genocide number approximately 5,000 persons, mainly residing in Amman. A small number of ethnic Mandeans also reside in Jordan, again mainly refugees from Iraq. Around 12,000 Iraqi Christians have sought refuge in Jordan after the Islamic State took the city of Mosul in 2014. Several thousand Libyans, Yemenis and Sudanese have also sought asylum in Jordan to escape instability and violence in their respective countries. The 2015 Jordanian census recorded that there were 1,265,000 Syrians, 636,270 Egyptians, 634,182 Palestinians, 130,911 Iraqis, 31,163 Yemenis, 22,700 Libyans and 197,385 from other nationalities residing in the country.
There are around 1.2 million illegal, and 500,000 legal, migrant workers in the kingdom. Thousands of foreign women, mostly from the Middle East and Eastern Europe, work in nightclubs, hotels and bars across the kingdom. American and European expatriate communities are concentrated in the capital, as the city is home to many international organizations and diplomatic missions.
Sunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims make up about 95 % of the country 's population; in turn, 93 % of those self - identify as Sunnis. There are also a small number of Ahmadi Muslims, and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees. Muslims who convert to another religion as well as missionaries from other religions face societal and legal discrimination.
Jordan contains some of the oldest Christian communities in the world, dating as early as the 1st century AD after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Christians today make up about 3.68 % of the population, down from 20 % in 1930, though their absolute number has grown. This is due to high immigration rates of Muslims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians to the west and higher birth rates for Muslims. Jordanian Christians number around 250,000, all of whom are Arabic - speaking, according to a 2014 estimate by the Orthodox Church. The study excluded minority Christian groups and the thousands of western, Iraqi and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan. Christians are exceptionally well integrated in the Jordanian society and enjoy a high level of freedom, though they are not free to evangelize Muslims. Christians traditionally occupy two cabinet posts, and are reserved 9 seats out of the 130 in the parliament. The highest political position reached by a Christian is deputy prime minister, held by Marwan al - Muasher in 2005. Christians are also influential in media. Smaller religious minorities include Druze and Bahá'ís. Most Jordanian Druze live in the eastern oasis town of Azraq, some villages on the Syrian border, and the city of Zarqa, while most Jordanian Bahá'ís live in the village of Adassiyeh bordering the Jordan Valley.
The official language is Modern Standard Arabic, a literary language taught in the schools. Most Jordanians natively speak one of the non-standard Arabic dialects known as Jordanian Arabic. Jordanian Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university - level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic. Chechen, Circassian, Armenian, Tagalog, and Russian are popular among their communities. French is offered as an elective in many schools, mainly in the private sector. German is an increasingly popular language; it has been introduced at a larger scale since the establishment of the German - Jordanian University in 2005.
Many institutions in Jordan aim to increase cultural awareness of Jordanian Art and to represent Jordan 's artistic movements in fields such as paintings, sculpture, graffiti and photography. The art scene has been developing in the past few years and Jordan has been a haven for artists from surrounding countries. In January 2016, for the first time ever, a Jordanian film called Theeb was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film.
The largest museum in Jordan is The Jordan Museum. It contains much of the valuable archaeological findings in the country, including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Neolithic limestone statues of ' Ain Ghazal and a copy of the Mesha Stele. Most museums in Jordan are located in Amman including The Children 's Museum Jordan, The Martyr 's Memorial and Museum and the Royal Automobile Museum. Museums outside Amman include the Aqaba Archaeological Museum. The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts is a major contemporary art museum located in Amman.
Music in Jordan is now developing with a lot of new bands and artists, who are now popular in the Middle East. Artists such as Omar Al - Abdallat, Toni Qattan, Diana Karazon and Hani Metwasi have increased the popularity of Jordanian music. The Jerash Festival is an annual music event that features popular Arab singers. Pianist and composer Zade Dirani has gained wide international popularity. There is also an increasing growth of alternative Arabic rock bands, who are dominating the scene in the Arab World, including: El Morabba3, Autostrad, JadaL, Akher Zapheer and Aziz Maraka.
Football is the most popular sport in Jordan. The national football team has improved in recent years, though it has yet to qualify for the World Cup. In 2013, Jordan spurned the chance to play at the 2014 World Cup when they lost to Uruguay during inter-confederation play - offs. This was the highest that Jordan had advanced in the World Cup qualifying rounds since 1986. The women 's football team is also gaining reputation, and in March 2016 ranked 58th in the world. Jordan hosted the 2016 FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup, the first women 's sports tournament in the Middle East.
Less common sports are gaining popularity. Rugby is increasing in popularity, a Rugby Union is recognised by the Jordan Olympic Committee which supervises three national teams. Although cycling is not widespread in Jordan, the sport is developing rapidly as a lifestyle and a new way to travel especially among the youth. In 2014, a NGO Make Life Skate Life completed construction of the 7Hills Skatepark, the first skatepark in the country located in Downtown Amman. Jordan 's national basketball team is participating in various international and Middle Eastern tournaments. Local basketball teams include: Al - Orthodoxi Club, Al - Riyadi, Zain, Al - Hussein and Al - Jazeera.
As the 8th largest producer of olives in the world, olive oil is the main cooking oil in Jordan. A common appetiser is hummus, which is a puree of chick peas blended with tahini, lemon, and garlic. Ful medames is another well - known appetiser. A typical worker 's meal, it has since made its way to the tables of the upper class. A typical Jordanian meze often contains koubba maqliya, labaneh, baba ghanoush, tabbouleh, olives and pickles. Meze is generally accompanied by the Levantine alcoholic drink arak, which is made from grapes and aniseed and is similar to ouzo, rakı and pastis. Jordanian wine and beer are also sometimes used. The same dishes, served without alcoholic drinks, can also be termed "muqabbilat '' (starters) in Arabic.
The most distinctive Jordanian dish is mansaf, the national dish of Jordan. The dish is a symbol for Jordanian hospitality and is influenced by the Bedouin culture. Mansaf is eaten on different occasions such as funerals, weddings and on religious holidays. It consists of a plate of rice with meat that was boiled in thick yogurt, sprayed with nuts and sometimes herbs. As an old tradition, the dish is eaten using one 's hands, but the tradition is not always used. Simple fresh fruit is often served towards the end of a Jordanian meal, but there is also dessert, such as baklava, hareeseh, knafeh, halva and qatayef, a dish made specially for Ramadan. In Jordanian cuisine, drinking coffee and tea flavoured with na'na or meramiyyeh is almost a ritual.
Life expectancy in Jordan was around 74.8 years in 2017. The leading cause of death is cardiovascular diseases, followed by cancer. Childhood immunization rates have increased steadily over the past 15 years; by 2002 immunisations and vaccines reached more than 95 % of children under five. In 1950, Water and sanitation was available to only 10 % of the population, while in 2015 reached 98 % of Jordanians.
Jordan prides itself on its health services, some of the best in the region. Qualified medics, favourable investment climate and Jordan 's stability has contributed to the success of this sector. The country 's health care system is divided between public and private institutions. On 1 June 2007, Jordan Hospital (as the biggest private hospital) was the first general specialty hospital to gain the international accreditation JCAHO. The King Hussein Cancer Center is a leading cancer treatment center. 66 % of Jordanians have medical insurance.
The Jordanian educational system comprises 2 years of pre-school education, 10 years of compulsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic or vocational education, after which the students sit for the General Certificate of Secondary Education Exam (Tawjihi) exams. Scholars may attend either private or public schools. According to the UNESCO, the literacy rate in 2015 was 98.01 % and is considered to be the highest in the Middle East and the Arab world, and one of the highest in the world. UNESCO ranked Jordan 's educational system 18th out of 94 nations for providing gender equality in education. Jordan has the highest number of researchers in research and development per million people among all the 57 countries that are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). In Jordan there are 8060 researchers per million people, while the world average is 2532 per million. Education is not free in Jordan.
Jordan has 10 public universities, 17 private universities and 54 community colleges, of which 14 are public, 24 private and others affiliated with the Jordanian Armed Forces, the Civil Defense Department, the Ministry of Health and UNRWA. There are over 200,000 Jordanian students enrolled in universities each year. An additional 20,000 Jordanians pursue higher education abroad primarily in the United States and Europe. According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top - ranking universities in the country are the University of Jordan (UJ) (1,010 th worldwide), Jordan University of Science & Technology (JUST) (1,907 th) and Yarmouk University (1,969 th). UJ and JUST occupy 8th and 10th between Arab universities. Jordan has 2,000 researchers per million people.
Coordinates: 31 ° 14 ′ N 36 ° 31 ′ E / 31.24 ° N 36.51 ° E / 31.24; 36.51
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who are all the singers in we are the world | We Are the World - wikipedia
"We Are the World '' is a song and charity single originally recorded by the supergroup United Support of Artists (USA) for Africa in 1985. It was written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie (with arrangements by Michael Omartian) and produced by Quincy Jones for the album We Are the World. With sales in excess of 20 million copies, it is one of the fewer than 30 all - time physical singles to have sold at least 10 million copies worldwide.
Following Band Aid 's 1984 "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' project in the United Kingdom, an idea for the creation of an American benefit single for African famine relief came from activist Harry Belafonte, who, along with fundraiser Ken Kragen, was instrumental in bringing the vision to reality. Several musicians were contacted by the pair, before Jackson and Richie were assigned the task of writing the song. The duo completed the writing of "We Are the World '' seven weeks after the release of "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '', and one night before the song 's first recording session, on January 21, 1985. The historic event brought together some of the most famous artists in the music industry at the time.
The song was released on March 7, 1985, as the only single from the album. A worldwide commercial success, it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest - selling American pop single in history. The first ever single to be certified multi-platinum, "We Are the World '' received a Quadruple Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Awarded numerous honors -- including three Grammy Awards, one American Music Award, and a People 's Choice Award -- the song was promoted with a critically received music video, a home video, a special edition magazine, a simulcast, and several books, posters, and shirts. The promotion and merchandise aided the success of "We Are the World '' and raised over $63 million (equivalent to $138 million today) for humanitarian aid in Africa and the US.
Following the devastation caused by the magnitude 7.0 M earthquake in Haiti on January 12, 2010, a remake of the song by another all - star cast of singers was recorded on February 1, 2010. Entitled "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '', it was released as a single on February 12, 2010, and proceeds from the record aided survivors in the impoverished country.
Before the writing of "We Are the World '', American entertainer and social activist Harry Belafonte had sought for some time to have a song recorded by the most famous artists in the music industry at the time. He planned to have the proceeds donated to a new organization called United Support of Artists for Africa (USA for Africa). The non-profit foundation would then feed and relieve starving people in Africa, specifically Ethiopia, where around one million people died during the country 's 1983 -- 85 famine. The idea followed Band Aid 's "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' project in the UK, which Belafonte had heard about. In the activist 's plans, money would also be set aside to help eliminate hunger in the United States of America. Entertainment manager and fellow fundraiser Ken Kragen was contacted by Belafonte, who asked for singers Lionel Richie and Kenny Rogers -- Kragen 's clients -- to participate in Belafonte 's musical endeavor. Kragen and the two musicians agreed to help with Belafonte 's mission, and in turn, enlisted the cooperation of Stevie Wonder, to add more "name value '' to their project. Quincy Jones was drafted to co-produce the song, taking time out from his work on The Color Purple. Richie also telephoned Michael Jackson, who had just released the commercially successful Thriller album and had concluded a tour with his brothers.
Jackson revealed to Richie that he not only wanted to sing the song, but to participate in its writing as well. To begin with, "We Are the World '' was to be written by Jackson, Richie, and Wonder. As Wonder had limited time to work on the project, Jackson and Richie proceeded to write "We Are the World '' themselves. They began creating the song at Hayvenhurst, the Jackson family home in Encino. For a week, the two spent every night working on lyrics and melodies in the singer 's bedroom. They knew that they wanted a song that would be easy to sing and memorable. The pair wanted to create an anthem. Jackson 's older sister La Toya watched the two work on the song, and later contended that Richie only wrote a few lines for the track. She stated that her younger brother wrote 99 percent of the lyrics, "but he 's never felt it necessary to say that ''. La Toya further commented on the song 's creation in an interview with the American celebrity news magazine People. "I 'd go into the room while they were writing and it would be very quiet, which is odd, since Michael 's usually very cheery when he works. It was very emotional for them. ''
Richie had recorded two melodies for "We Are the World '', which Jackson took, adding music and words to the song in the same day. Jackson stated, "I love working quickly. I went ahead without even Lionel knowing, I could n't wait. I went in and came out the same night with the song completed -- drums, piano, strings, and words to the chorus. '' Jackson then presented his demo to Richie and Jones, who were both shocked; they did not expect the pop star to see the structure of the song so quickly. The next meetings between Jackson and Richie were unfruitful; the pair did not produce any additional vocals and got no work done. It was not until the night of January 21, 1985, that Richie and Jackson completed the lyrics and melody of "We Are the World '' within two and a half hours, one night before the song 's first recording session.
The first night of recording, January 22, 1985, had tight security on hand, as Richie, Jackson, Wonder, and Jones started work on "We Are the World '' at Kenny Rogers ' Lion Share Recording Studio. The studio, on Beverly Boulevard in California, was filled with musicians, technicians, video crews, retinues, assistants, and organizers as the four musicians entered. To begin the night, a "vocal guide '' of "We Are the World '' was recorded by Richie and Jackson and duplicated on tape for each of the invited performers. The guide was recorded on the sixth take, as Quincy Jones felt that there was too much "thought '' in the previous versions.
Following their work on the vocal guide, Jackson and Jones began thinking of alternatives for the line "There 's a chance we 're taking, we 're taking our own lives '': the pair was concerned that the latter part of the line would be considered a reference to suicide. As the group listened to a playback of the chorus, Richie declared that the last part of the line should be changed to "We 're ' saving ' our own lives '', which his fellow musicians agreed with. Producer Jones also suggested altering the former part of the line. "One thing we do n't want to do, especially with this group, is look like we 're patting ourselves on the back. So it 's really, ' There 's a choice we 're making. ' '' Around 1: 30 am, the four musicians ended the night by finishing a chorus of melodic vocalizations, including the sound "sha - lum sha - lin - gay ''. Jones told the group that they were not to add anything else to the tape. "If we get too good, someone 's gon na start playing it on the radio, '' he announced.
On January 24, 1985, after a day of rest, Jones shipped Richie and Jackson 's vocal guide to all of the artists who would be involved in "We Are the World '' 's recording. Enclosed in the package was a letter from Jones, addressed to "My Fellow Artists '':
The cassettes are numbered, and I ca n't express how important it is not to let this material out of your hands. Please do not make copies, and return this cassette the night of the 28th. In the years to come, when your children ask, ' What did mommy and daddy do for the war against world famine? ', you can say proudly, this was your contribution.
Ken Kragen chaired a production meeting at a bungalow off Sunset Boulevard on January 25, 1985. There, Kragen and his team discussed where the recording sessions with the supergroup of musicians should take place. He stated, "The single most damaging piece of information is where we 're doing this. If that shows up anywhere, we 've got a chaotic situation that could totally destroy the project. The moment a Prince, a Michael Jackson, a Bob Dylan -- I guarantee you! -- drives up and sees a mob around that studio, he will never come in. '' On the same night, Quincy Jones ' associate producer and vocal arranger, Tom Bahler, was given the task of matching each solo line with the right voice. Bahler stated, "It 's like vocal arranging in a perfect world. '' Jones disagreed, stating that the task was like "putting a watermelon in a Coke bottle ''. The following evening, Lionel Richie held a "choreography '' session at his home, where it was decided who would stand where.
The final night of recording was held on January 28, 1985, at A&M Recording Studios in Hollywood. Michael Jackson arrived at 9 pm, earlier than the other artists, to record his solo section and record a vocal chorus by himself. He was subsequently joined in the recording studio by the remaining USA for Africa artists, who included Ray Charles, Billy Joel, Diana Ross, Cyndi Lauper, Bruce Springsteen and Smokey Robinson. Also in attendance were five of Jackson 's siblings: Jackie, La Toya, Marlon, Randy and Tito. Many of the participants came straight from an American Music Award ceremony, which had been held that same night. Invited musician Prince, who would have had a part in which he and Michael Jackson sang to each other, did not attend the recording session. The reason given for his absence has varied. One newspaper claimed that the singer did not want to record with other acts. Another report, from the time of "We Are the World '' 's recording, suggested that the musician did not want to partake in the session because organizer Bob Geldof called him a "creep ''. Prince did, however, donate an exclusive track, "4 The Tears In Your Eyes '', for the We Are the World album. In all, more than 45 of America 's top musicians participated in the recording, and another 50 had to be turned away. Upon entering the recording studio, the musicians were greeted by a sign pinned to the door which read, "Please check your egos at the door. '' They were also greeted by Stevie Wonder, who proclaimed that if the recording was not completed in one take, he and Ray Charles, two blind men, would drive everybody home.
Each of the performers took their position at around 10: 30 pm and began to sing. Several hours passed before Stevie Wonder announced that he would like to substitute a line in Swahili for the "sha - lum sha - lin - gay '' sound. At this point, Waylon Jennings left the recording studio for a short time when it was suggested by some that the song be sung in Swahili. A heated debate ensued, in which several artists also rejected the suggestion. The "sha - lum sha - lin - gay '' sound ran into opposition as well and was subsequently removed from the song. Jennings returned to the studio and participated in the recording, which bears his name in the end credits. The participants eventually decided to sing something meaningful in English. They chose to sing the new line "One world, Our children '', which most of the participants enjoyed.
In the early hours of the morning, two Ethiopian women, guests of Stevie Wonder, were brought into the recording studio -- it had been decided that a portion of the proceeds raised would be used to bring aid to those affected by the recent famine in Ethiopia. They thanked the singers on behalf of their country, bringing several artists to tears, before being led from the room. Wonder attempted to lighten the mood, by joking that the recording session gave him a chance to "see '' fellow blind musician Ray Charles. "We just sort of bumped into each other! '' The solo parts of the song were recorded without any problems. The final version of "We Are the World '' was completed at 8 am.
"We Are the World '' is sung from a first person viewpoint, allowing the audience to "internalize '' the message by singing the word we together. It has been described as "an appeal to human compassion ''. The first lines in the song 's repetitive chorus proclaim, "We are the world, we are the children, we are the ones who make a brighter day, so let 's start giving ''. "We Are the World '' opens with Lionel Richie, Stevie Wonder, Paul Simon, Kenny Rogers, James Ingram, Tina Turner and Billy Joel singing the first verse. Michael Jackson and Diana Ross follow, completing the first chorus together. Dionne Warwick, Willie Nelson and Al Jarreau sing the second verse, before Bruce Springsteen, Kenny Loggins, Steve Perry and Daryl Hall go through the second chorus. Co-writer Jackson, Huey Lewis, Cyndi Lauper and Kim Carnes follow with the song 's bridge. This structuring of the song is said to "create a sense of continuous surprise and emotional buildup ''. "We Are the World '' concludes with Bob Dylan and Ray Charles singing a full chorus, Wonder and Springsteen duetting, and ad libs from Charles and Ingram.
On March 8, 1985, "We Are the World '' was released as a single, in both 7 '' and 12 '' format. The song was the only one released from the We Are the World album and became a chart success around the world. In the US, it was a number one hit on the R&B singles chart, the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart and the Billboard Hot 100, where it remained for a month. The single had initially debuted at number 21 on the Hot 100, the highest entry since Michael Jackson 's "Thriller '' entered the charts at number 20 the year before. It took four weeks for the song to claim the number one spot -- half the time a single would normally have taken to reach its charting peak. On the Hot 100, the song moved from 21 to 5 to 2 and then number 1. "We Are the World '' might have reached the top of the Hot 100 chart sooner, if it were not for the success of Phil Collins ' "One More Night '', which received a significant level of support from both pop and rock listeners. "We Are the World '' also entered Billboard 's Top Rock Tracks and Hot Country Singles charts, where it peaked at numbers 27 and 76 respectively. The song became the first single since The Beatles ' "Let It Be '' to enter Billboard 's Top 5 within two weeks of release. Outside of the US, the single reached number one in Australia, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. The song peaked at number 2 in only two countries: Germany and Austria.
The single was also a commercial success; the initial shipment of 800,000 "We Are the World '' records sold out within three days of release. The record became the fastest - selling American pop single in history. At one Tower Records store on Sunset Boulevard in West Hollywood, 1,000 copies of the song were sold in two days. Store worker Richard Petitpas commented, "A number one single sells about 100 to 125 copies a week. This is absolutely unheard of. '' By the end of 1985, "We Are the World '' had become the best selling single of the year. Five years later it was revealed that the song had become the biggest single of the 1980s. "We Are the World '' was eventually cited as the biggest selling single in both US and pop music history. The song became the first - ever single to be certified multi-platinum; it received a 4 × certification by the Recording Industry Association of America. The estimated global sales of "We Are the World '' are said to be 20 million.
Despite the song 's commercial success, "We Are the World '' received mixed reviews from journalists, music critics and the public following its release. American journalist Greil Marcus felt that the song sounded like a Pepsi jingle. He wrote, "... the constant repetition of ' There 's a choice we 're making ' conflates with Pepsi 's trademarked ' The choice of a new generation ' in a way that, on the part of Pepsi - contracted song writers Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie, is certainly not intentional, and even more certainly beyond the realm of serendipity. '' Marcus added, "In the realm of contextualization, ' We Are the World ' says less about Ethiopia than it does about Pepsi -- and the true result will likely be less that certain Ethiopian individuals will live, or anyway live a bit longer than they otherwise would have, than that Pepsi will get the catch phrase of its advertising campaign sung for free by Ray Charles, Stevie Wonder, Bruce Springsteen, and all the rest. '' Author Reebee Garofalo agreed, and expressed the opinion that the line "We 're saving our own lives '' was a "distasteful element of self - indulgence ''. He asserted that the artists of USA for Africa were proclaiming "their own salvation for singing about an issue they will never experience on behalf of a people most of them will never encounter ''.
In contrast, Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the phrase "There 's a choice we 're making, We 're saving our own lives ''. He commented that the line assumed "an extra emotional dimension when sung by people with superstar mystiques ''. Holden expressed that the song was "an artistic triumph that transcends its official nature ''. He noted that unlike Band Aid 's "Do They Know It 's Christmas '', the vocals on "We Are the World '' were "artfully interwoven '' and emphasized the individuality of each singer. Holden concluded that "We Are the World '' was "a simple, eloquent ballad '' and a "fully - realized pop statement that would sound outstanding even if it were n't recorded by stars ''.
The song proved popular with both young and old listeners. The public enjoyed hearing a supergroup of musicians singing together on one track, and felt satisfied in buying the record, knowing that the money would go towards a good cause. People reported they bought more than one copy of the single, some buying up to five copies of the record. One mother from Columbia, Missouri purchased two copies of "We Are the World '', stating, "The record is excellent whether it 's for a cause or not. It 's fun trying to identify the different artists. It was a good feeling knowing that I was helping someone in need. ''
According to music critic and Bruce Springsteen biographer Dave Marsh, "We Are the World '' was not widely accepted within the rock music community. The author revealed that the song was "despised '' for what it was not: "a rock record, a critique of the political policies that created the famine, a way of finding out how and why famines occur, an all - inclusive representation of the entire worldwide spectrum of post-Presley popular music ''. Marsh revealed that he felt some of the criticisms were right, while others were silly. He claimed that despite the sentimentality of the song, "We Are the World '' was a large - scale pop event with serious political overtones.
"We Are the World '' was recognized with several awards following its release. At the 1986 Grammy Awards, the song and its accompanying music video won four awards: Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Music Video, Short Form. The music video was awarded two honors at the 1985 MTV Video Music Awards. It collected the awards for Best Group Video and Viewer 's Choice. People 's Choice Awards recognized "We Are the World '' with the Favorite New Song award in 1986. In the same year, the American Music Awards named "We Are the World '' "Song of the Year '', and honored organizer Harry Belafonte with the Award of Appreciation. Collecting his award, Belafonte thanked Ken Kragen, Quincy Jones, and "the two artists who, without their great gift would not have inspired us in quite the same way as we were inspired, Mr. Lionel Richie and Mr. Michael Jackson ''. Following the speech, the majority of USA for Africa reunited on stage, closing the ceremony with "We Are the World ''.
"We Are the World '' was promoted with a music video, a video cassette, and several other items made available to the public, including books, posters, shirts and buttons. All proceeds from the sale of official USA for Africa merchandise went directly to the famine relief fund. All of the merchandise sold well; the video cassette -- entitled We Are the World: The Video Event -- documented the making of the song, and became the ninth best - selling home video of 1985. All of the video elements were produced by Howard G. Malley and Craig B. Golin along with April Lee Grebb as the production supervisor.
The music video showed the recording of "We Are the World '', and drew criticism from some. Michael Jackson joked before filming, "People will know it 's me as soon as they see the socks. Try taking footage of Bruce Springsteen 's socks and see if anyone knows who they belong to. '' Jackson was also criticized for filming and recording his solo piece privately, away from the other artists.
The song was also promoted with a special edition of the American magazine Life. The publication had been the only media outlet permitted inside A&M Recording Studios on the night of January 28, 1985. All other press organizations were barred from reporting the events leading up to and during "We Are the World '' 's recording. Life ran a cover story of the recording session in its April 1985 edition of the monthly magazine. Seven members of USA for Africa were pictured on the cover: Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Cyndi Lauper, Lionel Richie, Michael Jackson, Tina Turner and Willie Nelson. Inside the magazine were photographs of the "We Are the World '' participants working and taking breaks.
"We Are the World '' received worldwide radio coverage in the form of an international simultaneous broadcast later that year. Upon spinning the song on their local stations, Georgia radio disc jockeys, Bob Wolf and Don Briscar came up with the idea for a worldwide simulcast. They called hundreds of radio and satellite stations asking them to participate. On the morning of April 5, 1985 (Good Friday of that year) at 10: 25 am, over 8000 radio stations simultaneously broadcast the song around the world. As the song was broadcast, hundreds of people sang along on the steps of St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York. The simultaneous radio broadcast of "We Are the World '' was repeated again the following Good Friday.
"We Are the World '' gained further promotion and coverage on May 25, 1986, when it was played during a major benefit event held throughout the US. Hands Across America -- USA for Africa 's follow - up project -- was an event in which millions of people formed a human chain across the US. The event was held to draw attention to hunger and homelessness in the United States. "We Are the World '' 's co-writer, Michael Jackson, had wanted his song to be the official theme for the event. The other board members of USA for Africa outvoted the singer, and it was instead decided that a new song would be created and released for the event, titled "Hands Across America ''. When released, the new song did not achieve the level of success that "We Are the World '' did, and the decision to use it as the official theme for the event led to Jackson -- who co-owned the publishing rights to "We Are the World '' -- resigning from the board of directors of USA for Africa.
Four months after the release of "We Are the World '', USA for Africa had taken in almost $10.8 million (equivalent to $24 million today). The majority of the money came from record sales within the US. Members of the public also donated money -- almost $1.3 million within the same time period. In May 1985, USA for Africa officials estimated that they had sold between $45 million and $47 million worth of official merchandise around the world. Organizer Ken Kragen announced that they would not be distributing all of the money at once. Instead, he revealed that the foundation would be looking into finding a long - term solution for Africa 's problems. "We could go out and spend it all in one shot. Maybe we 'd save some lives in the short term but it would be like putting a Band - Aid over a serious wound. '' Kragen noted that experts had predicted that it would take at least 10 to 20 years to make a slight difference to Africa 's long - term problems.
In June 1985, the first USA for Africa cargo jet carrying food, medicine and clothing departed for Ethiopia and Sudan. It stopped en route in New York, where 15,000 T - shirts were added to the cargo. Included in the supplies were high - protein biscuits, high - protein vitamins, medicine, tents, blankets and refrigeration equipment. Harry Belafonte, representing the USA for Africa musicians, visited Sudan in the same month. The trip was his last stop on a four - nation tour of Africa. Tanzanian Prime Minister Salim Ahmed Salim greeted and praised Belafonte, telling him, "I personally and the people of Tanzania are moved by this tremendous example of human solidarity. ''
One year after the release of "We Are the World '', organizers noted that $44.5 million had been raised for USA for Africa 's humanitarian fund. They stated that they were confident that they would reach an initial set target of $50 million (equivalent to $109 million in 2017). By October 1986, it was revealed that their $50 million target had been met and exceeded; CBS Records gave USA for Africa a check for $2.5 million, drawing the total amount of money to $51.2 million. USA for Africa 's Hands Across America event had also raised a significant amount of money -- approximately $24.5 million for the hungry in the US.
Since its release, "We Are the World '' has raised over $63 million (equivalent to $138 million today) for humanitarian causes. Ninety percent of the money was pledged to African relief, both long and short term. The long - term initiative included efforts in birth control and food production. The remaining 10 percent of funds was earmarked for domestic hunger and homeless programs in the US. From the African fund, over 70 recovery and development projects were launched in seven African nations. Such projects included aid in agriculture, fishing, water management, manufacturing and reforestation. Training programs were also developed in the African countries of Mozambique, Senegal, Chad, Mauritania, Burkina Faso and Mali.
Elias Kifle Maraim Beyene, a survivor from Ethiopia being asked about his memory of Michael Jackson after his death remembers: "I wo n't ever forget Michael Jackson because his contribution to the song We are the World had a very significant effect on my life. I am 50 now but 25 years ago I was living in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, which at that time was suffering from a long drought and famine. It was a terrible situation. Lots of people became sick and many more died. Around one million people in all were killed by the famine. In 1984 Michael Jackson, along with a number of other leading musicians, made the song We are the World to raise money for Africa. We received a lot of aid from the world and I was one of those who directly benefitted from it. The wheat flour that was distributed to the famine victims was different to the usual cereal we bought at the market. We baked a special bread from it. The local people named the bread after the great artist and it became known as Michael Bread. It was soft and delicious.
When you have been through such hard times you never forget events like this. If you speak to anyone who was in Addis Ababa at that time they will all know what Michael Bread is and I know I will remember it for the rest of my life. (...) ''
"We Are the World '' has been performed live by members of USA for Africa on several occasions both together and individually. One of the earliest such performances came in 1985, during the rock music concert Live Aid, which ended with more than 100 musicians singing the song on stage. Harry Belafonte and Lionel Richie made surprise appearances for the live rendition of the song. Michael Jackson would have joined the artists, but was "working around the clock in the studio on a project that he 's made a major commitment to '', according to his press agent, Norman Winter.
An inaugural celebration was held for US President - elect Bill Clinton in January 1993. The event was staged by Clinton 's Hollywood friends at the Lincoln Memorial and drew hundreds of thousands of people. Aretha Franklin, LL Cool J, Michael Bolton and Tony Bennett were among some of the musicians in attendance. Said Jones, "I 've never seen so many great performers come together with so much love and selflessness. '' The celebration included a performance of "We Are the World '', which involved Clinton, his daughter Chelsea, and his wife Hillary singing the song along with USA for Africa 's Kenny Rogers, Diana Ross and Michael Jackson. The New York Times ' Edward Rothstein commented on the event, stating, "The most enduring image may be of Mr. Clinton singing along in ' We Are the World ', the first President to aspire, however futilely, to hipness. ''
As a prelude to his song "Heal the World '', "We Are the World '' was performed as an interlude during two of Michael Jackson 's tours, the Dangerous World Tour from 1992 to 1993 and the HIStory World Tour from 1996 to 1997. Jackson briefly perform the song with a chorus at the 2006 World Music Award in London, in his last live public performance. Jackson planned to use the song for his This Is It comeback concerts at The O2 Arena in London from 2009 to 2010, but the shows were cancelled due to his sudden death.
Michael Jackson died in June 2009, after suffering a cardiac arrest. His memorial service was held several days later on July 7, and was reported to have been viewed by more than three billion people. The finale of the event featured group renditions of the Jackson anthems "We Are the World '' and "Heal the World ''. The singalong of "We Are the World '' was led by Darryl Phinnessee, who had worked with Jackson since the late 1980s. It also featured co-writer Lionel Richie and Jackson 's family, including his children. Following the performance, "We Are the World '' re-entered the US charts for the first time since its 1985 release. The song debuted at number 50 on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs chart.
On January 12, 2010, Haiti was struck by a magnitude - 7.0 earthquake, the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years. The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port - au - Prince. Over 230,000 civilians have been confirmed dead by the Haitian government because of the disaster and around 300,000 have been injured. Approximately 1.2 million people are homeless and it has been reported that the lack of temporary shelter may lead to the outbreak of disease.
To raise money for earthquake victims, a new celebrity version of "We Are the World '' was recorded on February 1, 2010, and released on February 12, 2010. Over 75 musicians were involved in the remake, which was recorded in the same studio as the 1985 original. The new version features revised lyrics as well as a rap segment pertaining to Haiti. Michael Jackson 's younger sister Janet duets with her late brother on the track, as per a request from their mother Katherine. In the video and on the track, archive material of Michael Jackson is used from the original 1985 recording.
On February 20, 2010, a non-celebrity remake, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube Edition) '', was posted to the video sharing website YouTube. Internet personality and singer - songwriter Lisa Lavie conceived and organized the Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world. Lavie 's 2010 YouTube version, a cover of the 1985 original, excludes the rap segment and minimizes the Auto - tune that characterizes the 2010 celebrity remake. Another 2010 remake of the original is the Spanish - language "Somos El Mundo ''. It was written by Emilio Estefan and his wife Gloria Estefan, and produced by Emilio, Quincy Jones and Univision Communications, the company that funded the project.
"We Are the World '' has been recognized as a politically important song, which "affected an international focus on Africa that was simply unprecedented ''. It has been credited with creating a climate in which musicians from around the world felt inclined to follow. According to The New York Times ' Stephen Holden, since the release of "We Are the World '', it has been noted that movement has been made within popular music to create songs that address humanitarian concerns. "We Are the World '' was also influential in subverting the way music and meaning were produced, showing that musically and racially diverse musicians could work together both productively and creatively. Ebony described the January 28 recording session, in which Quincy Jones brought together a multi-racial group, as being "a major moment in world music that showed we can change the world ''. "We Are the World '', along with Live Aid and Farm Aid, demonstrated that rock music had become more than entertainment, but a political and social movement. Journalist Robert Palmer noted that such songs and events had the ability to reach people around the world, send them a message, and then get results.
Since the release of "We Are the World '', and the Band Aid single that influenced it, numerous songs have been recorded in a similar fashion, with the intent to aid disaster victims throughout the world. One such example involved a supergroup of Latin musicians billed as "Hermanos del Tercer Mundo '', or "Brothers of the Third World ''. Among the supergroup of 62 recording artists were Julio Iglesias, José Feliciano and Sérgio Mendes. Their famine relief song was recorded in the same studio as "We Are the World ''. Half of the profits raised from the charity single was pledged to USA for Africa. The rest of the money was to be used for impoverished Latin American countries. Another notable example is the 1989 cover of the Deep Purple song "Smoke on the Water '' by a supergroup of hard rock, prog rock, and heavy metal musicians collaborating as Rock Aid Armenia to raise money for victims of the devastating 1988 Armenian earthquake.
The 20th anniversary of "We Are the World '' was celebrated in 2005. Radio stations around the world paid homage to USA for Africa 's creation by simultaneously broadcasting the charity song. In addition to the simulcast, the milestone was marked by the release of a two - disc DVD called We Are the World: The Story Behind the Song. Ken Kragen asserted that the reason behind the simulcast and DVD release was not for USA for Africa to praise themselves for doing a good job, but to "use it to do some more good (for the original charity). That 's all we care about accomplishing. '' Harry Belafonte also commented on the 20th anniversary of the song. The entertainer acknowledged that "We Are the World '' had "stood the test of time ''; anyone old enough to remember it can still at least hum along.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what book did eve give to jennifer on days of our lives | Frankie Brady - Wikipedia
Frankie Brady (Born Francois Von Leuschner) is a fictional character on the American soap opera Days of Our Lives.
The role of Frankie was played by veteran Emmy Award - winning actor Billy Warlock from July 25, 1986 to October 5, 1988, from November 2, 1990 to July 12, 1991 and from June 26, 2005 to November 24, 2006. In 1990, Christopher Saavedra played the character in a flashback sequence.
Frankie, along with his younger "brother '' Max were adopted by the Brady clan in the mid-1980s. Frankie is now a lawyer, living in Washington D.C.
Frankie and whom he claimed to be his younger brother Max (which would eventually be revealed this was not the case) first appeared in Salem in 1986 as a homeless teenager and child. Shawn and Caroline Brady immediately took them in, and Steve Johnson became a mentor to Frankie as well. Soon afterward, Frankie met Jennifer Horton, and although he had feelings for her he assumed she was out of his reach not only because of his background, but she was dating the high school jock Glenn Gallagher.
Toward the middle of that school year, Glenn went undercover to help the police department capture the person responsible for giving the kids drugs; unfortunately, Frankie was accused of being the narc by their peers and harassed accordingly, until Glenn 's anonymity was revealed upon learning his football coach was the drug dealer. Throughout the remainder of the school year Jennifer and Frankie became close friends, which was one of the factors that put a strain on her relationship with Glenn. Max was shot during the course of the drug dealing sting, and this caused a strain between Jennifer, Frankie and Glenn. When the Salem High kids traveled out of town on Spring Break, Jennifer broke up with Glenn after she refused to have sex with him. Because of subsequent harassment by Glenn and their peers, Jennifer and Frankie decided to leave the trip early. While on their way back to Salem, however, Frankie was videotaping Jennifer in a convenience store when the cashier was shot and killed in the background. Although they initially managed to escape, Frankie and Jennifer were soon caught by the shooter, but they were eventually able to escape again and provide the police department with the videocassette.
In June 1987 Frankie graduated from Salem High School as the valedictorian of his class. Not long afterward, Shawn and Caroline legally adopted him and Max. By then, Frankie and Jennifer were becoming close but neither was willing to admit his or her feelings to each other. It was not until after they helped their friend Sasha Roberts, who was involved with Nick Corelli 's prostitution ring that Frankie and Jennifer came clean with each other, at which point they started their relationship.
In September 1987 Jennifer 's father Bill Horton returned to Salem with news that Jennifer 's mother, Laura Horton was in a mental hospital. Fearing she would inherit her mother 's illness, Jennifer broke up with Frankie without explanation. As a diversion, and also due to his desire to help others, Frankie began volunteering at the college 's teen help line run by Paula Carson. During this time period Frankie often received phone calls from a girl who called herself "Emily, '' who actually turned out to be Eve Donovan, which Frankie learned when she was hospitalized after being slashed in the face by a john. Frankie continued to reach out to Eve, even though at the time her main intentions were to invoke pity from him.
Jennifer eventually overcame her fears of becoming ill, but not before Frankie had sex with Paula Carson in her apartment after she had revealed her husband had committed suicide. After he and Jennifer reconciled, Frankie and Paula agreed to keep their one - night stand a secret. However, Eve learned of this, and in an attempt to break Frankie and Jennifer up wrote an anonymous article in the paper; although Eve did not expose Frankie, she did Paula, and Frankie admitted to Jennifer he was the guy who had slept with her. Jennifer broke up with him again, but before long she forgave him and once again they resumed their relationship.
During the summer of 1988 a mysterious man came to town, which led Frankie to admit to Jennifer that Max was not his biological brother and that the "mystery man '' was Max 's abusive father, Trent. Frankie left town with Max, and Jennifer, not knowing whom Trent was, developed a friendship with him as he had hoped she would give him information on where Frankie and Max were. After Frankie and Max had gotten in a car accident, Trent 's identity was exposed, but he chose not to pursue the custody of Max and left town.
Frankie left Salem in September 1988, after he was accepted into Columbia University.
Frankie was reintroduced in November 1990 as François Von Leuschner, the biological brother of Katerina Von Leuschner, better known as Carly Manning, Jennifer 's old friend from boarding school; furthermore, it was revealed he had first come to Salem in 1986 per request by Carly to look out for Jennifer and left in 1988 because Jennifer was falling in love with him and he knew they could not be in a committed relationship. At the time of his 1990 return, Jennifer and Frankie were among several people kidnapped by Lawrence Alamain when Lawrence forced Jennifer into marrying him and subsequently raped her. Frankie 's true identity was revealed to Jennifer after everyone kidnapped managed to escape. Although initially angered by this, Jennifer soon forgave Frankie and allowed him to move in with her as friends only. During this time Frankie continues to prove his devotion to Jennifer by giving up his Von Leuschner inheritance to Lawrence. In exchange, Lawrence agreed to divorce Jennifer. Frankie is also the first person that Jennifer tells about the rape. He promises Jennifer that he will always be her friend.
Frankie and Jennifer 's friendship was a significant aversion to Eve Donovan, who still had feelings for him herself. Furthermore, Frankie would not allow himself to feel sorry for her as he had in the past. Frankie did, however, continue to reach out to Eve on the conditions that she would not harass Jennifer nor try to invoke sympathy from him. After Eve was accused of killing Nick Corelli she, Jennifer, Frankie and Jack took a train trip in an attempt to recover the murder weapon and prove her innocence, and it was during this time Frankie and Eve began to develop as a couple.
Frankie left Salem with Eve in July 1991 to go live in Africa.
Frankie eventually returned to Salem in the summer of 2005 (without Eve), keeping an eye on his younger brother Max. He and Max soon moved into the garage apartment at Jack and Jennifer 's (recently vacated by Patrick Lockhart), and it became clear (to viewers) that Frankie was not over Jennifer. It was discovered when Frankie accidentally found a letter written by Jenn 20 years ago that Jenn did love him very much when they were teenagers. Jenn tried to explain the letter and it ended up causing Frankie to break down in tears. Jenn started to cry herself. They both managed to pull themselves together, pushing that into the back of their minds.
Frankie was initially concerned about Max 's romantic involvement with their niece, Chelsea, but his storyline soon centered around his now close friend Jack Deveraux when he learned that Jack was dying and Jack wants him to look after Jennifer when he passes. Frankie finally agreed, and stayed, if only to keep trying to convince Jack to tell Jen about his seemingly fatal illness. Jack insisted he wants to kept it quiet, claiming it is to save his family the slow angst of watching him die.
At some point during the winter of 2005, Jack disappeared, and everyone assumed he was dead after finding his car went over an embankment near a river, even though they did not find Jack 's body. Frankie was torn over keeping Jack 's promise, or letting Jennifer deal on her own, with the help of her family; he finally decided on the latter, and went to leave town. But a fall on some ice resulting in a broken leg ends up keeping Frankie in Salem, and he and Jen mourn Jack together, eventually growing closer over the next few months.
Cut to summer 2006, Jen and Frankie are about to get married, while we find out that the disappearance of Jack was because he snuck off to a private hospital somewhere to die on his own. Except he is not dead yet, and he found his long - lost brother Steve, who was also thought to be dead, except now he has no memory of being Jack 's brother. For their own reasons, they get each other to go back to Salem together. They end up at the church, and Jack accidentally crashes Jen and Frankie 's wedding...
Over the next few months, Jen, Jack, and Frankie lived together, and Frankie uses his connections to try to find a cure for Jack, insisting they are not letting him die so easily this time. Meanwhile, Jen angsts over her old feelings for Jack and her new commitment to Frankie. The three are stuck in rare type of triangle in which all three really care about each other, and just do n't want to let go.
But finally, it seemed that Jack is completely cured, thanks to Frankie 's research and treatments at the hospital and what not. Jack and Jen went on some reporting assignment, and get kidnapped, and amidst the adventure of escaping, rediscover their feelings for each other.
After getting back to Salem, Jack and Jen were in the hospital for the last time - Jack is cleared to go home. Jennifer has made her choice, and she and Jack have a tearful parting with Frankie, who is understanding as he always knew Jack was her number one, and although it breaks his heart, he knows she 'll be happy, and that 's all that ever mattered.
Later, in September 2006, Jack and Jen accepted a job in London, England, and although Frankie stayed in Salem a little while longer to help with some court cases, he soon left on Thanksgiving night 2006, to work at a firm in Washington, D.C.
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who was supposed to be on the titanic | RMS Titanic - wikipedia
RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early hours of 15 April 1912, after colliding with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. It was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster.
Titanic was under the command of Capt. Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- about half the number on board, and one third of her total capacity -- due to outdated maritime safety regulations. The ship carried 16 lifeboat davits which could lower three lifeboats each, for a total of 48 boats. However, Titanic carried only a total of 20 lifeboats, four of which were collapsible and proved hard to launch during the sinking.
After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived and brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors.
The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers.
The wreck of Titanic was discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Thousands of artefacts have been recovered and displayed at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk. The final survivor of the sinking, Millvina Dean, aged two months at the time, died in 2009 at the age of 97.
The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liners -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).
The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee.
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.
Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.
All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:
Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp. The output of the steam turbine was 16,000 hp. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.
The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.
They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.
Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.
Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.
The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo.
Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).
The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.
Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.
The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1,000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.
The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house.
Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''.
Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities.
The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers.
Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period.
Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.
One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.
At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.
Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily.
The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,800 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork.
Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern.
Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.
Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.
Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned.
The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany.
The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.
The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.
One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast.
The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.
Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.
Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable exterior difference was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. Extensive changes were made to B Deck on Titanic as the promenade space in this deck, which had proven unpopular on Olympic was converted into additional First Class cabins, including two opulent parlour suites with their own private promenade spaces. The À la Carte restaurant was also enlarged and the Café Parisien, an entirely new feature which did not exist on Olympic, was added. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg.
Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.
The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, her turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours she arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.
Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.
In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.
Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship.
White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911.
Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April.
Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer.
Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators.
Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,500 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 320 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.
Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.
Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.
Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them (with those who perished marked with a dagger †) were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV † and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim †, painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet †, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus † and his wife Ida †, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen, writer and historian Archibald Gracie, cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer † with his wife Marian and son Jack, George Dunton Widener † with his wife Eleanor and son Harry †, Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes, Mr. † and Mrs. Charles M. Hays, Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper, Mr. † and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas, Mr. † and Mrs. George D. Wick, Mr. † and Mrs. Henry B. Harris, Mr. † and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson, Mr. † and Mrs. † Hudson J.C. Allison, Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop, noted architect Edward Austin Kent †, brewery heir Harry Molson †, tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead †, journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum, Philadelphia and New York socialite Edith Corse Evans †, wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza, French sculptor Paul Chevré (fr), author Jacques Futrelle † with his wife May, silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline, Alfons Simonius - Blumer, Swiss Army Colonel and banker, president of the Swiss Bankverein, James A. Hughes 's daughter Eloise, banker Robert Williams Daniel, the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin (de), Arthur Wellington Ross 's son John H. Ross, Washington Roebling 's nephew Washington A. Roebling II, Andrew Saks 's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband Edgar Joseph Meyer † (son of Marc Eugene Meyer), senator William A. Clark 's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife Virginia, great - great - grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife, John S. Pillsbury 's honeymooning grandson John P. Snyder and wife, Nelle, Dorothy Parker 's New York manufacturer uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth, among others.
Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.
The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 700 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 79,000 today).
Titanic 's maiden voyage began on Wednesday, 10 April 1912. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving at 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. In all, 920 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton -- 179 First Class, 247 Second Class, and 494 Third Class. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.
The maiden voyage began at noon, as scheduled. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later, as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and Oceanic of the White Star Line, the latter of which would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.
After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic disembarked the Southampton pilot at the Nab Lightship and headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. There, 274 additional passengers were taken aboard -- 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore, having booked only a cross-Channel passage. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy.
At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown -- three First Class, seven Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic.
Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 59 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.
From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold.
The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. The fire was over on 14 April. There has been some speculation and discussion as to whether this fire and attempts to extinguish it may have made the ship more vulnerable to its fate.
Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. ''
At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper.
Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard.
At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Sudden immersion into freezing water typically causes death within minutes, either from cardiac arrest, uncontrollable breathing of water, or cold incapacitation (not, as commonly believed, from hypothermia), and almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people.
Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls.
About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley.
RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian.
Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town.
Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.
Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 82,000 today), divided among the crew members.
The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.
In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 91,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 680,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.
Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 41,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented.
The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner.
The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent.
Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.
Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''.
The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.
On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.
One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.
Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.
Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.
The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.
The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. While the use of Marconi wireless system did not achieve the result of bringing a rescue ship to the Titanic before it sank, the use of wireless did bring the Carpathia in time to rescue some of the survivors who otherwise would have perished due to exposure.
The water temperature in the area where Titanic sank, which was well below normal, also contributed to the rapid death of many passengers during the sinking. Water temperature readings taken around the time of the accident were reported to be 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Typical water temperatures were normally in the mid-40 ° F range during mid-April. The coldness of the water was a critical factor, often causing death within minutes for many of those in the water.
Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women.
The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911.
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.
In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.
The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1,500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June, one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.
Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded.
The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.
Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.
The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there.
Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. In 2006, it was estimated that within 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic would eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.
Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.
On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.
After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.
Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships.
Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published.
The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.
The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic, the most prominent is in Belfast, the ship 's birthplace (see next section).
RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins.
In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.
Only recently has the significance of Titanic most notably been given by Northern Ireland where it was built by Harland and Wolff in the capital city, Belfast. While the rest of the world embraced the glory and tragedy of Titanic, in its birth city, Titanic remained a taboo subject throughout the 20th century. The sinking brought tremendous grief and was a blow to the city 's pride. But its shipyard was also a place many Catholics regarded as hostile. In the latter half of the century, during a 30 - year sectarian conflict Titanic was a reminder of the lack of civil rights that in part contributed towards The Troubles. While the fate of Titanic remained a well - known story within local households throughout the 20th century, commercial investment around RMS Titanic 's legacy was modest because of these issues.
After The Troubles in 1998, the number of overseas tourists visiting Northern Ireland dramatically increased to 30 million (100 % rise by 2008). It was subsequently identified in the ' Northern Ireland Tourism Board 's Strategic Framework for Action 2004 -- 2007 ' that the significance of and interest in Titanic globally (partly due to the 1997 film ' Titanic ') was not being fully exploited as a tourist attraction. Thus, Titanic Belfast ® was spearheaded, along with some smaller projects, such as a Titanic memorial.
In 2012 on the ship 's centenary, Titanic Belfast visitor attraction was opened on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. It was Northern Ireland 's second most visited tourist attraction with almost 700,000 visitors in 2016.
Despite over 1,600 ships being built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast Harbour, Queen 's Island became renamed after its most famous ship; Titanic Quarter in 1995. In 2005 Titanic Quarter Ltd launched one of the world 's largest urban - waterfront regeneration projects. Today Titanic Quarter is Northern Ireland 's most esteemed site; a major hub of world - class education, employment, entertainment and tourist facilities. Once a sensitive story, Titanic is now considered one of Northern Ireland 's most iconic and uniting symbols.
There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.
A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism.
The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked.
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Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W / 41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W / 41.73250; - 49.94694
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when does summer occur in the southern hemisphere | Summer solstice - wikipedia
The summer solstice (or estival solstice), also known as midsummer, occurs when a planet 's rotational axis, or geographical pole on either its northern or its Southern Hemisphere, is most inclined toward the star that it orbits. On the summer solstice, Earth 's maximum axial tilt toward the Sun is 23.44 °. (Likewise, the Sun 's declination from the celestial equator is + 23.44 ° in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere and − 23.44 ° in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere.) This happens twice each year (once in each hemisphere), when the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole.
The summer solstice occurs during the hemisphere 's summer. This is the June solstice in the Northern Hemisphere and the December solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on the shift of the calendar, the summer solstice occurs some time between June 20 and June 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and between December 20 and December 23 each year in the Southern Hemisphere. The same dates in the opposite hemisphere are referred to as the winter solstice.
As seen from a geographic pole, the Sun reaches its highest altitude of the year on the summer solstice. It can be solar noon only along that longitude, which at that moment lies in the direction of the Sun from the pole. For other longitudes, it is not noon. Noon has either passed or has yet to come. Hence the notion of a solstice day is useful. The term is colloquially used like "midsummer '' to refer to the day on which solstice occurs. The summer solstice day has the longest period of daylight, except in the polar regions, where daytime remains continuous for 24 hours every day during a period ranging from a few days to six months around the summer solstice.
Although the summer solstice is the longest day of the year for that hemisphere, the dates of earliest sunrise and latest sunset vary by a few days. This is related to the fact that the earth orbits the sun in an ellipse and its orbital speed varies slightly during the year. Although the sun appears at its highest altitude from the viewpoint of an observer in outer space or a terrestrial observer outside tropical latitudes, the highest altitude occurs on a different day for locations in the tropics, specifically the sun is directly overhead (maximum 90 degrees elevation) at the subsolar point. This day occurs twice each year for all locations between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn because the overhead sun appears to cross a given latitude once before the day of the solstice and once afterward. For example, Lahaina Noon occurs in May and July in Hawaii. See solstice article. For all observers, the apparent position of the noon sun is at its most northerly point on the June solstice and most southerly on the December solstice.
2016 was the first time in nearly 70 years that a full moon and the Northern Hemisphere 's summer solstice occurred on the same day. The 2016 summer solstice 's full moon rose just as the Sun set.
Worldwide, interpretation of the event has varied among cultures, but most recognize the event in some way with holidays, festivals, and rituals around that time with themes of religion or fertility. In some regions, the summer solstice is seen as the beginning of summer and the end of spring. In other cultural conventions, the solstice is closer to the middle of summer.
Solstice is derived from the Latin words sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still).
The following tables contain information on the length of the day on the summer solstice of the northern hemisphere and winter solstice of the southern hemisphere (i.e. June solstice). The data was collected from the website of the Finnish Meteorological Institute on 20 June 2016 as well as from certain other websites.
The data is arranged geographically and within the tables from the longest day to the shortest one.
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who pays for homeowners policy of title insurance | Title insurance - wikipedia
Title insurance is a form of indemnity insurance predominantly found in the United States which insures against financial loss from defects in title to real property and from the invalidity or unenforceability of mortgage loans. The vast majority of title insurance policies are written on land within the United States. Unlike some land registration systems in countries outside the US, the US states ' recorder of deeds generally do not guarantee indefeasible title to those recorded titles. Title insurance will defend against a lawsuit attacking the title, or reimburse the insured for the actual monetary loss incurred up to the dollar amount of insurance provided by the policy.
The first title insurance company, the Law Property Assurance and Trust Society, was formed in Pennsylvania in 1853. Typically the real property interests insured are fee simple ownership or a mortgage. However, title insurance can be purchased to insure any interest in real property, including an easement, lease or life estate.
There are two types of policies -- owner and lender. Just as lenders require fire insurance and other types of insurance coverage to protect their investment, nearly all institutional lenders also require title insurance (a loan policy) to protect their interest in the collateral of loans secured by real estate. Some mortgage lenders, especially non-institutional lenders, may not require title insurance. Buyers purchasing properties for cash or with a mortgage lender often want title insurance (an owner policy) as well. A loan policy provides no coverage or benefit for the buyer / owner and so the decision to purchase an owner policy is independent of the lender 's decision to require a loan policy.
Title insurance is available in many other countries, such as Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Mexico, New Zealand, Japan, China, Korea and throughout Europe. However, while a substantial number of properties located in these countries are insured by U.S. title insurers, they do not constitute a significant share of the real estate transactions in those countries. They also do not constitute a large share of U.S. title insurers ' revenues. In many cases these are properties to be used for commercial purposes by U.S. companies doing business abroad, or properties financed by U.S lenders. The U.S. companies involved buy title insurance to obtain the security of a U.S. insurer backing up the evidence of title that they receive from the other country 's land registration system, and payment of legal defense costs if the title is challenged.
Prior to the invention of title insurance, buyers in real estate transactions bore sole responsibility for ensuring the validity of the land title held by the seller. If the title were later deemed invalid or found to be fraudulent, the buyer lost his investment.
In 1868, the case of Watson v. Muirhead was heard by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. Plaintiff Watson had lost his investment in a real estate transaction as the result of a prior lien on the property. Defendant Muirhead, the conveyancer, had discovered the lien prior to the sale but told Watson the title was clear after his lawyer had (erroneously) determined that the lien was not valid.
The courts ruled that Muirhead (and others in similar situations) was not liable for mistakes based on professional opinions. As a result, in 1874, the Pennsylvania legislature passed an act allowing for the incorporation of title insurance companies.
Joshua Morris, a conveyancer in Philadelphia, and several colleagues met on March 28, 1876 to incorporate the first title insurance company. The new firm, Real Estate Title Insurance Company of Philadelphia, would "insure the purchasers of real estate and mortgages against losses from defective titles, liens and encumbrances, '' and that "through these facilities, transfer of real estate and real estate securities can be made more speedily and with greater security than heretofore. ''
Morris ' aunt purchased the first policy, valued at $1,500, to cover a home on North 43rd Street in Philadelphia.
There are two types of title systems used worldwide: Land registration and land recording.
Most of the industrialized world uses land registration systems for the transfer of land titles or interests in them. Under these systems, the government determines title ownership and encumbrances using its land registration; with only a few exceptions, the government 's determination is conclusive. Governmental errors lead to monetary compensation to the person damaged by the error but that aggrieved party usually can not recover the property. The Torrens title system is the basis for land registration systems in several common law countries. Nineteen jurisdictions in the United States, such as Minnesota and Massachusetts, adopted a form of this system between 1896 and 1917, however it fell out of favor after single judgement in Imperial County, CA, bankrupted the state 's title indemnification fund, and the vast majority of U.S. states have opted for a system of document recording in which no governmental official makes any determination of who owns the title or whether the instruments transferring it are valid.
In the recording system, each time a land title transaction takes place, the parties record the transfer instrument with a local government recorder located in the jurisdiction (usually the county) where the land lies. The government indexes the instrument by the names of the grantor (transferor) and the grantee (transferee) and photographs it so any member of the public can find and examine it. If such a transaction goes unrecorded for any reason or length of time, an unscrupulous grantor could sell the property to another grantee. In many states, the grantee whose transaction is recorded first becomes the legal owner, and any other would - be buyers are left without recourse...
The advantage of the recording system is:
Under this system, to determine who has title, one must:
Title insurers conduct a title search on public records before they agree to insure the purchaser or mortgagee of land. Specifically, after a real estate sales contract has been executed and escrow opened, a title professional will search the public records to look for any problems with the home 's title. This search typically involves a review of land records going back many years. More than one - third of all title searches reveal a title problem that title professionals will insist on fixing before the transaction closes. For instance, a previous owner may have had minor construction done on the property, but never fully paid the contractor (resulting in a mechanic 's lien), or the previous owner may have failed to pay local or state taxes (resulting in a tax lien). Title professionals seek to resolve problems like these before the transaction closes, since otherwise, their employer, the title insurer, will be required to fix such title defects by paying such unpaid fees or taxes.
Title insurance policies are fairly uniform, and backed by statutory reserves, which is especially important in large commercial real estate transactions where the buyer and their lender have a lot of money at stake. The insurer also pays for the defense of its insured in legal contests.
At least 20 U.S. states have experimented with Torrens title or other title registration systems at one time or another, but most have retreated to title recording under pressure from title insurers or from lack of interest. According to Karl Llewellyn, one Torrens title on one lot in New York City can render the entire block unavailable for large - scale improvement (i.e., skyscrapers); no lender will finance the purchase of such a lot because no New York title insurer will guarantee a Torrens title. The U.S. title insurance industry has successfully opposed land registration systems by saying that they are vulnerable to fraud (a severe problem in most land registration jurisdictions) and that an inherently contingent property system more effectively protects property rights. While it is possible to fortify land registration systems to prevent the registration of forged deeds, the necessary countermeasures are complex and expensive. A 2007 book attacking the American title insurance "cartel '' acknowledged that "(m) ore extensive use of Torrens certification would require setting up a special judicially supervised bureaucracy. ''
Standardized forms of title insurance exist for owners and lenders. The lender 's policies include a form specifically for construction loans, though this is rarely used today.
The owner 's policy assures a purchaser that the title to the property is vested in that purchaser and that it is free from all defects, liens and encumbrances except those listed as exceptions in the policy or are excluded from the scope of the policy 's coverage. It also covers losses and damages suffered if the title is unmarketable. The policy also provides coverage for loss if there is no right of access to the land. Although these are the basic coverages, expanded forms of residential owner 's policies exist that cover additional items of loss.
The liability limit of the owner 's policy is typically the purchase price paid for the property. As with other types of insurance, coverages can also be added or deleted with an endorsement. There are many forms of standard endorsements to cover a variety of common issues. The premium for the policy may be paid by the seller or buyer as the parties agree. Usually a custom in a particular state or county on this matter reflects in most local real estate contracts. One should inquire about the cost of title insurance before signing a real estate contract that provides that he pay for title charges. A real estate attorney, broker, escrow officer (in the western states), or loan officer can provide detailed information as to the price of title search and insurance before the real estate contract is signed. Title insurance coverage lasts as long as the insured retains an interest in the land insured and typically no additional premium is paid after the policy is issued.
This is sometimes called a loan policy and it is issued only to mortgage lenders. Generally speaking, it follows the assignment of the mortgage loan, meaning that the policy benefits the purchaser of the loan if the loan is sold. For this reason, these policies greatly facilitate the sale of mortgages into the secondary market. That market is made up of high volume purchasers such as Fannie Mae and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation as well as private institutions.
The American Land Title Association ("ALTA '') forms are almost universally used in the country though they have been modified in some states. In general, the basic elements of insurance they provide to the lender cover losses from the following matters:
As with all of the ALTA forms, the policy also covers the cost of defending insured matters against attack.
Elements 1 and 2 are important to the lender because they cover its expectations of the title it will receive if it must foreclose its mortgage. Element 3 covers matters that will interfere with its foreclosure.
Of course, all of the policies except or exclude certain matters and are subject to various conditions.
There are also ALTA mortgage policies covering single or one - to - four family housing mortgages. These cover the elements of loss listed above plus others. Examples of the other coverages are loss from forged releases of the mortgage and loss resulting from encroachments of improvements on adjoining land onto the mortgaged property when the improvements are constructed after the loan is made.
In many states, separate policies exist for construction loans. Title insurance for construction loans require a Date Down endorsement that recognizes that the insured amount for the property has increased due to construction funds that have been vested into the property.
In the United States, the American Land Title Association (ALTA) is a national non-profit trade association representing the interests of nearly 4,500 title insurance companies, title agents, independent abstracters, title searchers and attorneys across the United States. ALTA members conduct title searches, examinations, closings, and issue title insurance that protects real property owners and mortgage lenders against losses from defects in titles.
Founded in 1907, ALTA has created standard forms of title insurance policy "jackets '' (standard terms and conditions) for Owners, Lenders and Construction Loan policies. ALTA forms are used in most, but not all, U.S. states. ALTA also offers special endorsement forms for the various policies; endorsements amend and typically broaden the coverage given under a basic title insurance policy. ALTA does not issue title insurance; it provides standardized policy and endorsement forms that most title insurers issue.
Some states, including Texas and New York, may mandate the use of forms of title insurance policy jackets and endorsements approved by the state insurance commissioner for properties located in those jurisdictions, but these forms are usually similar or identical to ALTA forms.
In addition to ALTA, the National Association of Independent Land Title Agents (NAILTA) is a national non-profit trade association that represents the interests of independent title insurance agents and independent real estate settlement professionals from across the United States. It was created by independent real estate settlement professionals to further the agenda of small business owners from within the title insurance, abstracting, surveying, and real estate community who lack representation at local, state and national levels. NAILTA is a national trade association that serves thousands of independent title and real estate professionals across the United States who collectively comprise over 60 % of the national title insurance market, and identify themselves as independent settlement service providers. NAILTA represents the interests of those independent settlement service providers who serve over 31 million real estate purchase consumers per year, who close an estimated $514.8 billion 's worth of refinance mortgages per year, and who collectively insure approximately $1.67 trillion in total national title insurance liability per year.
Title insurance differs in several respects from other types of insurance. Where most insurance is a contract where the insurer indemnifies or guarantees another party against a possible specific type of loss (such as an accident or death) at a future date, title insurance generally insures against losses caused by title problems that have their source in past events. This often results in the curing of title defects or the elimination of adverse interests from the title before a transaction takes place. Title insurance companies attempt to achieve this by searching public records to develop and document the chain of title and to detect known claims against or defects in the title to the subject property. If liens or encumbrances are found, the insurer may require that steps be taken to eliminate them (for example, obtaining a release of an old mortgage or deed of trust that has been paid off, or requiring the payoff, or satisfying involuntary liens such as abstracts of judgment and tax liens) before issuing the title policy. In the alternative, it may except from the policy 's coverage those items not eliminated. Title plants are sometimes maintained to index the public records geographically, with the goal of increasing searching efficiency and reducing claims. In some states title plants are required to index the real - property records geographically and also maintain a name file for judgments, probates and other general matters.
The explanation above discloses another difference between title insurance and other types: title insurance premiums are not principally calculated on the basis of actuarial science, as is true in most other types of insurance. Instead of correlating the probability of losses with their projected costs, title insurance seeks to eliminate the source of the losses through the use of the recording system and other underwriting practices. As a result, a relatively small fraction of title insurance premiums are used to pay insured losses. The great majority of the premiums is used to finance the title research on each piece of property and to maintain the title plants used to efficiently do that research. There is significant social utility in this approach as the result conforms with the expectations of most property purchasers and mortgage lenders. Generally, they want the real estate they purchased or lent money on to have the title condition they expected when they entered the transaction, rather than money compensation and litigation over unexpected defects. This is not to say that title insurers take no actuarial risks. There are several matters that can affect the title to land that are not disclosed by the recording system but that are covered by the policies. Some examples are deeds executed by minors or mentally incompetent persons, forged instruments (in some cases), corporate instruments executed without the proper corporate authority and errors in the public records. However, historically, these problems have not amounted to a high percentage of the losses paid by the insurers. A more significant percentage of losses paid by the insurers are the result of errors and omissions in the title examining process itself.
In an April 2007 United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report on Title Insurance, the GAO recommended that state and federal legislators and regulators improve consumers ability to shop for title insurance based on price, encourage price competition, and ensure consumers are paying reasonable prices for title insurance.
A federal law called the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act (RESPA) entitles an individual homeowner to choose a title insurance company when purchasing or refinancing residential property. Typically, homeowners do not make this decision for themselves and instead rely on their bank 's or attorney 's choice; however, the homeowner retains the right to choose a different insurer. RESPA makes it unlawful for any bank, broker, or attorney to mandate that a particular title insurance company be used. Doing so is a violation of federal law and any person or business doing so can be fined or lose its license.
Section 9 of RESPA prohibits a seller from requiring the buyer to use a particular title insurance company, either directly or indirectly, as a condition of sale. Buyers may sue a seller who violates this provision for an amount equal to three times all charges made for the title insurance. The only exception to this rule applies to commercial real estate transactions, which is not within the parameters of RESPA.
The new Good Faith Estimate (GFE) is the latest step taken by Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to protect and assist consumers. In the past, lenders had provided potential borrowers with GFEs. However, there are major differences between what borrowers had historically received and what they would receive going forward under the new HUD regulation. Four major changes stand out:
1. Lenders are now required to issue the GFE
2. The new GFE is standardized
3. The new GFE encourages consumers to shop
4. Lenders are accountable for their quotes
Again, depending on the state, region, and vendor, homeowners can save substantial money by shopping around for title insurance except in some states, such as Texas, in which the rates are codified by law. In light of the changes made by RESPA and those to the GFE, notable consumer and business publications have featured articles about the benefits of shopping around for title insurance, such as The Wall Street Journal, Kiplinger 's Personal Finance, Forbes.com, and The New York Times.
Sometimes, several businesses that offer settlement services are owned or controlled by a common corporate parent. These businesses are known as "affiliates '', while the relationship is called an affiliated business arrangement (ABA).
When a lender, real estate broker, or other participant refers his homebuyer to an affiliate for a settlement service (such as when a real estate broker refers his homebuyer to a mortgage broker affiliate), the law requires the referring party to provide an affiliated business arrangement disclosure. This disclosure informs homebuyers they are not required to use the affiliate and are free to shop for other providers.
Despite advances in technology that allow homebuyers to shop for title services, many homebuyers remain unaware that they may select their own title insurance or settlement company.
A recent survey from the Ohio Association of Independent Title Agents (OAITA), conducted from 2009 through 2010, showed when homebuyers are made fully aware of ABAs, they become uncomfortable and prefer a title company or title agent to be a third party (i.e., independent) to the transaction.
While 77 % of respondents did not independently select their settlement company, when made fully aware of the ABA relationships 50 % of respondents said they prefer a title company that does not share profits with a referral source compared to 6 % of respondents saying they prefer a title agent that shares profits with a referral source. Further, 58 % of respondents said they believe that ABAs are a conflict of interest.
The OAITA stands in stark contrast to two Harris Interactive surveys used by the Real Estate Services Providers Council in a January 2011 meeting with Federal Reserve staff to claim that homebuyers were more satisfied with the ABA settlement service providers.
Organizations such as the National Association of Independent Land Title Agents seek to restore transparency and credibility to the land title process and to preserve an objective and impartial role at the closing table to improve the consumer experience, by addressing the proliferation of controlled business arrangements and eliminating conflicts of interest between title agents and their referral sources, as well as between all real estate settlement service providers and their sources of business.
The cost of title insurance has two components: premium charges and service fees.
Title insurance premium rates are based on five cost considerations, including those related to:
Like the rates for other forms of insurance, rates for title insurance usually are regulated by state governments to ensure that premiums are not excessive, inadequate or unfairly discriminatory to the public. States have different methods of regulating title insurance rates. The types of rate regulation used include:
The rates may include discounts if title insurance is ordered within a specified time after the last policy issued or if the mortgage being insured is a refinance of an earlier mortgage. In the states employing any of these regulations, it is illegal for title insurance companies to charge a higher or lower rate than the regulated rate.
For example: In Pennsylvania there are two rates, basic rate and reissue rate. The basic rate would apply if it has been more than ten years since the last policy was issued. If less than ten years, the reissue rate applies. The reissue rate offers a discount of approximately ten percent off of the basic rate. If the transaction is a refinance, the savings can be as much as thirty percent off of the reissue rate. These rates and applicable discounts are filed with and approved by the Pennsylvania Insurance Commission.
Title insurance is substantially different from other lines of insurance because it emphasizes risk prevention rather than risk assumption. This means the majority of the premium dollar, about 80 percent, covers the work performed by title professionals, such as the search examination, curative work, policy issuance and, frequently, the settlement or closing. The remaining 20 percent covers the insurance policy, a significant portion of which is put into reserves for claims that could occur 10 or 20 years in the future. According to a 2006 survey by ALTA, title problems that required curative action were found in 36 percent of all residential real estate transactions in 2005. This was up from 25 percent in 2000, due to the booming real estate market and an increase in transactions.
In some states, the regulated premium charge does not include part of the underwriting costs necessary for the process. In those states, title insurers may also charge search or abstracting fees for searching the public records, or examination fees to compensate them for the title examination. These fees are usually not regulated and in those cases may sometimes be negotiated. In some states, regulation requires that the title insurer base its policy on the opinion of an attorney. The attorney 's fees are not regulated. They are also not part of the title insurance premium, though the title insurer may include those fees within its invoice as a convenience to the attorney rendering the opinion. Similarly, fees for closing a sale or mortgage transaction are not regulated in most states though the charge for closing may appear in the invoice disclosing the total charges for the transaction.
The title industry is highly dependent on real estate markets, which, in turn, are highly sensitive to mortgage interest rates and the overall economic well - being. During the housing bubble from 2000 through 2006, the industry 's revenue more than doubled. As the surge in real estate transactions drove up title insurance revenue -- along with a greater incidence of claims -- the economic downturn that started in 2007 pared back revenue significantly for several years. To compare, the industry reported nearly $17 billion in title insurance premiums in 2005, but volume fell to $9.6 billion in 2009.
In 2012, according to ALTA, the industry paid out about $908 million in claims, about 8.1 % percent of the $11.2 billion taken in as premiums. By comparison, the boiler insurance industry, which like title insurance requires an emphasis on inspections and risk analysis, pays 25 % of its premiums in claims. As mentioned above, professionals in the land title industry seek to prevent claims through up - front preventive measures before a policy is issued and therefore the industry 's claims ratio is different from other lines of insurance.
It should be noted that according to the statutory accounting rules for title insurance, only reported claims are reflected in the loss expense, while in other lines -- both reported and unreported claims are included in the loss expense. As a result, timing differences occur in the reporting of losses and loss - adjustment expenses for title insurance when compared to other lines. In addition, title insurance, unlike most other property / casualty exposures, has no termination date and no time limitation on filing claims.
In many states, the price of title insurance is regulated by a state insurance commission. In these states, the title insurance companies lobby state legislators and other politicians and donate to their campaigns, in the hopes of maintaining the rates high. Unlike other forms of insurance (such as life, medical, or home owners), title insurance is not paid for annually, as it has one payment for the term of the policy, which is in effect until the property is resold or refinanced.
The following discloses the relative 2012 market shares among the four U.S. national families of title insurers (Fidelity National Financial, First American, Stewart, and Old Republic), and the regional companies, i.e., those not affiliated with the national families.
As of January 2009, Fidelity National Financial held the highest market share, due to its acquisition of LandAmerica 's Commonwealth Land Title, Lawyers Title, and United Capital Title units subsequent to LandAmerica 's declaration of bankruptcy.
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