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its my house and i live here movie | It 's My Life (Bon Jovi song) - wikipedia
"It 's My Life '' is song by American rock band Bon Jovi. It was released on May 23, 2000 as the lead single from their seventh studio album, Crush (2000). The song was written and produced by Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, and Max Martin, and co-produced by Luke Ebbin.
The song peaked at number one in Austria, Belgium (Flanders), Italy, the Netherlands, Romania, Spain, and Switzerland while it charted within the top 10 across several other countries (although it only reached at number 33 in the US Billboard Hot 100). Though the band had moved away from the glam - oriented sound with 1992 's Keep the Faith, it has the distinction of making Bon Jovi one of the only bands once classified as 1980s glam metal to reach the top 40 in the 2000s, a testament to how the song managed to introduce the band to a new, younger fanbase. The song is arguably their most well known post-1980s hit single and it has been performed live at almost all shows since its release. This song appeared on Mitsubishi Motors promotional video in 2001 - 2004
The song has many classic Bon Jovi features, such as Sambora 's use of the talk box, and a line in the second verse "For Tommy and Gina, who never backed down '' refers to Tommy and Gina, a fictional working class couple that Bon Jovi and Sambora first wrote about in their 1986 hit "Livin ' on a Prayer ''.
"It 's My Life '' is also notable for its line referencing fellow New Jerseyan Frank Sinatra: "My heart is like an open highway / Like Frankie said / I did it ' My Way '. '' Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora apparently had a disagreement over those lines, with Bon Jovi recalling:
I had just come home from making U-571 and I said "Sinatra made 16 movies and toured ' til he was 80. This is my role model ''. He (Sambora) said, "You ca n't write that damn lyric. Nobody cares about Frank Sinatra but you. '' And I wrote it anyway.
"Nobody had anticipated the song ' It 's My Life ', '' noted Jon Bon Jovi in 2007. "Except us. We knew we had a hit. '' The song became an anthem that appealed to many fans. As Bon Jovi later stated: "I thought I was writing very self - indulgently about my own life and where I was in it. I did n't realize that the phrase ' It 's My Life ' would be taken as being about everyone -- by teenagers, by older guys, mechanics, whatever. ' It 's my life, and I 'm taking control. ' Everyone kind of feels that way from time to time. ''
The music video was directed by Wayne Isham. Will Estes (as Tommy) and Shiri Appleby (as Gina) are the two main characters. At the beginning, Tommy is watching a video of a Bon Jovi concert on his computer when he is ordered by his mother to take out the trash. Suddenly, Gina calls, and Tommy starts running down to his apartment and obediently takes out the trash. He then runs through the streets of Los Angeles up to the concert, getting chased by dogs, running a marathon, posing for pictures, and jackknifing a truck. The video was inspired by the film Run Lola Run. Jon Bon Jovi met Estes on the set of U-571 and chose him to be in the video. The music video features the 2nd Street Tunnel as one of the main settings.
It is the most viewed video for Bon Jovi on YouTube, with over 630 million views as of August 2018.
Major formats released for "It 's My Life '':
(Released: May 23, 2000)
(Released: 2000)
(Released: May 23, 2000)
(Released: May 23, 2000)
(Released: 2000)
(Released: January 26, 2004)
The following versions and remixes were commercially released.
A much slower, acoustic ballad version of the song is featured on Bon Jovi 's 2003 album This Left Feels Right, a collection of their greatest hits that were adapted into new formats. This version was also released as a single.
Won:
Nominated:
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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the cast of season 6 orange is the new black | Orange is the New Black (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the American comedy - drama television series Orange Is the New Black premiered on Netflix on July 27, 2018, at 12: 00 am PDT in multiple countries. It consists of thirteen episodes, each between 50 -- 84 minutes. The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum - security federal prison. The series is created and adapted for television by Jenji Kohan.
This season takes place in a maximum security prison, after the inmates incite a riot at Litchfield Penitentiary during the previous season, and the season deals with the fallout from the riot. The main story arc of the season involves a gang - like war between two cell blocks which is sparked by the feud between two sisters. Meanwhile, the guards play a fantasy sport game called "fantasy inmate ''. Several supporting characters who appeared throughout the first five seasons are absent in this season due to change in setting, but this season introduces several new characters featured in maximum security.
Suzanne hallucinates about those who were captured during the riot. Meanwhile, those who were found in the bunker have been taken to Litchfield 's maximum security prison but soon detectives interrogate everyone about Piscatella 's death, starting off with Suzanne. The girls soon face individual problems as a result of the aftermath as well as being emotionally and physically abused by the corrupt guards in the prison and facing new antagonistic inmates. The riot leaves Red frantic about her friends and wondering whether they will tell the truth or not, while Piper begins to worry about Alex after she was dragged away by guards in the chaos. Daya suffers abuse from the guards, while Gloria and Maria start a fight in the rec room, and are soon handcuffed and forced to kiss one another by the guards. Nicky struggles to deal with her father when she is forced to ask him to hire a lawyer to defend her. Piper learns that a prisoner died during the riot and fears it was Alex. Suzanne is released from questioning and brought to the prison which she realizes is not her "home '' anymore.
Federal authorities file charges over the riot, with two inmates getting life sentences for killing the guards, including Daya, who pleads guilty to second - degree murder for Humphrey. Three more will get 10 years for inciting the riot including Taystee. Meanwhile, Caputo, on paid suspension over the riot, reconnects with Figueroa but learns that she has taken his position as interim warden. Piper learns that her new cellmate, Beth, murdered her three children and that Madison "Badison '' Murphy is the C - block bully. CO Coates is revealed to have run away with Pennsatucky and hidden her in the trunk of the car, but when he drives Dixon to his sister 's, Dixon finds a road trip itinerary and -- mistaking it for a bucket list -- demands to come along. Gloria intends to frame Maria for what she did in the riot, but Ruiz tells an opposing story to the authorities; Gloria invents a religious holiday to get Blanca to corroborate her version. Black Cindy attempts to warn Taystee about the plan to frame her for Piscatella 's death, but her prints are found on the gun. Black Cindy accidentally reveals that Taystee was the one who had the gun, and the agents reveal that they will grant immunity for testimony they can use.
Linda is finally released but not before her head is shaved following a lice outbreak. She threatens to sue MCC for $10 million for her ordeal, unless they triple her salary and give her a promotion to senior vice president. In Litchfield Max, the inmates soon begin to realize the power structure that takes place among the prison with D Block being ruled by an older yet powerful inmate named Barbara, who orders others to steal the toiletries of the new inmates. It is revealed that B Block, dubbed "Florida '' for its many elderly inmates, is the mildest and thus safest place to be amidst a decade - old feud between C Block and D Block. Daya continues to receive unprovoked beatings from the guards, and an inmate named "Daddy '' tries to befriend her and gives her oxycodone for her injuries. Nicky discovers that her father is engaged to her lawyer and even has two children with her. Authorities threaten to add 70 years to Nicky 's sentence for raiding the pharmacy during the riot. Trying to warn her about Piscatella, Red sends a message to Piper ("Tall one killed in pool ''), but Piper misinterprets this to mean Alex. Devastated, Piper tells the authorities what they want to hear, that Red lured Piscatella to the pool, as does Frieda, who exchanges stares with an old enemy, Carol. Frieda is relieved to be taken to "Florida '' where she reunites with Suzanne.
Pressured to turn on Red, Nicky does not know what to do. Red, thinking she will only get a slightly shorter sentence, convinces Nicky to take the deal even if it means more time for her. Released from prison and trying to get her children out of foster care, Aleida struggles to find work and ends up hawking dietary shakes and supplements. Caputo faces a transfer to the Missouri State Penitentiary, a place so depressing the previous warden killed himself. Taystee, accused of killing Piscatella, begs Caputo for help, but he says he tried to help her during the riot and can not do anything else for her. The COs play a "Fantasy Inmate '' game where the inmates on their fantasy teams earn points for various infractions and incidents.
In retaliation for the rat prank, Badison convinces her gang to defecate on D Block 's laundry. Daddy tells her gang, suffering from opiate withdrawal, that it was C Block who ruined their drug connection. Flaca is intent on hosting a talk show on the prison radio, but must find a co-host. Flaca and Black Cindy (a.k.a. Tova) dub themselves "Flava '' and host a radio show, Flava to the Max. Gloria fears she is going through menopause and decides to follow the doctor 's advice by exercising. Taystee pleads guilty to inciting a riot but not guilty to murder and discovers activists from Black Lives Matter and the ACLU are rallying for her cause, after news of Poussey 's death spreads.
Carol holds Badison accountable for Daddy 's prank that cost them their cushy jobs, and makes her persona non grata. Badison tries to restore her status by finding a new guard to smuggle in drugs. After talking to Alex, who points out that other contraband is more valuable, she recruits Luschek. Someone tries to drown Ruiz in a toilet and, accused of trying to commit suicide, she is sent to psych, where a nurse tries to convince her to find religion. Linda returns to Lichfield in her capacity as MCC Senior VP, and Pennsatucky threatens to tell everyone she had sex with Boo unless she gets transferred to B Block. Blanca frets that she will never have a baby, and Nicky convinces her it is possible to artificially inseminate herself. Caputo and Figueroa have a real date before he leaves for Missouri, and she is surprised by her feelings. Piper discovers old photos of inmates from C Block and D Block playing kickball together. While several D Block inmates suffer from withdrawals, Daya steals Barbara 's personal stash from Daddy 's hiding place. Daddy confronts her and threatens her, but Daya, high, kisses her. Luschek and Badison smuggle in cellphones. When Badison is shivved in the yard by a junkie, she hurriedly gives a phone to Alex.
Alex is unwittingly sucked into the C Block smuggling ring. Red, who was blamed for Frieda 's bunker, is infuriated that Frieda is living the "good life '' in B Block, where they get fresh fruit, pudding and yogurt. Red discovers Carol is Frieda 's old nemesis. Now romantically involved, Daddy pushes Daya to connect with anyone she knew from minimum security at C Block in order to get opiates. Daya convinces Blanca, who is looking for help smuggling in her boyfriend Diablo 's semen. Daya gets assigned janitorial duties in the visitors ' area, where Diablo leaves his semen after masturbating into a condom. A journalist interviews Taystee, who details the abuse and harassment inmates suffer at the hands of the COs, while COs Ward and Hellman overhear. Piper schemes to bring kickball back. Blanca and Daya trade the oxycontin and condom, but Daya gets jumped by C Block inmates who steal most of the oxy. Nicky successfully "deposits '' the semen in Blanca in the library, but looks up to see the same inmates who jumped Daya, angry that Blanca broke the rules against fraternizing with D Block.
Hopper unwittingly smuggles drugs into Lichfield each day through his canisters of herbal shake powder, which Daya retrieves from the trash. Barb gets her 30 - day sobriety chip, thanks to Nicky. Black Cindy calls Caputo and tells him that Taystee is being framed for Piscatella 's death, and he should look into CERT as the true culprits. When he approaches one of the CERT members and asks questions, the officer 's defensive stance makes Caputo suspicious. When Daya pushes Aleida to increase the amount of drugs coming in, the weight leads to Hopper discovering the stash when he goes to throw out an empty can.
Piper, Sophia and Blanca discover they are getting early release the next day. Piper and Alex get "prison married '' with Nicky officiating, and Piper makes Alex vow to get out of prison. Diablo is overjoyed that Blanca is getting out. Aleida is shocked to visit Daya and see her high on heroin, but she realizes that if she stops smuggling in the drugs, someone else will do it, and she needs to get her other children out of foster care. At trial, Taystee is found guilty of murder in the second degree for Piscatella 's death. Caputo confronts the CERT member he spoke with earlier, who punches him. Carol and Barb meet in a closet and get dressed in the pink garb of B Block, as the "war '' they have declared during the kickball game is merely a distraction to allow them to sneak in and kill Frieda, their mutual enemy of 35 years. Ruiz begs the guard to let the captains pick new teams so the blocks are not playing each other. When Carol and Barb do not show up, the inmates get caught up in the game and do not act when Badison gives the attack signal. Carol and Barb, waiting for lockdown from the planned fight, turn on each other and end up killing each other. Lorna, seven months pregnant, begins feeling intense stomach pains and is led to medical with her crotch covered in blood. Piper and Sophia are greeted by relatives upon their release, but Blanca is devastated when she is handed over to ICE to be sent to PolyCon 's new immigration detention centre. Piper looks out of the car window and contemplates on what she will do now that she is free.
In February 2016, Netflix gave the series a three - season renewal, which included its sixth season. For the sixth season, Laura Gómez, Matt Peters and Dale Soules were promoted to series regulars.
The sixth season received positive reviews from critics, with most critics noting its improvement over the previous season. On Metacritic, it has a score of 69 out of 100 based on 14 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an 84 % rating with an average score of 7.3 out of 10 based on 32 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Brutality and humor continue to mesh effectively in a season of Orange Is the New Black that stands as a marked improvement from its predecessor, even if some arcs are more inspired than others. ''
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who wrote the book the indian war of independence | The Indian War of Independence (book) - Wikipedia
The Indian War of Independence is an Indian nationalist history of the 1857 revolt by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar that was first published in 1909. The book, initially written in Marathi, was penned by Savarkar in response to celebrations in Britain of the 50th anniversary of the 1857 Indian uprising with records from India Office archives and the whole project received support from Indian nationalists in Britain including the likes of Madame Cama, V.V.S. Iyer and M.P.T. Acharya, as well as Indian students who had dared not show their support or sympathy for India House openly. Published during Savarkar 's stay in London at the India House, the book was influenced by histories of the French Revolution and the American Revolution, as much as it sought to bring the Indian movement to public attention in Britain as well as to inspire nationalist revolution in India.
The book, which describes the 1857 revolt as a unified and national uprising of India as a nation against British authority, was seen at the time as highly inflammatory, and the Marathi edition was banned in British India even before its publication. Publication of the English translation faltered after British printers and publishing houses were warned by the Home Office of its highly seditious content, while the British foreign office brought pressure on the French Government to prevent its publication from Paris. It was ultimately printed in the Netherlands in 1909, with the British government not tracing it until too late. The copies were printed with false dust wrappers purporting to be copies of The Pickwick Papers and other literary classics, and large quantities were shipped to India where it quickly became a bible of political extremists. It was excluded from the catalogue of the British Library to prevent Indian students from accessing it. In India, the book remained banned till the end of The Raj forty years later.
The Indian War of Independence is considered to be an influential work in Indian history and nationalist writing, and also one of Savarkar 's most influential works in developing and framing ideas of masculine Hinduism. While some erstwhile and modern histories draw similar conclusions as the Savarkar, others, including R.C. Majumdar, disagreed with Savarkar 's conclusions in his book on the national and unified character of the mutiny.
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why is windows explorer called a file manager | File Explorer - wikipedia
File Explorer, previously known as Windows Explorer, is a file manager application that is included with releases of the Microsoft Windows operating system from Windows 95 onwards. It provides a graphical user interface for accessing the file systems. It is also the component of the operating system that presents many user interface items on the monitor such as the taskbar and desktop. Controlling the computer is possible without Windows Explorer running (for example, the File Run command in Task Manager on NT - derived versions of Windows will function without it, as will commands typed in a command prompt window).
Windows Explorer was first included with Windows 95 as a replacement for File Manager, which came with all versions of Windows 3. x operating systems. Explorer could be accessed by double - clicking the new My Computer desktop icon, or launched from the new Start Menu that replaced the earlier Program Manager. There is also a shortcut key combination: Windows key + E. Successive versions of Windows (and in some cases, Internet Explorer) introduced new features and capabilities, removed other features, and generally progressed from being a simple file system navigation tool into a task - based file management system.
While "Windows Explorer '' or "File Explorer '' is a term most commonly used to describe the file management aspect of the operating system, the Explorer process also houses the operating system 's search functionality and File Type associations (based on filename extensions), and is responsible for displaying the desktop icons, the Start Menu, the Taskbar, and the Control Panel. Collectively, these features are known as the Windows shell.
After a user logs in, the explorer process is created by userinit process. Userinit performs some initialization of the user environment (such as running the login script and applying group policies) and then looks in the registry at the Shell value and creates a process to run the system - defined shell -- by default, Explorer. exe. Then Userinit exits. This is why Explorer. exe is shown by various process explorers with no parent -- its parent has exited.
In 1995, Microsoft first released test versions of a shell refresh, named the Shell Technology Preview, and often referred to informally as "NewShell ''. The update was designed to replace the Windows 3. x Program Manager / File Manager based shell with Windows Explorer. The release provided capabilities quite similar to that of the Windows "Chicago '' (codename for Windows 95) shell during its late beta phases, however was intended to be nothing more than a test release. There were two public releases of the Shell Technology Preview, made available to MSDN and CompuServe users: 26 May 1995 and 8 August 1995. Both held Windows Explorer builds of 3.51. 1053.1. The Shell Technology Preview program never saw a final release under NT 3.51. The entire program was moved across to the Cairo development group who finally integrated the new shell design into the NT code with the release of NT 4.0 in July 1996.
With the release of the Windows Desktop Update (packaged with Internet Explorer 4.0 as an optional component, and included in Windows 98), Windows Explorer became "integrated '' with Internet Explorer, most notably with the addition of navigation arrows (back and forward) for moving between recently visited directories, as well as Internet Explorer 's Favorites menu.
An address bar was also added to Windows Explorer, which a user could type in directory paths directly, and be taken to that folder.
Another feature that was based on Internet Explorer technology was customized folders. Such folders contained a hidden web page that controlled the way the Windows Explorer displayed the contents of the folder.
The "Web - style '' folders view, with the left Explorer pane displaying details for the object currently selected, is turned on by default. For certain file types, such as pictures and media files, a preview is also displayed in the left pane. The Windows 2000 Explorer featured an interactive media player as the previewer for sound and video files. However, such a previewer can be enabled in Windows Me through the use of folder customization templates. Windows Explorer in Windows 2000 and Windows Me allows for custom thumbnail previewers and tooltip handlers. The default file tooltip displays file title, author, subject and comments; this metadata may be read from a special NTFS stream, if the file is on an NTFS volume, or from an COM Structured Storage stream, if the file is a structured storage document. All Microsoft Office documents since Office 95 make use of structured storage, so their metadata is displayable in the Windows 2000 Explorer default tooltip. File shortcuts can also store comments which are displayed as a tooltip when the mouse hovers over the shortcut.
The right - hand pane, which usually just lists files and folders, can also be customized. For example, the contents of the system folders are n't displayed by default, instead showing in the right pane a warning to the user that modifying the contents of the system folders could harm their computer. It 's possible to define additional Explorer panes by using DIV elements in folder template files. This feature was abused by computer viruses that employed malicious scripts, Java applets, or ActiveX controls in folder template files as their infection vector. Two such viruses are VBS / Roor - C and VBS. Redlof. a.
Other Explorer UI elements that can be customized include columns in "Details '' view, icon overlays, and search providers: the new DHTML - based search pane is integrated into Windows 2000 Explorer, unlike the separate search dialog found in all previous Explorer versions.
Search capabilities were added, offering full - text searches of documents, with options to filter by date (including arbitrary ranges like "modified within the last week ''), size, and file type. The Indexing Service has also been integrated into the operating system and the search pane built into Explorer allows searching files indexed by its database. The ability to customize the standard buttons was also added.
There were significant changes made to Windows Explorer in Windows XP, both visually and functionally. Microsoft focused especially on making Explorer more discoverable and task - based, as well as adding a number of features to reflect the growing use of a computer as a digital hub.
Windows Explorer in Windows Server 2003 contains all the same features as Windows XP, but the task panes and search companion are disabled by default.
The task pane is displayed on the left - hand side of the window instead of the traditional folder tree view. It presents the user with a list of common actions and destinations that are relevant to the current directory or file (s) selected. For instance, when in a directory containing mostly pictures, a set of "Picture tasks '' is shown, offering the options to display these pictures as a slide show, to print them out, or to go online to order prints. Conversely, a folder containing music files would offer options to play those files in a media player, or to go online to purchase music. Windows XP had a Media bar but it was removed with SP1. The Media Bar was only available with Windows XP RTM.
Every folder also has "File and Folder Tasks '', offering options to create new folders, share a folder on the local network, publish files or folders to a web site, and other common tasks like copying, renaming, moving, and deleting files or folders. File types that have identified themselves as being printable also have an option listed to print the file.
Underneath "File and Folder Tasks '' is "Other Places '', with links to other common locations such as "My Computer '', "Control Panel '', and "My Documents ''. These also change depending on what folder the user was in, leading to some criticism of Microsoft for not being consistent in displaying navigation choices.
Underneath "Other Places '' is a "Details '' pane which gives additional information -- typically file size and date, but depending on the file type, a thumbnail preview, author, image dimensions, or other details.
The "Folders '' button on the Windows Explorer toolbar toggles between the traditional tree view of folders, and the task pane. Users can get rid of the task pane or restore it using the sequence: Tools -- Folder Options -- General -- Show Common Tasks / Use Windows Classic Folders.
Microsoft introduced animated "Search Companions '' in an attempt to make searching more engaging and friendly; the default character is a puppy named Rover (previously used in Microsoft Bob), with three other characters (Merlin the magician, Earl the surfer, and Courtney) also available. These search companions use the same technology as Microsoft Office 's Office Assistants, even incorporating "tricks '' and sound effects, and they can be used as Office Assistants if their files are copied into the C: \ Windows \ msagent \ chars folder.
The search capability itself is fairly similar to Windows Me and Windows 2000, with one major addition: Search can also be instructed to search only files that are categorically "Documents '' or "Pictures, music and video ''; this feature is noteworthy largely because of how Windows determines what types of files can be classified under these categories. In order to maintain a relevant list of file types, Windows Explorer connects to Microsoft and downloads a set of XML files that define what these file types are. The Search Companion can be disabled in favor of the classic search pane used in Windows 2000 by using the Tweak UI applet from Microsoft 's PowerToys for Windows XP, or by manually editing the registry.
Windows XP improves image preview in Explorer by offering a Filmstrip view. "Back '' and "Previous '' buttons facilitate navigation through the pictures, and a pair of "Rotate '' buttons offer 90 - degree clockwise and counter-clockwise (lossy) rotation of images. Aside from the Filmstrip view mode, there is a ' Thumbnails ' mode, which displays thumbnail - sized images in the folder. A Folder containing images will also show thumbnails of four of the images from that folder overlaid on top of a large folder icon.
Web sites that offer image hosting services can be plugged into Windows Explorer, which the user can use to select images on their computer, and have them uploaded correctly without dealing with comparatively complex solutions involving FTP or web interfaces.
Windows Explorer includes significant changes from previous versions of Windows such as improved filtering, sorting, grouping and stacking. Combined with integrated desktop search, Windows Explorer allows users to find and organize their files in new ways, such as Stacks. The new Stacks viewing mode groups files according to the criterion specified by the user. Stacks can be clicked to filter the files shown in Windows Explorer. There is also the ability to save searches as virtual folders or Search Folders. A Search Folder is simply an XML file, which stores the query in a form that can be used by the Windows search subsystem. When accessed, the search is executed and the results are aggregated and presented as a virtual folder. Windows Vista includes six Search Folders by default: Recent Documents, Recent E-mail, Recent Music, Recent Pictures and Videos, Recently Changed, and Shared By Me. When sorting items, the sort order no longer remains consistently Ascending or Descending. Each property has a preferred sort direction. For example, Sort by Date defaults to Descending order, as does Size. But Name and Type default to Ascending order.
Searching for files containing a given text string became problematic with Vista unless the files have been indexed. An alternative is to use the findstr command - line function. After right - clicking on a folder one can open a command - line prompt in that folder.
Windows Explorer also contains modifications in the visualization of files on a computer. A new addition to Windows Explorer in Vista and Server 2008 is the Details Pane, which displays metadata and information relating to the currently selected file or folder. The Details Pane will also display a thumbnail of the file or an icon of the filetype if the file does not contain visual information. Furthermore, different imagery is overlaid on thumbnails to give more information about the file, such as a picture frame around the thumbnail of an image file, or a filmstrip on a video file.
The Details pane also allows for the change of some textual metadata such as ' Author ' and ' Title ' in files that support them within Windows Explorer. A new type of metadata called tags allows users to add descriptive terms to documents for easier categorization and retrieval. Some files support open metadata, allowing users to define new types of metadata for their files. Out - of - the - box, Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 supports Microsoft Office documents and most audio and video files. Support for other file types can however be added by writing specialized software to retrieve the metadata at the shell 's request. Metadata stored in a file 's alternate (secondary) stream only on NTFS volumes can not be viewed and edited through the ' Summary ' tab of the file 's properties anymore. Instead, all metadata is stored inside the file, so that it will always travel with the file and not be dependent on the file system.
Windows Explorer in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 also introduces a new layout. The Task Panes from Windows XP are replaced with a toolbar on top and a Navigation pane on the left. The Navigation pane contains commonly accessed folders and preconfigured Search Folders. Eight different views are available to view files and folders, including Extra Large, Large, Medium, Small, List, Details, Tiles, and Content. In addition, column headers now appear in all icon viewing modes, unlike Windows XP where they only appear in the Details icon viewing mode. File and folder actions such as Cut, Copy, Paste, Undo, Redo, Delete, Rename and Properties are built into a dropdown menu which appears when the Organize button is clicked. It is also possible to change the layout of the Explorer window by using the Organize button. Users can select whether to display Classic Menus, a Search Pane, a Preview Pane, a Reading Pane, and / or the Navigation Pane. The Preview Pane enables users to preview files (e.g., documents or media files) without opening them. If an application, such as Office 2007, installs preview handlers for file types, then these files can also be edited within the Preview Pane itself.
Windows Vista saw the introduction of the breadcrumb bar for easier navigation. As opposed to the prior Address Bar which displayed the current folder in a simple editable combobox, this new style structures the path into clickable levels of folder hierarchy (though falls back to the classic edit mode when blank area is clicked), enabling the user to skip as many levels as desired in one click rather than repeatedly clicking "Up ''. It is also possible to navigate to any subfolder of the current folder using the arrow to the right of the last item. The Menu Bar is now hidden by default but reappears temporarily when the user presses Alt.
Check boxes in Windows Explorer allow the selection of multiple files. Free and used space on all drives is shown in horizontal indicator bars. Icons of various sizes are supported: 16 x 16, 24 x 24, 32 x 32, 48 x 48, 64 x 64, 96 x 96, 128 x 128 and 256 x 256. Windows Explorer can zoom the icons in and out using a slider or by holding down the Ctrl key and using the mouse scrollwheel. Live Icons can display the content of folders and files themselves rather than generic icons.
With the release of Windows Vista & Server 2008 and Windows Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP, Internet Explorer is no longer integrated with Windows Explorer. In Windows Vista and Server 2008 (and in Windows XP as well if IE7 or 8 is installed), Windows Explorer no longer displays web pages, and IE7 does not support use as a file manager, although one will separately launch the other as necessary.
When moving or copying files from one folder to another, if two files have the same name, an option is now available to rename the file; in previous versions of Windows, the user was prompted to choose either a replacement or cancel moving the file. Also, when renaming a file, Explorer only highlights the filename without selecting the extension. Renaming multiple files is quicker as pressing Tab automatically renames the existing file or folder and opens the file name text field for the next file for renaming. Shift + Tab allow renaming in the same manner upwards.
Support for burning data on DVDs (DVD ± R, DVD ± R DL, DVD ± R RW) in addition to CDs and DVD - RAM using version 2.0 of the Image Mastering API was added.
In case a file is in use by another application, Windows Explorer informs users to close the application and retry the file operation. Also, a new interface ' IFileIsInUse ' is introduced into the API which developers can use to let other applications switch to the main window of the application that has the file open or simply close the file from the "File In Use '' dialog. If the running application exposes these operations by means of the IFileInUse interface, Windows Explorer, upon encountering a locked file, allows the user to close the file or switch to the application from the dialog box itself.
The ability to customize the layout and buttons on the toolbars has been removed in Windows Vista 's Explorer, as has the ability to add a password to a zip file (compressed folder). The Toolbar button in Explorer to go up one folder from the current folder has been removed (the function still exists however, one can move up a folder by pressing Alt + ↑). Although still fully available from the menus and keyboard shortcuts, toolbar buttons for Cut, Copy, Paste, Undo, Delete, Properties and some others are no longer available. The Menu Bar is also hidden by default, but is still available by pressing the Alt key, or changing its visibility in the layout options. Several other features are removed such as showing the size on the status bar without selecting items, storing metadata in NTFS secondary streams, the IColumnProvider interface which allowed addition of custom columns to Explorer and folder background customization using desktop. ini.
The option "Managing pairs of Web pages and folders '' is also removed, and the user has no way of telling Vista that a. html file and the folder with the same name that was created when saving a complete web page from IE should be treated separately, that is, they can not delete the folder without deleting the html file as well. A solution to this is provided on < http://windowsxp.mvps.org/webpairs.htm >. After the webpairs. reg file has been merged into the registry, the "Managing pairs of Web pages and folders '' option is available in the Folder Options View tab.
The ability to right - click a folder and hit "Search '' was removed in Windows Vista Service Pack 1. Users must open the folder they wish to search in and enter their keywords in the search field located on the top right corner of the window. Alternatively, users can specify other search parameters through the "Advanced Search '' UI, which can be accessed by clicking on the Organize Bar, and selecting Search Pane under the Layout submenu. Pressing F3 also opens the "Advanced Search '' interface.
Windows Explorer in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 supports Libraries, virtual folders described in a. library - ms file that aggregates content from various locations -- including shared folders on networked systems if the shared folder has been indexed by the host system -- and present them in a unified view. Searching in a library automatically federates the query to the remote systems, in addition to searching on the local system, so that files on the remote systems are also searched. Unlike search folders, Libraries are backed by a physical location which allows files to be saved in the Libraries. Such files are transparently saved in the backing physical folder. The default save location for a library may be configured by the user, as can the default view layout for each library. Libraries are generally stored in the Libraries special folder, which allows them to be displayed on the navigation pane.
By default, a new user account in Windows 7 contains four libraries, for different file types: Documents, Music, Pictures, and Videos. They are configured to include the user 's profile folders for these respective file types, as well as the computer 's corresponding Public folders.
In addition to aggregating multiple storage locations, Libraries enable Arrangement Views and Search Filter Suggestions. Arrangement Views allow users to pivot their views of the library 's contents based on metadata. For example, selecting the "By Month '' view in the Pictures library will display photos in stacks, where each stack represents a month of photos based on the date they were taken. In the Music library, the "By Artist '' view will display stacks of albums from the artists in their collections, and browsing into an artist stack will then display the relevant albums.
Search Filter Suggestions are a new feature of the Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Explorer 's search box. When the user clicks in the search box, a menu shows up below it showing recent searches as well as suggested Advanced Query Syntax filters that the user can type. When one is selected (or typed in manually), the menu will update to show the possible values to filter by for that property, and this list is based on the current location and other parts of the query already typed. For example, selecting the "tags '' filter or typing "tags: '' into the search box will display the list of possible tag values which will return search results.
The metadata written within the file, implemented in Vista, is also utilized in Windows 7. This can sometimes lead to long wait times displaying the contents of a folder. For example, if a folder contains many large video files totaling hundreds of gigabytes, and the Window Explorer pane is in Details view mode showing a property contained within the metadata (for example Date, Length, Frame Height), Windows Explorer might have to search the contents of the whole file for the meta data. Some damaged files can cause a prolonged delay as well. This is due to metadata information being able to be placed anywhere within the file, beginning, middle, or end, necessitating a search of the whole file. Lengthy delays also occur when displaying the contents of a folder with many different types of program icons. The icon is contained in the metadata. Some programs cause the activation of a virus scan when retrieving the icon information from the metadata, hence producing a lengthy delay.
Arrangement Views and Search Filter Suggestions are database - backed features which require that all locations in the Library be indexed by the Windows Search service. Local disk locations must be indexed by the local indexer, and Windows Explorer will automatically add locations to the indexing scope when they are included in a library. Remote locations can be indexed by the indexer on another Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 machine, on a Windows machine running Windows Search 4 (such as Windows Vista or Windows Home Server), or on another device that implements the MS - WSP remote query protocol.
Windows Explorer also supports federating search to external data sources, such as custom databases or web services, that are exposed over the web and described via an OpenSearch definition. The federated location description (called a Search Connector) is provided as a. osdx file. Once installed, the data source becomes queryable directly from Windows Explorer. Windows Explorer features, such as previews and thumbnails, work with the results of a federated search as well.
In Windows 7, several features have been removed from Windows Explorer, including the collapsible folder pane, overlay icon for shared items, remembering individual folder window sizes and positions, free disk space on the status bar, icons on the command bar, ability to disable Auto Arrange and Align to Grid, sortable column headings in other views except details view, ability to disable full row selection in details view, automatic horizontal scrolling and scrollbar in the navigation pane and maintaining selection when sorting from the Edit menu.
The file manager on Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 is renamed File Explorer, and introduces new features such as a redesigned interface incorporating a ribbon toolbar, and a redesigned file operation dialog that displays more detailed progress and allows for file operations to be paused and resumed. The details pane in Windows Vista and 7 was removed and replaced with a narrower pane with no icons and fewer detail columns. But other details are displayed by hovering over the file 's name.
The icons in File Explorer have been redesigned. The icons are flatter and simpler in design. The window border padding is thinner than previous versions.
File Explorer can be extended to support non-default functionality by means of Windows Shell Extensions, which are COM objects that plug the extended functionality into Windows Explorer. Shell extensions can be in the form of shell extension handlers, toolbars or even namespace extensions that allow certain folders (or even non-filesystem objects such as the images scanned by a scanner) to be presented as a special folder. File Explorer also allows metadata for files to be added as NTFS Alternate Data Streams, separate from the data stream for the file.
Shell extension handlers are queried by the shell beforehand for modifying the action the shell takes. They can be associated on a Per file type -- where they will show up only when a particular action takes place on a particular file type -- or on a global basis -- which are always available. The shell supports the following extension handlers:
Namespace extensions are used by Explorer to either display some data -- which are not persisted as files -- in a folder - like view or to present data in a way that is different from their organization on the file system. This feature can be exploited by a relational file system like liquidFOLDERs or Tabbles, clones of the ill - fated Microsoft WinFS. Special Folders, such as My Computer and Network Places in Windows Explorer are implemented this way, as are Explorer views that let items in a mobile phone or digital camera be explored. Source - control systems that use Explorer to browse source repositories also use Namespace extensions to allow Explorer to browse the revisions. To implement a namespace extension, the IPersistFolder, IShellView, IShellFolder, IShellBrowser and IOleWindow interfaces needs to be implemented and registered. The implementation needs to provide the logic for navigating the data store as well as describing the presentation. Windows Explorer will instantiate the COM objects as required.
While Windows Explorer natively exposes the extensibility points as COM interfaces,. NET Framework can also be used to write extensions, using the COM Interop functionality of. NET Framework. While Microsoft itself makes available extensions -- such as the Photo Info tool -- which are authored using. NET Framework, they currently recommend against writing managed shell extensions, as only one instance of the CLR (prior to version 4.0) can be loaded per - process. This behavior would cause conflicts if multiple managed add - ins, targeting different versions of the CLR, are attempted to be run simultaneously.
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what is cash advance limit in credit card | Cash advance - wikipedia
A cash advance is a service provided by most credit card and charge card issuers. The service allows cardholders to withdraw cash, either through an ATM or over the counter at a bank or other financial agency, up to a certain limit. For a credit card, this will be the credit limit (or some percentage of it).
Cash advances often incur a fee of 3 to 5 percent of the amount being borrowed. When made on a credit card, the interest is often higher than other credit card transactions. The interest compounds daily starting from the day cash is borrowed.
Some "purchases '' made with a credit card of items that are viewed as cash are also considered to be cash advances in accordance with the credit card network 's guidelines, thereby incurring the higher interest rate and the lack of the grace period. These often include money orders, lottery tickets, gaming chips, and certain taxes and fees paid to certain governments. However, should the merchant not disclose the actual nature of the transactions, these will be processed as regular credit card transactions. Many merchants have passed on the credit card processing fees to the credit card holders in spite of the credit card network 's guidelines, which state the credit card holders should not have any extra fee for doing a transaction with a credit card.
Under card scheme rules, a credit card holder presenting an accepted form of identification must be issued a cash advance over the counter at any bank which issues that type of credit card, even if the cardholder can not give their PIN.
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who plays the french driver in talladega nights | Talladega Nights: the Ballad of Ricky Bobby - wikipedia
Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby is a 2006 American sports comedy film directed by Adam McKay and starring Will Ferrell, while written by both McKay and Ferrell. Additionally, the film features John C. Reilly, Sacha Baron Cohen, Gary Cole, Michael Clarke Duncan, Leslie Bibb, Jane Lynch, and Amy Adams, and appearances by Saturday Night Live alumni. NASCAR drivers Jamie McMurray and Dale Earnhardt Jr. make cameos, as do broadcasting teams from NASCAR on Fox (Mike Joy, Larry McReynolds and Darrell Waltrip) and NASCAR on NBC (Bill Weber, Wally Dallenbach Jr. and Benny Parsons). Talladega Nights was Pat Hingle 's last film before his death in 2009.
Ricky Bobby (Will Ferrell) is a man who grew up dreaming of going fast. While working on the pit crew of Dennit Racing driver Terry Cheveaux (Adam McKay), Bobby acts as a replacement driver after Terry decides to take a bathroom break while in last place. After starting in last place in place of Cheveaux, Bobby finishes third. Bobby becomes the new great in NASCAR and gains fame and fortune at Dennit Racing. While racing, he meets his future wife Carley (Leslie Bibb), after she flashes her breasts.
Bobby persuades Dennit Racing to sponsor an additional team car and arranges to have his best friend, Cal Naughton Jr. (John C. Reilly), on his team. Bobby and Naughton succeed throughout competitions but are soon introduced to their new teammate, openly gay French Formula One rival Jean Girard (Sacha Baron Cohen). In a bar, Jean tries to force Bobby into saying "I love crepes. '' Bobby refuses and Girard breaks Bobby 's arm as Bobby wanted him to. Girard soon outperforms both Bobby and Naughton to become Dennit Racing 's latest success story.
Desperate to win, Bobby exceeds his limitations and crashes at Lowe 's Motor Speedway, which included his car rolling and flipping in the air. While paramedics attempt to take him to the hospital, Bobby runs around on the track. Wearing only his helmet and underwear, Bobby insists he is on fire. During his recovery, Bobby believes he is paralyzed; after deliberately stabbing himself in the leg, he realizes that he is not.
After leaving the hospital, Bobby is eager to rejoin the NASCAR circuit. Before a race at Rockingham Speedway, Bobby completed a test drive but fear caused him to drive exceedingly slow. Bobby is fired from Dennit Racing and his pit crew now works for Girard. Brian Wavecrest acts as Bobby 's replacement for the Wonder Bread car.
Desperate to remain wealthy, Carley divorces Bobby and marries Naughton. After accusing Naughton of ruining his life, Bobby ends their friendship.
Bobby moves in with his mom, Lucy Bobby (Jane Lynch), and brings his two trash - talking sons, Walker and Texas Ranger (Houston Tumlin and Grayson Russell), with him while taking a job as a pizza delivery man. After colliding his car with a woman pushing a shopping cart and hitting a police officer, Bobby loses his driver 's license and has to use a bicycle and a public bus to deliver pizzas. Meanwhile, Grandma Lucy is determined to reform her two disrespectful grandsons.
Bobby 's estranged father, Reese (Gary Cole), returns to remind Bobby how to drive, using unorthodox methods such as putting a live cougar in his car. After his father leaves him again, Bobby 's former assistant, Susan (Amy Adams), persuades him to return to NASCAR, since it is in his nature to drive fast. After deciding to take Susan 's advice and race at the Talladega 500, Bobby and Susan become romantic. With the Talladega 500 on his mind, Bobby gathers a race car and pit crew.
Before the race, Bobby makes amends with Carley, Girard and Naughton, while uniting with his pit crew chief and close friend, Lucius Washington (Michael Clarke Duncan). Bobby is forced to start in last place, after spare parts were donated to build the engine in Bobby 's new race car. At the start of the race, Bobby passes all of the drivers, except Girard. In the closing laps, Naughton uses a slingshot technique for Bobby to pass Girard.
The replacement driver of Bobby 's Wonder Bread car causes a massive wreck that makes all drivers crash, except Bobby and Girard. On the final lap of the race, Bobby and Girard collide with each other and their race cars roll towards the finish line. Bobby and Girard exit their cars and run towards the finish line as "We Belong '' by Pat Benatar plays in the background. Bobby wins the race but he and Girard are disqualified for exiting their cars. When Girard offers a handshake, Bobby responds by kissing him on the lips. As a result of being in third place at the time of the first major crash, Naughton is officially declared the winner of the Talladega 500, his first career victory. Bobby is one of the first to congratulate Naughton and the two reconcile their friendship. Carley asks Bobby to move back in with her and start over, but he chooses to stay with Susan instead. At the end of the event, Bobby is congratulated in the parking lot by Reese; Bobby declares that it was no longer about winning, knowing that he has a family who loves him no matter where he finishes.
In a post credits scene, Grandma Lucy is shown reading a story to Walker and Texas Ranger, both having fully been disciplined by her and are now presented as polite, respectful children.
Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 71 %, from 184 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Though it occasionally stalls, Talladega Nights ' mix of satire, clever gags, and excellent ensemble performances put it squarely in the winner 's circle. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 66 out of 100, from 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
British magazine Total Film gave it a perfect five - star rating, with the following verdict: "Forget the recent blips; Ferrell is back in freewheeling form. More than just the year 's funniest film, Talladega Nights is one of the best films of the year. '' Automotive journalist Leo Parente said, "the most accurate racing film ever, trust me, '' while emphasizing that he was not being sarcastic.
The film grossed $148.2 million in the U.S. and Canada and $14.8 million in other territories for a total worldwide gross of $163 million.
The film grossed $47 million in its first week, earning No. 1 film at the box office. Behind The Lego Movie ($69.1 million), it is the second largest opening for a film starring Will Ferrell.
The Blu - ray version was released on November 17, 2006. Standard DVD and PSP UMD were released on December 12, 2006. When viewing, the opening menu gives viewers choices for Super Speedway (with footage of the film used as introductions for special features, scene selection, etc.) or Short Track (without video introductions). The film is presented on standard DVD in four different configurations, giving consumers the choice between either theatrical or unrated versions and anamorphic widescreen (2.40: 1 aspect ratio) or pan and scan presentations. As for the audio, each standard DVD carries Dolby Digital 5.1 tracks in English and French with optional English and French subtitles.
Extras for the standard DVD editions include a retrospective "25 Years Later '' commentary track featuring most of the main cast, deleted and extended scenes along with bonus race footage, features, interviews with Bobby, Naughton, and Carley, a gag reel, a ' line - o-rama ' feature with alternate dialogue from the film, and DVD - ROM content. The unrated disc contains additional deleted scenes ("Cal Calls Ricky '' and "What 'd You Do Today? ''), an interview with Girard and Gregory, and commercials. The "Unrated & Uncut '' DVD omits two scenes that were in theaters: Bobby, as a child, steals his mother 's station wagon and the happenings of Bobby 's pit crew. The scenes are not present in the deleted scenes either.
The Blu - ray release is available on a dual - layer disc with the majority of features presented in high definition. These include: nine deleted / extended scenes, three interviews, gag reel, line - o-rama, bonus race footage, Bobby & Naughton 's Commercials, Bobby & Naughton 's public service announcements, Walker & Texas Ranger, Will Ferrell Returns to Talladega and a theatrical trailer. Three non-high definition extras include: Daytona 500 Spot, NASCAR Chase for the Nextel Cup Spot, and Sirius and NASCAR Spot. In terms of technical aspects, this edition carries the unrated cut and presents the film with a widescreen transfer at its 2.40: 1 theatrical aspect ratio and includes Dolby Digital 5.1 tracks in English and French and an uncompressed PCM 5.1 audio track in English, along with English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Portuguese, Korean and Thai subtitles.
The first one million 60GB and 20GB PlayStation 3 units included a free Blu - ray copy of the film.
On the final lap of the 2009 Aaron 's 499 (one of two Sprint Cup Series races at Talladega Superspeedway), Carl Edwards crashed after Brad Keselowski made contact with his car on the final lap. His car turned backwards, went airborne, bounced off and crushed Ryan Newman 's hood, flew into the catch fence, and came to a stop on the track apron. At this point, his car was just beyond the pit - road exit, as Keselowski and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. crossed the finish line. Edwards climbed out of his car and jogged to the finish line. He received a standing ovation from the crowd. Fox play - by - play commentator Mike Joy commented on how it was "shades of Ricky Bobby. '' Edwards was later asked about this on Larry King Live; he responded, "I 'm kind of a Will Ferrell fan. He did that at the end of Talladega Nights. ''
In May 2012 at the Aaron 's 499 at Talladega, Kurt Busch 's No. 51 Phoenix Racing Chevrolet was painted like Ricky Bobby 's ME car. Busch and his team were heard reciting movie lines over the team radio. Busch was running up front when contact from behind sent Busch spinning.
In October 2013, Kurt Busch 's No. 78 was sponsored by Wonder Bread for the fall race at Talladega. Its paint scheme was based on Ricky 's original No. 26.
During qualifying at the 2013 United States Grand Prix, Sebastian Vettel and his race engineer Guillaume "Rocky '' Rocquelin made reference to the movie over team radio when Vettel posted the fastest lap and gained pole position. The pair referenced the movie in saying "shake and bake '' over the team radio, the same phrase used by Bobby and Naughton.
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when does jim come back in the office | Jim Halpert - wikipedia
Jim Halpert (born October 1, 1978) is a fictional character in the U.S. version of the television sitcom The Office, portrayed by John Krasinski. The character is based on Tim Canterbury from the original version of The Office. The character is named after a childhood friend of executive producer Greg Daniels. He is introduced as a sales representative at the Scranton branch of paper distribution company Dunder Mifflin, before transferring to the Stamford branch in the third season. Upon the merger of Scranton and Stamford branches, he becomes Assistant Regional Manager, and later co-manager alongside Michael Scott during the sixth - season episode arc from "The Promotion '' to "The Manager and the Salesman ''. After Dunder Mifflin is bought by Sabre Corporation, Jim is very briefly the sole regional manager of the branch, before returning to the Sales department until his requested termination in the series finale.
His character serves as the intelligent, mild - mannered straight man role to Michael, although it is also defined by a rivalrous pranking on fellow salesman Dwight Schrute and a romantic interest in receptionist Pam Beesly, whom he begins dating in the fourth season, marries in the sixth, and has children with in the sixth and eighth.
Jim Halpert was born on October 1, 1978, to Gerald and Betsy Halpert. He has two brothers, Pete and Tom, who share his general love of pranks but have come across as unpleasant and somewhat bullying towards their little brother. Jim 's parents presumably live in Scranton as well, as his sister Larissa and best friend Alan Murphy are listed as his emergency contact at Dunder Mifflin. While Pete and Tom have been seen on the show a few times, Larissa has not. He has a niece, Vanessa, and a nephew old enough to play T - ball. In "Branch Wars '', while he is not specific on which brother he is referring to, he states that his brother 's wife just had another baby. Jim enjoys cycling, and, as he reveals in a deleted scene from "Take Your Daughter to Work Day '', at times, will babysit Toby Flenderson 's daughter, Sasha. He also lists soft - shell crab as his favorite food. Jim has noted that basketball "Was kind of (his) thing '' in high school. Although no high school is specifically named by Jim, both Dunmore High School (as evidenced in a deleted scene from "Product Recall '' where, during a business visit, he asks a high school student about a former teacher) and West Scranton High School (as evidenced when, during "Email Surveillance '', Pam holds up his yearbook displaying their mascot name, Invaders, across the front) are referenced in separate episodes. In the Episode "Dwight 's Speech '', Jim tells Dwight that he majored in Public Speaking, however, he later denies this. Jim began working at Dunder Mifflin between 1998 and 1999 (as evidenced in "Pilot '', and "The Merger '', where Jim says that he still loves when Michael says, "Wazzup! '' crazily after seven years, and that on his first day at work Michael played an orientation video which parodied The Blair Witch Project).
In several episodes, it is stated that Jim is a fan of the Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia Eagles and the Philadelphia 76ers. Jim appears to be a fan of hip - hop, specifically Eminem as Pam mentions him listening to the 8 Mile Soundtrack on his iPod in "The Delivery ''. Apparently, he is of Scottish descent, as in "Niagara '', his father can be seen wearing a kilt to his son 's wedding to Pam. In the episode "Weight Loss '', it is revealed that his screen name for AIM is JIM9334.
Though Jim loves to play pranks on Dwight, he is shown to have some things in common with his nemesis, such as a knowledge of comic books and an appreciation for the sci - fi / fantasy genre; as demonstrated in "Take Your Daughter To Work Day '' when Jim and Dwight correct Michael on details about Superman and Aquaman. Despite their frequent conflicts, Jim and Dwight are also shown to be an extremely competent sales team in "Traveling Salesmen ''.
He and Pam share a 2009 Subaru Outback.
Jim Halpert is first introduced in the "Pilot ''. He is adamant throughout the series about his job as a salesman at Dunder Mifflin Paper being a temporary one, saying, "Right now, this just a job. If I advance any higher, this would be my career. And if this were my career, I 'd have to throw myself in front of a train. '' This outlook is most apparent in the elaborate pranks that he plays on his workmates, primarily Dwight, as well as his sarcastic remarks and facial expressions to the film crew and his provoking comments during often ridiculous employee meetings. However, he succeeds professionally and is consistently one of the best salesmen. This is presumably because, as Pam mentioned later, "everybody likes Jim ''.
A major part of the character Jim Halpert is his relationship with Pam Beesly, which is often the subject of office speculation. This is made worse by the fact that Pam was engaged to Roy Anderson, a Dunder Mifflin warehouse worker. Throughout the first two seasons, incidents such as Pam falling asleep on Jim 's shoulder in "Diversity Day '' and drunkenly kissing him in "The Dundies '' show a possibility of the feelings being mutual; however, Pam never acts on them and she remains engaged to Roy. On one occasion, in "The Fight, '' his flirting with her goes a little too far, when Meredith looks over to see him play - fighting with her, causing her to shut him down immediately, startling him with her abruptness, though she eventually forgives him. He becomes so upset when he hears Pam discuss wedding details that he calls a travel agency and schedules a trip to Australia, deliberately making himself unable to attend the wedding. Feeling bored by his job, tortured by his situation with Pam, and guilty about a stack of complaints Dwight has filed against him, Jim investigates a transfer to Dunder Mifflin 's branch in Stamford, Connecticut. In the season 2 finale, "Casino Night '', he confesses his love for Pam in the office. Pam, whose wedding to Roy was planned out and just weeks away, clearly shows her anguish but gently turns him down. Jim tearfully walks away, later kisses her in the office, and the season ends. In the third - season premiere "Gay Witch Hunt '', it is revealed that he did transfer to Stamford despite the fact that Pam has called off her wedding and he clearly still harbors intense feelings for her. His reason is later stated as "It 's just, I kinda put it all on the line. Twice. And she said no. Twice. '' in "The Convention ''.
Though in later seasons, after Ryan Howard 's promotion, the relationship between him and Jim seems to be tense, in earlier seasons the two seem to be friendly. In "Casino Night '', they are shown talking, laughing and drinking together.
Throughout season 2, Jim dates Katy, who initially appeared in season 1 as the "Purse Girl '' in "Hot Girl ''. After Jim and Katy split up in "Booze Cruise '', he leaves a message asking out a fellow Dunder Mifflin employee named Brenda, much to Kelly 's disbelief. Jim 's misfortunes are assumed to be because he is unable to get over Pam. However, things begin to look up for Jim as he befriends salesperson Karen Filippelli in Stamford, and when the company board of directors decides to close the Scranton branch, Jim is named Assistant Regional Manager of the newly created "Dunder Mifflin Northeast ''. However the company 's plans change when Stamford regional manager Josh Porter accepts a job at Staples. The Stamford branch then closes, with a few employees being offered a transfer to Scranton. The offer to Jim to be Assistant Regional Manager stands, though now at Scranton. Jim is at first unwilling to return to Scranton because of Pam but eventually decides to do so. Karen, who has grown fond of Jim and wishes to pursue a relationship with him, also transfers to Scranton.
In "The Merger '', Jim 's and Pam 's reunion is awkward. Pam is overjoyed, but Jim is clearly uncomfortable. He lets Pam know that he is seeing someone, and gradually Karen is introduced as his girlfriend. As Jim settles back in at Scranton, he uses his promotion as an excuse to avoid his old interactions and pranks with Pam, claiming that pulling pranks is not appropriate for his position. However, in time, Jim does return to his old ways, especially targeting Andy Bernard, a Stamford transfer, and Dwight.
Toward the middle of the season, it becomes clear that Jim 's unresolved feelings toward Pam are affecting his relationship with Karen. In "The Return '', Jim decides to pull a prank on Andy; however, Karen is unable and Ryan unwilling to aid him, so he turns to Pam, who readily agrees. Their interaction during the prank causes Karen to feel threatened. She confronts Jim, and he finally admits to still having feelings for Pam. Despite this fact, their relationship continues.
In "Cocktails '', Roy trashes the bar when Pam tells him she kissed Jim during "Casino Night ''. Roy then attempts to attack Jim at work in "The Negotiation '', but Dwight sprays Roy with pepper spray. Roy is fired, but when Pam assures Jim that it is over between her and Roy for good, Jim does n't believe it and tells her so.
In "Beach Games '', during a company outing at the beach, Pam confesses to Jim in front of everyone that he was the reason she broke off her wedding to Roy. She also states that she has missed their friendship since he left Scranton for Stamford. Later that night, Jim tells Pam that he feels as if he never really came back from Stamford, tacitly admitting that he has actively been fighting his feelings for her all year. However, Jim 's relationship with Karen and pending interview for a corporate position which would require his relocation to New York City, still obstruct a potential romance.
In "The Job '', Jim, Karen, and Michael each interview for the corporate position. During the interview, he notices a caring note from Pam in his briefcase. After the interview he drives back to Scranton, leaving Karen without a ride. Back at the Scranton office, Pam is describing her lack of satisfaction with the current state of her relationship with Jim. Jim then suddenly interrupts the session to ask her to dinner, much to her surprise. She becomes flustered and overjoyed, and accepts the invitation. Jim replies "All right. Then... it 's a date, '' and leaves abruptly. Pam turns back to the camera, smiling, only to ask, "What was the question? '' In a webisode titled "Office Summer Vacation '', found on NBC 's website, Karen states that Jim "dumped my ass '' and left her crying at a fountain.
In the season premiere, "Fun Run '', Pam and Jim reveal to the camera crew that they have been dating for a few months and are very happy. In the episode "Chair Model '', Jim reveals his plan to propose to Pam, showing the camera crew a diamond ring, explaining that "(he) got it a week after (they) started dating ''.
In "Local Ad '', Jim develops an avatar of himself for Dwight 's game Second Life. Pam notes that his online alter - ego plays guitar and is a Philadelphia sports writer, implicitly revealing Jim 's lesser known aspirations, and a callback to "Email Surveillance '' from Season 2, in which he has a guitar in his bedroom.
In the episodes "Survivor Man '' and "Night Out '', Jim takes on his role as manager while Michael is out of the office. Both times, however, his attempts at making the office better go awry. Ryan, annoyed by Jim 's popularity with his boss David Wallace, gives Jim a performance warning in "Did I Stutter? '', citing "goofing off with Dwight '' and "spending time at reception '' as productivity problems, despite his high sale numbers.
Though early on in the series Jim drives a Toyota Corolla, he, during this time, drives late model Saabs, including the Saab 9 - 2x and top line Saab 9 - 3 Aero then a Subaru Outback. He mentions in "Niagara '' that he has been able to drive a standard transmission since high school.
In "Goodbye, Toby '', Jim shows his happiness and support for Pam getting into the Pratt Institute, where she will be for the next three months. He plans to propose at Toby 's going away party, until Andy proposes in front of everybody to Angela, who accepts. Jim puts his ring back in his pocket and postpones the engagement. Instead, he proposes during the season 5 premiere, "Weight Loss '', during a rainy last minute lunch date at an Interstate rest stop between Scranton and New York City, where Pam is attending Pratt.
Jim and Pam keep in touch during her time at art school via webcam, instant messaging and frequent phone calls. Jim eagerly awaits Pam 's return in "Business Trip ''. He is sad but supportive when Pam calls, saying she has failed a class and ca n't come home yet. That afternoon he finds Pam waiting in the parking lot, claiming that she hated art school anyway. He purchases his parents ' house and begins to take his career more seriously than in previous episodes. When new Vice President Charles Miner (Idris Elba) arrives at the office to oversee Michael, he and Jim immediately clash as Charles condescends to, and dismisses Jim as an underachiever and a smartass with a "made up position ''. Charles scoffs when Jim is invited to sit in on a meeting with David Wallace about the Michael Scott Paper Company. However, Jim comes off as intelligent and professional, and persuades Michael to be bought out. In the process, he finally stands up to Charles after Charles kisses up to their boss, prompting Jim to make a snide remark to his face. Upon realizing Dwight 's incompetence during the meeting, Charles encourages Jim to speak to Michael. As a new receptionist has already been hired, Pam is re-hired in sales alongside Jim.
During "Company Picnic '', Pam injures her ankle during a volleyball game and Jim takes her to the hospital. The camera crew is stationed outside an exam room while a doctor updates Jim and Pam on her condition. There is no audio as the camera shows Jim and Pam suddenly embracing, looking shocked and ecstatic, before Jim emerges to call Dwight and inform him they wo n't be returning to the game. It is heavily implied that Pam is pregnant, and the pregnancy is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, "Gossip ''.
Jim is promoted to Regional Co-Manager, alongside Michael, in "The Meeting. '' His promotion causes problems in the office as the staff does n't take him seriously and he is often in a power struggle with Michael. When Dunder Mifflin files for bankruptcy and is taken over by Sabre, a company that sells printers, Jim chooses to become a salesman again (largely because Sabre 's uncapped commission means a huge pay increase).
Jim and Pam marry in the highly anticipated, hour - long episode, "Niagara ''. When their guests ' craziness threatens to ruin the wedding day, they run off and are privately married on the "Maid of the Mist '' before returning to take part in their planned church wedding. Their daughter, Cecelia Marie Halpert (named after Jenna Fischer 's niece who was born the day they shot "The Delivery '') is born in another hour - long episode several months later, in "The Delivery ''.
In season 7, some of Jim 's vulnerabilities are displayed. Jim displays some mild jealousy when he meets Danny Cordray, a superior paper salesman who went on a few dates with Pam while he was in Stamford. In "Costume Contest '', after hearing that Danny never called Pam back because she was too "dorky '' for him, Jim is inspired to dress up in his Popeye costume for her (who is dressed as Olive Oyl), which he was initially reluctant to do, marking the first time he is seen dressed up in an actual costume. In "Classy Christmas '', Jim falls victim to numerous snowball - themed pranks devised by Dwight. Jim is humiliated by being forced to feed Dwight a pizza and a beer in "Viewing Party '' in order to get him to get Cece to sleep for the night.
His sales skills remain strong, when in "WUPHF.com '' it is revealed that he has already maxed out his sales cap for the year and can not make any more commissions, leading him to seek goofy respite in the office until Gabe Lewis chides him to stop bothering everyone. Since Gabe was unsympathetic to Jim 's situation, Jim then sets up a prank that ends with Gabe being forced to listen to Jo Bennett 's entire boring autobiography. In "The Seminar '' it is revealed he has had the highest sales out of the entire Scranton branch for at least three months running.
In "Todd Packer '', when Todd comes to Dunder Mifflin looking for a desk job in the office and gets hired, Dwight and Jim pull off a joint scheme to get him to leave the office.
In "Goodbye, Michael '', Jim is the only one to figure out that Michael is leaving earlier than he said and opts to stay quiet to let Michael leave, but he tells Pam so she can get to him at the airport before he leaves. He also emotionally tells Michael he 's been the best boss he 's ever had, and they part on good terms.
In "Training Day '', Jim and Pam try to make a good first impression on their new boss Deangelo Vickers. They believe they have started off well by showing him pictures of their baby, but Deangelo soon gets annoyed with them. In "The Inner Circle '', Jim is shown to be one of Deangelo 's favorites among the staff. He is temporarily banned from Deangelo 's inner circle when he speaks up for the women after they object to Deangelo 's sexist attitude. Jim later calls Deangelo out after the boss brags about a Michael Jordan jump shot he can perform, which causes a traumatic brain injury and leaves Deangelo in a coma.
In "Dwight K. Schrute, (Acting) Manager '', Jo Bennett offers Jim the position of interim manager after Deangelo is gone, which Jim rejects. Jo later calls Jim as "the only man who turned me down ''.
In "Search Committee '', Jim is one of three people scouting for Michael (and Deangelo) 's replacement. Creed is the interim regional manager, so this speeds up the process (since Creed is incompetent).
Early in season 8, it is revealed that Jim will be a father for the second time as Pam is expecting a son (where Pam jokingly calls him "Little Michael Scott ''). Pam and Jim were blessed with the off - camera delivery of Philip Halpert around the midseason mark, and Jim brought Philip into the office to try and mend relations with his angry co-workers (he had lied about spending a full week on jury duty, having actually been dismissed on the first morning, and ended up spending the week helping an overwhelmed Pam take care of their two young children). Jim also had to deal with a crush from co-worker Cathy Simms, who unsuccessfully tried to seduce him while they were part of the Sabre Store team in Tallahassee.
In "New Guys '', Jim reveals that he was given an offer to help his friend start a sports marketing company in Philadelphia called Athlead. At first he turns it down, but later reveals that he accepted the offer. Pam does n't find out until "Andy 's Ancestry '', and although she is supportive, she is later concerned about Jim not having told her sooner and about how much money he has put into it. Jim gets permission from David Wallace to take up the second job, and in "The Target '' he convinces Stanley and Phyllis to agree to cover his duties on the days that he is away.
In "Suit Warehouse '', Jim offers Darryl a chance to join him at the new job and although Darryl has a disastrous interview, he does get the position thanks to Jim 's recommendation. Later, Jim and Darryl become roommates although in "Vandalism '' Darryl is annoyed at Jim 's messy and sloppy living habits.
Jim 's weekly commute to Philadelphia causes increasing strain on his marriage until in "Customer Loyalty '', it comes to a head when he misses Cece 's dance recital and then angrily blames Pam for not videotaping it. Tearfully, Pam breaks down and confides in Brian, the boom mic operator of the documentary crew.
In "Moving On '', Pam interviews for a job in Philadelphia, but then reveals to Jim that she does n't really want to move there after all.
In "Finale '', Darryl reveals that Jim 's sports marketing company is now located in Austin, Texas and has changed its name to Athleap. Pam sells the couple 's home, unbeknownst to Jim, to show her support to Jim and allow the family to move to Austin so Jim can continue with Athleap.
Jim has appeared in every episode of The Office with the exception of "Mafia '', in which only his voice is heard. The clip show episode "The Banker '' features Jim in flashbacks of previous episodes, and Jim only appears in new footage momentarily, and without any lines. Additionally, in the season seven episode "Ultimatum '', Jim only appears in the cold open, and is absent without explanation for the rest of the episode. The cold open was actually filmed the previous season and recycled for the episode because John Krasinski was on location shooting a movie.
In the media, Jim is sometimes called an Everyguy. In her article "Breaking Out of the First - Job Trap '' for U.S. News and World Report, Liz Wolgemuth used Jim 's character as a template for an essay on under - motivated, young, college grads. In an article on stereotypical office worker profiles, Jim was identified as the worker who is "drifting along in a job, (while) you put off asking yourself hard questions about career plans. ''
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when does the new season of the shannara chronicles start | The Shannara Chronicles - Wikipedia
The Shannara Chronicles is an American fantasy drama television series created by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar. It is an adaptation of The Sword of Shannara trilogy of fantasy novels by Terry Brooks. The series was filmed in the Auckland Film Studios and on location elsewhere in New Zealand.
The first season of The Shannara Chronicles premiered on MTV in the United States on January 5, 2016 and consisted of 10 episodes. MTV originally greenlit a second season in April 2016; however, in May 2017, it was announced that the series would relocate to Spike. The second season premiered on October 11, 2017 and concluded November 22, 2017. On January 16, 2018, it was announced that the series had been cancelled after two seasons, and that the producers are shopping the series to other networks.
Season one of The Shannara Chronicles roughly follows the storylines set out in The Elfstones of Shannara, set in the fictional Four Lands. As the series opens, demons start to return after being banished from this world to a place known as the Forbidding -- locked by an ancient tree called the Ellcrys. The series chronicles the journey of Wil, Amberle and Eretria who, with the guidance of the last druid Allanon, must go on a quest to protect the Ellcrys from dying and releasing all the banished demons back into the Four Lands.
Sonar Entertainment and Farah Films acquired the TV rights to the Shannara universe in 2012. In December 2013, it was announced that a series based on the books was being produced for MTV and had been given a straight - to - series, 10 - episode order. On April 20, 2016, MTV greenlit a second season of The Shannara Chronicles.
The series is produced by Dan Farah, Jon Favreau, Miles Millar, Al Gough, Jonathan Liebesman, and author Terry Brooks. Brooks has stated in an interview that he is happy with the way his story has been adapted. Much like the television adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, the series will not be a direct adaptation following the narrative order of the books, but will feature a mix of the books ' stories. The first book of the series to be adapted is The Elfstones of Shannara, the second book in the trilogy, with some elements of the other novels being gradually adapted to the show.
In December 2014, it was announced that Manu Bennett would star as Allanon and in January 2015 Ivana Baquero, Austin Butler, Poppy Drayton, Emelia Burns and John Rhys - Davies joined the show. Malese Jow, Vanessa Morgan, Gentry White, Desmond Chiam and Caroline Chikezie joined the cast as series regulars in season two.
Filming for the 10 - episode first season wrapped in New Zealand at Auckland Film Studios in June 2015, and the first trailer debuted on July 10, 2015. Filming for the second season, which also consists of 10 episodes, began January 31, 2017, in New Zealand.
The opening theme song, "Until We Go Down '', from the EP "Up in Flames '', is performed by Ruelle. Other songs featured in the show 's first season include "Midnight '' by Coldplay, "You Are a Memory '' by Message to Bears, "Wave '' by Beck and "Run Boy Run '' by Woodkid.
During the Shannara Chronicles panel at San Diego Comic - Con International in July 2015, a teaser trailer was revealed, giving audiences a first look at the sets and characters. A television version of the trailer was shown during the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards.
The Shannara Chronicles premiered on MTV in the United States on January 5, 2016, with a two - hour series premiere, right after the premiere of the second half of the fifth season of Teen Wolf on MTV. New episodes were broadcast every Tuesday at 10 pm ET. The third and fourth episodes were released online after the first two episodes aired on January 5, 2016, prior to their original broadcast schedule.
The series was simulcast on MTV in Canada. The two - hour pilot also aired on Bell Media sister network CTV on Wednesday, January 6, 2016. The series has also been licensed to a number of different countries, including the United Kingdom (airing on 5STAR), Australia (Syfy) and New Zealand (Sky TV). In Canada, season two is now being simulcast on Space, with season one viewable on - demand until November 2017.
Both seasons are available on Netflix, season 2 opening in May 2018.
On January 16, 2018, it was announced that the series had been cancelled after two seasons. Producers later announced that the series is being shopped to other networks.
The Shannara Chronicles has received mixed reviews, receiving a 52 / 100 score on Metacritic, based on 15 reviews and a 54 % for season 1 on Rotten Tomatoes based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "The Shannara Chronicles wears its influences heavily on its sleeve and needs to find surer footing before it can tap its true potential, but it still might suffice for viewers in search of a teen - friendly Game of Thrones. ''
Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times wrote: "So give this reasonably absorbing series a little credit, even though it often seems to be merely reworking various fantasy formulas. It moves quickly and does a nice job of weaving together two story lines involving an elfin world that is threatened when a giant tree, known as the Ellcrys, begins to die. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote: "Sure, Shannara, which harks back to the golden age of syndicated genre fare, is a standard quest journey in which there are trolls, gnomes, living trees and magic books, and characters say things like, ' If Allanon is here, there are dark days ahead. ' But there 's conviction in the show 's execution. ''
The series was nominated for a Saturn Award for "Best Fantasy TV Series '' for the 2015 -- 2016 season.
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sectors are typically how many bytes in size | Disk sector - wikipedia
In computer disk storage, a sector is a subdivision of a track on a magnetic disk or optical disc. Each sector stores a fixed amount of user - accessible data, traditionally 512 bytes for hard disk drives (HDDs) and 2048 bytes for CD - ROMs and DVD - ROMs. Newer HDDs use 4096 - byte (4 KiB) sectors, which are known as the Advanced Format (AF).
The sector is the minimum storage unit of a hard drive. Most disk partitioning schemes are designed to have files occupy an integral number of sectors regardless of the file 's actual size. Files that do not fill a whole sector will have the remainder of their last sector filled with zeroes. In practice, operating systems typically operate on blocks of data, which may span multiple sectors.
Geometrically, the word sector means a portion of a disk between a center, two radii and a corresponding arc (see Figure 1, item B), which is shaped like a slice of a pie. Thus, the disk sector (Figure 1, item C) refers to the intersection of a track and geometrical sector.
In modern disk drives, each physical sector is made up of two basic parts, the sector header area (typically called "ID '') and the data area. The sector header contains information used by the drive and controller; this information includes sync bytes, address identification, flaw flag and error detection and correction information. The header may also include an alternate address to be used if the data area is undependable. The address identification is used to ensure that the mechanics of the drive have positioned the read / write head over the correct location. The data area contains the sync bytes, user data and an error - correcting code (ECC) that is used to check and possibly correct errors that may have been introduced into the data.
The first disk drive, the 1957 IBM 350 disk storage had ten 100 character sectors per track; each character was six bits and included a parity bit. The number of sectors per track was identical on all recording surfaces. There was no recorded idenfifier field (ID) associated with each sector.
The 1961 IBM 1301 disk storage introduced variable length sectors, termed records by IBM, and added to each record a record address field separate from the data in a record (sector). All modern disk drives have sector address fields, called ID fields, separate from the data in a sector.
Also in 1961 Bryant with its 4000 series introduced the concept of zoned recording which allowed the number of sectors per track to vary as a function of the track 's diameter - there are more sectors on an outer track than on an inner track. This became industry practice in the 1990s and is standard today.
The disk drives announced with the IBM System / 360 in 1964 detected errors in all fields of their sectors (records) with a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) replacing parity per character detection of prior generations. IBM 's sectors (records) at this time added a third field to the physical sector, a key field to aid in searching for data. These IBM physical sectors, called records, have three basic parts, a Count field which acts as an ID field, a Key field not present in most disk drive sectors and a Data field, frequently called the CKD format for a record.
The 1970 IBM 3330 disk storage replaced the CRC on the data field of sector with an error correcting code (ECC) to improve data integrity by detecting most errors and allowing correction of many errors. Ultimately all fields of disk sectors had ECCs.
Prior to the 1980s there was little standardization of sector sizes; disk drives had a maximum number of bits per track and various system manufacturers subdivided the track into different sector sizes to suit their OSes and applications. The popularity of the PC beginning in the 1980s and the advent of the IDE interface in the late 1980s led to a 512 byte sector becoming an industry standard sector size for HDDs and similar storage devices.
In the 1970s IBM added fixed - block architecture Direct Access Storage Devices (FBA DASDs) to its line of CKD DASD. CKD DASD supported multiple variable length sectors while the IBM FBA DASD supported sector sizes of 512, 1024, 2048, or 4096 bytes.
In 2000 the industry trade organization, International Disk Drive Equipment and Materials Association (IDEMA) started work to define the implementation and standards that would govern sector size formats exceeding 512 bytes to accommodate future increases in data storage capacities.By the end of 2007 in anticipation of a future IDEMA standard, Samsung and Toshiba began shipments of 1.8 - inch hard disk drives with 4096 byte sectors. In 2010 IDEMA completed the Advanced Format standard for 4096 sector drives, setting the date for the transition from 512 to 4096 byte sectors as January 2011 for all manufacturers, and Advanced Format drives soon became prevalent.
While sector specifically means the physical disk area, the term block has been used loosely to refer to a small chunk of data. Block has multiple meanings depending on the context. In the context of data storage, a filesystem block is an abstraction over disk sectors possibly encompassing multiple sectors. In other contexts, it may be a unit of a data stream or a unit of operation for a utility. For example, the Unix program dd allows one to set the block size to be used during execution with the parameter bs = bytes. This specifies the size of the chunks of data as delivered by dd, and is unrelated to sectors or filesystem blocks.
In Linux, disk sector size can be determined with fdisk - l grep "Sector size '' and block size can be determined with blockdev -- getbsz / dev / sda.
If a sector is defined as the intersection between a radius and a track, as was the case with early hard drives and most floppy disks, the sectors towards the outside of the disk are physically longer than those nearer the spindle. Because each sector still contains the same number of bytes, the outer sectors have lower bit density than the inner ones, which is an inefficient use of the magnetic surface. The solution is zone bit recording, wherein the disk is divided into zones, each encompassing a small number of contiguous tracks. Each zone is then divided into sectors such that each sector has a similar physical size. Because outer zones have a greater circumference than inner zones, they are allocated more sectors. This is known as zoned bit rate.
A consequence of zone bit recording is that contiguous reads and writes are noticeably faster on outer tracks (corresponding to lower block addresses) than on inner tracks, as more bits pass under the head with each rotation; this difference can be 25 % or more.
Hard disk drive manufacturers identified the need for large sector sizes to deliver higher capacity points along with improved error correction capabilities. The traditional means of achieving storage capacity increases, which averaged 44 percent per year from 2000 to 2009, were projected to stagnate without revolutionary breakthroughs in magnetic recording system technologies. However, by modifying the length of the data field through the implementation of Advanced Format using 4096 - byte sectors, hard disk drive manufacturers could increase the efficiency of the data surface area by five to thirteen percent while increasing the strength of the ECC.
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how did congress respond to south carolina's voted to nullify the tariff law | Nullification crisis - wikipedia
The Nullification Crisis was a United States sectional political crisis in 1832 -- 33, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, which involved a confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government. It ensued after South Carolina declared that the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and therefore null and void within the sovereign boundaries of the state.
The U.S. suffered an economic downturn throughout the 1820s, and South Carolina was particularly affected. Many South Carolina politicians blamed the change in fortunes on the national tariff policy that developed after the War of 1812 to promote American manufacturing over its European production competition. The controversial and highly protective Tariff of 1828 (known to its detractors as the "Tariff of Abominations '') was enacted into law during the presidency of John Quincy Adams. The tariff was opposed in the South and parts of New England. By 1828, South Carolina state politics increasingly organized around the tariff issue. Its opponents expected that the election of Jackson as President would result in the tariff being significantly reduced. When the Jackson administration failed to take any actions to address their concerns, the most radical faction in the state began to advocate that the state itself declare the tariff null and void within South Carolina. In Washington, an open split on the issue occurred between Jackson and Vice President John C. Calhoun, a native South Carolinian and the most effective proponent of the constitutional theory of state nullification.
On July 14, 1832, before Calhoun had resigned the Vice Presidency to run for the Senate where he could more effectively defend nullification, Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832. This compromise tariff received the support of most northerners and half of the southerners in Congress. The reductions were too little for South Carolina, and on November 24, 1832, a state convention adopted the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared that the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina after February 1, 1833. The state initiated military preparations to resist anticipated federal enforcement. On March 1, 1833, Congress passed both the Force Bill -- authorizing the President to use military forces against South Carolina -- and a new negotiated tariff, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which was satisfactory to South Carolina. The South Carolina convention reconvened and repealed its Nullification Ordinance on March 15, 1833, but three days later nullified the Force Bill as a symbolic gesture to maintain its principles.
The crisis was over, and both sides could find reasons to claim victory. The tariff rates were reduced and stayed low to the satisfaction of the South, but the states ' rights doctrine of nullification remained controversial. By the 1850s the issues of the expansion of slavery into the western territories and the threat of the Slave Power became the central issues in the nation.
Since the Nullification Crisis, the doctrine of states ' rights has been asserted again by opponents of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, proponents of California 's Specific Contract Act of 1863 (which nullified the Legal Tender Act of 1862), opponents of Federal acts prohibiting the sale and possession of marijuana in the first decade of the 21st century, and opponents of implementation of laws and regulations pertaining to firearms from the late 1900s up to early 2000s.
The historian Richard E. Ellis wrote:
By creating a national government with the authority to act directly upon individuals, by denying to the state many of the prerogatives that they formerly had, and by leaving open to the central government the possibility of claiming for itself many powers not explicitly assigned to it, the Constitution and Bill of Rights as finally ratified substantially increased the strength of the central government at the expense of the states.
The extent of this change and the problem of the actual distribution of powers between state and the federal governments would be a matter of political and ideological discussion up to the Civil War and beyond. In the early 1790s the debate centered on Alexander Hamilton 's nationalistic financial program versus Jefferson 's democratic and agrarian program, a conflict that led to the formation of two opposing national political parties. Later in the decade the Alien and Sedition Acts led to the states ' rights position being articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. The Kentucky Resolutions, written by Thomas Jefferson, contained the following, which has often been cited as a justification for both nullification and secession:
... that in cases of an abuse of the delegated powers, the members of the general government, being chosen by the people, a change by the people would be the constitutional remedy; but, where powers are assumed which have not been delegated, a nullification of the act is the rightful remedy: that every State has a natural right in cases not within the compact, (casus non fœderis) to nullify of their own authority all assumptions of power by others within their limits: that without this right, they would be under the dominion, absolute and unlimited, of whosoever might exercise this right of judgment for them: that nevertheless, this commonwealth, from motives of regard and respect for its co-States, has wished to communicate with them on the subject: that with them alone it is proper to communicate, they alone being parties to the compact, and solely authorized to judge in the last resort of the powers exercised under it....
The Virginia Resolutions, written by James Madison, hold a similar argument:
The resolutions, having taken this view of the Federal compact, proceed to infer that, in cases of a deliberate, palpable, and dangerous exercise of other powers, not granted by the said compact, the States, who are parties thereto, have the right, and are in duty bound to interpose to arrest the evil, and for maintaining, within their respective limits, the authorities, rights, and liberties appertaining to them... The Constitution of the United States was formed by the sanction of the States, given by each in its sovereign capacity. It adds to the stability and dignity, as well as to the authority of the Constitution, that it rests on this solid foundation. The States, then, being parties to the constitutional compact, and in their sovereign capacity, it follows of necessity that there can be no tribunal above their authority to decide, in the last resort, whether the compact made by them be violated; and, consequently, as parties to it, they must themselves decide, in the last resort, such questions as may be of sufficient magnitude to require their interposition.
Historians differ over the extent to which either resolution advocated the doctrine of nullification. Historian Lance Banning wrote, "The legislators of Kentucky (or more likely, John Breckinridge, the Kentucky legislator who sponsored the resolution) deleted Jefferson 's suggestion that the rightful remedy for federal usurpations was a "nullification '' of such acts by each state acting on its own to prevent their operation within its respective borders. Rather than suggesting individual, although concerted, measures of this sort, Kentucky was content to ask its sisters to unite in declarations that the acts were "void and of no force '', and in "requesting their appeal '' at the succeeding session of the Congress. '' The key sentence, and the word "nullification '' was used in supplementary Resolutions passed by Kentucky in 1799.
Madison 's judgment is clearer. He was chairman of a committee of the Virginia Legislature which issued a book - length Report on the Resolutions of 1798, published in 1800 after they had been decried by several states. This asserted that the state did not claim legal force. "The declarations in such cases are expressions of opinion, unaccompanied by other effect than what they may produce upon opinion, by exciting reflection. The opinions of the judiciary, on the other hand, are carried into immediate effect by force. '' If the states collectively agreed in their declarations, there were several methods by which it might prevail, from persuading Congress to repeal the unconstitutional law, to calling a constitutional convention, as two - thirds of the states may. When, at the time of the Nullification Crisis, he was presented with the Kentucky resolutions of 1799, he argued that the resolutions themselves were not Jefferson 's words, and that Jefferson meant this not as a constitutional but as a revolutionary right.
Madison biographer Ralph Ketcham wrote:
Though Madison agreed entirely with the specific condemnation of the Alien and Sedition Acts, with the concept of the limited delegated power of the general government, and even with the proposition that laws contrary to the Constitution were illegal, he drew back from the declaration that each state legislature had the power to act within its borders against the authority of the general government to oppose laws the legislature deemed unconstitutional. ''
Historian Sean Wilentz explains the widespread opposition to these resolutions:
Several states followed Maryland 's House of Delegates in rejecting the idea that any state could, by legislative action, even claim that a federal law was unconstitutional, and suggested that any effort to do so was treasonous. A few northern states, including Massachusetts, denied the powers claimed by Kentucky and Virginia and insisted that the Sedition law was perfectly constitutional... Ten state legislatures with heavy Federalist majorities from around the country censured Kentucky and Virginia for usurping powers that supposedly belonged to the federal judiciary. Northern Republicans supported the resolutions ' objections to the alien and sedition acts, but opposed the idea of state review of federal laws. Southern Republicans outside Virginia and Kentucky were eloquently silent about the matter, and no southern legislature heeded the call to battle.
The election of 1800 was a turning point in national politics as the Federalists were replaced by the Democratic - Republican Party led by Jefferson. But, the four presidential terms spanning the period from 1800 to 1817 "did little to advance the cause of states ' rights and much to weaken it. '' Over Jefferson 's opposition, the power of the federal judiciary, led by Federalist Chief Justice John Marshall, increased. Jefferson expanded federal powers with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory and his use of a national embargo designed to prevent involvement in a European war. Madison in 1809 used national troops to enforce a Supreme Court decision in Pennsylvania, appointed an "extreme nationalist '' in Joseph Story to the Supreme Court, signed the bill creating the Second Bank of the United States, and called for a constitutional amendment to promote internal improvements.
Opposition to the War of 1812 was centered in New England. Delegates to a convention in Hartford, Connecticut met in December 1814 to consider a New England response to Madison 's war policy. The debate allowed many radicals to argue the cause of states ' rights and state sovereignty. In the end, moderate voices dominated and the final product was not secession or nullification, but a series of proposed constitutional amendments. Identifying the South 's domination of the government as the cause of much of their problems, the proposed amendments included "the repeal of the three - fifths clause, a requirement that two - thirds of both houses of Congress agree before any new state could be admitted to the Union, limits on the length of embargoes, and the outlawing of the election of a president from the same state to successive terms, clearly aimed at the Virginians. '' The war was over before the proposals were submitted to President Madison.
After the conclusion of the War of 1812 Sean Wilentz notes:
Madison 's speech (his 1815 annual message to Congress) affirmed that the war had reinforced the evolution of mainstream Republicanism, moving it further away from its original and localist assumptions. The war 's immense strain on the treasury led to new calls from nationalist Republicans for a national bank. The difficulties in moving and supplying troops exposed the wretchedness of the country 's transportation links, and the need for extensive new roads and canals. A boom in American manufacturing during the prolonged cessation of trade with Britain created an entirely new class of enterprisers, most of them tied politically to the Republicans, who might not survive without tariff protection. More broadly, the war reinforced feelings of national identity and connection.
This spirit of nationalism was linked to the tremendous growth and economic prosperity of this post war era. However in 1819 the nation suffered its first financial panic and the 1820s turned out to be a decade of political turmoil that again led to fierce debates over competing views of the exact nature of American federalism. The "extreme democratic and agrarian rhetoric '' that had been so effective in 1798 led to renewed attacks on the "numerous market - oriented enterprises, particularly banks, corporations, creditors, and absentee landholders ''.
The Tariff of 1816 had some protective features, and it received support throughout the nation, including that of John C. Calhoun and fellow South Carolinian William Lowndes. The first explicitly protective tariff linked to a specific program of internal improvements was the Tariff of 1824. Sponsored by Henry Clay, this tariff provided a general level of protection at 35 % ad valorem (compared to 25 % with the 1816 act) and hiked duties on iron, woolens, cotton, hemp, and wool and cotton bagging. The bill barely passed the federal House of Representatives by a vote of 107 to 102. The Middle states and Northwest supported the bill, the South and Southwest opposed it, and New England split its vote with a majority opposing it. In the Senate the bill, with the support of Tennessee Senator Andrew Jackson, passed by four votes, and President James Monroe, the Virginia heir to the Jefferson - Madison control of the White House, signed the bill on March 25, 1824. Daniel Webster of Massachusetts led the New England opposition to this tariff.
Protest against the prospect and the constitutionality of higher tariffs began in 1826 and 1827 with William Branch Giles, who had the Virginia legislature pass resolutions denying the power of Congress to pass protective tariffs, citing the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 and James Madison 's 1800 defense of them. Madison denied both the appeal to nullification and the unconstitutionality; he had always held that the power to regulate commerce included protection. Jefferson had, at the end of his life, written against protective tariffs.
The Tariff of 1828 was largely the work of Martin Van Buren (although Silas Wright Jr. of New York prepared the main provisions) and was partly a political ploy to elect Andrew Jackson president. Van Buren calculated that the South would vote for Jackson regardless of the issues so he ignored their interests in drafting the bill. New England, he thought, was just as likely to support the incumbent John Quincy Adams, so the bill levied heavy taxes on raw materials consumed by New England such as hemp, flax, molasses, iron and sail duck. With an additional tariff on iron to satisfy Pennsylvania interests, Van Buren expected the tariff to help deliver Pennsylvania, New York, Missouri, Ohio, and Kentucky to Jackson. Over opposition from the South and some from New England, the tariff was passed with the full support of many Jackson supporters in Congress and signed by President Adams in early 1828.
As expected, Jackson and his running mate John Calhoun carried the entire South with overwhelming numbers in all the states but Louisiana where Adams drew 47 % of the vote in a losing effort. However many Southerners became dissatisfied as Jackson, in his first two annual messages to Congress, failed to launch a strong attack on the tariff. Historian William J. Cooper Jr. writes:
The most doctrinaire ideologues of the Old Republican group (supporters of the Jefferson and Madison position in the late 1790s) first found Jackson wanting. These purists identified the tariff of 1828, the hated Tariff of Abominations, as the most heinous manifestation of the nationalist policy they abhorred. That protective tariff violated their constitutional theory, for, as they interpreted the document, it gave no permission for a protective tariff. Moreover, they saw protection as benefiting the North and hurting the South.
South Carolina had been adversely affected by the national economic decline of the 1820s. During this decade, the population decreased by 56,000 whites and 30,000 slaves, out of a total free and slave population of 580,000. The whites left for better places; they took slaves with them or sold them to traders moving slaves to the Deep South for sale.
Historian Richard E. Ellis describes the situation:
Throughout the colonial and early national periods, South Carolina had sustained substantial economic growth and prosperity. This had created an extremely wealthy and extravagant low country aristocracy whose fortunes were based first on the cultivation of rice and indigo, and then on cotton. Then the state was devastated by the Panic of 1819. The depression that followed was more severe than in almost any other state of the Union. Moreover, competition from the newer cotton producing areas along the Gulf Coast, blessed with fertile lands that produced a higher crop - yield per acre, made recovery painfully slow. To make matters worse, in large areas of South Carolina slaves vastly outnumbered whites, and there existed both considerable fear of slave rebellion and a growing sensitivity to even the smallest criticism of "the peculiar institution. ''
State leaders, led by states ' rights advocates like William Smith and Thomas Cooper, blamed most of the state 's economic problems on the Tariff of 1816 and national internal improvement projects. Soil erosion and competition from the New Southwest were also very significant reasons for the state 's declining fortunes. George McDuffie was a particularly effective speaker for the anti-tariff forces, and he popularized the Forty Bale theory. McDuffie argued that the 40 % tariff on cotton finished goods meant that "the manufacturer actually invades your barns, and plunders you of 40 out of every 100 bales that you produce. '' Mathematically incorrect, this argument still struck a nerve with his constituency. Nationalists such as Calhoun were forced by the increasing power of such leaders to retreat from their previous positions and adopt, in the words of Ellis, "an even more extreme version of the states ' rights doctrine '' in order to maintain political significance within South Carolina.
South Carolina 's first effort at nullification occurred in 1822. Its planters believed that free black sailors had assisted Denmark Vesey in his planned slave rebellion. South Carolina passed a Negro Seamen Act, which required that all black foreign seamen be imprisoned while their ships were docked in Charleston. The UK strongly objected, especially as it was recruiting more Africans as sailors. What was worse, if the captains did not pay the fees to cover the cost of jailing, South Carolina would sell the sailors into slavery. Other southern states also passed laws against free black sailors.
Supreme Court Justice William Johnson, in his capacity as a circuit judge, declared the South Carolina law as unconstitutional since it violated the United States ' treaties with the UK. The South Carolina Senate announced that the judge 's ruling was invalid and that the Act would be enforced. The federal government did not attempt to carry out Johnson 's decision.
Historian Avery Craven argues that, for the most part, the debate from 1828 - 1832 was a local South Carolina affair. The state 's leaders were not united and the sides were roughly equal. The western part of the state and a faction in Charleston, led by Joel Poinsett, would remain loyal to the Union. Only in small part was the conflict between "a National North against a States ' - right South ''.
After the final vote on the Tariff of 1828, the South Carolina congressional delegation held two caucuses, the second at the home of Senator Robert Y. Hayne. They were rebuffed in their efforts to coordinate a united Southern response and focused on how their state representatives would react. While many agreed with George McDuffie that tariff policy could lead to secession at some future date, they all agreed that as much as possible, the issue should be kept out of the upcoming presidential election. Calhoun, while not at this meeting, served as a moderating influence. He felt that the first step in reducing the tariff was to defeat Adams and his supporters in the upcoming election. William C. Preston, on behalf of the South Carolina legislature, asked Calhoun to prepare a report on the tariff situation. Calhoun readily accepted this challenge and in a few weeks time had a 35,000 - word draft of what would become his "Exposition and Protest ''.
Calhoun 's "Exposition '' was completed late in 1828. He argued that the tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional because it favored manufacturing over commerce and agriculture. He thought that the tariff power could only be used to generate revenue, not to provide protection from foreign competition for American industries. He believed that the people of a state or several states, acting in a democratically elected convention, had the retained power to veto any act of the federal government which violated the Constitution. This veto, the core of the doctrine of nullification, was explained by Calhoun in the Exposition:
If it be conceded, as it must be by every one who is the least conversant with our institutions, that the sovereign powers delegated are divided between the General and State Governments, and that the latter hold their portion by the same tenure as the former, it would seem impossible to deny to the States the right of deciding on the infractions of their powers, and the proper remedy to be applied for their correction. The right of judging, in such cases, is an essential attribute of sovereignty, of which the States can not be divested without losing their sovereignty itself, and being reduced to a subordinate corporate condition. In fact, to divide power, and to give to one of the parties the exclusive right of judging of the portion allotted to each, is, in reality, not to divide it at all; and to reserve such exclusive right to the General Government (it matters not by what department to be exercised), is to convert it, in fact, into a great consolidated government, with unlimited powers, and to divest the States, in reality, of all their rights, It is impossible to understand the force of terms, and to deny so plain a conclusion.
The report also detailed the specific southern grievances over the tariff that led to the current dissatisfaction. Fearful that "hotheads '' such as McDuffie might force the legislature into taking some drastic action against the federal government, historian John Niven describes Calhoun 's political purpose in the document:
All through that hot and humid summer, emotions among the vociferous planter population had been worked up to a near - frenzy of excitement. The whole tenor of the argument built up in the "Exposition '' was aimed to present the case in a cool, considered manner that would dampen any drastic moves yet would set in motion the machinery for repeal of the tariff act. It would also warn other sections of the Union against any future legislation that an increasingly self - conscious South might consider punitive, especially on the subject of slavery.
The report was submitted to the state legislature which had 5,000 copies printed and distributed. Calhoun, who still had designs on succeeding Jackson as president, was not identified as the author but word on this soon leaked out. The legislature took no action on the report at that time.
In the summer of 1828 Robert Barnwell Rhett, soon to be considered the most radical of the South Carolinians, entered the fray over the tariff. As a state representative, Rhett called for the governor to convene a special session of the legislature. An outstanding orator, Rhett appealed to his constituents to resist the majority in Congress. Rhett addressed the danger of doing nothing:
But if you are doubtful of yourselves -- if you are not prepared to follow up your principles wherever they may lead, to their very last consequence -- if you love life better than honor, -- prefer ease to perilous liberty and glory; awake not! Stir not! -- Impotent resistance will add vengeance to your ruin. Live in smiling peace with your insatiable Oppressors, and die with the noble consolation that your submissive patience will survive triumphant your beggary and despair.
Rhett 's rhetoric about revolution and war was too radical in the summer of 1828 but, with the election of Jackson assured, James Hamilton Jr. on October 28 in the Colleton County Courthouse in Walterborough "launched the formal nullification campaign. '' Renouncing his former nationalism, Hamilton warned the people that, "Your task - master must soon become a tyrant, from the very abuses and corruption of the system, without the bowels of compassion, or a jot of human sympathy. '' He called for implementation of Mr. Jefferson 's "rightful remedy '' of nullification. Hamilton sent a copy of the speech directly to President - elect Jackson. But, despite a statewide campaign by Hamilton and McDuffie, a proposal to call a nullification convention in 1829 was defeated by the South Carolina legislature meeting at the end of 1828. State leaders such as Calhoun, Hayne, Smith, and William Drayton were all able to remain publicly non-committal or opposed to nullification for the next couple of years.
The division in the state between radicals and conservatives continued throughout 1829 and 1830. After the failure of a state project to arrange financing of a railroad within the state to promote internal trade, the state petitioned Congress to invest $250,000 in the company trying to build the railroad. After Congress tabled the measure, the debate in South Carolina resumed between those who wanted state investment and those who wanted to work to get Congress ' support. The debate demonstrated that a significant minority of the state did have an interest in Clay 's American System. The effect of the Webster -- Hayne debate was to energize the radicals, and some moderates started to move in their direction.
The state election campaign of 1830 focused on the tariff issue and the need for a state convention. On the defensive, radicals underplayed the intent of the convention as pro-nullification. When voters were presented with races where an unpledged convention was the issue, the radicals generally won. When conservatives effectively characterized the race as being about nullification, the radicals lost. The October election was narrowly carried by the radicals, although the blurring of the issues left them without any specific mandate. In South Carolina, the governor was selected by the legislature, which selected James Hamilton, the leader of the radical movement, as governor and fellow radical Henry L. Pinckney as speaker of the South Carolina House. For the open Senate seat, the legislature chose the more radical Stephen Miller over William Smith.
With radicals in leading positions, in 1831, they began to capture momentum. State politics became sharply divided along Nullifier and Unionist lines. Still, the margin in the legislature fell short of the two - thirds majority needed for a convention. Many of the radicals felt that convincing Calhoun of the futility of his plans for the presidency would lead him into their ranks. Calhoun meanwhile had concluded that Martin Van Buren was clearly establishing himself as Jackson 's heir apparent. At Hamilton 's prompting, George McDuffie made a three - hour speech in Charleston demanding nullification of the tariff at any cost. In the state, the success of McDuffie 's speech seemed to open up the possibilities of both military confrontation with the federal government and civil war within the state. With silence no longer an acceptable alternative, Calhoun looked for the opportunity to take control of the anti-tariff faction in the state; by June he was preparing what would be known as his Fort Hill Address.
Published on July 26, 1831, the address repeated and expanded the positions Calhoun had made in the "Exposition ''. While the logic of much of the speech was consistent with the states ' rights position of most Jacksonians, and even Daniel Webster remarked that it "was the ablest and most plausible, and therefore the most dangerous vindication of that particular form of Revolution '', the speech still placed Calhoun clearly in the nullifier camp. Within South Carolina, his gestures at moderation in the speech were drowned out as planters received word of the Nat Turner insurrection in Virginia. Calhoun was not alone in finding a connection between the abolition movement and the sectional aspects of the tariff issue. It confirmed for Calhoun what he had written in a September 11, 1830 letter:
I consider the tariff act as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of things. The truth can no longer be disguised, that the peculiar domestick (sic) institution of the Southern States and the consequent direction which that and her soil have given to her industry, has placed them in regard to taxation and appropriations in opposite relation to the majority of the Union, against the danger of which, if there be no protective power in the reserved rights of the states they must in the end be forced to rebel, or, submit to have their paramount interests sacrificed, their domestic institutions subordinated by Colonization and other schemes, and themselves and children reduced to wretchedness.
From this point, the nullifiers accelerated their organization and rhetoric. In July 1831 the States Rights and Free Trade Association was formed in Charleston and expanded throughout the state. Unlike state political organizations in the past, which were led by the South Carolina planter aristocracy, this group appealed to all segments of the population, including non-slaveholder farmers, small slaveholders, and the Charleston non-agricultural class. Governor Hamilton was instrumental in seeing that the association, which was both a political and a social organization, expanded throughout the state. In the winter of 1831 and spring of 1832, the governor held conventions and rallies throughout the state to mobilize the nullification movement. The conservatives were unable to match the radicals in either organization or leadership.
The state elections of 1832 were "charged with tension and bespattered with violence, '' and "polite debates often degenerated into frontier brawls. '' Unlike the previous year 's election, the choice was clear between nullifiers and unionists. The nullifiers won and on October 20, 1832, Governor Hamilton called the legislature into a special session to consider a convention. The legislative vote was 96 - 25 in the House and 31 - 13 in the Senate
In November 1832 the Nullification Convention met. The convention declared that the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable within the state of South Carolina after February 1, 1833. They said that attempts to use force to collect the taxes would lead to the state 's secession. Robert Hayne, who followed Hamilton as governor in 1833, established a 2,000 - man group of mounted minutemen and 25,000 infantry who would march to Charleston in the event of a military conflict. These troops were to be armed with $100,000 in arms purchased in the North.
The enabling legislation passed by the legislature was carefully constructed to avoid clashes if at all possible and to create an aura of legality in the process. To avoid conflicts with Unionists, it allowed importers to pay the tariff if they so desired. Other merchants could pay the tariff by obtaining a paper tariff bond from the customs officer. They would then refuse to pay the bond when due, and if the customs official seized the goods, the merchant would file for a writ of replevin to recover the goods in state court. Customs officials who refused to return the goods (by placing them under the protection of federal troops) would be civilly liable for twice the value of the goods. To insure that state officials and judges supported the law, a "test oath '' would be required for all new state officials, binding them to support the ordinance of nullification.
Governor Hayne in his inaugural address announced South Carolina 's position:
If the sacred soil of Carolina should be polluted by the footsteps of an invader, or be stained with the blood of her citizens, shed in defense, I trust in Almighty God that no son of hers... who has been nourished at her bosom... will be found raising a parricidal arm against our common mother. And even should she stand ALONE in this great struggle for constitutional liberty... that there will not be found, in the wider limits of the state, one recreant son who will not fly to the rescue, and be ready to lay down his life in her defense.
When President Jackson took office in March 1829 he was well aware of the turmoil created by the "Tariff of Abominations ''. While he may have abandoned some of his earlier beliefs that had allowed him to vote for the Tariff of 1824, he still felt protectionism was justified for products essential to military preparedness and did not believe that the current tariff should be reduced until the national debt was fully paid off. He addressed the issue in his inaugural address and his first three messages to Congress, but offered no specific relief. In December 1831, with the proponents of nullification in South Carolina gaining momentum, Jackson was recommending "the exercise of that spirit of concession and conciliation which has distinguished the friends of our Union in all great emergencies. '' However on the constitutional issue of nullification, despite his strong beliefs in states ' rights, Jackson did not waver.
Calhoun 's "Exposition and Protest '' did start a national debate over the doctrine of nullification. The leading proponents of the nationalistic view included Daniel Webster, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, Judge William Alexander Duer, John Quincy Adams, Nathaniel Chipman, and Nathan Dane. These people rejected the compact theory advanced by Calhoun, claiming that the Constitution was the product of the people, not the states. According to the nationalist position, the Supreme Court had the final say on the constitutionality of legislation, the national union was perpetual and had supreme authority over individual states. The nullifiers, on the other hand, asserted that the central government was not to be the ultimate arbiter of its own power, and that the states, as the contracting entities, could judge for themselves what was or was not constitutional. While Calhoun 's "Exposition '' claimed that nullification was based on the reasoning behind the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, an aging James Madison in an August 28, 1830 letter to Edward Everett, intended for publication, disagreed. Madison wrote, denying that any individual state could alter the compact:
Can more be necessary to demonstrate the inadmissibility of such a doctrine than that it puts it in the power of the smallest fraction over 1 / 4 of the U.S. -- that is, of 7 States out of 24 -- to give the law and even the Constn. to 17 States, each of the 17 having as parties to the Constn. an equal right with each of the 7 to expound it & to insist on the exposition. That the 7 might, in particular instances be right and the 17 wrong, is more than possible. But to establish a positive & permanent rule giving such a power to such a minority over such a majority, would overturn the first principle of free Govt. and in practice necessarily overturn the Govt. itself.
Part of the South 's strategy to force repeal of the tariff was to arrange an alliance with the West. Under the plan, the South would support the West 's demand for free lands in the public domain if the West would support repeal of the tariff. With this purpose Robert Hayne took the floor on the Senate in early 1830, thus beginning "the most celebrated debate, in the Senate 's history. '' Daniel Webster 's response shifted the debate, subsequently styled the Webster - Hayne debates, from the specific issue of western lands to a general debate on the very nature of the United States. Webster 's position differed from Madison 's: Webster asserted that the people of the United States acted as one aggregate body, Madison held that the people of the several states had acted collectively. John Rowan spoke against Webster on that issue, and Madison wrote, congratulating Webster, but explaining his own position. The debate presented the fullest articulation of the differences over nullification, and 40,000 copies of Webster 's response, which concluded with "liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable '', were distributed nationwide.
Many people expected the states ' rights Jackson to side with Hayne. However once the debate shifted to secession and nullification, Jackson sided with Webster. On April 13, 1830 at the traditional Democratic Party celebration honoring Thomas Jefferson 's birthday, Jackson chose to make his position clear. In a battle of toasts, Hayne proposed, "The Union of the States, and the Sovereignty of the States. '' Jackson 's response, when his turn came, was, "Our Federal Union: It must be preserved. '' To those attending, the effect was dramatic. Calhoun would respond with his own toast, in a play on Webster 's closing remarks in the earlier debate, "The Union. Next to our liberty, the most dear. '' Finally Martin Van Buren would offer, "Mutual forbearance and reciprocal concession. Through their agency the Union was established. The patriotic spirit from which they emanated will forever sustain it. ''
Van Buren wrote in his autobiography of Jackson 's toast, "The veil was rent -- the incantations of the night were exposed to the light of day. '' Senator Thomas Hart Benton, in his memoirs, stated that the toast "electrified the country. '' Jackson would have the final words a few days later when a visitor from South Carolina asked if Jackson had any message he wanted relayed to his friends back in the state. Jackson 's reply was:
Yes I have; please give my compliments to my friends in your State and say to them, that if a single drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hand on engaged in such treasonable conduct, upon the first tree I can reach.
Other issues than the tariff were still being decided. In May 1830 Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road Bill an important internal improvements program (especially to Kentucky and Henry Clay), and then followed this with additional vetoes of other such projects shortly before Congress adjourned at the end of May. Clay would use these vetoes to launch his presidential campaign. In 1831 the re-chartering of the Bank of the United States, with Clay and Jackson on opposite sides, reopened a long simmering problem. This issue was featured at the December 1831 National Republican convention in Baltimore which nominated Henry Clay for president, and the proposal to re-charter was formally introduced into Congress on January 6, 1832. The Calhoun - Jackson split entered the center stage when Calhoun, as vice-president presiding over the Senate, cast the tie - breaking vote to deny Martin Van Buren the post of minister to England. Van Buren was subsequently selected as Jackson 's running mate at the 1832 Democratic National Convention held in May.
In February 1832 Henry Clay, back in the Senate after a two decades absence, made a three - day - long speech calling for a new tariff schedule and an expansion of his American System. In an effort to reach out to John Calhoun and other southerners, Clay 's proposal provided for a ten million dollar revenue reduction based on the amount of budget surplus he anticipated for the coming year. Significant protection was still part of the plan as the reduction primarily came on those imports not in competition with domestic producers. Jackson proposed an alternative that reduced overall tariffs to 28 %. John Quincy Adams, now in the House of Representatives, used his Committee of Manufacturers to produce a compromise bill that, in its final form, reduced revenues by five million dollars, lowered duties on non-competitive products, and retained high tariffs on woolens, iron, and cotton products. In the course of the political maneuvering, George McDuffie 's Ways and Means Committee, the normal originator of such bills, prepared a bill with drastic reduction across the board. McDuffie 's bill went nowhere. Jackson signed the Tariff of 1832 on July 14, 1832, a few days after he vetoed the Bank of the United States re-charter bill. Congress adjourned after it failed to override Jackson 's veto.
With Congress in adjournment, Jackson anxiously watched events in South Carolina. The nullifiers found no significant compromise in the Tariff of 1832 and acted accordingly (see the above section). Jackson heard rumors of efforts to subvert members of the army and navy in Charleston and he ordered the secretaries of the army and navy to begin rotating troops and officers based on their loyalty. He ordered General Winfield Scott to prepare for military operations and ordered a naval squadron in Norfolk to prepare to go to Charleston. Jackson kept lines of communication open with unionists like Joel Poinsett, William Drayton, and James L. Petigru and sent George Breathitt, brother of the Kentucky governor, to independently obtain political and military intelligence. After their defeat at the polls in October, Petigru advised Jackson that he should "Be prepared to hear very shortly of a State Convention and an act of Nullification. ''
On October 19, 1832 Jackson wrote to his Secretary of War:
The attempt will be made to surprise the Forts and garrisons by the militia, and must be guarded against with vestal vigilance and any attempt by force repelled with prompt and exemplary punishment.
By mid-November Jackson 's reelection was assured. On December 3, 1832 Jackson sent his fourth annual message to Congress. The message "was stridently states ' rights and agrarian in its tone and thrust '' and he disavowed protection as anything other than a temporary expedient. His intent regarding nullification, as communicated to Van Buren, was "to pass it barely in review, as a mere buble (sic), view the existing laws as competent to check and put it down. '' He hoped to create a "moral force '' that would transcend political parties and sections. The paragraph in the message that addressed nullification was:
It is my painful duty to state that in one quarter of the United States opposition to the revenue laws has arisen to a height which threatens to thwart their execution, if not to endanger the integrity of the Union. What ever obstructions may be thrown in the way of the judicial authorities of the General Government, it is hoped they will be able peaceably to overcome them by the prudence of their own officers and the patriotism of the people. But should this reasonable reliance on the moderation and good sense of all portions of our fellow citizens be disappointed, it is believed that the laws themselves are fully adequate to the suppression of such attempts as may be immediately made. Should the exigency arise rendering the execution of the existing laws impracticable from any cause what ever, prompt notice of it will be given to Congress, with a suggestion of such views and measures as may be deemed necessary to meet it.
On December 10 Jackson issued the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, in which he characterized the positions of the nullifiers as "impractical absurdity '' and "a metaphysical subtlety, in pursuit of an impractical theory. '' He provided this concise statement of his belief:
I consider, then, the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed.
The language used by Jackson, combined with the reports coming out of South Carolina, raised the spectre of military confrontation for many on both sides of the issue. A group of Democrats, led by Van Buren and Thomas Hart Benton among others, saw the only solution to the crisis in a substantial reduction of the tariff.
In apparent contradiction of his previous claim that the tariff could be enforced with existing laws, on January 16 Jackson sent his Force Bill Message to Congress. Custom houses in Beaufort and Georgetown would be closed and replaced by ships located at each port. In Charleston the custom house would be moved to either Castle Pinckney or Fort Moultrie in Charleston harbor. Direct payment rather than bonds would be required, and federal jails would be established for violators that the state refused to arrest and all cases arising under the state 's nullification act could be removed to the United States Circuit Court. In the most controversial part, the militia acts of 1795 and 1807 would be revised to permit the enforcement of the custom laws by both the militia and the regular United States military. Attempts were made in South Carolina to shift the debate away from nullification by focusing instead on the proposed enforcement.
The Force bill went to the Senate Judiciary Committee chaired by Pennsylvania protectionist William Wilkins and supported by members Daniel Webster and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey; it gave Jackson everything he asked. On January 28 the Senate defeated a motion by a vote of 30 to 15 to postpone debate on the bill. All but two of the votes to delay were from the lower South and only three from this section voted against the motion. This did not signal any increased support for nullification but did signify doubts about enforcement. In order to draw more votes, proposals were made to limit the duration of the coercive powers and restrict the use of force to suppressing, rather than preventing, civil disorder. In the House the Judiciary Committee, in a 4 - 3 vote, rejected Jackson 's request to use force. By the time Calhoun made a major speech on February 15 strongly opposing it, the Force Bill was temporarily stalled.
On the tariff issue, the drafting of a compromise tariff was assigned in December to the House Ways and Means Committee, now headed by Gulian C. Verplanck. Debate on the committee 's product on the House floor began in January 1833. The Verplanck tariff proposed reductions back to the 1816 levels over the course of the next two years while maintaining the basic principle of protectionism. The anti-Jackson protectionists saw this as an economic disaster that did not allow the Tariff of 1832 to even be tested and "an undignified truckling to the menaces and blustering of South Carolina. '' Northern Democrats did not oppose it in principle but still demanded protection for the varying interests of their own constituents. Those sympathetic to the nullifiers wanted a specific abandonment of the principle of protectionism and were willing to offer a longer transition period as a bargaining point. It was clear that the Verplanck tariff was not going to be implemented.
In South Carolina, efforts were being made to avoid an unnecessary confrontation. Governor Hayne ordered the 25,000 troops he had created to train at home rather than gathering in Charleston. At a mass meeting in Charleston on January 21, it was decided to postpone the February 1 deadline for implementing nullification while Congress worked on a compromise tariff. At the same time a commissioner from Virginia, Benjamin Watkins Leigh, arrived in Charleston bearing resolutions that criticized both Jackson and the nullifiers and offering his state as a mediator.
Henry Clay had not taken his defeat in the presidential election well and was unsure on what position he could take in the tariff negotiations. His long term concern was that Jackson eventually was determined to kill protectionism along with the American Plan. In February, after consulting with manufacturers and sugar interests in Louisiana who favored protection for the sugar industry, Clay started to work on a specific compromise plan. As a starting point, he accepted the nullifiers ' offer of a transition period but extended it from seven and a half years to nine years with a final target of a 20 % ad valorem rate. After first securing the support of his protectionist base, Clay, through an intermediary, broached the subject with Calhoun. Calhoun was receptive and after a private meeting with Clay at Clay 's boardinghouse, negotiations preceded.
Clay introduced the negotiated tariff bill on February 12, and it was immediately referred to a select committee consisting of Clay as chairman, Felix Grundy of Tennessee, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, William Cabell Rives of Virginia, Webster, John M. Clayton of Delaware, and Calhoun. On February 21 the committee reported a bill to the floor of the Senate which was largely the original bill proposed by Clay. The Tariff of 1832 would continue except that reduction of all rates above 20 % would be reduced by one tenth every two years with the final reductions back to 20 % coming in 1842. Protectionism as a principle was not abandoned and provisions were made for raising the tariff if national interests demanded it.
Although not specifically linked by any negotiated agreement, it became clear that the Force Bill and Compromise Tariff of 1833 were inexorably linked. In his February 25 speech ending the debate on the tariff, Clay captured the spirit of the voices for compromise by condemning Jackson 's Proclamation to South Carolina as inflammatory, admitting the same problem with the Force Bill but indicating its necessity, and praising the Compromise Tariff as the final measure to restore balance, promote the rule of law, and avoid the "sacked cities, '' "desolated fields, '' and "smoking ruins '' that he said would be the product of the failure to reach a final accord. The House passed the Compromise Tariff by 119 - 85 and the Force Bill by 149 - 48. In the Senate the tariff passed 29 - 16 and the Force bill by 32 - 1 with many opponents of it walking out rather than voting for it.
Calhoun rushed to Charleston with the news of the final compromises. The Nullification Convention met again on March 11. It repealed the November Nullification Ordinance and also, "in a purely symbolic gesture '', nullified the Force Bill. While the nullifiers claimed victory on the tariff issue, even though they had made concessions, the verdict was very different on nullification. The majority had, in the end, ruled and this boded ill for the South and their minorities hold on slavery. Rhett summed this up at the convention on March 13. Warning that, "A people, owning slaves, are mad, or worse than mad, who do not hold their destinies in their own hands, '' he continued:
Every stride of this Government, over your rights, brings it nearer and nearer to your peculiar policy.... The whole world are in arms against your institutions... Let Gentlemen not be deceived. It is not the Tariff -- not Internal Improvement -- nor yet the Force bill, which constitutes the great evil against which we are contending.... These are but the forms in which the despotic nature of the government is evinced -- but it is the despotism which constitutes the evil: and until this Government is made a limited Government... there is no liberty -- no security for the South.
People reflected on the meaning of the nullification crisis and its outcome for the country. On May 1, 1833 Jackson wrote, "the tariff was only a pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question. ''
The final resolution of the crisis and Jackson 's leadership had appeal throughout the North and South. Robert Remini, the historian and Jackson biographer, described the opposition that nullification drew from traditionally states ' rights Southern states:
The Alabama legislature, for example, pronounced the doctrine "unsound in theory and dangerous in practice. '' Georgia said it was "mischievous, '' "rash and revolutionary. '' Mississippi lawmakers chided the South Carolinians for acting with "reckless precipitancy. ''
Forrest McDonald, describing the split over nullification among proponents of states rights, wrote, "The doctrine of states ' rights, as embraced by most Americans, was not concerned exclusively, or even primarily with state resistance to federal authority. '' But, by the end of the nullification crisis, many southerners started to question whether the Jacksonian Democrats still represented Southern interests. The historian William J. Cooper notes that, "Numerous southerners had begun to perceive it (the Jacksonian Democratic Party) as a spear aimed at the South rather than a shield defending the South. ''
In the political vacuum created by this alienation, the southern wing of the Whig Party was formed. The party was a coalition of interests united by the common thread of opposition to Andrew Jackson and, more specifically, his "definition of federal and executive power. '' The party included former National Republicans with an "urban, commercial, and nationalist outlook '' as well as former nullifiers. Emphasizing that "they were more southern than the Democrats, '' the party grew within the South by going "after the abolition issue with unabashed vigor and glee. '' With both parties arguing who could best defend southern institutions, the nuances of the differences between free soil and abolitionism, which became an issue in the late 1840s with the Mexican War and territorial expansion, never became part of the political dialogue. This failure increased the volatility of the slavery issues.
Richard Ellis argues that the end of the crisis signified the beginning of a new era. Within the states ' rights movement, the traditional desire for simply "a weak, inactive, and frugal government '' was challenged. Ellis states that "in the years leading up to the Civil War the nullifiers and their pro-slavery allies used the doctrine of states ' rights and state sovereignty in such a way as to try to expand the powers of the federal government so that it could more effectively protect the peculiar institution. '' By the 1850s, states ' rights had become a call for state equality under the Constitution.
Madison reacted to this incipient tendency by writing two paragraphs of "Advice to My Country, '' found among his papers. It said that the Union "should be cherished and perpetuated. Let the open enemy to it be regarded as a Pandora with her box opened; and the disguised one, as the Serpent creeping with his deadly wiles into paradise. '' Richard Rush published this "Advice '' in 1850, by which time Southern spirit was so high that it was denounced as a forgery.
The first test for the South over the slavery issue began during the final congressional session of 1835. In what became known as the Gag Rule Debates, abolitionists flooded the Congress with anti-slavery petitions to end slavery and the slave trade in Washington, D.C. The debate was reopened each session as Southerners, led by South Carolinians Henry Pinckney and John Hammond, prevented the petitions from even being officially received by Congress. Led by John Quincy Adams, the slavery debate remained on the national stage until late 1844 when Congress lifted all restrictions on processing the petitions.
Describing the legacy of the crisis, Sean Wilentz writes:
The battle between Jacksonian democratic nationalists, northern and southern, and nullifier sectionalists would resound through the politics of slavery and antislavery for decades to come. Jackson 's victory, ironically, would help accelerate the emergence of southern pro-slavery as a coherent and articulate political force, which would help solidify northern antislavery opinion, inside as well as outside Jackson 's party. Those developments would accelerate the emergence of two fundamentally incompatible democracies, one in the slave South, the other in the free North.
For South Carolina, the legacy of the crisis involved both the divisions within the state during the crisis and the apparent isolation of the state as the crisis was resolved. By 1860, when South Carolina became the first state to secede, the state was more internally united than any other southern state. Historian Charles Edward Cauthen writes:
Probably to a greater extent than in any other Southern state South Carolina had been prepared by her leaders over a period of thirty years for the issues of 1860. Indoctrination in the principles of state sovereignty, education in the necessity of maintaining Southern institutions, warnings of the dangers of control of the federal government by a section hostile to its interests -- in a word, the education of the masses in the principles and necessity of secession under certain circumstances -- had been carried on with a skill and success hardly inferior to the masterly propaganda of the abolitionists themselves. It was this education, this propaganda, by South Carolina leaders which made secession the almost spontaneous movement that it was.
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who chaired the report learning the treasure within | Delors Report - Wikipedia
The Delors Report was a report created by the Delors Commission in 1996. It proposed an integrated vision of education based on two key concepts, ' learning throughout life ' and the four pillars of learning, to know, to do, to be and to live together. It was not in itself a blueprint for educational reform, but rather a basis for reflection and debate about what choices should be made in formulating policies. The report argued that choices about education were determined by choices about what kind of society we wished to live in. Beyond education 's immediate functionality, it considered the formation of the whole person to be an essential part of education 's purpose. The Delors Report was aligned closely with the moral and intellectual principles that underpin UNESCO, and therefore its analysis and recommendations were more humanistic and less instrumental and market - driven than other education reform studies of the time.
The Delors Report identified a number of tensions generated by technological, economic and social change. They included tensions between the global and the local; the universal and the particular; tradition and modernity; the spiritual and the material; long term and short term considerations; the need for competition and the ideal of equality of opportunity; and the expansion of knowledge and our capacity to assimilate it. These seven tensions remain useful perspectives from which to view the current dynamics of social transformation. Some are taking on new meaning, with fresh tensions emerging. These include patterns of economic growth characterized by rising vulnerability, growing inequality, increased ecological stress, and rising intolerance and violence. Finally, while there has been progress in human rights, implementation of norms often remains a challenge.
One of the most influential concepts of the 1996 Delors Report was that of the four pillars of learning. Formal education, the report argued, tends to emphasize certain types of knowledge to the detriment of others that are essential to sustaining human development.
The idea of the integrated approach to education reflected in the four pillars of learning has had significant influence on policy debates, teacher training and curriculum development in a range of countries worldwide.
It is important to note that the four pillars of learning were envisaged against the backdrop of the notion of ' lifelong learning ', itself an adaptation of the concept of ' lifelong education ' as initially conceptualized in the 1972 Faure publication Learning to Be.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 License statement: Rethinking Education, Towards a Global Common Good, p16. p21. p39, UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 License statement: Level - setting and recognition of learning outcomes: The use of level descriptors in the twenty - first century, 28, Keevey, James; Chakroun, Borhene, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
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when's the last time the chiefs went to the superbowl | Kansas City Chiefs - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Red, gold, white
League championships (2) †
Division championships (10)
The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded in 1960 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt and was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL) (they are not associated with an earlier Dallas Texans NFL team that only played for one season in 1952). In 1963, the team relocated to Kansas City and assumed their current name. The Chiefs joined the NFL as a result of the merger in 1970. The team is valued at over $2 billion. Hunt 's son, Clark, serves as chairman and CEO. While Hunt 's ownership stakes passed collectively to his widow and children after his death in 2006, Clark represents the Chiefs at all league meetings and has ultimate authority on personnel changes.
The Chiefs have won three AFL championships, in 1962, 1966, and 1969 and became the second AFL team (after the New York Jets) to defeat an NFL team in an AFL -- NFL World Championship Game, when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. The team 's victory on January 11, 1970, remains the club 's last championship game victory and appearance to date, and occurred in the final such competition prior to the leagues ' merger coming into full effect. The Chiefs were also the second team, after the Green Bay Packers, to appear in more than one Super Bowl (and the first AFL team to do so) and the first to appear in the championship game in two different decades.
In 1959, Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League. Hunt 's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts. After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL 's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas, Texas, Hunt went to the NFL and asked to create an expansion franchise in Dallas. The NFL turned him down, so Hunt then established the American Football League and started his own team, the Dallas Texans, to begin play in 1960. Hunt hired a little - known assistant coach from the University of Miami football team, Hank Stram, to be the team 's head coach after the job offer was declined by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry.
After Stram was hired, Don Klosterman was hired as head scout, credited by many for bringing a wealth of talent to the Texans after luring it away from the NFL, often hiding players and using creative means to land them.
The Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL 's cross-town competition Dallas Cowboys for three seasons. The Texans were to have exclusive access to the stadium until the NFL put an expansion team, the Dallas Cowboys, there. While the team averaged a league - best 24,500 at the Cotton Bowl, the Texans gained less attention due to the AFL 's relatively lower profile compared to the NFL. In the franchise 's first two seasons, the team managed only a 8 -- 6 and 6 -- 8 record, respectively. In their third season, the Texans strolled to an 11 -- 3 record and a berth in the team 's first American Football League Championship Game, against the Houston Oilers. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20 -- 17 in double overtime. The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds, which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history.
It turned out to be the last game the team would play as the Dallas Texans. Despite competing against a Cowboys team that managed only a 9 -- 28 -- 3 record in their first three seasons, Hunt decided that the Dallas -- Fort Worth media market could not sustain two professional football franchises. He considered moving the Texans to either Atlanta or Miami for the 1963 season. However, he was ultimately swayed by an offer from Kansas City Mayor Harold Roe Bartle. Bartle promised to triple the franchise 's season ticket sales and expand the seating capacity of Municipal Stadium to accommodate the team.
Hunt agreed to relocate the franchise to Kansas City on May 22, 1963, and on May 26 the team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs. Hunt and head coach Hank Stram initially planned to retain the Texans name, but a fan contest determined the new "Chiefs '' name in honor of Mayor Bartle 's nickname that he acquired in his professional role as Scout Executive of the St. Joseph and Kansas City Boy Scout Councils and founder of the Scouting Society, the Tribe of Mic - O - Say. A total of 4,866 entries were received with 1,020 different names being suggested, including a total of 42 entrants who selected "Chiefs. '' The two names that received the most popular votes were "Mules '' and "Royals '' (which, 6 years later, would be the name of the city 's Major League Baseball expansion franchise in 1969, after the Athletics left Kansas City for Oakland following the 1967 season).
The franchise became one of the strongest teams in the now thriving American Football League, with the most playoff appearances for an AFL team (tied with the Oakland Raiders), and the most AFL Championships (3). The team 's dominance helped Lamar Hunt become a central figure in negotiations with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to agree on an AFL -- NFL merger. In the meetings between the two leagues, a merged league championship game was agreed to be played in January 1967 following the conclusion of the leagues ' respective 1966 seasons. Hunt insisted on calling the game the "Super Bowl '' after seeing his children playing with a popular toy at the time, a Super Ball. While the first few games were designated the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '', the Super Bowl name became its officially licensed title in years to come.
The Chiefs cruised to an 11 -- 2 -- 1 record in 1966, and defeated the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills in the AFL Championship Game. The Chiefs were invited to play the NFL 's league champion Green Bay Packers in the first AFL -- NFL World Championship Game. Kansas City and Green Bay played a close game for the first half, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35 -- 10. The Chiefs lost the game but gained the respect of several Packers opponents following the game. The Chiefs ' interleague match - up with the Packers was not the last time that they would face an NFL opponent, especially on the championship stage. The following August, Kansas City hosted the NFL 's Chicago Bears in the 1967 preseason and won the game 66 -- 24.
Despite losing to the division rival Oakland Raiders twice in the regular season in 1969, the two teams met for a third time in the AFL Championship Game where Kansas City won 17 -- 7. Backup quarterback Mike Livingston led the team in a six - game winning streak after Len Dawson suffered a leg injury which kept him out of most of the season 's games. While getting plenty of help from the club 's defense, Dawson returned from the injury and led the Chiefs to Super Bowl IV. Against the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, who were favored by 121⁄2, the Chiefs dominated the game 23 -- 7 to claim the team 's first Super Bowl championship. Dawson was named the game 's Most Valuable Player after completing 12 - of - 17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with 1 interception. The following season, the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL -- NFL merger became official. The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference 's West Division.
From 1960 to 1969, the Chiefs / Texans won 87 games, which is the most in the 10 - year history of the AFL.
In 1970, the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the NFL and missed the playoffs. The following season, the Chiefs tallied a 10 -- 3 -- 1 record and won the AFC West Division. Head coach Hank Stram considered his 1971 Chiefs team as his best, but they failed to capture their championship dominance from 1969. Most of the pieces of the team which won Super Bowl IV two years earlier were still in place for the 1971 season. The Chiefs tied with the Miami Dolphins for the best record in the AFC, and both teams met in a Christmas Day playoff game which the Chiefs lost 27 -- 24 in double overtime. The Dolphins outlasted the Chiefs with a 37 - yard field goal. The game surpassed the 1962 AFL Championship Game as the longest ever at 82 minutes and 40 seconds. The game was also the final football game at Kansas City 's Municipal Stadium.
In 1972, the Chiefs moved into the newly constructed Arrowhead Stadium at the Truman Sports Complex outside of Downtown Kansas City. The team 's first game at Arrowhead was against the St. Louis Cardinals, a preseason game which the Chiefs won 24 -- 14. Linebacker Willie Lanier and quarterback Len Dawson won the NFL Man of the Year Award in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The Chiefs would not return to the post-season for the remainder of the 1970s, and the 1973 season was the team 's last winning effort for seven years. Hank Stram was fired following a 5 -- 9 season in 1974, and many of the Chiefs ' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade. From 1975 to 1988, the Chiefs had become a laughing stock of the NFL and provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility. Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram, compiling an 81 -- 121 -- 1 record.
In 1980, Coach Marv Levy cut future Hall of Fame Kicker Jan Stenerud for little known Nick Lowery, who would become the most accurate kicker in NFL History over the next 14 years. In 1981, running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1,121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year. The Chiefs finished the season with a 9 -- 7 record and entered the 1982 season with optimism. However, the NFL Players Association strike curbed the Chiefs ' chances of returning to the postseason for the first time in over a decade. The Chiefs tallied a 3 -- 6 record and in the off - season, Joe Delaney died while trying to save several children from drowning in a pond near his home in Louisiana.
The Chiefs made a mistake in drafting quarterback Todd Blackledge over future greats such as Jim Kelly and Dan Marino in the 1983 NFL Draft. Blackledge never started a full season for Kansas City while Kelly and Marino played Hall of Fame careers. While the Chiefs struggled on offense in the 1980s, the Chiefs had a strong defensive unit consisting of Pro Bowlers such as Bill Maas, Albert Lewis, Art Still and Deron Cherry.
John Mackovic took over head coaching duties for the 1983 season after Marv Levy was fired. Over the next four seasons, Mackovic coached the Chiefs to a 30 -- 34 record, but took the team to its first post-season appearance in 15 years in the 1986 NFL playoffs. They lost to the New York Jets in the wild - card round. Despite leading the Chiefs to only their third winning season and second playoff appearance since the merger, Mackovic was fired for what Hunt described as a lack of chemistry. Frank Gansz served as head coach for the next two seasons, but won only eight of 31 games.
On December 19, 1988, owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team 's new president, general manager, and chief executive officer. Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club 's seventh head coach. In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts, the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas, respectively. The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years.
In Schottenheimer 's tenure as head coach, (1989 -- 1998), the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender, featuring offensive players including Steve DeBerg, Christian Okoye, Stephone Paige and Barry Word, a strong defense, anchored by Thomas, Smith, Albert Lewis and Deron Cherry, and on special teams, Nick Lowery, then the most accurate kicker in NFL History. The team recorded a 101 -- 58 -- 1 record, and clinched seven playoff berths. The Chiefs ' 1993 season was the franchise 's most successful in 22 years. With newly acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen, two former Super Bowl champions and MVPs, the Chiefs further strengthened their position in the NFL. The 11 -- 5 Chiefs defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Oilers on their way to the franchise 's first and to date only AFC Championship Game appearance against the Buffalo Bills. The Chiefs were overwhelmed by the Bills and lost the game by a score of 30 -- 13. The Chiefs ' victory on January 16, 1994, against the Oilers remained the franchise 's last post-season victory for 21 years until their 30 -- 0 victory over the Houston Texans on January 9, 2016.
In the 1995 NFL playoffs, the 13 -- 3 Chiefs hosted the Indianapolis Colts in a cold, damp late afternoon game at Arrowhead Stadium. Kansas City lost the game 10 -- 7 against the underdog Colts, after kicker Lin Elliot missed three field goal attempts and quarterback Steve Bono threw three interceptions. The Chiefs selected tight end Tony Gonzalez with the 13th overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft, a move which some considered to be a gamble being that Gonzalez was primarily a basketball player at California. During a 1997 season full of injuries to starting quarterback Elvis Grbac, backup quarterback Rich Gannon took the reins of the Chiefs ' offense as the team headed to another 13 -- 3 season. Head coach Marty Schottenheimer chose Grbac to start the playoff game against the Denver Broncos despite Gannon 's successes in previous weeks. Grbac 's production in the game was lacking, and the Chiefs lost to the Broncos 14 -- 10. Denver went on to capture their fifth AFC Championship by defeating Pittsburgh, and then defeated the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII.
Coach Schottenheimer announced his resignation from the Chiefs following the 1998 season, and defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons, compiling a 16 -- 16 record. By the end of the Chiefs ' decade of regular - season dominance, Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders, Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos, and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23, 2000. Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later. After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties, head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired.
Looking to change the Chiefs ' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade, Carl Peterson contacted Dick Vermeil about the Chiefs ' head coaching vacancy for the 2001 season. Vermeil previously led the St. Louis Rams to a victory in Super Bowl XXXIV. Vermeil was hired on January 12. The Chiefs then traded a first - round draft pick in the 2001 NFL Draft to St. Louis for quarterback Trent Green and signed free agent running back Priest Holmes to be the team 's cornerstones on offense.
In 2003, Kansas City began the season with nine consecutive victories, a franchise record. They finished the season with a 13 -- 3 record and the team 's offense led the NFL in several categories under the direction of USA Today 's Offensive Coach of the Year honoree, Al Saunders. Running back Priest Holmes surpassed Marshall Faulk 's single - season touchdown record by scoring his 27th rushing touchdown against the Chicago Bears in the team 's regular season finale. The team clinched the second seed in the 2004 NFL playoffs and hosted the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Playoffs. In a game where neither team punted, the Chiefs lost the shoot - out 38 -- 31. It was the third time in nine seasons that the Chiefs went 8 -- 0 at home in the regular season, only to lose their post-season opener at Arrowhead.
After a disappointing 7 -- 9 record in 2004, the 2005 Chiefs finished with a 10 -- 6 record but no playoff berth. They were the fourth team since 1990 to miss the playoffs with a 10 -- 6 record. Running back Larry Johnson started in place of the injured Priest Holmes and rushed for 1,750 yards in only nine starts. Prior to the Chiefs ' final game of the season, head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement. The Chiefs won the game 37 -- 3 over the playoff - bound Cincinnati Bengals.
Within two weeks of Vermeil 's resignation, the Chiefs returned to their defensive roots with the selection of its next head coach. The team introduced Herman Edwards, a former Chiefs scout and head coach of the New York Jets, as the team 's tenth head coach after trading a fourth - round selection in the 2006 NFL Draft to the Jets. Quarterback Trent Green suffered a severe concussion in the team 's season opener to the Cincinnati Bengals which left him out of play for eight weeks. Backup quarterback Damon Huard took over in Green 's absence and led the Chiefs to a 5 -- 3 record.
Kansas City was awarded a Thanksgiving Day game against the Denver Broncos in response to owner Lamar Hunt 's lobbying for a third Thanksgiving Day game. The Chiefs defeated the Broncos 19 -- 10 in the first Thanksgiving Day game in Kansas City since 1969. Hunt was hospitalized at the time of the game and died weeks later on December 13 due to complications with prostate cancer. The Chiefs honored their owner for the remainder of the season, as did the rest of the league.
Trent Green returned in the middle of the season, but struggled in the final stretch, and running back Larry Johnson set an NFL record with 416 carries in a season. Kansas City managed to clinch their first playoff berth in three seasons with a 9 -- 7 record and a bizarre sequence of six losses from other AFC teams on New Year 's Eve, culminating with a Broncos loss to the 49ers. The Indianapolis Colts hosted the Chiefs in the Wild Card playoffs and defeated Kansas City 23 -- 8.
In 2007, Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback. After starting the season with a 4 -- 3 record, the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season - ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle. Despite the team 's 4 -- 12 record, tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe 's NFL record for touchdowns at the position (63) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15.5.
The Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL. The starting lineup had an average of 25.5 years of age. By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen, the Chiefs began a youth movement. The Chiefs had a league - high thirteen selections in the 2008 NFL Draft and chose defensive tackle Glenn Dorsey and offensive lineman Branden Albert in the first round. Analysts quickly called Kansas City 's selections as the best of the entire draft. Entering the season, the Chiefs were unsure if injury - prone quarterback Brodie Croyle, who was the incumbent starter, could be their quarterback in the long - term. Croyle was injured in the team 's first game of the season and Damon Huard started in Croyle 's absence. Tyler Thigpen become the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games for a start against the Atlanta Falcons. After a poor performance by Thigpen, in which he threw three interceptions against the Falcons defense, Huard was retained as the starting quarterback. The Chiefs struggled off the field as much as on as tight end Tony Gonzalez demanded a trade and running back Larry Johnson was involved in legal trouble.
Croyle returned for the Chiefs ' game against the Tennessee Titans, but both he and Damon Huard suffered season - ending injuries in the game. The Chiefs reorganized their offense to a new spread offense game plan focused around Tyler Thigpen. The Chiefs ' new offense was implemented to help Thigpen play to the best of his abilities and also following the absence of Larry Johnson, who was suspended for his off - field conduct. The Chiefs made a huge gamble by using the spread offense, as most in the NFL believe that it can not work in professional football, and also head coach Herman Edwards was traditionally in favor of more conservative, run - oriented game plans.
The 2008 season ended with a franchise worst 2 -- 14 record, where the team suffered historic blowout defeats nearly week - in and week - out. a 34 -- 0 shut - out to the Carolina Panthers, and allowed a franchise - high 54 points against the Buffalo Bills. The team 's general manager, chief executive officer, and team president Carl Peterson resigned at the end of the season, and former New England Patriots vice president of player personnel Scott Pioli was hired as his replacement for 2009.
On January 23, 2009, Herman Edwards was fired as head coach, and two weeks later Todd Haley signed a four - year contract to become Edwards ' successor. Haley had a background with Pioli, which made him an attractive hire for Pioli 's first coach in Kansas City.
In April 2009 Tony Gonzalez was traded to the Atlanta Falcons after failed trade attempts over the previous two seasons. Notably, head coach Todd Haley fired offensive coordinator Chan Gailey just weeks before the start of the 2009 season and chose to take on the coordinator duties himself. Throughout 2009 the Chiefs acquired veterans to supplement the Chiefs ' young talent including Matt Cassel, Mike Vrabel, Bobby Engram, Mike Brown, Chris Chambers, and Andy Alleman. The team finished with a 4 -- 12 record, just a two - game improvement upon their record from the 2008 season.
For the 2010 season, the Chiefs made significant hires for their coaching staff, bringing on former Patriots assistant coaches Charlie Weis and Romeo Crennel to coach the offense and defense, respectively. The coaching additions proved to be very successful, as the Chiefs would go on to secure their first AFC West title since 2003. Their ten victories in the 2010 season combined for as many as the team had won in their previous three seasons combined.
On January 9, 2011, the Chiefs lost their home Wild Card playoff game to the Baltimore Ravens 30 -- 7. Six players were chosen for the Pro Bowl: Dwayne Bowe, Jamaal Charles, Brian Waters, Tamba Hali, Matt Cassel, and rookie safety Eric Berry. Jamaal Charles won the FEDEX ground player of the year award and Dwayne Bowe led the NFL in Touchdown Receptions.
For their first pick in the 2011 NFL draft, and 26th overall, the team selected Jonathan Baldwin, Wide Receiver from Pitt. After a poor start, Haley was relieved of duties as Head Coach on December 12. Clark Hunt made note of "bright spots at different points this season '', but felt that overall the Chiefs were not progressing. The highest point of the 2011 season was an upset win against the Packers, who at that time, were undefeated with a 13 -- 0 record.
The 2012 Chiefs became the first team since the 1929 Buffalo Bisons to not lead in regulation through any of their first nine games. The Chiefs tied their franchise worst record of 2 -- 14 and clinched the No. 1 overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. It is the first time in since the merger they have held the first overall pick.
Following the 2012 season, the Chiefs fired head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli. Former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid was brought in as head coach to work with new general manager John Dorsey, a former Green Bay Packers head scout.
The Chiefs acquired quarterback Alex Smith from the San Francisco 49ers for the Chiefs ' second - round pick, 34th overall, in the 2013 draft and a conditional pick in 2014 draft. Matt Cassel was released shortly after. The Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first overall pick of the 2013 NFL Draft.
The Chiefs started 9 -- 0 for the second time in team history. They would lead their wildcard game against the Indianapolis Colts 38 -- 10 shortly after halftime, but they would collapse late and lose, 45 -- 44.
In 2014, the Chiefs attempted to make the playoffs for the second straight season for the first time since 1995, however, they finished 9 -- 7 and were eliminated in Week 17.
After a promising win for the Chiefs against Houston in Week 1, Kansas City went on a five - game losing streak culminating in a 16 -- 10 loss to Minnesota and the loss of Jamaal Charles to a torn ACL. However, they managed one of the most improbable season comebacks in the NFL and won ten straight to improve their record from 1 -- 5 to 11 -- 5. The team clinched a playoff berth after a 17 -- 13 win over Cleveland in Week 16 to become only the second NFL team to do so after the merger.
The streak achieved by the Chiefs broke a franchise record for 9 straight (2003, 2013) and second 9 plus game win streak under Reid. After a Week 17 win over Oakland 23 -- 17, the Chiefs achieved their longest winning streak in franchise history at ten games. They qualified for the playoffs, playing in the 2015 AFC Wild - Card playoff game, held at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas on January 9, 2016. The Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30 -- 0 to earn their first NFL playoff win in 23 seasons, dating back to the 1993 -- 94 NFL playoffs, a win that also came in Houston. The Chiefs ' Wild - Card playoff victory ended what was at the time the third - longest drought in the NFL, and it also ended a then NFL record eight - game playoff losing streak. Riddled with injuries, they were defeated by the New England Patriots 27 -- 20 in the AFC Divisional Round.
After facing a 24 -- 3 deficit with six minutes left in the 3rd quarter, the Chiefs engineered a 33 -- 27 comeback win against the San Diego Chargers ending with a two - yard touchdown run by Alex Smith in overtime to give the Chiefs their largest regular season comeback to start the season at 1 -- 0.
On Christmas Day, the Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos 33 -- 10 to give Kansas City their tenth straight win against divisional opponents.
On January 1, 2017, the Chiefs clinched the AFC West and the second seed going into the playoffs that year. They clinched the 2nd seed in the AFC but fell to the Pittsburgh Steelers 18 - 16 as Chris Boswell hit 6 field goals.
The Chiefs finished the year with a 10 -- 6 record, and won the AFC West. This was the first time in Chiefs history to win the AFC West in back to back years. In the Wild Card round the Chiefs lost a tight game to the Tennessee Titans 22 - 21, allowing Derrick Henry to rush for 156 yards. The loss extended their NFL record for most consecutive home playoff losses to six.
The Chiefs began the year with first - year starter Patrick Mahomes as their quarterback, and as of October 29, have accumulated a record of 7 -- 1. This included victories over division rivals Los Angeles Chargers and Denver Broncos (twice), along with important conference victories over the Pittsburgh Steelers, Cincinnati Bengals, and Jacksonville Jaguars. Their first loss of the season came at the hands of the New England Patriots with a last - second field goal.
When the Texans began playing in 1960, the team 's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans ' uniforms, but Bud Adams chose Columbia blue and scarlet for his Houston Oilers franchise. Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans ' uniforms, which even after the team relocated to Kansas City, remain as the franchise 's colors to this day.
The state of Texas on the team 's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin. Hunt 's inspiration for the interlocking "KC '' design was the "SF '' inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets. Unlike the 49ers ' logo, Kansas City 's overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline. From 1960 to 1973, the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets, but changed to white bars in 1974, making them one of the first teams in the NFL to use a non-gray facemask.
The Chiefs ' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club 's history. It consists of a red helmet, and either red or white jerseys with the opposite color numbers and names. White pants were used with both jerseys from 1960 to 1967 and 1989 to 1999. Beginning in 2009, during the Pioli / Haley era, the team has alternated between white and red pants for road games during the season. Prior to September 15, 2013, the Chiefs always wore white pants with their red jerseys. The Chiefs have never worn an alternate jersey in a game, although custom jerseys are sold for retail.
The Chiefs wore their white jerseys with white pants at home for the 2006 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals. The logic behind the uniform selection that day was that the Bengals would be forced to wear their black uniforms on a day that forecasted for steamy temperatures. The only other time the Chiefs wore white at home was throughout the 1980 season under Marv Levy.
In 2007, the Kansas City Chiefs honored Lamar Hunt and the AFL with a special patch. It features the AFL 's logo from the 1960s with Hunt 's "LH '' initials inside the football. In 2008, the patch became permanently affixed to the left chest of both Kansas City 's home and away jerseys.
In select games for the 2009 season, the Chiefs, as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League, wore "throwback '' uniforms to celebrate the AFL 's 50th anniversary.
For the first time in team history, the Chiefs wore their red jersey with red pants forming an all red combo in their home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 15, 2013.
Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs ' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76,416, which makes it the sixth - largest stadium in the NFL. The stadium underwent a $375 million renovation, completed in mid-2010, which included new luxury boxes, wider concourses and enhanced amenities. The stadium renovation was paid for by $250 million in taxpayer money and $125 million from the Hunt Family. The stadium cost $53 million to build in 1972, and an average ticket in 2009 costs $81. Centerplate serves as the stadium 's concession provider and Sprint, Anheuser - Busch and Coca - Cola are major corporate sponsors.
Dating back to the Chiefs ' home opener in 1991 to mid-2009, the Chiefs had 155 consecutive sellout games. The streak ended with the final home game of the 2009 season against the Cleveland Browns, resulting in the first local TV blackout in over 19 years. Arrowhead has been called one of the world 's finest stadiums and has long held a reputation for being one of the toughest and loudest outdoor stadiums for opposing players to play in. All noise is directly attributed to its fans and was once measured at 116 decibels by the Acoustical Design Group of Mission, Kansas. By way of comparison, take - off of aircraft may lead to a sound level of 106 decibels at the ground. Sports Illustrated named Arrowhead Stadium the "toughest place to play '' for opposing teams in 2005. The tailgate party environment outside the stadium on gameday has been compared to a "college football '' atmosphere. Arrowhead Stadium features frequent fly - overs from a B - 2 Spirit stealth bomber from nearby Whiteman Air Force Base. Since the 1994 NFL season, the stadium has had a natural grass playing surface. From 1972 to 1993, the stadium had an artificial AstroTurf surface.
During the game against the Oakland Raiders on October 13, 2013, Arrowhead Stadium once again became the loudest stadium in the world when the fans set the Guinness Book of World Records record for loudest crowd in an outdoor stadium (137.5 dB), breaking the record set by the Seattle Seahawks just four weeks prior. A few weeks after, Seattle re-gained the record by reaching a noise level of 137.6 decibels. Chiefs fans have reclaimed the record once again; on September 29, 2014, on Monday Night Football against the New England Patriots, the fans recorded a sound reading of 142.2 decibels.
When the franchise was based in Dallas, the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. They moved camp to Southern Methodist University, owner Lamar Hunt 's alma mater, for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965. From 1966 to 1971, the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City, and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County, Missouri -- where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun, Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis.
From 1992 to 2009 the Chiefs conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin -- River Falls in River Falls, Wisconsin. The Chiefs ' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO / NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks. Following the passage of a $25 million state tax credit proposal, the Chiefs moved their training camp to Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph, Missouri, in 2010. The bulk of the tax credits went for improvements to Arrowhead Stadium with $10 million applied to the move to Missouri Western. A climate - controlled, 120 - yard NFL regulation grass indoor field, and office space for the Chiefs was constructed at Missouri Western adjacent to the school 's Spratt Stadium before the 2010 season.
Outside of training camp and during the regular season, the Chiefs conduct practices at their own training facility nearby Arrowhead Stadium. The facility is located near the Raytown Road entrance to the Truman Sports Complex just east of Interstate 435 and features three outdoor fields (two grass and one artificial turf) as well as an indoor facility with its own full - size field.
The Chiefs ' first mascot was Warpaint, a nickname given to several different breeds of pinto horse. Warpaint served as the team 's mascot from 1963 to 1988. The first Warpaint (born in 1955, died in 1992) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress. Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown. On September 20, 2009, a new Warpaint horse was unveiled at the Chiefs ' home opener which was won by Oakland Raiders. Warpaint is now ridden by a cheerleader, Susie.
In the mid-1980s, the Chiefs featured a short - lived unnamed "Indian man '' mascot which was later scrapped in 1988. Since 1989 the cartoon - like K.C. Wolf, portrayed by Dan Meers in a wolf costume, has served as the team 's mascot. The mascot was named after the Chiefs ' "Wolfpack '', a group of rabid fans from the team 's days at Municipal Stadium. K.C. Wolf is one of the most popular NFL mascots and was the league 's first mascot inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2006.
The Chiefs have employed a cheerleading squad since the team 's inception in 1960. In the team 's early days, the all - female squad was referred to as the Chiefettes. In addition to the Cheerleaders, in the early 1970s, there was also a dance / drill team that performed for pre-game and halftime. From 1986 to 1992, the cheerleader squad featured a mix of men and women. Since 1993, the all - female squad has been known as the Chiefs Cheerleaders.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 26, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 13 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
Twenty members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame spent at least some portion of their career with the Chiefs. Eleven spent the majority of the career with the Chiefs. Nine of the Chiefs in the Hall of Fame were involved with the Chiefs during their Super Bowl Championship season of 1969. The Chiefs have 3 contributors, 2 coaches, and 15 players in the Hall of Fame. In addition, Hall of Fame safety Ronnie Lott had a contract with the Chiefs during the 1995 season, but only played for the Chiefs in the preseason and spent the regular season on injured reserve and is not recognized by the Hall of Fame as having played for the Chiefs.
The Chiefs are one of 16 organizations that honor their players, coaches and contributors with a team Hall of Fame or Ring of Honor. Established in 1970, the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member in an annual ceremony with the exception of the 1983 season. Several of the names were featured at Arrowhead Stadium in the stadium 's architecture prior to renovations in 2009. The requirements for induction are that a player, coach, or contributor must have been with the Chiefs for four seasons and been out of the NFL for four seasons at the time of induction. There are some exceptions, such as Joe Delaney and Derrick Thomas, Delaney was with the team for only two seasons before his death, Thomas was inducted 1 year after his death in January 2000 (2 years after his final season). The Chiefs have the second-most enshrinees of any NFL team in their team Hall of Fame behind the Green Bay Packers, who have enshrined over 100 players and team contributors over the years in the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame. Nineteen players and the coach of the Super Bowl IV championship team have been inducted into the ring of honor.
Thirteen head coaches have served the Texans / Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960. Hank Stram, the team 's first head coach, led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl. Stram was the team 's longest - tenured head coach, holding the position from 1960 to 1974. Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his 10 seasons as head coach. Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage (. 634) of all Chiefs coaches. Gunther Cunningham was on the Chiefs ' coaching staff in various positions from 1995 to 2008, serving as the team 's head coach in between stints as the team 's defensive coordinator. Dick Vermeil coached the team to a franchise - best 9 -- 0 start in the 2003 season. Of the ten Chiefs coaches, Hank Stram and Marv Levy have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Herman Edwards served as the team 's head coach from 2006 to 2008, compiling a 15 -- 33 record and a franchise worst 6 -- 26 record over a two - year span. Todd Haley compiled a 19 -- 26 record with the team from 2009 -- 2011, including an AFC West division title in 2010. Haley was fired with three games left in the 2011 season. Romeo Crennel was named interim coach, and was promoted to full - time coach in January 2012. Crennel was fired on Monday, December 31, 2012, after finishing the 2012 season with a 2 -- 14 record. On January 5, 2013, the Chiefs hired Andy Reid to be their next head coach. In Reid 's tenure, the Chiefs have been consistent contenders, making the playoffs in 4 of his first 5 seasons.
The franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas. Hunt remained the team 's owner until his death in 2006. The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar 's death and Clark Hunt, Lamar 's son, represents the family 's interests. While Hunt 's official title is CEO and Chairman of the Board, he represents the team at all owner meetings. In 2010, Hunt assumed role as CEO alongside his role as Chairman of the Board. According to Forbes, the team is valued at $2.4 billion and ranks 24th among NFL teams in 2017.
Owner Lamar Hunt served as the team 's president from 1960 to 1976. Because of Lamar Hunt 's contributions to the NFL, the AFC Championship trophy is named after him. He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team 's president in 1977. Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired by Hunt in 1988 to replace him. Peterson resigned the title as team president in 2008. Denny Thum became the team 's interim president following Peterson 's departure and was officially given the full position in May 2009. Thum resigned from his position on September 14, 2010.
Don Rossi served as the team 's general manager for half of the 1960 season, resigning in November 1960. Jack Steadman assumed duties from Rossi and served in the position until 1976. Steadman was promoted to team president in 1976 and despite being relieved of those duties in 1988, he remained with the franchise until 2006 in various positions. Jim Schaaf took over for Steadman as general manager until being fired in December 1988. Carl Peterson was hired in 1988 to serve as the team 's general manager, chief executive officer and team president. Peterson remained in the position for 19 years until he announced his resignation from the team in 2008. Denny Thum served as interim general manager until January 13, 2009, when the Chiefs named New England Patriots executive Scott Pioli the team 's new general manager. Pioli was released in early January after the hiring of Andy Reid, and was replaced by John Dorsey. Pioli 's record as the Chief 's general manager was 23 -- 41.
On June 22, 2017, it was announced that the Chiefs had fired Dorsey. They hired Brett Veach as the new general manager on July 10, 2017.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
Since 1989, KCFX, a.k.a. "101 The Fox '', has broadcast all Chiefs games on FM radio under the moniker of The Chiefs Fox Football Radio Network. Since 1994, Mitch Holthus has served as play - by - play announcer and former Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson serves as color commentator. Former Chiefs longsnapper Kendall Gammon serves as the field reporter. Former Chiefs broadcaster Bob Gretz also contributes to the broadcasts. Starting in the 2016 season, Dawson will only serve as color commentator during home games, and Gammon will be color commentator during road games, with Dani Welniak assuming Gammon 's sideline reporting role for away games. The Chiefs and KCFX hold the distinction of being the longest FM radio broadcast partnering tenure in the NFL. The Chiefs Radio Network extends throughout the six - state region of Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, with 61 affiliate stations.
KCTV Channel 5 (CBS) broadcasts most Chiefs regular season games, with exceptions as following. KCTV also broadcasts all Chiefs pre-season games. WDAF Channel 4 (Fox) broadcasts games in which the Chiefs host an NFC opponent. KSHB Channel 41 (NBC) broadcasts all games in which the Chiefs play on NBC Sunday Night Football or NBC 's NFL playoffs coverage. KMBC Channel 9 (ABC) has aired Monday Night Football games locally since 1970.
Prior to the 1994 season, WDAF was the primary station for the Chiefs as an NBC affiliate (they aired on KMBC when ABC had the AFL package through 1964), since NBC had the AFC package. The inter-conference home games aired on KCTV starting in 1973 (when the NFL allowed local telecasts of home games). After week one of the 1994 season, WDAF switched to Fox (which got the NFC package), and has aired the Chiefs ' inter-conference home games since. The bulk of the team 's games moved to KSHB through the end of the 1997 season. Since that time, they have aired on KCTV, save for the 2015 Week 17 game vs. the Oakland Raiders, which aired on WDAF when the NFL cross-flexed the game from CBS to FOX.
As of the 2015 preseason, the Chiefs preseason broadcasters were Paul Burmeister who serves as the play - by - play announcer, former Chiefs quarterback Trent Green serves as the color commentator, and KCChiefs.com insider B.J. Kissel is the sideline reporter.
Chiefs games are broadcast in Missouri and Kansas as well as parts of Iowa, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Arkansas, and South Dakota. Stations in major cities are listed below.
The Chiefs boast one of the most loyal fan bases in the NFL. Kansas City is the sixth - smallest media market with an NFL team, but they have had the second - highest attendance average over the last decade. Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad. The Chiefs averaged 77,300 fans per game from 1996 to 2006, second in the NFL behind the Washington Redskins. The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Kingdom which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment.
At the end of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' before home games, many Chiefs fans intentionally yell out "CHIEFS! '' rather than singing "brave '' as the final word. In 1996, general manager Carl Peterson said "We all look forward, not only at Arrowhead, but on the road, too, to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem... Our players love it. '' After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their lives in the tragedy and continued to do so for the remainder of the 2001 season. At the Chiefs ' September 23, 2001, home game against the New York Giants, fans gave the opposing Giants a standing ovation.
After every Chiefs touchdown at home games, fans chant while pointing in the direction of the visiting team and fans, "We 're gon na beat the hell outta you... you... you, you, you, you! '' over the song "Rock and Roll Part 2. '' The chant starts after the third "hey! '' in the song. The original version of the song by Gary Glitter was previously used until the NFL banned his music from its facilities in 2006 following the British rocker 's conviction on sexual abuse charges in Vietnam. A cover version of the song played by Tube Tops 2000 has been played since 2006 at every home game.
Chiefs fans also carry on a tradition that began at Florida State University in the mid 1980s by using the Seminole WarChant as a rallying cry during key moments in their football games. Prior to each home game, a former Chiefs player, called the honorary drum leader, bangs on a drum with a large drum stick to start the Tomahawk chop.
The Chiefs ' fan base has expanded across the world like many other NFL teams. However, there is a Twitter account dedicated to Chiefs fans in the UK and has been recognized by the Kansas City Chiefs and is their official UK fan page. They have many dedicated fans writing articles and interviewing players of the team such as Tamba Hali.
Arrowhead Stadium is also recognized by Guinness World Records as having the loudest outdoor stadium in the world. This was achieved on September 29, 2014 in a Monday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when the crowd achieved a roar of 142.2 decibels which is comparable to standing 100 feet from a jet engine, which even with short term exposure, can cause permanent damage.
From various periods between 1963 and the 2008 season, trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game. The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium. DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for the team 's victory in Super Bowl IV. When his health was declining, DiPardo took a leave of absence from the band from 1983 to 1988. DiPardo 's daughter took over as bandleader in 1989, by which time DiPardo returned to the band by popular demand. For the 2009 season, due to renovations at Arrowhead Stadium, the band did not return to perform at the stadium.
DiPardo died on January 27, 2011, at age 98. He had been hospitalized since December 2010 after suffering a brain aneurysm.
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who fought for the south in the civil war | American Civil War - Wikipedia
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade
Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston P.G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg
2,200,000:
750,000 -- 1,000,000:
110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons
365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured
94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons
290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured
The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The result of a long - standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States of America, who advocated for states ' rights to expand slavery.
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America, or the South. The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although Britain and France granted it belligerent status). The states that remained loyal, including the border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North.
The North and South quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the battle of Appomattox followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead, a higher number than the number of American military deaths in all other wars combined. Much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills and houses. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in American history.
In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 %. Alabama had voted 46 % for those unionists, Mississippi with 40 %, Florida with 38 %, Texas with 25 %, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln 's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States '', he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton '' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron - clad ships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40.
The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won many Southern leaders felt that disunion had become their only option, because they thought that they were losing representation, which would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.
Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war, in large measure, to protect southern society, and slavery was an integral part of it. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.
Historically, southern slave - holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still - nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full - fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade.
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited -- long after the war -- by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience.
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact '' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states ' rights for what purpose? States ' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. Constitution. "States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.
Beginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British - French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation - state.
In the world of 19th century self - made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, "freedom '' could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure -- first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together.
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists '') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence. '' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the "Crittenden Compromise '', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining the republic, based on the people 's vote. The people must now show: "... successful maintenance (of the Republic) against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it. It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided, there can be no successful appeal back to bullets; that there can be no successful appeal, except to ballots themselves, at succeeding elections. Such will be a great lesson of peace; teaching men that what they can not take by an election, neither can they take it by a war... ''
The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union ''. It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states '' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three -- Texas, Alabama, and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the ' slaveholding states ' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas -- also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.
These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "... was intended to be perpetual, '' but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union '' was not among the "... enumerated powers granted to Congress. '' One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void ''. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln 's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward who at that time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina 's Fort Sumter.
Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the U.S. fort 's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:
However, much of the North 's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53 -- 13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law, and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key 's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.
After Virginia 's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought ''. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier.
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.
Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities.
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton '' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.
British investors built small, fast, steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.
The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's "Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.
In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant 's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.
In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee 's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee 's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war 's turning point. Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade 's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat, and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee 's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty '' and "Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.
Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom '' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end. '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood 's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea ''. He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee 's army.
Lee 's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant 's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy '') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek.
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South 's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '', as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic. ''
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South -- though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could only continue to fight the war as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War. ''
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win. '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired. '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out. ''
Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond. ''
Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
(We) find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox 's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:
Union: 853,838
Confederate: 914,660
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 %, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads '') and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. ''
Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union - controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the constitution.
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war 's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God 's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.
Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause '', shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism '' of the 19th century, sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance.
The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
(A) social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.
There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war '', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.
General reference
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Confederacy
Ethnic articles
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british pilot crashed and was killed while trying to break the sound barrier on september 27th 1946 | De Havilland DH 108 - wikipedia
The de Havilland DH 108 "Swallow '' was a British experimental aircraft designed by John Carver Meadows Frost in October 1945. The DH 108 featured a tailless, swept wing with a single vertical stabilizer, similar to the layout of the wartime German Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet rocket - powered point - defence interceptor. Initially designed to evaluate swept wing handling characteristics at low and high subsonic speeds for the proposed early tailless design of the Comet airliner, three examples of the DH 108 were built to Air Ministry specifications E. 1 / 45 and E. 11 / 45. With the adoption of a conventional tail for the Comet, the aircraft were used instead to investigate swept wing handling up to supersonic speeds. All three prototypes were lost in fatal crashes.
Employing the main fuselage section and engine of the de Havilland Vampire mated to a longer fuselage with a single tailfin and swept wings, the de Havilland DH 108 was proposed in 1944 as a test "mule '' for the DH 106 Comet which had initially been considered a tailless, swept - wing concept. Despite the Comet design taking on more conventional features, the value of testing the unique configuration to provide basic data for the DH. 110 spurred de Havilland to continue development of the DH 108. Selecting two airframes from the English Electric Vampire F 1 production line, the new aircraft had unmistakable similarities to its fighter origins, especially in the original forward fuselage which retained the nose, cockpit and other components of the Vampire. The Ministry of Supply named the DH 108 the "Swallow '', a name that was never officially adopted by the company.
The new metal wing incorporating a 43 _̊ sweepback was approximately 15 % greater in area than the standard Vampire wing. Control was based on the conventional rudder in combination with elevons that were part elevator and ailerons, fitted outboard of the split trailing edge flaps. Although the Vampire fuselage was retained, as development continued, a revised nose and streamlined, reinforced canopy were incorporated.
The first DH 108 prototype, serial number TG283, utilising the Vampire fuselage and a 43 ° swept wing, flew on 15 May 1946 at RAF Woodbridge. Designed to investigate low - speed handling, it was capable of only 280 mph (450 km / h). The de Havilland Chief Test Pilot Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., son of de Havilland company owner - designer Geoffrey de Havilland, gave a display flight in the DH 108 during the 1946 Society of British Aircraft Constructors (SBAC) airshow at Radlett. In later low - speed testing designed to clear the rear fuselage at high angles of attack, the first prototype was fitted with longer Sea Vampire landing gear.
The second, high - speed prototype, TG306, with a 45 ° swept wing incorporating automatic leading - edge Handley Page slats and powered by a de Havilland Goblin 3 turbojet, flew soon after in June 1946. Modifications to the design included a more streamlined, longer nose and a smaller canopy (framed by a strengthened metal fairing) facilitated by lowering the pilot 's seat. While being used to evaluate handling characteristics at high speed, on 27 September 1946 TG306 suffered a catastrophic structural failure that occurred in a dive from 10,000 ft (3,050 m) at Mach 0.9 and crashed in the Thames Estuary. The pilot, Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., was killed in the accident. Early wind tunnel testing had pointed to potentially dangerous flight behaviours, but pitch oscillation at high speed had been unexpected. The subsequent accident investigation centred on a structural failure that occurred as air built up at Mach 0.9, pitching the aircraft into a shock stall that placed tremendous loads on the fuselage and wings. The main spar cracked at the roots causing the wings to immediately fold backwards.
After the loss of the second prototype, VW120 became the third and final prototype based on the newer Vampire F. 5 fighter built at Hatfield. It differed from the first test aircraft in that it featured an even more streamlined pointed nose and smaller reinforced canopy (lowering the pilot 's seat allowed for a more aerodynamic canopy shape to be employed). Power - boosted elevators had been specified as a means to control the pitch oscillations at the root of the earlier disaster. A more powerful Goblin 4 of 3,738 lbf (16.67 kN) thrust had the potential to push the DH 108 into the supersonic range. VW120 first flew on 24 July 1947 flown by John Cunningham, the wartime nightfighter ace.
Considered an important testbed for high - speed flight, VW120 was readied for an attempt at the World Speed Record then held by a Gloster Meteor at 616 mph (991 km / h). The second prototype, TG306, was a "backup '' for the attempt before it fatally crashed. On 12 April 1948, VW120 established a new World Air Speed Record of 604.98 mph (974.02 km / h) on a 62 - mile (100 km) circuit. Then, on 6 September 1948, John Derry is thought to have probably exceeded the speed of sound in a shallow dive from 40,000 ft (12,195 m) to 30,000 ft (9,145 m). The test pilot Captain Eric "Winkle '' Brown, who escaped a crash in 1949, described the DH 108 as "a killer ''.
In 1949, VW120 put on an aerial display at Farnborough and scored third place in the Society of British Aircraft Constructors Challenge Trophy Air Race before being turned over to the Ministry of Supply and test flown at RAE Farnborough. It was destroyed on 15 February 1950 in a crash near Brickhill, Buckinghamshire, killing its test pilot, Squadron Leader Stuart Muller - Rowland. The accident investigation pointed to a faulty oxygen system that incapacitated the pilot.
A coroner 's report published in the local newspaper one month later confirmed that the pilot died from a broken neck. The failure of the left wing as the plane dived, occurred just above the garage at Brickhill. This failure was presumed to be the source of a "bang '' described by witnesses at Brickhill. Swishing sounds which were reported came from the aircraft spinning at a high rate due to it having only one wing. It came down in the woods after glancing off an oak tree; the traces of the impact were still visible 50 years later. The airframe and right wing were dismantled by the military, and removed very quickly. The left wing was also recovered from the fields just north of Brickhill.
A nearby German field worker ran over to the crash site and was met by the mechanic from Brickhill garage who had rushed to the crash site in his car to offer assistance. The pilot was already dead. A search for the crash site in 2001 by a local using a metal detector was successful. He found some of the mounting bolts "cone shaped '' that were removed when the remains had been dismantled on site. The tree that the DH 108 had hit was also found, with the scar still visible. The earlier theory that a faulty oxygen system was the cause was ruled out by the coroner in his later report.
Finally, on 1 May 1950, during low - speed sideslip and stall tests, the first prototype, TG283, was lost in a crash at Hartley Wintney killing the pilot, Sqn Ldr George E.C. Genders AFC DFM. After abandoning the aircraft at low altitude in an inverted spin, his parachute failed to open in time. In all, 480 flights had been made by the three Swallows.
The DH108 established a number of "firsts '' for a British aircraft: it was the first British swept - winged jet aircraft and the first British tailless jet aircraft.
General characteristics
Performance
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when was the last time crystal palace beat manchester united | 2016 FA Cup final - wikipedia
The 2016 FA Cup Final was the 135th final of the FA Cup, the world 's oldest football cup competition. The match was contested between Crystal Palace and Manchester United in a repeat of the 1990 FA Cup Final. It was refereed by Mark Clattenburg, from Consett, County Durham.
The winners Manchester United qualified for the 2016 FA Community Shield and the group stage of the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League. Since Manchester United had also qualified for the Europa League group stage based on their league position, Southampton entered the group stage (taking the league spot from Manchester United instead of their original spot in third qualifying round), while Southampton 's spot in the third qualifying round was given to West Ham United as the highest placed Premier League team not already qualified for European competitions.
The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom by both BBC and BT Sport. BBC provided the free - to - air coverage and BT Sport 1 was the pay - TV alternative.
Manchester United went into the final with a record of 11 wins from 18 FA Cup finals, one win and appearance behind Arsenal in FA Cup wins and FA Cup Final appearances respectively. United last played a final in 2007, the first at the new Wembley, where they lost 1 -- 0 after extra time to Chelsea. Their last victory in the competition was in 2004, a 3 -- 0 win against Millwall at Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium. Crystal Palace 's only previous FA Cup final was the aforementioned 1990 final, which they lost to Manchester United after a replay.
As a Premier League team, Crystal Palace started in the third round. They were drawn away at fellow Premier League team Southampton. At St Mary 's Stadium on 9 January, Crystal Palace won 2 -- 1 with goals from Joel Ward and Wilfried Zaha either side of Oriol Romeu 's equaliser.
In the fourth round, they hosted another top - flight team in the shape of Stoke City at Selhurst Park, and Zaha scored the only goal. For the third consecutive round they had Premier League opposition in the shape of Tottenham Hotspur in the fifth round on 21 February. At White Hart Lane, Crystal Palace won with Martin Kelly scoring the only goal at the end of the first half to advance to the quarter - finals for the first time since 1995.
There, they had their first game against a lower - division team, facing Championship side Reading at the Madejski Stadium. A 2 -- 0 win through Yohan Cabaye and Fraizer Campbell put them into the last four, again for the first time in 21 years. On 24 April at Wembley, Palace faced Watford in a repeat of the 2013 Football League Championship play - off Final. They took the lead through Yannick Bolasie, and Watford equalised when Troy Deeney headed in a corner from José Manuel Jurado. In the 61st minute, Palace found their winning goal as Connor Wickham headed from a Pape Souaré cross.
As a Premier League team, Manchester United entered in the third round, hosting Sheffield United of League One at Old Trafford on 9 January 2016. They got their first shot on target through substitute Memphis Depay, who was fouled in second half stoppage time by Dean Hammond for a penalty kick, from which Wayne Rooney scored the only goal with United 's only other shot on target. Manager Louis van Gaal was under pressure for Manchester United 's poor form prior to the match, and the victory was compared to one in the same competition in 1990, in which a goal by Mark Robins reportedly saved the career of Alex Ferguson.
Twenty days later in the next round, United travelled to Pride Park to play Derby County, situated in the play - off places in the Championship. Rooney scored the first goal from outside the penalty area, but George Thorne soon equalised. In the second half, further United goals by Daley Blind and Juan Mata relieved Van Gaal of further pressure; it was the first time in 15 games that the team won by a margin of more than one goal.
On 22 February, United played the fifth round away at League One strugglers Shrewsbury Town. Chris Smalling opened the scoring, and Mata doubled the advantage in first - half added time. Jesse Lingard confirmed a 3 -- 0 win with about half an hour left to play; in the closing stages United had to play with only 10 men when Will Keane was injured and no substitutes remained.
United hosted their sixth - round match against top - flight opponents West Ham United on 13 March. The visitors took the lead via a free - kick from Dimitri Payet, and only seven minutes remained when the hosts equalised with Anthony Martial 's close - range finish. A month later, the game went to a replay, the final FA Cup match at the Boleyn Ground. A curled effort from Marcus Rashford gave Manchester United a lead in the second half, and the lead was doubled by Marouane Fellaini. West Ham halved the deficit late on after James Tomkins ' header passed into David de Gea 's net, and they threatened an equaliser but could not achieve it.
On 23 April, Manchester United travelled to Wembley to play Everton in the semi-finals. Martial assisted Fellaini to open the scoring against his former team, giving a half - time lead. After the break, a penalty was given when Timothy Fosu - Mensah fouled Ross Barkley, but De Gea saved the spot - kick after Romelu Lukaku took it. Everton brought on Gerard Deulofeu whose cross was put into United 's net via a Chris Smalling own goal to level the scores. In added time, Ander Herrera set up Martial for the winner.
A bomb scare at Old Trafford on the final day of the Premier League meant that Manchester United 's game with Bournemouth had to be called off, eventually being rearranged for the following Tuesday, 17 May. The incident meant that United had four days to prepare for the final, two days less than Crystal Palace.
Each club received an allocation of 28,780 tickets. This was an increase on previous seasons from 71 % of available seats for supporters of the two opposing teams to 80 %. All tickets prices were also reduced by £ 5 each.
An inaugural tournament was held on 7 May in which a fan of each of the 64 teams who reached the third round competed in a knock - out football video game tournament in rooms around Wembley Stadium. The prize was tickets to the actual final.
Tinie Tempah performed his songs "Girls Like '' and "Written in the Stars '' alongside The Lewisham and Greenwich NHS Trust Choir and DJ Charlesy ahead of kick - off. The national anthem was song by Karen Harding.
Crystal Palace took the lead in the 78th minute when Jason Puncheon brought the ball down from a ball played into the penalty box by Joel Ward and cut in on the left before firing past David de Gea at his near post with his left foot. Manager Alan Pardew celebrated this goal by doing a dance on the touchline. It was 1 -- 1 in the 81st minute when Juan Mata scored from ten yards out with a low shot from the left after a chest down from Marouane Fellaini after a cross from Wayne Rooney on the right, with the ball taking a slight deflection and going through the legs of Joel Ward on the goal line. The match went to extra-time and just before the end of the first period, Chris Smalling was sent - off for a tackle on Yannick Bolasie near the halfway line. With 10 minutes to go, Jesse Lingard scored the winner for Manchester United with a right foot volley from inside the penalty area which flew past Wayne Hennessey before he could move.
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in the minnesota study the heritability estimate for iq was 70 | Heritability of IQ - Wikipedia
Research on heritability of IQ infers, from the similarity of IQ in closely related persons, the proportion of variance of IQ among individuals in a study population that is associated with genetic variation within that population. This provides a maximum estimate of genetic versus environmental influence for phenotypic variation in IQ in that population. "Heritability '', in this sense, "refers to the genetic contribution to variance within a population and in a specific environment ''. In other words, heritability is a mathematical estimate that indicates how much of a trait 's variation can be attributed to genes. There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century. Intelligence in the normal range is a polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene.
The general figure for the heritability of IQ, according to an authoritative American Psychological Association report, is 0.45 for children, and rises to around 0.75 for late teens and adults. In simpler terms, IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics, for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with age and reaches an asymptote at 18 -- 20 years of age and continues at that level well into adulthood. Recent studies suggest that family and parenting characteristics are not significant contributors to variation in IQ scores; however, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease can have deleterious effects.
"Heritability '' is defined as the proportion of variance in a trait which is attributable to genetic variation within a defined population in a specific environment. Heritability takes a value ranging from 0 to 1; a heritability of 1 indicates that all variation in the trait in question is genetic in origin and a heritability of 0 indicates that none of the variation is genetic. The determination of many traits can be considered primarily genetic under similar environmental backgrounds. For example, a 2006 study found that adult height has a heritability estimated at 0.80 when looking only at the height variation within families where the environment should be very similar. Other traits have lower heritabilities, which indicate a relatively larger environmental influence. For example, a twin study on the heritability of depression in men calculated it as 0.29, while it was 0.42 for women in the same study. Contrary to popular belief, two parents of higher IQ will not necessarily produce offspring of equal or higher intelligence. In fact, according to the concept of regression toward the mean, parents whose IQ is at either extreme are more likely to produce offspring with IQ closer to the mean (or average).
There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability:
Various studies have found the heritability of IQ to be between 0.7 and 0.8 in adults and 0.45 in childhood in the United States. It may seem reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experiences with age. However, that the opposite occurs is well documented. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.8 in adulthood. One proposed explanation is that people with different genes tend to seek out different environments that reinforce the effects of those genes. The brain undergoes morphological changes in development which suggests that age - related physical changes could also contribute to this effect.
A 1994 article in Behavior Genetics based on a study of Swedish monozygotic and dizygotic twins found the heritability of the sample to be as high as 0.80 in general cognitive ability; however, it also varies by trait, with 0.60 for verbal tests, 0.50 for spatial and speed - of - processing tests, and 0.40 for memory tests. In contrast, studies of other populations estimate an average heritability of 0.50 for general cognitive ability.
In 2006, The New York Times Magazine listed about three quarters as a figure held by the majority of studies.
There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, adoption studies show that by adulthood adoptive siblings are n't more similar in IQ than strangers, while adult full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.24. However, some studies of twins reared apart (e.g. Bouchard, 1990) find a significant shared environmental influence, of at least 10 % going into late adulthood. Judith Rich Harris suggests that this might be due to biasing assumptions in the methodology of the classical twin and adoption studies.
There are aspects of environments that family members have in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25 - 0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence it is quite low (zero in some studies). There is a similar effect for several other psychological traits. These studies have not looked into the effects of extreme environments such as in abusive families.
The American Psychological Association 's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns '' (1995) states that there is no doubt that normal child development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments must have negative effects on a great many aspects of development, including intellectual aspects. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience is in serious dispute. There is no doubt that such variables as resources of the home and parents ' use of language are correlated with children 's IQ scores, but such correlations may be mediated by genetic as well as (or instead of) environmental factors. But how much of that variance in IQ results from differences between families, as contrasted with the varying experiences of different children in the same family? Recent twin and adoption studies suggest that while the effect of the shared family environment is substantial in early childhood, it becomes quite small by late adolescence. These findings suggest that differences in the life styles of families whatever their importance may be for many aspects of children 's lives make little long - term difference for the skills measured by intelligence tests.
Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of non-shared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment due to different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family. For example, siblings grown up in the same household may have different friends and teachers and even contract different illnesses. This factor may be one of the reasons why IQ score correlations between siblings decreases as they get older.
Certain single - gene genetic disorders can severely affect intelligence. Phenylketonuria is an example, with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average. Meta - analyses have found that environmental factors, such as iodine deficiency, can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average.
The APA report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns '' (1995) also stated that:
"We should note, however, that low - income and non-white families are poorly represented in existing adoption studies as well as in most twin samples. Thus it is not yet clear whether these studies apply to the population as a whole. It remains possible that, across the full range of income and ethnicity, between - family differences have more lasting consequences for psychometric intelligence. ''
A study (1999) by Capron and Duyme of French children adopted between the ages of four and six examined the influence of socioeconomic status (SES). The children 's IQs initially averaged 77, putting them near retardation. Most were abused or neglected as infants, then shunted from one foster home or institution to the next. Nine years later after adoption, when they were on average 14 years old, they retook the IQ tests, and all of them did better. The amount they improved was directly related to the adopting family 's socioeconomic status. "Children adopted by farmers and laborers had average IQ scores of 85.5; those placed with middle - class families had average scores of 92. The average IQ scores of youngsters placed in well - to - do homes climbed more than 20 points, to 98. ''
Stoolmiller (1999) argued that the range of environments in previous adoption studies were restricted. Adopting families tend to be more similar on, for example, socio - economic status than the general population, which suggests a possible underestimation of the role of the shared family environment in previous studies. Corrections for range restriction to adoption studies indicated that socio - economic status could account for as much as 50 % of the variance in IQ.
On the other hand, the effect of this was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues (2007), who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio - economic status had no effect on adoptive - sibling correlations (in) IQ ''
Turkheimer and colleagues (2003) argued that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in a study on seven - year - old twins, in impoverished families, 60 % of the variance in early childhood IQ was accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse.
In contrast to Turkheimer (2003), a study by Nagoshi and Johnson (2005) concluded that the heritability of IQ did not vary as a function of parental socioeconomic status in the 949 families of Caucasian and 400 families of Japanese ancestry who took part in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition.
Asbury and colleagues (2005) studied the effect of environmental risk factors on verbal and non-verbal ability in a nationally representative sample of 4 - year - old British twins. There was not any statistically significant interaction for non-verbal ability, but the heritability of verbal ability was found to be higher in low - SES and high - risk environments.
Harden and colleagues (2007) investigated adolescents, most 17 years old, and found that, among higher income families, genetic influences accounted for approximately 55 % of the variance in cognitive aptitude and shared environmental influences about 35 %. Among lower income families, the proportions were in the reverse direction, 39 % genetic and 45 % shared environment. ''
Rushton and Jensen (2010) criticized many of these studies for being done on children or adolescents. They argued that heritability increases during childhood and adolescence, and even increases greatly between 16 -- 20 years of age and adulthood, so one should be cautious drawing conclusions regarding the role of genetics from studies where the participants are not adults. Furthermore, the studies typically did not examine if IQ gains due to adoption were on the general intelligence factor (g). When the studies by Capron and Duyme were re-examined, IQ gains from being adopted into high SES homes were on non-g factors. By contrast, the adopted children 's g mainly depended on their biological parents SES, which implied that g is more difficult to environmentally change. The most cited adoption projects that sought to estimate the heritability of IQ were those of Texas, Colorado and Minnesota that were started in the 1970s. These studies showed that while the adoptive parents ' IQ does correlate with adoptees ' IQ in early life, when the adoptees reach adolescence the correlation has faded and disappeared. The correlation with the biological parent seemed to explain most of the variation.
A 2011 study by Tucker - Drob and colleagues reported that at age 2, genes accounted for approximately 50 % of the variation in mental ability for children being raised in high socioeconomic status families, but genes accounted for negligible variation in mental ability for children being raised in low socioeconomic status families. This gene - environment interaction was not apparent at age 10 months, suggesting that the effect emerges over the course of early development.
A 2012 study based on a representative sample of twins from the United Kingdom, with longitudinal data on IQ from age two to age fourteen, did not find evidence for lower heritability in low - SES families. However, the study indicated that the effects of shared family environment on IQ were generally greater in low - SES families than in high - SES families, resulting in greater variance in IQ in low - SES families. The authors noted that previous research had produced inconsistent results on whether or not SES moderates the heritability of IQ. They suggested three explanations for the inconsistency. First, some studies may have lacked statistical power to detect interactions. Second, the age range investigated has varied between studies. Third, the effect of SES may vary in different demographics and different countries.
A 2017 King 's College London study suggests that genes account for nearly 50 per cent of the differences between whether children are socially mobile or not.
A meta - analysis by Devlin and colleagues (1997) of 212 previous studies evaluated an alternative model for environmental influence and found that it fits the data better than the ' family - environments ' model commonly used. The shared maternal (fetal) environment effects, often assumed to be negligible, account for 20 % of covariance between twins and 5 % between siblings, and the effects of genes are correspondingly reduced, with two measures of heritability being less than 50 %. They argue that the shared maternal environment may explain the striking correlation between the IQs of twins, especially those of adult twins that were reared apart. IQ heritability increases during early childhood, but whether it stabilizes thereafter remains unclear. These results have two implications: a new model may be required regarding the influence of genes and environment on cognitive function; and interventions aimed at improving the prenatal environment could lead to a significant boost in the population 's IQ.
Bouchard and McGue reviewed the literature in 2003, arguing that Devlin 's conclusions about the magnitude of heritability is not substantially different from previous reports and that their conclusions regarding prenatal effects stands in contradiction to many previous reports. They write that:
Chipuer et al. and Loehlin conclude that the postnatal rather than the prenatal environment is most important. The Devlin et al. (1997a) conclusion that the prenatal environment contributes to twin IQ similarity is especially remarkable given the existence of an extensive empirical literature on prenatal effects. Price (1950), in a comprehensive review published over 50 years ago, argued that almost all MZ twin prenatal effects produced differences rather than similarities. As of 1950 the literature on the topic was so large that the entire bibliography was not published. It was finally published in 1978 with an additional 260 references. At that time Price reiterated his earlier conclusion (Price, 1978). Research subsequent to the 1978 review largely reinforces Price 's hypothesis (Bryan, 1993; Macdonald et al., 1993; Hall and Lopez - Rangel, 1996; see also Martin et al., 1997, box 2; Machin, 1996).
Dickens and Flynn (2001) argued that the "heritability '' figure includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that further increase IQ. The direct effect can initially have been very small but feedback loops can create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues. This model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that may cause permanent effects.
The Flynn effect is the increase in average intelligence test scores by about 0.3 % annually, resulting in the average person today scoring 15 points higher in IQ compared to the generation 50 years ago. This effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long - term IQ gains if they taught children how to replicate outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left the program. Most of the improvements have allowed for better abstract reasoning, spatial relations, and comprehension. Some scientists have suggested that such enhancements are due to better nutrition, better parenting and schooling, as well as exclusion of the least intelligent, genetically inferior, people from reproduction. However, Flynn and a group of other scientists share the viewpoint that modern life implies solving many abstract problems which leads to a rise in their IQ scores.
More recent research has illuminated genetic factors underlying IQ stability and change. Genome - wide association studies have demonstrated that the genes involved in intelligence remain fairly stable over time. Specifically, in terms of IQ stability, "genetic factors mediated phenotypic stability throughout this entire period (age 0 to 16), whereas most age - to - age instability appeared to be due to non-shared environmental influences ''. These findings have been replicated extensively and observed in the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands. Additionally, researchers have shown that naturalistic changes in IQ occur in individuals at variable times.
Spatial ability has been shown to be unifactorial (a single score accounts well for all spatial abilities), and is 69 % heritable in a sample of 1,367 twins from the ages 19 through 21. Further only 8 % of spatial ability can be accounted for by a shared environmental factors like school and family. Of the genetically determined portion of spacial ability, 24 % is shared with verbal ability (general intelligence) and 43 % was specific to spatial ability alone.
A 2009 review article identified over 50 genetic polymorphisms that have been reported to be associated with cognitive ability in various studies, but noted that the discovery of small effect sizes and lack of replication have characterized this research so far. Another study attempted to replicate 12 reported associations between specific genetic variants and general cognitive ability in three large datasets, but found that only one of the genotypes was significantly associated with general intelligence in one of the samples, a result expected by chance alone. The authors concluded that most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives brought about by inadequate sample sizes. Arguing that common genetic variants explain much of the variation in general intelligence, they suggested that the effects of individual variants are so small that very large samples are required to reliably detect them. Genetic diversity within individuals is heavily correlated with IQ.
A novel molecular genetic method for estimating heritability calculates the overall genetic similarity (as indexed by the cumulative effects of all genotyped single nucleotide polymorphisms) between all pairs of individuals in a sample of unrelated individuals and then correlates this genetic similarity with phenotypic similarity across all the pairs. A study using this method estimated that the lower bounds for the narrow - sense heritability of crystallized and fluid intelligence are 40 % and 51 %, respectively. A replication study in an independent sample confirmed these results, reporting a heritability estimate of 47 %. These findings are compatible with the view that a large number of genes, each with only a small effect, contribute to differences in intelligence.
The relative influence of genetics and environment for a trait can be calculated by measuring how strongly traits covary in people of a given genetic (unrelated, siblings, fraternal twins, or identical twins) and environmental (reared in the same family or not) relationship. One method is to consider identical twins reared apart, with any similarities which exists between such twin pairs attributed to genotype. In terms of correlation statistics, this means that theoretically the correlation of tests scores between monozygotic twins would be 1.00 if genetics alone accounted for variation in IQ scores; likewise, siblings and dizygotic twins share on average half of their alleles and the correlation of their scores would be 0.50 if IQ were affected by genes alone (or greater if, as is undoubtedly the case, there is a positive correlation between the IQs of spouses in the parental generation). Practically, however, the upper bound of these correlations are given by the reliability of the test, which is 0.90 to 0.95 for typical IQ tests
If there is biological inheritance of IQ, then the relatives of a person with a high IQ should exhibit a comparably high IQ with a much higher probability than the general population. In 1982, Bouchard and McGue reviewed such correlations reported in 111 original studies in the United States. The mean correlation of IQ scores between monozygotic twins was 0.86, between siblings, 0.47, between half - siblings, 0.31, and between cousins, 0.15.
The 2006 edition of Assessing adolescent and adult intelligence by Alan S. Kaufman and Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger reports correlations of 0.86 for identical twins raised together compared to 0.76 for those raised apart and 0.47 for siblings. These number are not necessarily static. When comparing pre-1963 to late 1970s data, researches DeFries and Plomin found that the IQ correlation between parent and child living together fell significantly, from 0.50 to 0.35. The opposite occurred for fraternal twins.
Another summary:
Although IQ differences between individuals are shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that mean group - level disparities (between - group differences) in IQ necessarily have a genetic basis. The Flynn effect is one example where there is a large difference between groups (past and present) with little or no genetic difference. An analogy, attributed to Richard Lewontin, illustrates this point:
Suppose two handfuls are taken from a sack containing a genetically diverse variety of corn, and each grown under carefully controlled and standardized conditions, except that one batch is lacking in certain nutrients that are supplied to the other. After several weeks, the plants are measured. There is variability of growth within each batch, due to the genetic variability of the corn. Given that the growing conditions are closely controlled, nearly all the variation in the height of the plants within a batch will be due to differences in their genes. Thus, within populations, heritabilities will be very high. Nevertheless, the difference between the two groups is due entirely to an environmental factor -- differential nutrition. Lewontin did n't go so far as to have the one set of pots painted white and the other set black, but you get the idea. The point of the example, in any case, is that the causes of between - group differences may in principle be quite different from the causes of within - group variation.
Arthur Jensen has written in agreement that this is technically correct, but he has also stated that a high heritability increases the probability that genetics play a role in average group differences.
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where does ender live in ender's game | Ender Wiggin - wikipedia
Speaker for the Dead
Andrew "Ender '' Wiggin is a fictional character from Orson Scott Card 's 1985 science fiction novel Ender 's Game and its sequels (Speaker for the Dead, Xenocide, Children of the Mind, Ender in Exile), as well as in the first part of the spin - off series, Ender 's Shadow. The book series itself is an expansion, with some changes to detail, of Card 's 1977 short story "Ender 's Game. ''
In the film adaptation of Ender 's Game, Ender is portrayed by Asa Butterfield.
In the first book of the series, Ender 's Game, Ender is the youngest and most well rounded of three children; his parents conceived him contrary to the state 's strict two - child policy. His existence was called for by a program aiming at producing commanders for humanity 's war against the Formics, or "Buggers ''. He attends Battle School, an Earth - orbiting space station that trains similar prodigies. He receives the same education as other children, but the military recognizes him as their best bet to be supreme commander and often manipulates its own rules to make sure Ender has not only the necessary technical skills, but also the right character for their ends. Specifically, Ender is conditioned to be entirely self - sufficient from a very young age. Ender has brown hair, blue eyes, and is white.
As a child, Ender is bullied at school for being a "Third '', in particular by a bully named Stilson. After Stilson engages him in a fight, Ender beats him up so badly that the boy is hospitalized. At home, Ender is tormented by his brother Peter, a sadist who delights in killing small animals and tormenting other children, and who resents the attention Ender gets from the military. His only refuge is with his beloved sister Valentine, his protector and only friend. When he is accepted into Battle School, he is brokenhearted at the thought of leaving her, but she assures him that they will always have a bond.
At Battle School, Ender is exposed to great emotional and mental anguish and even physical danger. The administration is forbidden from protecting him in order to guarantee that he would never look to anybody else for help.
Ender breezes through academics, his main interest being the centerpiece of the school: a team - based three - dimensional laser tag competition in the zero - g Battle Room. He becomes first a masterful player, then a masterful strategist, and is eventually assigned command of Dragon Army. He molds the group of untested and unwanted students into the most successful army in the history of the school (it is revealed in Ender 's Shadow that Julian "Bean '' Delphiki actually chose them).
Ender 's unprecedented success arouses the jealousy of his fellow commanders, who subject him to steadily worse torment. The lead bully, Bonzo, confronts Ender in the shower and engages him in a brutal fistfight. Ender, driven to defend himself because of the administration 's lack of intervention, kills Bonzo to end the conflict. This reinforces Ender 's recurring role as the "end - er '' of conflict, a personality trait favored by the administration. After the fight, they let Ender graduate from Battle School, never informing him that Bonzo died from his injuries.
After graduating several years ahead of schedule, he is transferred to Command School on Eros. There he trains in interstellar fleet combat with holographic simulators. After Ender masters the game under ordinary conditions, the game changes from one with direct control of ships to one where he relays commands to his friends and associates from Battle School: Julian "Bean '' Delphiki, Alai, Shen, Petra Arkanian, Dink Meeker, Crazy Tom, Hot Soup, Fly Molo, Vlad, Dumper, and Carn Carby. Under the tutelage of Mazer Rackham, the legendary saviour of humanity from the previous war, Ender and his trusted companions take on a grueling series of battles and emerge victorious each time, although the mounting pressure pushes Ender to the edge.
The final battle takes place above a simulated planet, against an enemy with overwhelming numerical superiority. Ender perceives this as a grossly unfair test, and resolves to win by breaking the rules. This, he thinks, would convince his instructors that he is not the man to lead the Fleet into battle with the Formics. Instead of fighting the enemy ship - to - ship, Ender penetrates their defensive perimeter and destroys the planet itself. Not until after the pandemonium that follows is he told that it was not actually a simulation: Instead of taking on Rackham in what they had thought was a long series of simulations, he and his classmates had been unknowingly issuing orders to real ships in real combat. The final battle in fact, consisted of the destruction of the Bugger home world and the apparent eradication of the Bugger species. Ender is hailed as a hero, but he is stricken with guilt for having unknowingly committed genocide.
In the wake of the war, Valentine informs him that he would never be allowed to return to Earth due to her own actions in an effort to protect him from Peter, who was becoming a major political force on Earth. He journeys with her to one of the colonies being established on the now - abandoned Bugger worlds. Once there, he discovers a fertilized pupa of a Queen Bugger, hidden in a place that the Buggers designed for him to discover by modelling it to resemble part of an interactive computer game he played during his years in the Battle School. The buggers find out about it during his tormented dreams of them in Command School. The pupal Queen is capable of continuing the Bugger race. Through rudimentary telepathic communication with the Queen, he learns what he had begun to suspect before the war 's end: The entire conflict had been a mistake, the result of the inability of two alien species to communicate. He also learns from the Queen that the Buggers had regretted having mistakenly fought humans, and that they had forgiven Ender for destroying their world. Empathizing with the Queen, Ender promises to find her a home to grow where the Buggers would not be annihilated by the humans.
To foster this eventual rebirth, Ender writes a book called The Hive Queen, which tells the story of the war from the Formic perspective. Ender uses the pseudonym Speaker for the Dead to author it. When Peter, who has advanced to the position of Hegemon of Earth, contacts him, the Speaker for the Dead writes a second novel, The Hegemon, a human parallel to the first book. The two are combined by popular culture, eventually becoming one of the founding texts of a quasi-religious practice on the colonies of Earth. After writing the book, Ender and Valentine depart in a ship in an attempt to find a planet that would allow the Queen to grow, and that they could call their new home.
Speaker for the Dead begins 3000 years after the events of Ender 's Game. Ender is departing the planet where his sister Valentine has found a husband. He has also acquired an integrated computer by which he communicates with a powerful artificial intelligence known as Jane. Her existence is known only to Ender. He has taken the role of a Speaker for the Dead, keeping his identity as "Ender the Xenocide '', who orchestrated the victory over the Formics, a secret. His book, "The Hive Queen and the Hegemon '', in which he "spoke '' for the dead Formics, was a self - critical work that was intended to portray Ender as a heartless monster who destroyed a sentient race. The name "Ender '' is now considered a vile insult.
Ender departs for the planet Lusitania, where a request has been made to "speak '' on behalf of a researcher who has died from contact with the planet 's indigenous species, the piggies. When he arrives at the planet 22 years later (relativity having aged him only slightly; less than two weeks) he finds that the original call for a Speaker has been rescinded. Two other requests, however, have been made to "speak '' for more recent deaths. Ender discovers that both calls originated from the same family; the first from Novinha 's daughter Ela requesting someone speak for the death of Novinha 's husband Marcos, and the second from her eldest son Miro, who has asked for a speaker for the researcher Libo.
Ender begins to investigate the Marcos figure and has frequent contact with Novinha 's family. His honest and open approach endears him to most of the children as a father figure. He discovers that Marcos was abusive to his wife. With the help of Jane and his connection with the children, he uncovers multiple secrets that have been hidden for years. However, while in dialogue with the Children of the Mind, the planet 's religious monastic order, he is annoyed by Jane 's semi-sarcastic commentary and turns off his connection to her, something he has never done before. The resulting complete isolation and trauma of Jane is the unforeseen result. Jane, without consulting Ender, sends incriminating reports to the interstellar authorities who order the arrest of Miro and Ouanda, the researchers and lovers who have been investigating the piggies. The colony 's charter is cancelled and the colonist are forced to rely on Ender for guidance.
Meanwhile, Ender has been receiving pressure from the Hive - Queen 's pupa to allow her to settle on this world because she has been in telepathic contact with another race. Ender assumes this race is the piggies, although the bipedal life forms that are the primary contacts of Miro and Ouanda seem very simple and not telepathic at all. After the sanctions are put in place, he gets Miro and Ouanda to allow him to visit the piggies, who have been asking to meet him, the ' original Speaker ' (a claim Miro and Ouanda have been dismissing as a misunderstanding). Ender reverts many of the researchers ' assumptions when he not only admits to being the original Speaker, but has the piggies demonstrate that the trees the piggies grow from the corpses of those who have been ritually killed is the third, reproductive stage. The ritual killings of the two xenologers were misunderstandings. The piggies were under the false impression that humans reproduced in a fashion similar to themselves.
After these revelations, Ender proceeds to "speak '' for Marcos and revealed many secrets hitherto hidden, mostly by Novinha. Foremost among them was that Marcos was incapable of having children, and Novinha 's children are offspring of Libo. This is devastating news to Miro, because it means his girlfriend Ouanda is his half - sister. Sanctions from the Intergalactic Congress are learned of and Ender recommends that the colony declare itself in rebellion. He re-establishes contact with Jane who masks their ansible signal.
He enters into the beginnings of a relationship with Novinha. His sister, Valentine, agrees to travel to the colony. On the far side of the planet he has discovered a site reminiscent of a dream in Enders Game. With her guidance, he plants the Hive - Queen 's pupa in preparation for the rebirth of the Formics after 3000 years.
During Xenocide, Ender is looked to as an unofficial leader for the multiple efforts being undertaken in the rebel Colony of Lusitania. He is helping as much as he can with Novinha 's work in protecting humans from the descolada virus. The Descolada is fatal to humans, but is essential for the piggies ' life and reproduction. The Formics have an immune system that is advanced enough to protect them, and the humans have been using anti-viral dietary supplements, but both defenses are starting to fade in effectiveness in the face of the virus ' rampant mutations. Ender is also attempting to keep the peace on planet among the three species where resentment is brewing. The humans are starting to resent the piggies for being the reason they ca n't just kill the descolada outright. The existence of the new Formic colony is not general knowledge, but Ender knows that their appearance and their non-human way of reasoning would cause friction with the humans. Particularly troublesome are Novinha 's two youngest children; Grego, who is something of a rabble - rouser among the humans, and Quara, who sees the virus as sentient and is bringing up problematic objections to the research her mother and sister are doing. The piggies and the Formics are also worried about the approaching human fleet, which may destroy the planet if the threat of the descolada virus is unleashed on humanity.
Eventually research ordered by the government on another planet, Path, leads a young genius girl, Han Qing - jao, to deduce the existence of Jane, who is inextricably tied to the ansible system. Jane reveals herself to Qing - jao in an effort to prevent her from informing the authorities by telling her that the OCD her people suffer from was governmentally ordered and orchestrated, a plea which the girl 's father Han Fei - tzu and handmaiden Si Wang - mu agree with. However, the report to the authorities is dispatched regardless and the government enacts a plan to temporarily deactivate the ansible network to purge Jane from the system. The father agrees to help with the Descolada problem regardless of his daughter 's actions, in exchange for a cure for the pervasive OCD that plagues them. The Lusitanian researchers agree, but though a cure for both is designed, it proves impossible to synthesize; they ca n't cure the OCD without removing the genius as well, and the counter for the descolada simply wo n't be created. Meanwhile, putting together facts about Jane 's origins, the ansible, and philotes, the irreducible building blocks of all matter everywhere, they deduce that Jane has the power to take any object she knows about in great detail and pull it outside the known universe, an area where conscious thought has physical power.
Ender goes on the first test flight because Jane 's existence was a direct result of his time at the Battle School, where the buggers established a connection with him via a computer simulation game; therefore, Jane is most likely to be able to keep Ender 's form in her mind. Since Ender has all but passed Jane off to Miro at this point, due to the previous misunderstanding in Speaker, he must go as well. Ela goes because she is the only one with enough knowledge to produce the needed viruses. The test flight occurs with unexpected side - effects. Ela produces the new viruses, but Miro also gives himself a new body, undamaged unlike his old one. Ender, however, inadvertently creates copies of his brother and sister from his memories. They are more based on those memories than reality; therefore, Valentine is very soft and loving, and Peter is almost pure evil and malice. Horrified at what he has created, Ender removes himself from further efforts, as they will all need to involve the instantaneous travel Jane can do by moving things outside and Ender will not risk creating more things like his pseudo-siblings.
Children of the Mind begins where Xenocide left off. Much of Ender 's story revolves around his "pseudo-offspring '' Peter and young Val. After Ender 's first and only trip to the outside and back inside, Ender creates Peter and young Val from his aiua. Ender 's "life force '' is now split between three different people. Throughout the book Ender has a difficult time maintaining an aiua strong enough for all three people to live. The maximum number of people Ender can keep alive and healthy at any given time is two. In the beginning young Val suffers the most because Ender is the least interested in her mission, until it is revealed that she, along with Miro and Jane, are looking for the home planet of the descolada virus. Peter never had to compete for Ender 's aiua because Ender was always interested in Peter 's mission to prevent the Lusitania fleet from using the Molecular Disruption Device on Lusitania. Now that Ender 's aiua is fully invested in Peter and young Val, Ender himself begins to deteriorate. This causes Ender to collapse while working in the monastery garden, falling in and out of consciousness for the remainder of the book until his death. Ender 's physical manifestation is gone, but his aiua continues through Peter (young Val gives up her physical manifestation as well for Jane and her aiua continues through Peter as well).
A book that chronicles the ' lost years ' between Ender 's Game and Speaker for the Dead, Ender in Exile tells of Ender 's initial set - off from Eros, the long journey to the first colony, Shakespeare, as well as his trip to the Indian - dominant colony of Ganges, where Ender encounters a familiar, yet not - so - familiar face. The court martial of Hyrum Graff is expanded upon; some light is shed on Graff 's life after he was made Minister of Colonization, as well as Mazer Rackham 's travels after the Formic War.
After defeating the Formics, Ender remains on Eros. Peter, under his alias of Locke, has quelled the warring nations and has implemented a temporary truce. Valentine no longer wishes to be a part of Peter 's quest to rule the world. She pleads with her parents to come along with her and Ender to the planet colony of Shakespeare. They decline. Alessandra and her mother, Dorabella, sign - up to go to Shakespeare to get away from Dorabella 's mother and money problems. They had planned to be put into stasis during the two - year voyage, but several complications occurred and instead they remain awake. along with the crew of Ender, Valentine, Admiral Quincy Morgan (the captain) and some other colonists who opted against stasis.
Throughout the voyage, Ender has a battle of wills with Admiral Morgan, who attempts to usurp Ender 's lawful position as Governor of Shakespeare. Morgan sees Ender to be a foolish child that no one would follow. During the voyage, Dorabella seduces Admiral Morgan and tries to use her daughter, Alessandra, to seduce Ender hoping that, through her own marriage to Morgan and Alessandras ' successful marrying of Ender, Morgan could rule Shakespeare using Ender as a puppet.
Upon arrival at Shakespeare, Ender quickly and easily crushes Morgan 's attempted bloodless coup, with a little help from Minister of Colonization Hyrum Graff back on Earth. Ender then successfully liberates Alessandra from her dominating mother. After two years as governor, and completing ' The Hive Queen and the Hegemon ', Ender convinces Valentine to move on.
Ender 's first stop, at the request of Hyrum Graff, is the Hindu colony of Ganges which is governed by Virlomi, a former battle school student who caused an uprising in India before she was subdued and exiled by Peter Wiggin 's Hegemony. Once there, Ender agrees to help Virlomi quell an uprising by a group called ' The Natives of Ganges ', led by an angry young man named Randall Firth under the delusion that he is the son of Achilles de Flandres. The so - called ' natives ' have adopted ' The Hive Queen ' as a rallying cry, and have begun to belittle the name of war hero Ender Wiggin coining the phrase ' Ender the Xenocide '.
Ender and Randall have a physical combat leaving Ender near death. Ender reveals Randall 's true parentage (two of Ender 's old friends and squadron commanders, Julian ' Bean ' Delphiki and Petra Arkanian Delphiki Wiggin), after which Randall renounces his secret name, Achilles, and renames himself Arkanian Delphiki. Shortly after, Ender reunites Randall and his true mother by way of the ansible.
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which is the second fastest train in india | Express trains in India - Wikipedia
Mail / Express trains are Regular Express rail services of India. Express trains make a small number of stops, unlike Passenger / Local trains. In some cases, trains run express where there is overlapping local train service available, and run local at the tail ends of the line, where there is no supplemental local service. Because of their limited stops, these trains are able to obtain the highest speeds of any trains in India.
An express train is one where the average speed, excluding halts, is greater than 36 km / h. Including halts the speed may sometimes fall into the region of around 20 km / h for express trains.
The Duronto Express trains introduced in 2009 (which run between major cities without any intermediate halts) are projected to be the fastest trains in India when new services are introduced with a higher speed limit of 120 - 130 km / h. Despite being limited to a lower speed limit, they take as much time as a Rajdhani or Shatabdi on the same route, courtesy the non-stop nature of their journey. Rajdhani Express which was introduced in 1969 to connect New Delhi with the state capitals in India, travels at speeds up to 130 km / h.
Indian railways run non-reserved train as have unreserved / general compartment on Express / Mail trains.
Indian railways run non reserved trains under the brand Jan Sadharan Express. These trains have all Unreserved / General coaches. A new series of Antyodaya Express is also proposed in rail budget 2016 - 2017 which will operate on peak routes having more rush. These trains will have all non reserved coaches.
The following Jan Sadharan Express run in India:
The following trains are proposed under Antyodaya brand:
Apart from Antyodaya and Jan Sadharan trains, unreserved / general coaches are non reserved coaches on normal Express / Mail. The restriction on such coaches is for 24 hours journey. A new series of Deen Dayalu coaches has also been proposed in rail budget 2016 - 2017 for long distance trains. The Deen Dayalu coaches will be more comfortable than the old coaches
Like elsewhere, railways in India compete with air travel and road transport. The advantages of travelling by air between cities are the greater frequency of flights, and shorter travel time. Rail travel, with few exceptions (if any), offers lower cost.
Rail transport also faces competition from the use of roads improved under National Highways Development Project. People owning cars can, for short distances, benefit in terms of shorter travel time, given the lack of commute to and from a railway station at both ends of a journey. This is also balanced against the need to maintain one 's vehicle and its security during such trips.
Duronto, Shatabdi, and Rajdhani trains run on Indian broad - gauge which is 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm). These tracks are multi-purpose supporting all passenger and freight traffic, and are not made exclusively for lighter load fast - express passenger trains. They run on tracks with classifications Group A, permitting speed up to 160 km / h, and Group B for speed up to 130 km / h. Lower speed limits apply when they are on tracks or railway switches, which have lower speed limits. The design of the railway switches, with a speed limit of 50 -- 90 km / h, is the major bottleneck to higher speed. Another constraint is the need to accommodate freight trains at the current top speed of 70 km / h. These constraints to speed are consequences of sharing tracks with freight and lower speed suburban passenger trains. But currently, as of 2010, a separate freight corridor construction work is in progress with land acquisitions and other hurdles being slowly overcome.
Duronto, Shatabdi, and Rajdhani trains are hauled by powerful electric locomotives built by the Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, such as WAP - 4, WAP - 5, or WAP - 7, each with an output of more than 5,000 hp.
WAP - 4 hauling Rajdhani Express
WAP - 5 hauling Rajdhani Express
WAP - 7 hauling Rajdhani Express
WCAM - 2 hauling Rajdhani Express
WDP - 4 loco hauling Rajdhani Express
WDP - 3A loco hauling Trivandrum Rajdhani Express
The coaches in these trains are of crash - worthy design from Alstom - LHB, built by Rail Coach Factory at Kapurthala. These Alstom - LHB coaches can be pulled to a speed of 160 km / h without any modification. New fast - express coaches are made partly or completely of stainless steel, primarily motivated by lower maintenance, and higher availability. Stainless steel construction also reduces empty weight, enabling more passengers per coach. The bogies, design from Fiat, has 2 disk brakes per axle essential for safe operations especially at the speed of fast - express trains.
The average speed of super-fast trains, range from 55 kilometres per hour (34 mph) to 112 kilometres per hour (70 mph). Of this, counting up and down trains separately, 23 trains have an average speed more than 80 km / h, whereas, 72 trains have an average speed between 70 and 80 km / h. The speed of express trains is calculated from the latest Indian Railways Time - Table.
Regular unbranded express trains on the same route are only slightly slower, since the same locomotives haul them.
A WAP 5 hauled Gatimaan express.
12302 Howrah Rajdhani Express - AC First Class
12259 Sealdah - New Delhi Duronto Express
12322 Mumbai Mail Superfast Express at Barddhaman Junction
12510 Kaziranga Superfast Express (SBC - Guwahati) at Bagnan
12105 Vidarbha Superfast Express at Chandur
12073 (Howrah - Bhubaneswar) Jan Shatabdi Express (pic by Sarbamit Chowdhury)
12727 Godavari Superfast Express at Marripalem
Howrah Duronto Express
12113 Garib Rath Express at Nagpur
17036 Telangana Express at Moulali
Deccan Queen Express
18237 Chhattisgarh Express
15483 Mahananda Express at Siliguri Town
18625 (Patna - Hatia) Express
12864 Yesvantpur - Howrah Superfast Express at Marripalem
Frequent stops reduce the average running speed of a train greatly by preventing it from gaining higher speed. Duronto, Shatabdi, and Rajdhani express trains have very few stops. The distance between stops is as short as 2 km between New Bongaigaon - Bongaigaon on the Howrah - Dibrugarh Kamrup Express, and as long as 528 km between Vadodara - kota on the Thiruvananthapuram Rajdhani Express.
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the battle of saratoga took place in what state | Battles of Saratoga - wikipedia
Freeman 's Farm:
Bemis Heights:
United States
Great Britain
Horatio Gates Benedict Arnold Benjamin Lincoln Enoch Poor Ebenezer Learned Daniel Morgan
John Burgoyne Simon Fraser †
The Battles of Saratoga (September 19 and October 7, 1777) marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign, giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. British General John Burgoyne led a large invasion army southward from Canada in the Champlain Valley, hoping to meet a similar British force marching northward from New York City and another British force marching eastward from Lake Ontario; the southern and western forces never arrived, and Burgoyne was surrounded by American forces in upstate New York. He fought two small battles to break out which took place 18 days apart on the same ground, 9 miles (14 km) south of Saratoga, New York. They both failed.
Burgoyne found himself trapped by superior American forces with no relief in sight, so he retreated to Saratoga (now Schuylerville) and surrendered his entire army there on October 17. His surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, "was a great turning point of the war because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory. ''
Burgoyne 's strategy to divide New England from the southern colonies had started well but slowed due to logistical problems. He won a small tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freeman 's Farm at the cost of significant casualties. His gains were erased when he again attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights and the Americans captured a portion of the British defenses. Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat, and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga, forcing him to surrender on October 17. News of Burgoyne 's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition, and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon which played an important role in Saratoga. This battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain.
The battle on September 19 began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights. Benedict Arnold anticipated the maneuver and placed significant forces in his way. Burgoyne did gain control of Freeman 's Farm, but it came at the cost of significant casualties. Skirmishing continued in the days following the battle, while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City. Patriot militia forces continued to arrive, meanwhile, swelling the size of the American army. Disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command.
British General Sir Henry Clinton moved up from New York City and attempted to divert American attention by capturing two forts in the Hudson River highlands on October 6, but his efforts were too late to help Burgoyne. Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent that he would not receive relieving aid in time. This battle culminated in heavy fighting marked by Arnold 's spirited rallying of the American troops. Burgoyne 's forces were thrown back to the positions that they held before the September 19 battle and the Americans captured a portion of the entrenched British defenses.
The American Revolutionary War was approaching the two - year point, and the British changed their plans. They decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what they believed to be the more Loyalist middle and southern colonies. The British command devised a plan to divide the colonies with a three - way pincer movement in 1777. The western pincer under the command of Barry St. Leger was to progress from Ontario through western New York, following the Mohawk River, and the southern pincer was to progress up the Hudson River valley from New York City. The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal, and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany, New York, severing New England from the other colonies.
British General John Burgoyne moved south from the province of Quebec in June 1777 to gain control of the upper Hudson River valley. His campaign had become bogged down in difficulties following a victory at Fort Ticonderoga. Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July, but logistical and supply difficulties delayed the main army at Fort Edward. One attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington. Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Leger 's expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix.
General William Howe had taken his army from New York City by sea on a campaign to capture Philadelphia instead of moving north to meet Burgoyne. Most of Burgoyne 's Indian support had fled following the loss at Bennington, and his situation was becoming difficult. He needed to reach defensible winter quarters, requiring either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, and he decided to advance. He then deliberately cut communications to the north so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga, and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position. He ordered Baron Riedesel, who commanded the rear of the army, to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south, and then had the army cross the Hudson just north of Saratoga between September 13 and 15.
The Continental Army had been in a slow retreat since Burgoyne 's capture of Ticonderoga early in July, under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler, and was encamped south of Stillwater, New York. On August 19, Major General Horatio Gates assumed command from Schuyler, whose political fortunes had fallen over the loss of Ticonderoga and the ensuing retreat. Gates and Schuyler were from very different backgrounds and did not get along with each other; they had previously argued over command issues in the army 's Northern Department. The army was growing in size because of increased militia turnout following calls by state governors, the success at Bennington, and widespread outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea, the fiancée of a Loyalist in Burgoyne 's army by Indians under Burgoyne 's command.
General George Washington 's strategic decisions also improved the situation for Gates ' army. Washington was most concerned about the movements of General Howe. He was aware that Burgoyne was also moving, and he took some risks in July. He sent aid north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man noted for his influence with the New England militia. He ordered 750 men from Israel Putnam 's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates ' army in August, before he was certain that Howe had indeed sailed south. He also sent some of the best forces from his own army: Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed Provisional Rifle Corps, which comprised about 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, chosen for their sharpshooting ability. This unit came to be known as Morgan 's Riflemen.
On September 7, Gates ordered his army to march north. A site was selected for its defensive potential that was known as Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga; the army spent about a week constructing defensive works designed by Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko. The heights had a clear view of the area and commanded the only road to Albany, where it passed through a defile between the heights and the Hudson River. To the west of the heights lay more heavily forested bluffs that would present a significant challenge to any heavily equipped army.
Moving cautiously, since the departure of his Native American support had deprived him of reliable reports on the American position, Burgoyne advanced to the south after crossing the Hudson. On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the American defensive line, and skirmishes occurred between American scouting parties and the leading elements of his army.
The American camp had become a bed of festering intrigue ever since Arnold 's return from Fort Stanwix. While he and Gates had previously been on reasonably good terms in spite of their prickly egos, Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by taking on officers friendly to Schuyler as staff, dragging him into the ongoing feud between the two. These conditions had not yet reached a boil on September 19, but the day 's events contributed to the situation. Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold, and assumed command himself of the right, which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln, whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass the British positions behind Burgoyne 's army.
Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left, and the need to control the heights there. After the morning fog lifted around 10 am, Burgoyne ordered the army to advance in three columns. Baron Riedesel led the left column, consisting of the German troops and the 47th Foot, on the river road, bringing the main artillery and guarding supplies and the boats on the river. General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the center column, consisting of the 9th, 20th, 21st, and 62nd regiments, which would attack the heights, and General Simon Fraser led the right wing with the 24th Regiment and the light infantry and grenadier companies, to turn the American left flank by negotiating the heavily wooded high ground north and west of Bemis Heights.
Arnold also realized such a flanking maneuver was likely, and petitioned Gates for permission to move his forces from the heights to meet potential movements, where the American skill at woodlands combat would be at an advantage. Gates, whose preferred strategy was to sit and wait for the expected frontal assault, grudgingly permitted a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan 's men and Henry Dearborn 's light infantry. When Morgan 's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman, they spotted British advance troops in the field. Fraser 's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field, while Hamilton 's column had also made its way across a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense forest and difficult terrain. Riedesel 's force, while it was on the road, was delayed by obstacles thrown down by the Americans. The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction. The troops Morgan 's men saw were an advance company from Hamilton 's column.
Morgan placed marksmen at strategic positions, who then picked off virtually every officer in the advance company. Morgan and his men then charged, unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne 's main army. While they succeeded in driving back the advance company, Fraser 's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan 's left, scattering his men back into the woods. James Wilkinson, who had ridden forward to observe the fire, returned to the American camp for reinforcements. As the British company fell back toward the main column, the leading edge of that column opened fire, killing a number of their own men.
There was then a lull in the fighting around 1: 00 pm as Hamilton 's men began to form up on the north side of the field, and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south. Learning that Morgan was in trouble, Gates ordered out two more regiments (1st and 3rd New Hampshire) to support him, with additional regiments (2nd New York, 4th New York, the 1st Canadian, and Connecticut militia) from the brigade of Enoch Poor to follow. Burgoyne arrayed Hamilton 's men with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, and the 62nd in the center, with the 9th held in reserve.
The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and breaks in the action. Morgan 's men had regrouped in the woods, and picked off officers and artillerymen. They were so effective at reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of British field pieces, only to lose them in the next British charge. At one point it was believed that Burgoyne himself had been taken down by a sharpshooter; it was instead one of Burgoyne 's aides, riding a richly dressed horse, who was the victim. The center of the British line was very nearly broken at one point, and only the intervention of General Phillips, leading the 20th, made it possible for the 62nd to reform. In Roger Lamb 's memoir, (a British soldier present at the battle), he wrote ' ' In this battle an unusual number of officers fell, as our army abounded with young men of respectability at this time, who after several years of general peace anterior to the American revolution, were attracted to the profession of arms. Three sulbalterns (officers) of the 20th regiment on this occasion, the oldest of whom did not exceed the age of seventeen years, were buried together ' '
The final stroke of the battle belonged to the British. Around 3 pm, Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions. He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train, but also to send as many men as he could spare toward the American right flank. In a calculated risk, Riedesel left 500 men to guard the vital supply train and marched off toward the action with the rest of his column. Two of his companies advanced on the double and opened vicious fire on the American right, and Fraser 's force threatened to turn the American left flank. In response to the latter threat, Arnold requested more forces, and Gates allowed him to dispatch Ebenezer Learned 's brigade (2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts). (If Arnold had been on the field, these forces might have instead faced the larger danger posed by Riedesel 's force.) Fortunately for the American right, darkness set in, bringing an end to the battle. The Americans retreated back to their defenses, leaving the British on the field.
Burgoyne had gained the field of battle, but suffered nearly 600 casualties. Most of these were to Hamilton 's center column, where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company, and three quarters of the artillerymen were killed or wounded. American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded.
It has been widely recounted in histories of this battle that General Arnold was on the field, directing some of the action. However, John Luzader, a former park historian at the Saratoga National Historical Park, carefully documents the evolution of this story and believes it is without foundation in contemporary materials, and that Arnold remained at Gates ' headquarters, receiving news and dispatching orders through messengers. Arnold biographer James Kirby Martin, however, disagrees with Luzader, arguing that Arnold played a more active role at Freeman 's Farm by directing patriot troops into position and possibly leading some charges before being ordered back to headquarters by Gates.
Burgoyne 's council discussed whether to attack the next day, and a decision was reached to delay further action at least one day, to September 21. The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead. The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton, who was commanding the British garrison in New York City. Clinton suggested that he could "make a push at (Fort) Montgomery in about ten days. '' (Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River, in the New York Highlands south of West Point). If Clinton left New York on September 22, "about ten days '' after he wrote the letter, he still could not hope to arrive in the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month. Burgoyne, running low on men and food, was still in a very difficult position, but he decided to wait in the hope that Clinton would arrive to save his army. Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23, requesting some sort of assistance or diversion to draw Gates ' army away. Clinton sailed from New York on October 3, and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton on October 6. The furthest north any of his troops reached was Clermont, where they raided the estate of the prominent Patriot Livingston family on October 16.
Unknown to either side at Saratoga, General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga. Lincoln had collected 2,000 men at Bennington by early September. Brown and a detachment of 500 men captured poorly defended positions between Ticonderoga and Lake George, and then spent several days ineffectually bombarding the fort. These men, and some of the prisoners they freed along the way, were back in the American camp by September 29.
In the American camp, the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility. Gates quickly reported the action of September 19 to the Congress and Governor George Clinton of New York, but he failed to mention Arnold at all. The field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for their success. Almost all the troops involved were from Arnold 's command and Arnold was the one directing the battle while Gates sat in his tent. Arnold protested, and the dispute escalated into a shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of his command and giving it to Benjamin Lincoln. Arnold asked for a transfer to Washington 's command, which Gates granted, but instead of leaving he remained in his tent. There is no documentary evidence for a commonly recounted anecdote that a petition signed by line officers convinced Arnold to stay in camp.
During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies. Morgan 's sharpshooters, familiar with the strategy and tactics of woodland warfare, constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank.
As September passed into October it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne, who put the army on short rations on October 3. The next day, Burgoyne called a war council in which several options were discussed, but no conclusive decisions were made. When the council resumed the next day, Riedesel proposed retreat, in which he was supported by Fraser. Burgoyne refused to consider it, insisting that retreat would be disgraceful. They finally agreed to conduct an assault on the American left flank with two thousand men, more than one - third of the army, on October 7. The army he was attacking, however, had grown in the interval. In addition to the return of Lincoln 's detachment, militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp, including critical increases in ammunition, which had been severely depleted in the first battle. The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was more than 12,000 men strong and was led by a man who knew how much trouble Burgoyne was in. Gates had received consistent intelligence from the stream of deserters leaving the British lines and had also intercepted Clinton 's response to Burgoyne 's plea for help.
While Burgoyne 's troop strength was nominally higher, he likely had only about 5,000 effective, battle - ready troops on October 7, as losses from the earlier battles in the campaign and desertions following the September 19 battle had reduced his forces. General Riedesel advised that the army retreat. Burgoyne decided to reconnoiter the American left flank to see if an attack was possible. As an escort, the generals took Fraser 's Advanced Corps, with light troops and the 24th Foot on the right and the combined British grenadiers on the left, and a force drawn from all the German regiments in the army in the center. There were eight British cannon under Major Williams and two Hesse - Hanau cannon under Captain Pausch. Leaving their camp between 10 and 11 am, they advanced about three - quarters of a mile (1 km) to Barber 's wheat field on a rise above Mill Brook, where they stopped to observe the American position. While the field afforded some room for artillery to work, the flanks were dangerously close to the surrounding woods.
Gates, following the removal of Arnold from the field command, assumed command of the American left and gave the right to General Lincoln. When American scouts brought news of Burgoyne 's movement to Gates, he ordered Morgan 's riflemen out to the far left, with Poor 's men (1st, 2nd, and 3rd New Hampshire on the left; the 2nd and 4th New York Regiments) on the right, and Learned 's (1st New York, 1st Canadian, 2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts Regiments, plus militia companies) in the center. A force of 1,200 New York militia under Brigadier General Abraham Ten Broeck was held in reserve behind Learned 's line. In all, more than 8,000 Americans took the field that day, including about 1,400 men from Lincoln 's command that were deployed when the action became particularly fierce.
The opening fire came between 2 and 2: 30 pm from the British grenadiers. Poor 's men held their fire, and the terrain made the British shooting largely ineffective. When Major Acland led the British grenadiers in a bayonet charge, the Americans finally began shooting at close range. Acland fell, shot in both legs, and many of the grenadiers also went down. Their column was a total rout, and Poor 's men advanced to take Acland and Williams prisoner and capture their artillery. On the American left, things were also not going well for the British. Morgan 's men swept aside the Canadians and Native Americans to engage Fraser 's regulars. Although slightly outnumbered, Morgan managed to break up several British attempts to move west. While General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle, a frequently told story claiming it to be the work of Timothy Murphy, one of Morgan 's men, appears to be a 19th - century fabrication. The fall of Fraser and the arrival of Ten Broeck 's large militia brigade (which roughly equaled the entire British reconnaissance force in size), broke the British will, and they began a disorganized retreat toward their entrenchments. Burgoyne was also very nearly killed by one of Morgan 's marksmen; three shots hit his horse, hat, and waistcoat.
The first phase of the battle lasted about one hour and cost Burgoyne nearly 400 men, including the capture of most of the grenadiers ' command, and six of the ten field pieces brought to the action.
At this point, the Americans were joined by an unexpected participant. General Arnold, who was "betraying great agitation and wrath '' in the American camp, and may have been drinking, rode out to join the action. Gates immediately sent Major Armstrong after him with orders to return; Armstrong did not catch up with Arnold until the action was effectively over. (A letter, written by a witness to proceedings in the camp, suggests that Arnold did in fact have authorization from Gates to engage in this action.)
The defenses on the right side of the British camp were anchored by two redoubts. The outermost one was defended by about 300 men under the command of the Hessian Heinrich von Breymann, while the other was under the command of Lord Balcarres. A small contingent of Canadians occupied the ground between these two fortifications. Most of the retreating force headed for Balcarres ' position, as Breymann 's was slightly north and further away from the early action.
Arnold led the American chase, and then led Poor 's men in an attack on the Balcarres redoubt. Balcarres had set up his defenses well, and the redoubt was held, in action so fierce that Burgoyne afterwards wrote, "A more determined perseverance than they showed... is not in any officer 's experience ''. Seeing that the advance was checked, and that Learned was preparing to attack the Breymann redoubt, Arnold moved toward that action, recklessly riding between the lines and remarkably emerging unhurt. He led the charge of Learned 's men through the gap between the redoubts, which exposed the rear of Breymann 's position, where Morgan 's men had circled around from the far side. In furious battle, the redoubt was taken and Breymann was killed. Arnold 's horse was hit in one of the final volleys, and Arnold 's leg was broken by both shot and the falling horse. Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters; he was carried back in a litter.
The capture of Breymann 's redoubt exposed the British camp, but darkness was setting in. An attempt by some Germans to retake the redoubt ended in capture as darkness fell and an unreliable guide led them to the American line.
Burgoyne 's failed campaign, as may be seen by the titles of some of the books that cover it in detail, marked a major turning point in the war. After the battle, he withdrew his men 10 -- 15 miles north, near present - day Schuylerville, New York. General Burgoyne returned to England and was never given another commanding position in the British Army.
Burgoyne lost 1,000 men in the two battles, leaving him outnumbered by roughly 3 to 1; American losses came to about 500 killed and wounded. Burgoyne had also lost several of his most effective leaders, his attempts to capture the American position had failed, and his forward line was now breached. That night he lit fires at his remaining forward positions and withdrew under the cover of darkness. On the morning of October 8, he was back in the fortified positions he had held on September 16. By October 13 he was surrounded at Saratoga, and on October 17 he surrendered his army. The remnants of his expedition retreated from Ticonderoga back to Quebec.
The British learned that the Americans would fight bravely and effectively. Said one British officer:
The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works.
In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga, General Arnold had his seniority restored (he had lost it after being passed over for promotion earlier in 1777). His leg wound left Arnold bedridden for five months. Later, while still unfit for field service but serving as military governor of Philadelphia, Arnold entered into treasonous correspondence with the British. He received command of the fort at West Point and plotted to hand it over to the British, only to flee into the British lines when the capture of his contact John Andre led to the exposure of the plot. Arnold went on to serve under William Phillips, the commander of Burgoyne 's right wing, in a 1781 expedition into Virginia.
Although he left the direction of the battle to subordinates, General Gates received a great deal of credit as the commanding general for the greatest American victory of the war to date. He may have conspired with others to replace George Washington as the commander - in - chief. Instead, he received the command of the main American army in the South. He led it to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden, where he was at the forefront of a panicked retreat. Gates never commanded troops in the field again.
In response to Burgoyne 's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777, as a national day "for solemn Thanksgiving and praise ''; it was the nation 's first official observance of a holiday with that name.
Once news of Burgoyne 's surrender reached France, King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans that resulted in a formal Franco - American alliance and French entry into the war. This moved the conflict onto a global stage. As a consequence, Britain was forced to divert resources used to fight the war in North America to theaters in the West Indies and Europe, and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of Loyalist support in its North American operations. Being defeated by the British in the French and Indian War more than a decade earlier, France found an opportunity of revenge by aiding the colonists throughout the Revolutionary War. Prior to the Battle of Saratoga, France did n't fully aid the colonists. However, after the Battles of Saratoga were conclusively won by the colonists, France realized that the Americans had the hope of winning the war, and began fully aiding the colonists by sending soldiers, donations, loans, military arms, and supplies.
The battlefield and the site of Burgoyne 's surrender have been preserved, and are now administered by the National Park Service as the Saratoga National Historical Park, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park preserves a number of the buildings in the area and contains a variety of monuments. The Saratoga Monument obelisk has four niches, three of which hold statues of American commanders: Gates and Schuyler and of Colonel Daniel Morgan. The fourth niche, where Arnold 's statue would go, is empty. A more dramatic memorial to Arnold 's heroism, that does not name him, is the Boot Monument. Donated by Civil War General John Watts de Peyster, it shows a boot with spurs and the stars of a major general. It stands at the spot where Arnold was shot on October 7 charging Breymann 's redoubt and is dedicated to "the most brilliant soldier of the Continental Army ''.
Six Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 102nd Inf, 125th QM Co, 181st Inf, 182nd Inf and 192nd MP Bn) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Saratoga. There are now only thirty units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era.
There are a number of ships named after the battles including USS Saratoga (1842), USS Saratoga (CV - 3), and USS Saratoga (CV - 60)
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what do older brothers call younger sisters in korean | Korean pronouns - wikipedia
Korean pronouns pose some difficulty to speakers of English due to their complexity. The Korean language makes extensive use of speech levels and honorifics in its grammar, and Korean pronouns also change depending on the social distinction between the speaker and the person or persons spoken to.
In general, Koreans avoid using second person singular pronouns, especially when using honorific forms.
(Basically, there are no third person pronouns, but the following have restrictive use in a certain writing genres.)
For each pronoun there is a humble / honorific and an informal form for first and second person. In the above table, the first pronoun given is the humble one, which one would use when speaking to someone older or of high social status. dangsin (당신) is also sometimes used as the Korean equivalent of "dear '' as a form of address. Also, whereas uses of other humble forms are straightforward, dangsin must be used only in specific social contexts, such as between two married partners. In that way, it can be used in an ironic sense when used between strangers, usually during arguments and confrontations. It is worth noting that dangsin is also an honorific third - person pronoun, used to refer to one 's social superior who is not present.
Basically, there are no pure third - person pronoun systems in Korean. Instead of pronouns, personal names, titles, or kinship terms are used to refer to third persons in both oral and written communication. For this reason, repetitive use of names or titles in a discourse is allowed in Korean, which is very different feature from other languages such as English. For translation and creative writing, there is restrictive use of third - person pronouns "geu - nyeo '' (그녀) and "geu '' (그). The first has been coined in the combination of the demonstrative "geu '' (그) (geu) ' that ' and 녀 (nyeo) ' woman ' to refer anaphorically to a third person female. A gender - neutral third person pronoun, geu (그), which was originally a demonstrative, meaning ' that ' could mean she or he. However, it has increasingly been interpreted as a "male '' pronoun.
Although, in recent years, the pronoun geu - nyeo (그녀) is slowly gaining ground as a female counterpart from the influence of translations from European languages, it is almost restricted to specific styles of written language because Korean generally uses subjectless or modifier + noun constructions.
Korean has personal pronouns for the 1st and 2nd person, with distinctions for honorifics, and it prefers demonstrative pronouns in the 3rd person, which make a three - way distinction between close, distant, and previously mentioned.
The plural suffix - deul is also used with pronouns, both if it is necessary, as in geudeul (그들, "they ''), and sometimes in some cases, like urideul (우리들), in which it is redundant.
Geu (그) has a range of meanings, "he, '' "she, '' or "it. '' Ambiguity and the ability of the Korean language to drop pronouns which can be reconstructed from context make geu be seldom used by itself, but it has enjoyed a revival recently as the translation of "he '' in works translated from European languages.
The monosyllabic pronouns na (나), neo (너), and jeo (저), add - i (이) or - i ga (이가) rather than the expected - ga (가) to form the nominative case (see below). That produces the forms nae (내), ne (네), and je (제).
Additionally, because many Koreans have lost the distinction between the vowels ae (애) and e (에), ne (네, "you '') is dissimilating to ni (니).
In colloquial Korean, the topic forms naneun (나는, "me '') and neoneun (너는, "you '') are often pronounced and sometimes written as nan (난, "me '') and neon (넌, "you '').
Similarly, the accusative forms nareul (나를) and neoreul (너를) tend to become nal (날) and neol (널). The possessives na - ui (나의, "my ''), neo-ui (너의, "your ''), and jeo - ui (저의, "my '') have the alternate forms nae (내), ne (네), and je (제).
The classifier jjog (쪽, "side '') is also used when referring to people. Ijjog (이쪽, "this side '') then means "this person, these people '' (that is, he, she, or they), but it is further extended via "our side '' as a polite form for "us '' or "me ''.
The "given '' series is often called "medial '' and is said to be close to the addressee rather than the speaker. However, they actually refer to referents already established in the conversation, whether near or far. With new referents, the near or far forms will be used.
In colloquial speech, the object words, composed of the prefix followed by the generic noun classifier geos (것), frequently omit the final s (pronounced t), with proximate igeos (이것) becoming igeo (이거) That occurs before case clitics as well, with the nominative form igeos - i (이것이) becoming ige (이게), topical igeos - eun (이것은) becoming igeon (이건), and accusative igeos - eul (이것을) becoming igeol (이걸, "this '').
In colloquial Korean, interrogative mu - eos (무엇) contracts to mwo (뭐, "what '') (often pronounced meo, as w tends to drop after m), and the accusative mu - eos - eul (무엇 을) contracts to mwol (뭘, "what ''). In literature, another set of contraction for mu - eos is available for senior or archaic speakers: "mu - eo '' (무어) for mu - eos, "mu - e '' (무 에) for mu - eos - i, "mu - eol '' (무얼) for mu - eos - eul. In addition is "mwos '' (뭣), seldom used.
The word for "who '' is nugu (누구) whose nominative is nuga (누가). "How many '' is myeoch (몇).
An archaic alternative for nuga is "nwi '' (뉘).
Korean has a T-V distinction in the second person. Neo (너) is the pronoun corresponding to Latin tu, but instead of a single equivalent to vos, several strategies are used:
If none of the above is possible, an honorific common noun, such as dangsin (당신, "said body '') or jane (자네, "oneself '') (used for "you '' in the familiar speech level). The pseudo-pronoun dangsin is actually a noun, from the Sino - Korean loanword 當 身 "the aforementioned body ''. There are many such pseudo-pronouns in Korean.
The methods are ambiguous: they can indicate a third person as well as a second person. For an honorific noun to be interpreted as a second person pronoun, it must agree with the speech level of the verb: the level of respect used must be consistent throughout the sentence. Korean verbs reflect the social status of the person being spoken to so if that same person or group of people listening is also mentioned in the sentence, neither reference should be higher than the other.
A lowly noun used with a high speech level, or an honorific noun used with a low speech level, will be interpreted as a third person pronoun.
For example, jane is used for "you '' in the familiar speech level and is appropriate only as long as the familiar speech level itself is. The familiar speech level is used to talk in a friendly way to close friends and family who are younger or subordinate. In situations for which that speech level would be inappropriate or insulting, jane is too.
Even when the pronoun used and the speech level agree, there is still some possible ambiguity, but it can be resolved by context.
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where did they write the declaration of independence | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule. These states would found a new nation -- the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast. A committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence.
John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The Declaration was ultimately a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The next day, Adams wrote to his wife Abigail: "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. '' But Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost, and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress, are preserved at the Library of Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III, and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric (as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863) and his policies. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The U.S. Declaration of Independence inspired many other similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands (modern - day Belgium). It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence across Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense introduced no new ideas and probably had little direct effect on Congress 's thinking about independence; its importance was in stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss. Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine 's enormously popular pamphlet.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue. As public sentiment grew for separation from Great Britain, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776 by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1 and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain. John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey and Easton, Pennsylvania. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776 under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost, and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017 it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in an archive in Sussex, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was neglected in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804 during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
A key step marking the evolution of the Declaration in the nation 's consciousness is the now well - known painting Declaration of Independence by Connecticut political painter John Trumbull. It was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817. 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size, it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It has been often reproduced, and is the visual image most associated by Americans with the Declaration.
The painting is sometimes incorrectly described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence. In fact, the painting actually shows the five - man drafting committee presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress, an event that took place on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
The painting, the figures painted from life when possible, does not contain all the signers. Some had died and images could not be located. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time.
It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in the building known today as Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Trumbull visited the room, which was where the Second Continental Congress met, when researching for his painting. At the time it was the Pennsylvania State House.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776, and the 1972 movie of the same name, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams.
The Declaration was chosen to become the first digitized text (1971).
Since 1976 (the United States Bicentennial), Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence has been used on the back of the United States two - dollar bill.
In 1984, the Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration was dedicated in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high, to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
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congress shall make no law prohibiting the freedom of speech | First Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The First Amendment (Amendment I) to the United States Constitution prevents Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, prohibiting the free exercise of religion, or abridging the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, the right to peaceably assemble, or to petition for a governmental redress of grievances. It was adopted on December 15, 1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights.
The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York (1925), the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states -- a process known as incorporation -- through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th and 21st - century court decisions which protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
The amendment as adopted in 1791 reads as follows:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
In 1776, the second year of the American Revolutionary War, the Virginia colonial legislature passed a Declaration of Rights that included the sentence "The freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic Governments. '' Eight of the other twelve states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered "mere admonitions to state legislatures '', rather than enforceable provisions.
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation, a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring among other changes a stronger chief executive. George Mason, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights, proposed that the Constitution include a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties. Other delegates -- including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison -- disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other, unnamed rights were unprotected. After a brief debate, Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations.
For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("Anti-Federalism '') was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights. The U.S. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states. In the 1st United States Congress, following the state legislatures ' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments, and his proposed draft of the First Amendment read as follows:
The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the Legislature by petitions, or remonstrances, for redress of their grievances.
This language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendment 's intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, and adopted on December 15, 1791.
Thomas Jefferson wrote with respect to the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregational church in Connecticut):
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof '', thus building a wall of separation between Church & State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.
In Reynolds v. United States (1878) the Supreme Court used these words to declare that "it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere (religious) opinion, but was left free to reach (only those religious) actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. '' Quoting from Jefferson 's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom the court stated further in Reynolds:
In the preamble of this act (...) religious freedom is defined; and after a recital ' that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion, and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency, is a dangerous fallacy which at once destroys all religious liberty ', it is declared ' that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officers to interfere (only) when (religious) principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order. ' In these two sentences is found the true distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State.
Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, and some states continued official state religions after ratification. Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregational until the 1830s. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the U.S. Supreme Court incorporated the Establishment Clause (i.e., made it apply against the states):
The "establishment of religion '' clause of the First Amendment means at least this: Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion to another... in the words of Jefferson, the (First Amendment) clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect ' a wall of separation between church and State '... That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach.
In Torcaso v. Watkins (1961), the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office. In the Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994), The Court concluded that "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to irreligion. '' In a series of cases in the first decade of the 2000s -- Van Orden v. Perry (2005), McCreary County v. ACLU (2005), and Salazar v. Buono (2010) -- the Court considered the issue of religious monuments on federal lands without reaching a majority reasoning on the subject.
Everson used the metaphor of a wall of separation between church and state, derived from the correspondence of President Thomas Jefferson. It had been long established in the decisions of the Supreme Court, beginning with Reynolds v. United States in 1879, when the Court reviewed the history of the early Republic in deciding the extent of the liberties of Mormons. Chief Justice Morrison Waite, who consulted the historian George Bancroft, also discussed at some length the Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments by James Madison, who drafted the First Amendment; Madison used the metaphor of a "great barrier ''.
In Everson, the Court adopted Jefferson 's words. The Court has affirmed it often, with majority, but not unanimous, support. Warren Nord, in Does God Make a Difference?, characterized the general tendency of the dissents as a weaker reading of the First Amendment; the dissents tend to be "less concerned about the dangers of establishment and less concerned to protect free exercise rights, particularly of religious minorities. ''
Beginning with Everson, which permitted New Jersey school boards to pay for transportation to parochial schools, the Court has used various tests to determine when the wall of separation has been breached. Everson laid down the test that establishment existed when aid was given to religion, but that the transportation was justifiable because the benefit to the children was more important. In the school prayer cases of the early 1960s, (Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), aid seemed irrelevant; the Court ruled on the basis that a legitimate action both served a secular purpose and did not primarily assist religion. In Walz v. Tax Commission (1970), the Court ruled that a legitimate action could not entangle government with religion; in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), these points were combined into the Lemon test, declaring that an action was an establishment if:
The Lemon test has been criticized by justices and legal scholars, but it remains the predominant means by which the Court enforces the Establishment Clause. In Agostini v. Felton (1997), the entanglement prong of the Lemon test was demoted to simply being a factor in determining the effect of the challenged statute or practice. In Zelman v. Simmons - Harris (2002), the opinion of the Court considered secular purpose and the absence of primary effect; a concurring opinion saw both cases as having treated entanglement as part of the primary purpose test. Further tests, such as the endorsement test and coercion test, have been developed to determine whether a government action violated the Establishment Clause.
In Lemon the Court stated that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable '', the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a ' wall ', is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship. ''
Accommodationists, in contrast, argue along with Justice William O. Douglas that "(w) e are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being ''. This group holds that the Lemon test should be applied selectively. As such, for many conservatives, the Establishment Clause solely prevents the establishment of a state church, not public acknowledgements of God nor "developing policies that encourage general religious beliefs that do not favor a particular sect and are consistent with the secular government 's goals. ''
"Freedom of religion means freedom to hold an opinion or belief, but not to take action in violation of social duties or subversive to good order. '' In Reynolds v. United States (1878), the Supreme Court found that while laws can not interfere with religious belief and opinions, laws can be made to regulate some religious practices (e.g., human sacrifices, and the Hindu practice of suttee). The Court stated that to rule otherwise, "would be to make the professed doctrines of religious belief superior to the law of the land, and in effect permit every citizen to become a law unto himself. Government would exist only in name under such circumstances. '' In Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940), the Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied the Free Exercise Clause to the states. While the right to have religious beliefs is absolute, the freedom to act on such beliefs is not absolute.
In Sherbert v. Verner (1963), the Supreme Court required states to meet the "strict scrutiny '' standard when refusing to accommodate religiously motivated conduct. This meant that a government needed to have a "compelling interest '' regarding such a refusal. The case involved Adele Sherbert, who was denied unemployment benefits by South Carolina because she refused to work on Saturdays, something forbidden by her Seventh - day Adventist faith. In Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972), the Court ruled that a law that "unduly burdens the practice of religion '' without a compelling interest, even though it might be "neutral on its face '', would be unconstitutional.
The need for a compelling governmental interest was narrowed in Employment Division v. Smith (1990), which held no such interest was required under the Free Exercise Clause regarding a neutral law of general applicability that happens to affect a religious practice, as opposed to a law that targets a particular religious practice (which does require a compelling governmental interest). In Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah (1993), the Supreme Court ruled Hialeah had passed an ordinance banning ritual slaughter, a practice central to the Santería religion, while providing exceptions for some practices such as the kosher slaughter. Since the ordinance was not "generally applicable '', the Court ruled that it needed to have a compelling interest, which it failed to have, and so was declared unconstitutional.
In 1993, the Congress passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA), seeking to restore the compelling interest requirement applied in Sherbert and Yoder. In City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), the Court struck down the provisions of RFRA that forced state and local governments to provide protections exceeding those required by the First Amendment, on the grounds that while the Congress could enforce the Supreme Court 's interpretation of a constitutional right, the Congress could not impose its own interpretation on states and localities. According to the court 's ruling in Gonzales v. UDV (2006), RFRA remains applicable to federal laws and so those laws must still have a "compelling interest ''.
The First Amendment bars Congress from "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press.... '' U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens commented about this phraseology in a 1993 journal article: "I emphasize the word ' the ' in the term ' the freedom of speech ' because the definite article suggests that the draftsmen intended to immunize a previously identified category or subset of speech. '' Stevens said that, otherwise, the clause might absurdly immunize things like false testimony under oath. Like Stevens, journalist Anthony Lewis wrote: "The word ' the ' can be read to mean what was understood at the time to be included in the concept of free speech. '' But what was understood at the time is not 100 % clear. In the late 1790s, the lead author of the speech and press clauses, James Madison, argued against narrowing this freedom to what had existed under English common law:
The practice in America must be entitled to much more respect. In every state, probably, in the Union, the press has exerted a freedom in canvassing the merits and measures of public men, of every description, which has not been confined to the strict limits of the common law.
Madison wrote this in 1799, when he was in a dispute about the constitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Laws, which was legislation enacted in 1798 by President John Adams ' Federalist Party to ban seditious libel. Madison believed that legislation to be unconstitutional, and his adversaries in that dispute, such as John Marshall, advocated the narrow freedom of speech that had existed in the English common law.
The Supreme Court declined to rule on the constitutionality of any federal law regarding the Free Speech Clause until the 20th century. For example, the Supreme Court never ruled on the Alien and Sedition Acts; three Supreme Court justices riding circuit presided over sedition trials without indicating any reservations. The leading critics of the law, Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, argued for the Acts ' unconstitutionality based on the First Amendment and other Constitutional provisions. Jefferson succeeded Adams as president, in part due to the unpopularity of the latter 's sedition prosecutions; he and his party quickly overturned the Acts and pardoned those imprisoned by them. In the majority opinion in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), the Court noted the importance of this public debate as a precedent in First Amendment law and ruled that the Acts had been unconstitutional: "Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history. ''
During the patriotic fervor of World War I and the First Red Scare, the Espionage Act of 1917 imposed a maximum sentence of twenty years for anyone who caused or attempted to cause "insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States ''. Specifically, the Espionage Act of 1917 states that if anyone allows any enemies to enter or fly over the United States and obtain information from a place connected with the national defense, they will be punished. Hundreds of prosecutions followed. In 1919, the Supreme Court heard four appeals resulting from these cases: Schenck v. United States, Debs v. United States, Frohwerk v. United States, and Abrams v. United States.
In the first of these cases, Socialist Party of America official Charles Schenck had been convicted under the Espionage Act for publishing leaflets urging resistance to the draft. Schenck appealed, arguing that the Espionage Act violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court unanimously rejected Schenck 's appeal and affirmed his conviction. This conviction continued to be debated over whether Schenck went against the right to freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., writing for the Court, explained that "the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. '' One week later, in Frohwerk v. United States, the court again upheld an Espionage Act conviction, this time that of a journalist who had criticized U.S. involvement in foreign wars.
In Debs v. United States, the Court elaborated on the "clear and present danger '' test established in Schenck. On June 16, 1918, Eugene V. Debs, a political activist, delivered a speech in Canton, Ohio, in which he spoke of "most loyal comrades were paying the penalty to the working class -- these being Wagenknecht, Baker and Ruthenberg, who had been convicted of aiding and abetting another in failing to register for the draft. '' Following his speech, Debs was charged and convicted under the Espionage Act. In upholding his conviction, the Court reasoned that although he had not spoken any words that posed a "clear and present danger '', taken in context, the speech had a "natural tendency and a probable effect to obstruct the recruiting services ''. In Abrams v. United States, four Russian refugees appealed their conviction for throwing leaflets from a building in New York; the leaflets argued against President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in Russia against the October Revolution. The majority upheld their conviction, but Holmes and Justice Louis Brandeis dissented, holding that the government had demonstrated no "clear and present danger '' in the four 's political advocacy.
The Supreme Court denied a number of Free Speech Clause claims throughout the 1920s, including the appeal of a labor organizer, Benjamin Gitlow, who had been convicted after distributing a manifesto calling for a "revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat ''. In Gitlow v. New York (1925), the Court upheld the conviction, but a majority also found that the First Amendment applied to state laws as well as federal laws, via the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Holmes and Brandeis dissented in several more cases in this decade, however, advancing the argument that the Free Speech Clause protected a far greater range of political speech than the Court had previously acknowledged. In Whitney v. California (1927), in which Communist Party USA organizer Charlotte Anita Whitney had been arrested for "criminal syndicalism '', Brandeis wrote a dissent in which he argued for broader protections for political speech:
Those who won our independence... believed that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth; that without free speech and assembly discussion would be futile; that with them, discussion affords ordinarily adequate protection against the dissemination of noxious doctrine; that the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people; that public discussion is a political duty; and that this should be a fundamental principle of the American government.
In Herndon v. Lowry (1937), the Court heard the case of African American Communist Party organizer Angelo Herndon, who had been convicted under the Slave Insurrection Statute for advocating black rule in the southern United States. In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court reversed Herndon 's conviction, holding that Georgia had failed to demonstrate that there was any "clear and present danger '' in Herndon 's political advocacy.
In 1940, Congress enacted the Smith Act, making it illegal to advocate "the propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force and violence ''. The statute provided law enforcement a tool to combat Communist leaders. Eugene Dennis was convicted in the Foley Square trial for attempting to organize a Communist Party. In Dennis v. United States (1951), the Court upheld the law, 6 -- 2. Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson relied on Holmes ' "clear and present danger '' test as adapted by Learned Hand: "In each case (courts) must ask whether the gravity of the ' evil ', discounted by its improbability, justifies such invasion of free speech as necessary to avoid the danger. '' Clearly, Vinson suggested, clear and present danger did not intimate "that before the Government may act, it must wait until the putsch is about to be executed, the plans have been laid and the signal is awaited. '' In a concurring opinion, Justice Felix Frankfurter proposed a "balancing test '', which soon supplanted the "clear and present danger '' test:
The demands of free speech in a democratic society as well as the interest in national security are better served by candid and informed weighing of the competing interests, within the confines of the judicial process.
In Yates v. United States (1957), the Supreme Court limited the Smith Act prosecutions to "advocacy of action '' rather than "advocacy in the realm of ideas ''. Advocacy of abstract doctrine remained protected while speech explicitly inciting the forcible overthrow of the government was punishable under the Smith Act.
During the Vietnam War, the Court 's position on public criticism of the government changed drastically. Though the Court upheld a law prohibiting the forgery, mutilation, or destruction of draft cards in United States v. O'Brien (1968), fearing that burning draft cards would interfere with the "smooth and efficient functioning '' of the draft system, the next year, the court handed down its decision in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), expressly overruling Whitney v. California. Now the Supreme Court referred to the right to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms:
(Our) decisions have fashioned the principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not allow a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or cause such action.
Brandenburg discarded the "clear and present danger '' test introduced in Schenck and further eroded Dennis. In Cohen v. California (1971), the Court voted 5 -- 4 to reverse the conviction of a man wearing a jacket reading "Fuck the Draft '' in the corridors of a Los Angeles County courthouse. Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote in the majority opinion that Cohen 's jacket fell in the category of protected political speech despite the use of an expletive: "one man 's vulgarity is another man 's lyric. ''
In Talley v. California (1960), the Court struck down a Los Angeles city ordinance that made it a crime to distribute anonymous pamphlets. Justice Hugo Black wrote in the majority opinion: "There can be no doubt that such an identification requirement would tend to restrict freedom to distribute information and thereby freedom of expression... Anonymous pamphlets, leaflets, brochures and even books have played an important role in the progress of mankind. '' In McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995), the Court struck down an Ohio statute that made it a crime to distribute anonymous campaign literature. However, in Meese v. Keene (1987), the Court upheld the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938, under which several Canadian films were defined as "political propaganda '', requiring their sponsors to be identified.
In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court reviewed the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and related laws, which restricted the monetary contributions that may be made to political campaigns and expenditure by candidates. The Court affirmed the constitutionality of limits on campaign contributions, stating that they "serve (d) the basic governmental interest in safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process without directly impinging upon the rights of individual citizens and candidates to engage in political debate and discussion. '' However, the Court overturned the spending limits, which it found imposed "substantial restraints on the quantity of political speech. ''
The court again scrutinized campaign finance regulation in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (2003). The case centered on the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA), a federal law that imposed new restrictions on campaign financing. The Supreme Court upheld provisions which barred the raising of soft money by national parties and the use of soft money by private organizations to fund certain advertisements related to elections. However, the Court struck down the "choice of expenditure '' rule, which required that parties could either make coordinated expenditures for all its candidates, or permit candidates to spend independently, but not both, which the Court agreed "placed an unconstitutional burden on the parties ' right to make unlimited independent expenditures. '' The Court also ruled that the provision preventing minors from making political contributions was unconstitutional, relying on Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.
In Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2007), the Court sustained an "as applied '' challenge to BCRA, holding that issue ads may not be banned from the months preceding a primary or general election. In Davis v. Federal Election Commission (2008), the Supreme Court declared the "Millionaire 's Amendment '' provisions of the BCRA to be unconstitutional. The Court held that easing BCRA restrictions for an opponent of a self - financing candidate spending at least $350,000 of his or her own money violated the freedom of speech of the self - financing candidate.
In Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010), the Court ruled that the BCRA 's federal restrictions on electoral advocacy by corporations or unions were unconstitutional for violating the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. The Court overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce (1990), which had upheld a state law that prohibited corporations from using treasury funds to support or oppose candidates in elections did not violate the First or Fourteenth Amendments. The Court also overruled the portion of McConnell that upheld such restrictions under the BCRA. In other words, the ruling was considered to hold that "political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment ''.
In McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014), the Court ruled that federal aggregate limits on how much a person can donate to candidates, political parties, and political action committees, combined respectively in a two - year period known as an "election cycle, '' violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment.
The divisive issue of flag desecration as a form of protest first came before the Supreme Court in Street v. New York (1969). In response to hearing an erroneous report of the murder of civil rights activist James Meredith, Sidney Street burned a 48 - star U.S. flag. Street was arrested and charged with a New York state law making it a crime "publicly (to) mutilate, deface, defile, or defy, trample upon, or cast contempt upon either by words or act (any flag of the United States). '' In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court, relying on Stromberg v. California (1931), found that because the provision of the New York law criminalizing "words '' against the flag was unconstitutional, and the trial did not sufficiently demonstrate that he was convicted solely under the provisions not yet deemed unconstitutional, the conviction was unconstitutional. The Court, however, "resist (ed) the pulls to decide the constitutional issues involved in this case on a broader basis '' and left the constitutionality of flag - burning unaddressed.
The ambiguity with regard to flag - burning statutes was eliminated in Texas v. Johnson (1989). In that case, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag at a demonstration during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas. Charged with violating a Texas law prohibiting the vandalizing of venerated objects, Johnson was convicted, sentenced to one year in prison, and fined $2,000. The Supreme Court reversed his conviction in a 5 -- 4 vote. Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. wrote in the decision that "if there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment, it is that government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable. '' Congress then passed a federal law barring flag burning, but the Supreme Court struck it down as well in United States v. Eichman (1990). A Flag Desecration Amendment to the U.S. Constitution has been proposed repeatedly in Congress since 1989, and in 2006 failed to pass the Senate by a single vote.
While the unauthorized wear or sale of the Medal of Honor has been a punishable offense under federal law since the early 20th century, the Stolen Valor Act criminalized the act of not only wearing, but also verbally claiming entitlement to military awards that a person did not in fact earn. In United States v. Alvarez (2012), the Supreme Court struck down the Act, ruling that the First Amendment bars the government from punishing people for making false claims regarding military service or honors where the false claim was not "made to effect a fraud or secure moneys or other valuable considerations. '' The decision was a 6 -- 3 ruling, but the six justices in the majority could not agree on a single rationale for it.
The Supreme Court has determined that the First Amendment also protects citizens from being compelled to say or pay for certain speech. For example, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943), the Supreme Court ruled that school children could not be punished for refusing either to say the pledge of allegiance or salute the American flag.
Commercial speech is speech done on behalf of a company or individual for the purpose of making a profit. Unlike political speech, the Supreme Court does not afford commercial speech full protection under the First Amendment. To effectively distinguish commercial speech from other types of speech for purposes of litigation, the Court uses a list of four indicia:
Alone, each indicium does not compel the conclusion that an instance of speech is commercial; however, "(t) he combination of all these characteristics... provides strong support for... the conclusion that the (speech is) properly characterized as commercial speech. ''
In Valentine v. Chrestensen (1942), the Court upheld a New York City ordinance forbidding the "distribution in the streets of commercial and business advertising matter. '' Writing for a unanimous court, Justice Owen Roberts explained:
This court has unequivocally held that streets are proper places for the exercise of the freedom of communicating information and disseminating opinion and that, though the states and municipalities may appropriately regulate the privilege in the public interest, they may not unduly burden or proscribe its employment in their public thoroughfares. We are equally clear that the Constitution imposes no such restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising.
In Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976), the Court overruled Valentine and ruled that commercial speech was entitled to First Amendment protection:
What is at issue is whether a State may completely suppress the dissemination of concededly truthful information about entirely lawful activity, fearful of that information 's effect upon its disseminators and its recipients... (W) e conclude that the answer to this one is in the negative.
In Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association (1978), the Court ruled that commercial speech was not protected by the First Amendment as much as other types of speech:
We have not discarded the "common - sense '' distinction between speech proposing a commercial transaction, which occurs in an area traditionally subject to government regulation, and other varieties of speech. To require a parity of constitutional protection for commercial and noncommercial speech alike could invite a dilution, simply by a leveling process, of the force of the (First) Amendment 's guarantee with respect to the latter kind of speech.
In Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980), the Court clarified what analysis was required before the government could justify regulating commercial speech:
Six years later, the U.S. Supreme Court, applying the Central Hudson standards in Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico (1986), affirmed the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico 's conclusion that Puerto Rico 's Games of Chance Act of 1948, including the regulations thereunder, was not facially unconstitutional. The lax interpretation of Central Hudson adopted by Posadas was soon restricted under 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996), when the Court invalidated a Rhode Island law prohibiting the publication of liquor prices.
In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969), the Supreme Court extended free speech rights to students in school. The case involved several students who were punished for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The Court ruled that the school could not restrict symbolic speech that did not "materially and substantially '' interrupt school activities. Justice Abe Fortas wrote:
First Amendment rights, applied in light of the special characteristics of the school environment, are available to teachers and students. It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate... (S) chools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism. School officials do not possess absolute authority over their students. Students... are possessed of fundamental rights which the State must respect, just as they themselves must respect their obligations to the State.
In Healy v. James (1972), the Court ruled that Central Connecticut State College 's refusal to recognize a campus chapter of Students for a Democratic Society was unconstitutional, reaffirming Tinker.
However, since 1969 the Court has also placed several limitations on Tinker interpretations. In Bethel School District v. Fraser (1986), the Court ruled that a student could be punished for his sexual - innuendo - laced speech before a school assembly and, in Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988), the Court found that schools need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with their basic educational mission. In Morse v. Frederick (2007), the Court ruled that schools could, consistent with the First Amendment, restrict student speech at school - sponsored events, even events away from school grounds, if students promote "illegal drug use ''.
In Packingham v. North Carolina (2017), the Supreme Court held that a North Carolina law prohibiting registered sex offenders from accessing various websites impermissibly restricted lawful speech in violation of the First Amendment. The Court held that "a fundamental principle of the First Amendment is that all persons have access to places where they can speak and listen, and then, after reflection, speak and listen once more. ''
The federal government and the states have long been permitted to limit obscenity or pornography. While the Supreme Court has generally refused to give obscenity any protection under the First Amendment, pornography is subject to little regulation. However, the definitions of obscenity and pornography have changed over time.
In Rosen v. United States (1896), the Supreme Court adopted the same obscenity standard as had been articulated in a famous British case, Regina v. Hicklin (1868). The Hicklin test defined material as obscene if it tended "to deprave or corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall ''. In the early twentieth century, literary works including An American Tragedy (Theodore Dreiser, 1925) and Lady Chatterley 's Lover (D.H. Lawrence, 1928) were banned for obscenity. In the federal district court case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses (1933), Judge John M. Woolsey established a new standard to evaluate James Joyce 's novel Ulysses (1922), stating that works must be considered in their entirety, rather than declared obscene on the basis of an individual part of the work.
The Supreme Court ruled in Roth v. United States (1957) that the First Amendment did not protect obscenity. It also ruled that the Hicklin test was inappropriate; instead, the Roth test for obscenity was "whether to the average person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest ''. This definition proved hard to apply, however, and in the following decade, members of the Court often reviewed films individually in a court building screening room to determine if they should be considered obscene. Justice Potter Stewart, in Jacobellis v. Ohio (1964), famously stated that, although he could not precisely define pornography, "I know it when I see it ''.
The Roth test was expanded when the Court decided Miller v. California (1973). Under the Miller test, a work is obscene if:
(a)... ' the average person, applying contemporary community standards ' would find the work, as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest... (b)... the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law, and (c)... the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
Note that "community '' standards -- not national standards -- are applied whether the material appeals to the prurient interest, leaving the question of obscenity to local authorities. Child pornography is not subject to the Miller test, as the Supreme Court decided in New York v. Ferber (1982) and Osborne v. Ohio (1990), ruling that the government 's interest in protecting children from abuse was paramount.
Personal possession of obscene material in the home may not be prohibited by law. In Stanley v. Georgia (1969), the Court ruled that "(i) f the First Amendment means anything, it means that a State has no business telling a man, sitting in his own house, what books he may read or what films he may watch. '' However, it is constitutionally permissible for the government to prevent the mailing or sale of obscene items, though they may be viewed only in private. Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition (2002) further upheld these rights by invalidating the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996, holding that, because the act "(p) rohibit (ed) child pornography that does not depict an actual child '' it was overly broad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment and that:
First Amendment freedoms are most in danger when the government seeks to control thought or to justify its laws for that impermissible end. The right to think is the beginning of freedom, and speech must be protected from the government because speech is the beginning of thought.
In United States v. Williams (2008), the Court upheld the PROTECT Act of 2003, ruling that prohibiting offers to provide and requests to obtain child pornography did not violate the First Amendment, even if a person charged under the Act did not possess child pornography.
In some states, there are Son of Sam laws prohibiting convicted criminals from publishing memoirs for profit. These laws were a response to offers to David Berkowitz to write memoirs about the murders he committed. The Supreme Court struck down a law of this type in New York as a violation of the First Amendment in the case Simon & Schuster v. Crime Victims Board (1991). That statute did not prohibit publication of a memoir by a convicted criminal. Instead, it provided that all profits from the book were to be put in escrow for a time. The interest from the escrow account was used to fund the New York State Crime Victims Board -- an organization that pays the medical and related bills of victims of crime. Similar laws in other states remain unchallenged.
American tort liability for defamatory speech or publications traces its origins to English common law. For the first two hundred years of American jurisprudence, the basic substance of defamation law continued to resemble that existing in England at the time of the Revolution. An 1898 American legal textbook on defamation provides definitions of libel and slander nearly identical to those given by William Blackstone and Edward Coke. An action of slander required the following:
An action of libel required the same five general points as slander, except that it specifically involved the publication of defamatory statements. For certain criminal charges of libel, such as seditious libel, the truth or falsity of the statements was immaterial, as such laws were intended to maintain public support of the government and true statements could damage this support even more than false ones. Instead, libel placed specific emphasis on the result of the publication. Libelous publications tended to "degrade and injure another person '' or "bring him into contempt, hatred or ridicule ''.
Concerns that defamation under common law might be incompatible with the new republican form of government caused early American courts to struggle between William Blackstone 's argument that the punishment of "dangerous or offensive writings... (was) necessary for the preservation of peace and good order, of government and religion, the only solid foundations of civil liberty '' and the argument that the need for a free press guaranteed by the Constitution outweighed the fear of what might be written. Consequently, very few changes were made in the first two centuries after the ratification of the First Amendment.
The Supreme Court 's ruling in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) fundamentally changed American defamation law. The case redefined the type of "malice '' needed to sustain a libel case. Common law malice consisted of "ill - will '' or "wickedness ''. Now, a public officials seeking to sustain a civil action against a tortfeasor needed to prove by "clear and convincing evidence '' that there was actual malice. The case involved an advertisement published in The New York Times indicating that officials in Montgomery, Alabama had acted violently in suppressing the protests of African - Americans during the civil rights movement. The Montgomery Police Commissioner, L.B. Sullivan, sued the Times for libel, stating that the advertisement damaged his reputation. The Supreme Court unanimously reversed the $500,000 judgment against the Times. Justice Brennan suggested that public officials may sue for libel only if the publisher published the statements in question with "actual malice '' -- "knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not. '' In sum, the court held that "the First Amendment protects the publication of all statements, even false ones, about the conduct of public officials except when statements are made with actual malice (with knowledge that they are false or in reckless disregard of their truth or falsity). ''
While actual malice standard applies to public officials and public figures, in Philadelphia Newspapers v. Hepps (1988), the Court found that, with regard to private individuals, the First Amendment does "not necessarily force any change in at least some features of the common - law landscape. '' In Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc. (1985) the Court ruled that "actual malice '' need not be shown in cases involving private individuals, holding that "(i) n light of the reduced constitutional value of speech involving no matters of public concern... the state interest adequately supports awards of presumed and punitive damages -- even absent a showing of ' actual malice. ' '' In Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. (1974), the Court ruled that a private individual had to prove actual malice only to be awarded punitive damages, but not to seek actual damages. In Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1988), the Court extended the "actual malice '' standard to intentional infliction of emotional distress in a ruling which protected parody, in this case a fake advertisement in Hustler suggesting that evangelist Jerry Falwell 's first sexual experience had been with his mother in an outhouse. Since Falwell was a public figure, the Court ruled that "importance of the free flow of ideas and opinions on matters of public interest and concern '' was the paramount concern, and reversed the judgement Falwell had won against Hustler for emotional distress.
In Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1990), the Court ruled that the First Amendment offers no wholesale exception to defamation law for statements labeled "opinion '', but instead that a statement must be provably false (falsifiable) before it can be the subject of a libel suit. Nonetheless, it has been argued that Milkovich and other cases effectively provide for an opinion privilege. In consequence a significant number of states have enacted state opinion privilege laws.
State constitutions provide free speech protections similar to those of the U.S. Constitution. In a few states, such as California, a state constitution has been interpreted as providing more comprehensive protections than the First Amendment. The Supreme Court has permitted states to extend such enhanced protections, most notably in Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins. In that case, the Court unanimously ruled that while the First Amendment may allow private property owners to prohibit trespass by political speakers and petition - gatherers, California was permitted to restrict property owners whose property is equivalent to a traditional public forum (often shopping malls and grocery stores) from enforcing their private property rights to exclude such individuals. However, the Court did maintain that shopping centers could impose "reasonable restrictions on expressive activity ''. Subsequently, New Jersey, Colorado, Massachusetts and Puerto Rico courts have adopted the doctrine; California 's courts have repeatedly reaffirmed it.
The free speech and free press clauses have been interpreted as providing the same protection to speakers as to writers, except for wireless broadcasting which has been given less constitutional protection. The Free Press Clause protects the right of individuals to express themselves through publication and dissemination of information, ideas and opinions without interference, constraint or prosecution by the government. This right was described in Branzburg v. Hayes as "a fundamental personal right '' that is not confined to newspapers and periodicals. In Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938), Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes defined "press '' as "every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion ''. This right has been extended to media including newspapers, books, plays, movies, and video games. While it is an open question whether people who blog or use social media are journalists entitled to protection by media shield laws, they are protected equally by the Free Speech Clause and the Free Press Clause, because both clauses do not distinguish between media businesses and nonprofessional speakers. This is further shown by the Supreme Court consistently refusing to recognize the First Amendment as providing greater protection to the institutional media than to other speakers. For example, in a case involving campaign finance laws the Court rejected the "suggestion that communication by corporate members of the institutional press is entitled to greater constitutional protection than the same communication by '' non-institutional - press businesses.
A landmark decision for press freedom came in Near v. Minnesota (1931), in which the Supreme Court rejected prior restraint (pre-publication censorship). In this case, the Minnesota legislature passed a statute allowing courts to shut down "malicious, scandalous and defamatory newspapers '', allowing a defense of truth only in cases where the truth had been told "with good motives and for justifiable ends ''. In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court applied the Free Press Clause to the states, rejecting the statute as unconstitutional. Hughes quoted Madison in the majority decision, writing, "The impairment of the fundamental security of life and property by criminal alliances and official neglect emphasizes the primary need of a vigilant and courageous press ''.
However, Near also noted an exception, allowing prior restraint in cases such as "publication of sailing dates of transports or the number or location of troops ''. This exception was a key point in another landmark case four decades later: New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), in which the administration of President Richard Nixon sought to ban the publication of the Pentagon Papers, classified government documents about the Vietnam War secretly copied by analyst Daniel Ellsberg. The Court found, 6 -- 3, that the Nixon administration had not met the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint. Justice Brennan, drawing on Near in a concurrent opinion, wrote that "only governmental allegation and proof that publication must inevitably, directly, and immediately cause the occurrence of an evil kindred to imperiling the safety of a transport already at sea can support even the issuance of an interim restraining order. '' Justices Black and Douglas went still further, writing that prior restraints were never justified.
The courts have rarely treated content - based regulation of journalism with any sympathy. In Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo (1974), the Court unanimously struck down a state law requiring newspapers criticizing political candidates to publish their responses. The state claimed that the law had been passed to ensure journalistic responsibility. The Supreme Court found that freedom, but not responsibility, is mandated by the First Amendment and so it ruled that the government may not force newspapers to publish that which they do not desire to publish.
Content - based regulation of television and radio, however, have been sustained by the Supreme Court in various cases. Since there is a limited number of frequencies for non-cable television and radio stations, the government licenses them to various companies. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that the problem of scarcity does not allow the raising of a First Amendment issue. The government may restrain broadcasters, but only on a content - neutral basis. In Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation, the Supreme Court upheld the Federal Communications Commission 's authority to restrict the use of "indecent '' material in broadcasting.
State governments retain the right to tax newspapers, just as they may tax other commercial products. Generally, however, taxes that focus exclusively on newspapers have been found unconstitutional. In Grosjean v. American Press Co. (1936), the Court invalidated a state tax on newspaper advertising revenues, holding that the role of the press in creating "informed public opinion '' was vital. Similarly, some taxes that give preferential treatment to the press have been struck down. In Arkansas Writers ' Project v. Ragland (1987), for instance, the Court invalidated an Arkansas law exempting "religious, professional, trade and sports journals '' from taxation since the law amounted to the regulation of newspaper content. In Leathers v. Medlock (1991), the Supreme Court found that states may treat different types of the media differently, such as by taxing cable television, but not newspapers. The Court found that "differential taxation of speakers, even members of the press, does not implicate the First Amendment unless the tax is directed at, or presents the danger of suppressing, particular ideas. ''
In Branzburg v. Hayes (1972), the Court ruled that the First Amendment did not give a journalist the right to refuse a subpoena from a grand jury. The issue decided in the case was whether a journalist could refuse to "appear and testify before state and Federal grand juries '' basing the refusal on the belief that such appearance and testimony "abridges the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the First Amendment ''. The 5 -- 4 decision was that such a protection was not provided by the First Amendment. However, a concurring opinion by Justice Lewis F. Powell, in which he stated that a claim for press privilege "should be judged on its facts by the striking of a proper balance between freedom of the press and the obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony with respect to criminal conduct. The balance of these vital constitutional and societal interests on a case - by - case basis accords with the tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions. '', has been frequently cited by lower courts since the decision.
The Petition Clause protects the right "to petition the government for a redress of grievances ''. This includes the right to communicate with government officials, lobbying government officials and petitioning the courts by filing lawsuits with a legal basis. The Petition Clause first came to prominence in the 1830s, when Congress established the gag rule barring anti-slavery petitions from being heard; the rule was overturned by Congress several years later. Petitions against the Espionage Act of 1917 resulted in imprisonments. The Supreme Court did not rule on either issue.
In California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited, the Supreme Court stated that the right to petition encompass "the approach of citizens or groups of them to administrative agencies (which are both creatures of the legislature, and arms of the executive) and to courts, the third branch of Government. Certainly the right to petition extends to all departments of the Government. The right of access to the courts is indeed but one aspect of the right of petition. '' Today thus this right encompasses petitions to all three branches of the federal government -- the Congress, the executive and the judiciary -- and has been extended to the states through incorporation. According to the Supreme Court, "redress of grievances '' is to be construed broadly: it includes not solely appeals by the public to the government for the redressing of a grievance in the traditional sense, but also, petitions on behalf of private interests seeking personal gain. The right not only protects demands for "a redress of grievances '' but also demands for government action. The petition clause includes according to the Supreme Court the opportunity to institute non-frivolous lawsuits and mobilize popular support to change existing laws in a peaceful manner.
In Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri (2011), the Supreme Court stated regarding the Free Speech Clause and the Petition Clause:
It is not necessary to say that the two Clauses are identical in their mandate or their purpose and effect to acknowledge that the rights of speech and petition share substantial common ground... Both speech and petition are integral to the democratic process, although not necessarily in the same way. The right to petition allows citizens to express their ideas, hopes, and concerns to their government and their elected representatives, whereas the right to speak fosters the public exchange of ideas that is integral to deliberative democracy as well as to the whole realm of ideas and human affairs. Beyond the political sphere, both speech and petition advance personal expression, although the right to petition is generally concerned with expression directed to the government seeking redress of a grievance.
The right of assembly was originally distinguished from the right to petition. In United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court held that
the right of the people peaceably to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress of grievances, or for anything else connected with the powers or duties of the National Government, is an attribute of national citizenship, and, as such, under protection of, and guaranteed by, the United States. The very idea of a government, republican in form, implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress of grievances.
Justice Morrison Waite 's opinion for the Court carefully distinguished the right to peaceably assemble as a secondary right, while the right to petition was labeled to be a primary right. Later cases, however, paid less attention to these distinctions.
In two 1960s decisions collectively known as forming the Noerr - Pennington doctrine, the Court established that the right to petition prohibited the application of antitrust law to statements made by private entities before public bodies: a monopolist may freely go before the city council and encourage the denial of its competitor 's building permit without being subject to Sherman Act liability.
Although the First Amendment does not explicitly mention freedom of association, the Supreme Court ruled, in National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama (1958), that this freedom was protected by the Amendment and that privacy of membership was an essential part of this freedom. The U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roberts v. United States Jaycees (1984) that "implicit in the right to engage in activities protected by the First Amendment '' is "a corresponding right to associate with others in pursuit of a wide variety of political, social, economic, educational, religious, and cultural ends ''. In Roberts the Court held that associations may not exclude people for reasons unrelated to the group 's expression, such as gender.
However, in Hurley v. Irish - American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston (1995), the Court ruled that a group may exclude people from membership if their presence would affect the group 's ability to advocate a particular point of view. Likewise, in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000), the Court ruled that a New Jersey law, which forced the Boy Scouts of America to admit an openly gay member, to be an unconstitutional abridgment of the Boy Scouts ' right to free association.
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what are the 12 articles of the apostles creed | Apostles ' Creed - wikipedia
The Apostles ' Creed (Latin: Symbolum Apostolorum or Symbolum Apostolicum), sometimes entitled Symbol of the Apostles, is an early statement of Christian belief -- a creed or "symbol ''. It is widely used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical Churches of Western tradition, including the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheranism and Anglicanism. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists and Congregationalists.
The Apostles ' Creed is Trinitarian in structure with sections affirming belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ His Son and the Holy Spirit. The Apostles ' Creed was based on Christian theological understanding of the Canonical gospels, the letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Its basis appears to be the old Roman Creed known also as the Old Roman Symbol. Because of the early origin of its original form, it does not address some Christological issues defined in the Nicene and other Christian Creeds. It thus says nothing explicitly about the divinity of either Jesus or the Holy Spirit. This makes it acceptable to many Arians and Unitarians. Nor does it address many other theological questions which became objects of dispute centuries later.
The first mention of the expression "Apostles ' Creed '' occurs in a letter of AD 390 from a synod in Milan and may have been associated with the belief, widely accepted in the 4th century, that, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, each of the Twelve Apostles contributed an article of a creed.
The title Symbolum Apostolicum (Symbol or Creed of the Apostles) appears for the first time in a letter, probably written by Ambrose, from a Council in Milan to Pope Siricius in about AD 390 "Let them give credit to the Creed of the Apostles, which the Roman Church has always kept and preserved undefiled ''. But what existed at that time was not what is now known as the Apostles ' Creed but a shorter statement of belief that, for instance, did not include the phrase "maker of heaven and earth '', a phrase that may have been inserted only in the 7th century.
The account of the origin of this creed, the forerunner and principal source of the Apostles ' Creed, as having been jointly created by the Apostles under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, with each of the twelve contributing one of the articles, was already current at that time.
The earlier text evolved from simpler texts based on Matthew 28: 19, part of the Great Commission, and it has been argued that it was already in written form by the late 2nd century (c. 180).
While the individual statements of belief that are included in the Apostles ' Creed -- even those not found in the Old Roman Symbol -- are found in various writings by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Novatian, Marcellus, Rufinus, Ambrose, Augustine, Nicetas, and Eusebius Gallus, the earliest appearance of what we know as the Apostles ' Creed was in the De singulis libris canonicis scarapsus ("Excerpt from Individual Canonical Books '') of St. Pirminius (Migne, Patrologia Latina 89, 1029 ff.), written between 710 and 714. Bettenson and Maunder state that it is first from Dicta Abbatis Pirminii de singulis libris canonicis scarapsus (idem quod excarpsus, excerpt), c. 750. This longer Creed seems to have arisen in what is now France and Spain. Charlemagne imposed it throughout his dominions, and it was finally accepted in Rome, where the Old Roman Symbol or similar formulas had survived for centuries. It has been argued nonetheless that it dates from the second half of the 5th century, though no earlier.
Some have suggested that the Apostles ' Creed was spliced together with phrases from the New Testament. For instance, the phrase "descendit ad inferos '' ("he descended into hell '') echoes Ephesians 4: 9, "κατέβη εἰς τὰ κατώτερα μέρη τῆς γῆς '' ("he descended into the lower, earthly regions ''). It is of interest that this phrase first appeared in one of the two versions of Rufinus in AD 390 and then did not appear again in any version of the creed until AD 650.
This phrase and that on the communion of saints are articles found in the Apostles ' Creed, but not in the Old Roman Symbol nor in the Nicene Creed.
Musical settings of the Symbolum Apostolorum as a motet are rare. The French composer Le Brung published one Latin setting in 1540, the Spanish composer Fernando de las Infantas published two in 1578.
More recently, in 1979 John Michael Talbot, a Third Order Franciscan, composed and recorded "Creed '' on his album, The Lord 's Supper. In 1986 Graham Kendrick published the popular "We believe in God the Father '', closely based on the Apostles ' Creed. Rich Mullins and Beaker also composed a musical setting titled "Creed '', released on Mullins ' 1993 album A Liturgy, a Legacy, & a Ragamuffin Band. The song "Creed '' on Petra 's 1990 album Beyond Belief is loosely based on the Apostles ' Creed.
In 1991, GIA Publications published a hymn text directly based on the Apostles ' Creed, called "I Believe in God Almighty. '' It has been sung to hymn tunes from Wales, the Netherlands, and Ireland.
In 2014 Hillsong released a version of the Apostles ' Creed under the title "This I Believe (The Creed) '' on their album No Other Name.
In 2016 Keith Getty and Kristyn Getty released an expression of the Apostles ' Creed under the title "We Believe (Apostle 's Creed) '' on their album "Facing a Task Unfinished ''.
Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terrae, et in Iesum Christum, Filium Eius unicum, Dominum nostrum, qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine, passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus, descendit ad infernos, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis, inde venturus est iudicare vivos et mortuos. Credo in Spiritum Sanctum, sanctam Ecclesiam catholicam, sanctorum communionem, remissionem peccatorum, carnis resurrectionem, vitam aeternam. Amen.
The Greek text is '' not normally used in Greek and Eastern Orthodox churches ''.
Πιστεύω εἰς θεòν πατέρα, παντοκράτορα, ποιητὴν οὐρανοῦ καὶ γῆς. Καὶ (εἰς) Ἰησοῦν Χριστòν, υἱὸν αὐτοῦ τòν μονογενῆ, τòν κύριον ἡμῶν, τòν συλληφθέντα ἐκ πνεύματος ἁγίου, γεννηθέντα ἐκ Μαρίας τῆς παρθένου, παθόντα ἐπὶ Ποντίου Πιλάτου, σταυρωθέντα, θανόντα, καὶ ταφέντα, κατελθόντα εἰς τὰ κατώτατα, τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ ἀναστάντα ἀπò τῶν νεκρῶν, ἀνελθόντα εἰς τοὺς οὐρανούς, καθεζόμενον ἐν δεξιᾷ θεοῦ πατρὸς παντοδυνάμου, ἐκεῖθεν ἐρχόμενον κρῖναι ζῶντας καὶ νεκρούς. Πιστεύω εἰς τò πνεῦμα τò ἅγιον, ἁγίαν καθολικὴν ἐκκλησίαν, ἁγίων κοινωνίαν, ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν, σαρκὸς ἀνάστασιν, ζωὴν αἰώνιον. Ἀμήν.
The English Language Liturgical Consultation (ELLC) is an international ecumenical group whose primary purpose is to provide ecumenically accepted texts for those who use English in their liturgy. In 1988 it produced a translation of the Apostles ' Creed, distinguished among other things by its avoidance of the word "his '' in relation to God. The text is as follows:
I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, God 's only Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again; he ascended into heaven, he is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church gives the following English translation of the Apostles ' Creed. In its discussion of the Creed, the Catechism maintains the traditional division into twelve articles, the numbering of which is here added to the text.
The English text used in the Mass of the Roman Rite is:
Pelbartus Ladislaus of Temesvár assigned one special phrase to each apostle: Peter (No 1), John (No 2), James, son of Zebedee (No 3), Andrew (No 4), Philip (No 5a: descendit ad infernos...), Thomas (No 5b: ascendit ad caelos...), Bartholomew (No 6), Matthew (No 7), James, son of Alphaeus (No 8), Simon (No 9), Jude (No 10), Matthias (No 11 -- 12).
Anabaptist theologians fought for believer 's baptism under reference to a biblical understanding of the creed:
Leonhart: Which of the articles of the creed deal with baptism? Hans: The ninth and tenth articles, where we confess the universal Christian church, the fellowship of the saints and forgiveness of sins, just as the Lord 's Supper is also included there.
In the Church of England there are currently two authorized forms of the creed: that of the Book of Common Prayer (1662) and that of Common Worship (2000).
Book of Common Prayer, 1662
I believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth: And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord, Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, Born of the Virgin Mary, Suffered under Pontius Pilate, Was crucified, dead, and buried: He descended into hell; The third day he rose again from the dead; He ascended into heaven, And sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty; From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I believe in the Holy Ghost; The holy Catholick Church; The Communion of Saints; The Forgiveness of sins; The Resurrection of the body, And the Life everlasting. Amen.
Common Worship
The publication Evangelical Lutheran Worship gives the ELLC ecumenical version, footnoting the phrase "he descended to the dead '' to indicate the alternative reading: "or ' he descended into hell, ' another translation of this text in widespread use ''.
The Lutheran Service Book has the following text:
I believe in God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth. And in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died and was buried. He descended into hell. On the third day He rose again from the dead. He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty. From thence He will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Christian Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
The creed is footnoted in the LSB for the word "Christian '': "Christian: the ancient text reads "catholic, '' meaning the whole Church as it confesses the wholeness of Christian doctrine. ''
The Church of Denmark still uses the phrase "We renounce the devil and all his doings and all his beings '' as the beginning of this creed, before the line "We believe in God etc. '' This is mostly due to the influence of the Danish pastor Grundtvig. See Den apostolske trosbekendelse.
The United Methodists commonly incorporate the Apostles ' Creed into their worship services. The version which is most often used is located at # 881 in the United Methodist Hymnal, one of their most popular hymnals and one with a heritage to brothers John Wesley and Charles Wesley, founders of Methodism. It is notable for omitting the line "he descended into hell '', but is otherwise very similar to the Book of Common Prayer version. The 1989 Hymnal has both the traditional version and the 1988 ecumenical version, which includes "he descended to the dead. ''
The United Methodist Hymnal also contains (at # 882) what it terms the "Ecumenical Version '' of this creed which is the ecumenically accepted modern translation of the International Committee on English Texts (1975) as amended by the subsequent successor body, the English Language Liturgical Consultation (1987). This form of the Apostles ' Creed can be found incorporated into the Eucharistic and Baptismal Liturgies in the Hymnal and in The United Methodist Book of Worship, and hence it is growing in popularity and use. The word "catholic '' is intentionally left lowercase in the sense that the word catholic applies to the universal and ecumenical Christian church.
I believe in God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth; And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord: who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried; the third day he rose from the dead; he ascended into heaven, and sitteth at the right hand of God the Father Almighty; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
The liturgical communities in western Christianity that derive their rituals from the Roman Missal, including those particular communities which use the Roman Missal itself (Roman Catholics), the Book of Common Prayer (Anglicans and Episcopalians), Evangelical Lutheran Worship (Evangelical Lutheran Church in America), Lutheran Service Book (Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod), and The United Methodist Book of Worship (The United Methodist Church), use the Apostles ' Creed and interrogative forms of it in their rites of Baptism, which they consider to be the sacrament of initiation into the Church.
An interrogative form of the Apostles ' Creed is used in the Rite of Baptism (for both children and adults). The minister of baptism asks the following questions (ICEL, 1974):
To each question, the catechumen, or, in the case of an infant, the parents and sponsor (s) (godparent (s)) in his or her place, answers "I do. '' Then the celebrant says:
And all respond: Amen.
Since the 2002 edition, the Apostles ' Creed is included in the Roman Missal with the indication, "Instead of the Niceno - Constantinopolitan Creed, especially during Lent and Easter time, the baptismal Symbol of the Roman Church, known as the Apostles ' Creed, may be used. '' Previously the Nicene Creed was the only profession of faith that the Missal gave for use at Mass, except in Masses for children; but in some countries use of the Apostles ' Creed was already permitted.
In the 1962 Breviary, authorized by Summorum Pontificum, the Apostles ' Creed is recited at Prime and Compline on certain days during Advent and Lent as part of the Preces, a series of versicles and responses preceded by Kyrie, eleison ("Lord, have mercy '') and the Our Father. In prior editions, it was also said after the Our Father and Hail Mary before Matins and Prime, and after Compline.
The Apostles ' Creed is used in the non-Eucharistic services of Matins and Evening Prayer (Evensong). It is invoked after the recitation or singing of the Canticles, and it is the only part of the services in which the congregation traditionally turns to face the altar, if they are seated transversely in the quire.
The Episcopal Church uses the Apostles ' Creed as a Baptismal Covenant for those who are to receive the Rite of Baptism. Regardless of age, candidates are to be sponsored by parents and / or godparents. Youths able to understand the significance of the Rite may go through the ritual speaking for themselves. Younger children and infants rely on their sponsors to act upon their behalf.
1. The celebrant calls for the candidates for Baptism to be presented.
2. The catechumen or sponsors state their request for Baptism.
3a. If the catechumen is of age, the celebrant will ask him or her if he or she desires Baptism, to which the catechumen will respond: "I do. ''
3b. If the candidate relies on sponsors, the celebrant asks them if they will raise the child in "the Christian faith and life '' (ECUSA BCP), and will raise the child through "prayers and witness to grow into the full stature of Christ '' to which the parents will state to each, "I will, with God 's help. ''
4. A series of questions is then asked, to which the reply is always "I renounce them '':
5. The second half of the query is asked, to which the reply is always "I do '':
6. The Apostles ' Creed is then recited by candidates, sponsors and congregation, each section of the Creed being an answer to the celebrant 's question, ' Do you believe in God the Father (God the Son, God the Holy Spirit)? '
Lutherans following the Lutheran Service Book (Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church -- Canada), like Roman Catholics, use the Apostles ' Creed during the Sacrament of Baptism:
Following each question, the candidate answers by saying "Yes, I believe ''. If the candidate is a child, the godparents are to answer the questions.
For ELCA Lutherans who use the Evangelical Lutheran Worship book, the Apostles ' Creed appears during the Sacrament of Holy Baptism Rite on p. 229 of the hardcover pew edition.
Methodists use the Apostles ' Creed as part of their baptismal rites in the form of an interrogatory addressed to the candidate (s) for baptism and the whole congregation as a way of professing the faith within the context of the Church 's sacramental act. For infants, it is the professing of the faith by the parents, sponsors, and congregation on behalf of the candidate (s); for confirmands, it is the professing of the faith before and among the congregation. For the congregation, it is a reaffirmation of their professed faith.
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other type of reaction that is common for alkyl halide | Sn2 reaction - wikipedia
The S 2 reaction is a type of reaction mechanism that is common in organic chemistry. In this mechanism, one bond is broken and one bond is formed synchronously, i.e., in one step. S 2 is a kind of nucleophilic substitution reaction mechanism. Since two reacting species are involved in the slow (rate - determining) step, this leads to the term substitution nucleophilic (bi-molecular) or S 2, the other major kind is S 1. Many other more specialized mechanisms describe substitution reactions.
The reaction type is so common that it has other names, e.g. "bimolecular nucleophilic substitution '', or, among inorganic chemists, "associative substitution '' or "interchange mechanism ''.
The reaction most often occurs at an aliphatic sp carbon center with an electronegative, stable leaving group attached to it (often denoted X), which is frequently a halide atom. The breaking of the C -- X bond and the formation of the new bond (often denoted C -- Y or C -- Nu) occur simultaneously through a transition state in which a carbon under nucleophilic attack is pentacoordinate, and approximately sp hybridised. The nucleophile attacks the carbon at 180 ° to the leaving group, since this provides the best overlap between the nucleophile 's lone pair and the C -- X σ * antibonding orbital. The leaving group is then pushed off the opposite side and the product is formed with inversion of the tetrahedral geometry at the central atom.
If the substrate under nucleophilic attack is chiral, then this often leads to inversion of configuration (stereochemistry), called a Walden inversion.
In an example of the S 2 reaction, the attack of Br (the nucleophile) on an ethyl chloride (the electrophile) results in ethyl bromide, with chloride ejected as the leaving group.:
S 2 attack occurs if the backside route of attack is not sterically hindered by substituents on the substrate. Therefore, this mechanism usually occurs at unhindered primary and secondary carbon centres. If there is steric crowding on the substrate near the leaving group, such as at a tertiary carbon centre, the substitution will involve an S 1 rather than an S 2 mechanism, (an S 1 would also be more likely in this case because a sufficiently stable carbocation intermediary could be formed).
Four factors affect the rate of the reaction:
The substrate plays the most important part in determining the rate of the reaction. This is because the nucleophile attacks from the back of the substrate, thus breaking the carbon - leaving group bond and forming the carbon - nucleophile bond. Therefore, to maximise the rate of the S 2 reaction, the back of the substrate must be as unhindered as possible. Overall, this means that methyl and primary substrates react the fastest, followed by secondary substrates. Tertiary substrates do not participate in S 2 reactions, because of steric hindrance. Structures that can form highly stable cations by simple loss of the leaving group, for example, as a resonance - stabilized carbocation, are especially likely to react via an S 1 pathway in competition with S 2.
Like the substrate, steric hindrance affects the nucleophile 's strength. The methoxide anion, for example, is both a strong base and nucleophile because it is a methyl nucleophile, and is thus very much unhindered. tert - Butoxide, on the other hand, is a strong base, but a poor nucleophile, because of its three methyl groups hindering its approach to the carbon. Nucleophile strength is also affected by charge and electronegativity: nucleophilicity increases with increasing negative charge and decreasing electronegativity. For example, OH is a better nucleophile than water, and I is a better nucleophile than Br (in polar protic solvents). In a polar aprotic solvent, nucleophilicity increases up a column of the periodic table as there is no hydrogen bonding between the solvent and nucleophile; in this case nucleophilicity mirrors basicity. I would therefore be a weaker nucleophile than Br because it is a weaker base. Verdict - A strong / anionic nucleophile always favours S 2 manner of nucleophillic substitution.
The solvent affects the rate of reaction because solvents may or may not surround a nucleophile, thus hindering or not hindering its approach to the carbon atom. Polar aprotic solvents, like tetrahydrofuran, are better solvents for this reaction than polar protic solvents because polar protic solvents will hydrogen bond to the nucleophile, hindering it from attacking the carbon with the leaving group. A polar aprotic solvent with low dielectric constant or a hindered dipole end will favour S 2 manner of nucleophilic substitution reaction. Examples: DMSO, DMF, acetone etc. In polar aprotic solvent, nucleophilicity parallels basicity.
The stability of the leaving group as an anion and the strength of its bond to the carbon atom both affect the rate of reaction. The more stable the conjugate base of the leaving group is, the more likely that it will take the two electrons of its bond to carbon during the reaction. Therefore, the weaker the leaving group is as a conjugate base, and thus the stronger its corresponding acid, the better the leaving group. Examples of good leaving groups are therefore the halides (except fluoride, due to its strong bond to the carbon atom) and tosylate, whereas HO and H N are not.
The rate of an S 2 reaction is second order, as the rate - determining step depends on the nucleophile concentration, (Nu) as well as the concentration of substrate, (RX).
This is a key difference between the S 1 and S 2 mechanisms. In the S 1 reaction the nucleophile attacks after the rate - limiting step is over, whereas in S 2 the nucleophile forces off the leaving group in the limiting step. In other words, the rate of S 1 reactions depend only on the concentration of the substrate while the S 2 reaction rate depends on the concentration of both the substrate and nucleophile.
It has been shown that except in uncommon (but predictable cases) primary and secondary substrates go exclusively by the S 2 mechanism while tertiary substrates go via the S 1 reaction. There are two factors which complicate determining the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions at secondary carbons:
1) Many reactions studied are solvolysis reactions where a solvent molecule -- often an alcohol, is the nucleophile. While still a second order reaction mechanistically, the reaction is kinetically first order as the concentration of the nucleophile -- the solvent molecule, is effectively constant during the reaction. This type of reaction is often called a pseudo first order reaction.
2) In reactions where the leaving group is also a good nucleophile -- bromide for instance, the leaving group can perform an S 2 reaction on a substrate molecule. If the substrate is chiral, this inverts the configuration of the substrate before solvolysis, leading to a racemized product -- the product that would be expected from an S 1 mechanism. In the case of a bromide leaving group in alcoholic solvent Cowdrey et al. have shown that bromide can have an S 2 rate constant 100 - 250 times higher than the rate constant for ethanol. Thus, after only a few percent solvolysis of an enantiospecific substrate, it becomes racemic.
The examples in textbooks of secondary substrates going by the S 1 mechanism invariably involve the use of bromide (or other good nucleophile) as the leaving group have confused the understanding of alkyl nucleophilic substitution reactions at secondary carbons for 80 years. Work with the 2 - adamantyl system (S 2 not possible) by Schleyer and co-workers, the use of azide (an excellent nucleophile but very poor leaving group) by Weiner and Sneen, the development of sulfonate leaving groups (non-nucleophilic good leaving groups), and the demonstration of significant experimental problems in the initial claim of an S 1 mechanism in the solvolysis of optically active 2 - bromooctane by Hughes et al. have demonstrated conclusively that secondary substrates go exclusively (except in unusual but predictable cases) by the S 2 mechanism.
A common side reaction taking place with S 2 reactions is E2 elimination: the incoming anion can act as a base rather than as a nucleophile, abstracting a proton and leading to formation of the alkene. This is more common when the incoming ion is sterically hindered in which case abstracting a proton is much easier. Elimination reactions are usually favoured at elevated temperatures because of increased entropy. This effect can be demonstrated in the gas - phase reaction between a sulfonate and a simple alkyl bromide taking place inside a mass spectrometer:
With ethyl bromide, the reaction product is predominantly the substitution product. As steric hindrance around the electrophilic center increases, as with isobutyl bromide, substitution is disfavored and elimination is the predominant reaction. Other factors favoring elimination are the strength of the base. With the less basic benzoate substrate, isopropyl bromide reacts with 55 % substitution. In general, gas phase reactions and solution phase reactions of this type follow the same trends, even though in the first, solvent effects are eliminated.
A development attracting attention in 2008 concerns a S 2 roundabout mechanism observed in a gas - phase reaction between chloride ions and methyl iodide with a special technique called crossed molecular beam imaging. When the chloride ions have sufficient velocity, the energy of the resulting iodide ions after the collision is much lower than expected, and it is theorized that energy is lost as a result of a full roundabout of the methyl group around the iodine atom before the actual displacement takes place.
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manilatimes.net where was the first mass in the philippines held | History of the Philippines - wikipedia
Neolithic age
Iron age
Events / Artifacts
(by geography from North to South)
Legendary
Events / Artifacts
American colonial period
The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested. Negrito groups first inhabited the isles. Groups of Austronesians later migrated to the islands.
Scholars generally believe that these social groups eventually developed into various settlements or polities with varying degrees of economic specialization, social stratification, and political organization. Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered early states. This includes the predecessors of modern - day population centers such as Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao, and Sulu as well as some polities, such as Ma - i, whose possibly location are still the subject of debate among scholars.
These polities were either influenced by the Hindu - Buddhist Indian religion, language, culture, literature and philosophy from India through many campaigns from India including the South - East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I, Islam from Arabia or were Sinified tributary states allied to China. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium. These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of the settlements were independent barangays allied with one of the larger states. These small states alternated from between being part of or being influenced by larger Asian empires like the Ming Dynasty, Majapahit and Brunei or rebelling and waging war against them.
The first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. He sighted Samar Island on March 16, 1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan, Eastern Samar. Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi 's expedition on February 13, 1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement in Cebu. Much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political structure known as the Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity, the code of law and the oldest modern university in Asia. The Philippines was ruled under the Mexico - based Viceroyalty of New Spain. After which, the colony was directly governed by Spain.
Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain 's defeat in the Spanish -- American War. The Philippines then became a territory of the United States. U.S forces suppressed a Philippine Revolution led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The United States established the Insular Government to rule the Philippines. In 1907, the elected Philippine Assembly was set up with popular elections. The U.S. promised independence in the Jones Act. The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10 - year interim step prior to full independence. However, in 1942 during World War II, Japan occupied the Philippines. The U.S. military overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The Treaty of Manila in 1946 established an independent Philippine Republic.
Discovery in 2018 of stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains in Rizal, Kalinga has pushed back evidence of early hominins in the country to as early as 709,000 years. Still, the earliest archeological evidence for man in the archipelago is the 67,000 - year - old Callao Man of Cagayan and the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal, both of whom appear to suggest the presence of human settlement prior to the arrival of the Negritos and Austronesian speaking people.
There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos. F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally. Wilhelm Solheim 's Island Origin Theory postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide - scale migration. The Austronesian Expansion Theory states that Malayo - Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC, displacing earlier arrivals.
The Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated. They were followed by speakers of the Malayo - Polynesian languages, a branch of the Austronesian language family, who began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 4000 BC, displacing the earlier arrivals. Before the expansion out of Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence had linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to cultures such as the Hemudu, its successor the Liangzhu and Dapenkeng in Neolithic China. During this neolithic period, a "jade culture '' is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC. The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.
By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended on hunter - gathering and were concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; the petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans - island maritime trade. It was also during the first millennium BC that early metallurgy was said to have reached the archipelagos of maritime Southeast Asia via trade with India
Around 300 -- 700 AD, the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in balangays began to trade with the Indianized kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago and the nearby East Asian principalities, adopting influences from both Buddhism and Hinduism.
Existence of a "Jade culture '' in the Philippines is evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found at a site in Batangas province.
Jade artifacts are made from white and green nephrite and dating as far back as 2000 -- 1500 BC, have been discovered at a number of archeological excavations in the Philippines since the 1930s. The artifacts have been both tools like adzes and chisels, and ornaments such as lingling - o earrings, bracelets and beads.
Nephrite, otherwise known as Jade, is a mineral widely used throughout Asia as ornaments or for decorative purposes. The oldest jade artefacts in Asia (6000 BC) were found in China where they were used as the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpturing. In 3000 BC, jade production in the Hongsan and Liangzhu cultures of China reached its peak. During this period, the knowledge of jade craftsmanship spread across the sea to Taiwan and eventually to the Philippines. The artefacts discovered in several sites in the Philippines were made from nephrite. Nephrite excavated in the Philippines were of two types: white nephrite and green nephrite.
The Sa Huỳnh culture centred on present - day Vietnam, showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huỳnh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. Han dynasty - style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Sa Huỳnh sites.
Conversely, Sa Sa Huỳnh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the Philippines, in the Palawan, Tabon Caves. One of the great examples is the Kalanay Cave in Masbate; the artefacts on the site in one of the "Sa Huyun - Kalanay '' pottery complex sites were dated 400BC -- 1500 AD. The Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery in the Sarangani Province of southern Mindanao is c. 200 AD.
During the period of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire, Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia and the Philippines which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms. The end of Philippine prehistory is 900, the date inscribed in the oldest Philippine document found so far, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. From the details of the document, written in Kawi script, the bearer of a debt, Namwaran, along with his children Lady Angkatan and Bukah, are cleared of a debt by the ruler of Tondo. From the various Sanskrit terms and titles seen in the document, the culture and society of Manila Bay was that of a Hindu -- Old Malay amalgamation, similar to the cultures of Java, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra at the time.
There are no other significant documents from this period of pre-Hispanic Philippine society and culture until the Doctrina Christiana of the late 16th century, written at the start of the Spanish period in both native Baybayin script and Spanish. Other artifacts with Kawi script and baybayin were found, such as an Ivory seal from Butuan dated to the early 11th century and the Calatagan pot with baybayin inscription, dated to the 13th century.
In the years leading up to 1000, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging in size from villages to city - states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled by datus, wangs, rajahs, sultans or lakans. or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats ''. States such as the Kingdom of Maynila, the Kingdom of Taytay in Palawan (mentioned by Antonio Pigafetta to be where they resupplied when the remaining ships escaped Cebu after Magellan was slain), the Chieftaincy of Coron Island ruled by fierce warriors called Tagbanua as reported by Spanish missionaries mentioned by Nilo S. Ocampo, Namayan, the Kingdom of Tondo, the Sinitic wangdom of Pangasinan, the nation of Ma - i, the Kedatuans of Madja - as and Dapitan, the Indianized rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu existed alongside the highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan. Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.
Since at least the year 900, this thalassocracy centered in Manila Bay flourished via an active trade with Chinese, Japanese, Malays, and various other peoples in Asia. Tondo thrived as the capital and the seat of power of this ancient kingdom, which was led by kings under the title "Lakan '' which belongs to the caste of the Maharlika, who were the feudal warrior class in ancient Tagalog society. They ruled a large part of what is now known as Luzon from Ilocos to Bicol from possibly before 900 AD to 1571, becoming the largest pre-colonial Philippine state. The Spaniards called them Hidalgos.
The people of Tondo had developed a culture which is predominantly Hindu and Buddhist, they were also good agriculturists, and lived through farming and aquaculture. During its existence, it grew to become one of the most prominent and wealthy kingdom states in pre-colonial Philippines due to heavy trade and connections with several neighboring nations such as China and Japan.
Due to its very good relations with Japan, the Japanese called Tondo as Luzon, even a famous Japanese merchant, Luzon Sukezaemon, went as far as to change his surname from Naya to Luzon. In 900 AD, the lord - minister Jayadewa presented a document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the Philippines ' oldest known document, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.
Pangasinan or Feng - chia - hsi - lan in Chinese records, was a sovereign Prehispanic Philippine state, notable for having traded with the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Japan and was a tributary state to Ming Dynasty. The Chinese records of this kingdom began when the first tributary King (Wang in Chinese), Kamayin, sent an envoy offering gifts to the Chinese Emperor. The state occupies the current province of Pangasinan. It was locally known the Luyag na Kaboloan (also spelled Caboloan), with Binalatongan as its capital, existed in the fertile Agno River valley. It flourished around the same period, the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires arose in Indonesia which had extended their influence to much of the Malay Archipelago. Urduja, a legendary woman warrior, is believed to have ruled in Pangasinan around the 14th century. The Luyag na Kaboloan expanded the territory and influence of Pangasinan to what are now the neighboring provinces of Zambales, La Union, Tarlac, Benguet, Nueva Ecija, and Nueva Vizcaya. Pangasinan enjoyed full independence until the Spanish conquest.
In the sixteenth century Pangasinan was called the "Port of Japan '' by the Spanish. The locals wore native apparel typical of other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to Japanese and Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton garments. They also blackened their teeth and were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners, which were likened to that of animals. Also, used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and Chinese households. Japanese - style gunpowder weapons were also encountered in naval battles in the area. In exchange for these goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade primarily for gold and slaves, but also for deerskins, civet and other local products. Other than a notably more extensive trade network with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon groups to the south.
Around 1225, the nation of Ma - i, a Buddhist pre-Hispanic Philippine island - state centered in Mindoro, flourished as an entrepôt, attracting traders and shipping from the Kingdom of Ryukyu to the Empire of Japan. Chao Jukua, a customs inspector in Fukien province, China wrote the Zhufan Zhi ("Description of the Barbarous Peoples ''), which described trade with this pre-colonial Philippine state. Its people were noted for their honesty and trustworthiness in trade.
Around the 12th century, a group of people from Northern Mindanao settled in the strait between mainland Bohol and the island of Panglao. Those people came from a nation in northern Mindanao called Lutao (probably the animist kingdom of what will soon be the Islamic Lanao). Those people established the Kedatuan of Dapitan in western Bohol because the true indigenous people of Bohol in the Anda peninsula and nearby areas were not open to them, forcing them to establish settlement in the western part of the island. The kedatuan was first built with hardwood on the soft seabed. It engaged it trade with nearby areas and some Chinese merchants. The Jesuit Alcina tells tales about a rich nation he called the ' Venice of the Visayas ', pointing to the Kedatuan of Dapitan at that time. The Jesuit also tells of a Dapitan princess named Bugbung Hamusanum, whose beauty caused her suitor, Datu Sumangga of Leyte, to raid parts of southern China to win her hand.
During the 11th century several exiled datus of the collapsing empire of Srivijaya led by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunao of the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of polities and named it the Kedatuan of Madja - as centered in Aklan and they settled the surrounding islands of the Visayas. This confederation reached its peak under Datu Padojinog. During his reign the confederations ' hegemony extended over most of the islands of Visayas. Its people consistently made piratical attacks against Chinese imperial shipping.
The Rajahnate of Cebu was a classical Philippine state which used to exist on Cebu island prior to the arrival of the Spanish. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty which happened to occupy Sumatra - Indonesia. He was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. This rajahnate warred against the ' magalos ' (Slave traders) of Maguindanao and had an alliance with the Rajahnate of Butuan and Indianized Kutai in South Borneo, before it was weakened by the insurrection of Datu Lapu - Lapu.
The Butuan Ivory Seal, displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines. The Kawi script lettering says "But - wan '' and the smaller lettering (similar to Baybayin) says "Bu - wa '' (diacritics for the "Wan / Ban '' in Kawi and "Bu / Ba '' in the smaller letters have worn off).
A silver strip excavated from the 1970s in Butuan inside of a wooden coffin. The characters display a Hindu - Buddhist influence, probably a form of early writing in the Philippines. (c. 14th -- 15th century).
By year 1011, Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a maritime - state famous for its goldwork sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan - shieh to the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states. The request being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their rivals, Tondo and the Champa civilization. Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph.
During the 1300s, the Javanese - centered Hindu empire of Majapahit briefly ruled over Luzon island and the Sulu archipelago as recorded in the epic poem Nagarakretagama, which stated that they had colonies in the Philippines at Saludong (Manila) and Solot (Sulu). It even incorporated the Butuan and Cebu Rajahanates ' Bornean ally, Kutai. But they failed to take hold of the Visayas islands, which was populated by Srivijayan loyalists who were waging incessant guerrilla warfare against them. Eventually, the kingdoms of Luzon regained independence from Majapahit during the Battle of Manila (1365) and Sulu also reestablished independence, and in vengeance, assaulted the Majapahit province of Poni (Brunei) before a fleet from the capital drove them out. The subsequent start of the Islamic era ushered the slow death of Majapahit as its provinces eventually seceded and became independent sultanates. With the upsurge of Islam, the remnants of Hindu Majapahit eventually fled to the island of Bali.
In 1380, Karim ul ' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab trader born in Johore, arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting its previous ruler, the Hindu king, Rajah Baguinda, to Islam and then marrying his daughter. This sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to its diving for fine pearls.
The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to prominence at the end of the 15th century, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married Paramisuli, an Iranun princess from Mindanao, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao.
It ruled most parts of Mindanao and continued to exist prior to the Spanish colonization until the 19th century. The Sultanate also traded and maintained good relations with the Chinese, Dutch, and the British.
The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, Philippines were founded in the 16th century through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520. Islam was introduced to the area by Muslim missionaries and traders from the Middle East, Indian and Malay regions who propagated Islam to Sulu and Maguindanao. Unlike in Sulu and Maguindanao, the Sultanate system in Lanao was uniquely decentralized. The area was divided into Four Principalities of Lanao or the Pat a Pangampong a Ranao which are composed of a number of royal houses (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan or The Sixteen (16) Royal Houses) with specific territorial jurisdictions within mainland Mindanao. This decentralized structure of royal power in Lanao was adopted by the founders, and maintained up to the present day, in recognition of the shared power and prestige of the ruling clans in the area, emphasizing the values of unity of the nation (kaiisaisa o bangsa), patronage (kaseselai) and fraternity (kapapagaria). By the 16th century, Islam had spread to other parts of the Visayas and Luzon.
During the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521, the recently Islamized Bruneian Empire (formerly the Majapahit province of Poni that had seceded) decided to break the Dynasty of Tondo 's monopoly in the China trade by attacking Tondo and defeating Rajah Gambang and then establishing the State of Selurong (Kingdom of Maynila) as a Bruneian satellite - state. A new dynasty under the Islamized Rajah Salalila was also established to challenge the House of Lakandula in Tondo. In addition to establishing the satellite state of Manila, Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana, the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul - Ombra to expand Brunei 's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao. Furthermore, Islam was further strengthened by the arrival to the Philippines of traders and proselytizers from Malaysia and Indonesia.
Concurrent with the spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago, was the rise of the Lucoes who were the people of Luzon. They rose to prominence by establishing overseas communities all across Southeast Asia and participating in trading ventures, navigation expeditions and military campaigns in Burma, Malacca and East Timor where they were employed as traders and mercenaries. One prominent Luções was Regimo de Raja, who was a spice magnate and a Temenggung (Jawi: تمڠݢوڠ) (Governor and Chief General) in Portuguese Malacca. He was also the head of an armada which traded and protected commerce between the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, the South China Sea, and the medieval maritime principalities of the Philippines.
Around 1563 AD, at the closing stages of the precolonial era, the Kedatuan of Dapitan in Bohol achieved prominence and it was known to a later Spanish missionary, Alcina, as the "Venice of the Visayas '', because it was a wealthy, wooden and floating city - state in the Visayas. However, this kedatuan was eventually attacked and destroyed by soldiers from the Sultanate of Ternate, a state made up of Muslim Papuan people. The survivors of the destruction, led by their datu, Pagbuaya, migrated to northern Mindanao and established a new Dapitan there. Eventually, in vengeance against the Muslims and Portuguese allied to the Ternateans, they aided the Spanish in the conquest of Muslim Manila and in the Spanish expeditions to capture Portuguese Ternate. There was also a simmering territorial conflict between the Polity of Tondo and the Bruneian vassal - state, the Islamic Rajahnate of Maynila, to which the ruler of Maynila, Rajah Matanda, sought military assistance against Tondo from his relatives at the Sultanate of Brunei. The Hindu Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu also endured slave raids from, and waged wars against the Sultanate of Maguindanao. Simultaneous with these slave - raids, was the rebellion of Datu Lapu - Lapu of Mactan against Rajah Humabon of Cebu. The sparse population and the multiple states competing over the limited territory and people of the islands simplified Spanish colonization by allowing its conquistadors to effectively employ a strategy of divide and conquer for rapid conquest.
Parts of the Philippine Islands were known to Europeans before the 1521 Spanish expedition around the world led by Portuguese - born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan (the Portuguese conquered Malacca City in 1511 and reached Maluku Islands in 1512). Magellan landed on the island called Homonhon, claiming the islands he saw for Spain, and naming them Islas de San Lázaro. He established friendly relations with some of the local leaders especially with Rajah Humabon and converted some of them to Roman Catholicism. In the Philippines, they explored many islands including the island of Mactan. However, Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan against the local datu, Lapu - Lapu.
Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were dispatched to the islands. In 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos led an expedition to the islands and gave the name Las Islas Filipinas (after Philip II of Spain) to the islands of Samar and Leyte. The name was then extended to the entire archipelago later on in the Spanish era.
European colonization began in earnest when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu. Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian monks, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for the colonization of the Archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Latin - American recruits and their Visayan allies attacked and occupied the kingdom of Tondo as well as Maynila, a vassal - state of the Brunei Sultanate, establishing Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies.
Legazpi built a fort in Maynila and made overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula, Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. However, Maynila 's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman, who was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi, but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik Sulayman and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the battle of Bankusay, he was finally defeated and killed.
In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of the Philippine archipelago. On one side, the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the Kedatuan of Madja - as and Rajahnate of Cebu, plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (which were from northern Mindanao), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan had previously waged war against the Sultanate of Sulu and Kingdom of Maynila, then joined the Spanish in the war against the Bruneian Empire and its allies, the Bruneian puppet - state of Maynila and Sulu which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish and its Visayan allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, Kota Batu. This was achieved as a result in part of the assistance rendered to them by two noblemen, Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as a tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal. The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new Bendahara. In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by De Sande himself, acting as Capitán General, started their journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards, 1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans. The campaign was one of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu.
The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on April 16, 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong. In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to a cholera or dysentery outbreak. They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on June 26, 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five - tier roof.
Pengiran Seri Lela died in August -- September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by the ruling Sultan. Seri Lela 's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian Tagalog, named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo and had children in the Philippines.
In 1587, Magat Salamat, one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula 's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587 -- 1588 failed in which a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian - captain, Gayo, and Brunei 's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown - prince of Tondo). Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico.
Spanish power was further consolidated after Miguel López de Legazpi 's complete assimilation of Madja - as, his subjugation of Rajah Tupas, the Rajah of Cebu and Juan de Salcedo 's conquest of the provinces of Zambales, La Union, Ilocos, the coast of Cagayan, and the ransacking of the Chinese warlord Limahong 's pirate kingdom in Pangasinan.
The Spanish also invaded Northern Taiwan and Ternate in Indonesia, using Filipino warriors, before they were driven out by the Dutch.
The Spanish and the Moros of the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu also waged many wars over hundreds of years in the Spanish - Moro conflict, not until the 19th century did Spain succeed in defeating the Sulu Sultanate and taking Mindanao under nominal suzerainty.
The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista, a centuries - long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero - Islamic world conflict that included a rivalry with the Ottoman Caliphate which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal, the Sultanate of Aceh.
The "Memoria de las Encomiendas en las Islas '' of 1591, just twenty years after the conquest of Luzon, reveals a remarkable progress in the work of colonization and the spread of Christianity. A cathedral was built in the city of Manila with an episcopal palace, Augustinian, Dominican and Franciscan monasteries and a Jesuit house. The king maintained a hospital for the Spanish settlers and there was another hospital for the natives run by the Franciscans. In order to defend the settlements the Spaniards established in the Philippines, a network of military fortresses called "Presidios '' were constructed and officered by the Spaniards, and sentried by Latin - Americans and Filipinos, across the archipelago, to protect it from foreign nations such as the Portuguese, British and Dutch as well as raiding Muslims and Wokou. The Manila garrison was composed of roughly four hundred Spanish soldiers and the area of Intramuros as well as its surroundings, were initially settled by 1200 Spanish families. In Cebu City, at the Visayas, the settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier - settlers from New Spain. At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present at Ermita and at Cavite where they were stationed as sentries. In addition, men conscripted from Peru, were also sent to settle Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to wage war upon Muslim pirates. There were also communities of Spanish - Mestizos that developed in Iloilo, Negros and Vigan. Interactions between native Filipinos and immigrant Spaniards, Latin - Americans and their Spanish - Mestizo descendants eventually caused the formation of a new language, Chavacano, a creole of Mexican Spanish. Meanwhile, in the suburb of Tondo, there was a convent run by Franciscan friars and another by the Dominicans that offered Christian education to the Chinese converted to Christianity. The same report reveals that in and around Manila were collected 9,410 tributes, indicating a population of about 30,640 who were under the instruction of thirteen missionaries (ministers of doctrine), apart from the monks in monasteries. In the former province of Pampanga the population estimate was 74,700 and 28 missionaries. In Pangasinan 2,400 people with eight missionaries. In Cagayan and islands Babuyanes 96,000 people but no missionaries. In La Laguna 48,400 people with 27 missionaries. In Bicol and Camarines Catanduanes islands 86,640 people with fifteen missionaries. Based on the tribute counts, the total founding population of Spanish - Philippines was 667,612 people, of which: 20,000 were Chinese migrant traders, 16,500 were Latino soldier - colonists sent from Peru and Mexico, 3,000 were Japanese residents, and 600 were pure Spaniards from Europe, there was also a large but unknown number of Indian Filipinos, the rest were Malays and Negritos. They were under the care of 140 missionaries, of which 79 were Augustinians, nine Dominicans and 42 Franciscans.
The fragmented and sparsely populated nature of the islands made it easy for Spanish colonization. The Spanish then brought political unification to most of the Philippine archipelago via the conquest of the various small maritime states although they were unable to fully incorporate parts of the sultanates of Mindanao and the areas where the ethnic groups and highland plutocracy of the animist Ifugao of Northern Luzon were established. The Spanish introduced elements of western civilization such as the code of law, western printing and the Gregorian calendar alongside new food resources such as maize, pineapple and chocolate from Latin America.
Education played a major role in the socio - economic transformation of the archipelago. The oldest universities, colleges, and vocational schools and the first modern public education system in Asia were all created during the Spanish colonial period, and by the time Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power, Filipinos were among the most educated subjects in all of Asia. The Jesuits founded the Colegio de Manila in 1590, which later became the Universidad de San Ignacio, a royal and pontifical university. They also founded the Colegio de San Ildefonso on August 1, 1595. After the expulsion of the Society of Jesus in 1768, the management of the Jesuit schools passed to other parties. On April 28, 1611, through the initiative of Bishop Miguel de Benavides, the University of Santo Tomas was founded in Manila. The Jesuits also founded the Colegio de San José (1601) and took over the Escuela Municipal, later to be called the Ateneo de Manila University (1859). All institutions offered courses included not only religious topics but also science subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics. The University of Santo Tomás, for example, started by teaching theology, philosophy and humanities and during the 18th century, the Faculty of Jurisprudence and Canonical Law, together with the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened.
Outside the tertiary institutions, the efforts of missionaries were in no way limited to religious instruction but also geared towards promoting social and economic advancement of the islands. They cultivated into the natives their innate taste for music and taught Spanish language to children. They also introduced advances in rice agriculture, brought from America maize and cocoa and developed the farming of indigo, coffee and sugar cane. The only commercial plant introduced by a government agency was the plant of tobacco. Church and state were inseparably linked in Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments. One of Spain 's objectives in colonizing the Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the disunity and insignificance of other organized religions, except for Islam, which was still predominant in the southwest. The pageantry of the church had a wide appeal, reinforced by the incorporation of indigenous social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Roman Catholic majority, from which the Muslims of western Mindanao and the upland tribal and animistic peoples of Luzon remained detached and alienated from (Ethnic groups such as the Ifugaos of the Cordillera region and the Mangyans of Mindoro).
At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect rule helped create an indigenous upper class, called the principalía, who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This perpetuated an oligarchic system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the indigenous idea of communal use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the conferring of titles on members of the principalía.
Around 1608 William Adams, an English navigator contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who wished to establish direct trade contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico, via the Royal Audiencia of Manila, and administered directly from Spain from 1821 after the Mexican revolution, until 1898.
The Manila galleons which linked Manila to Acapulco traveled once or twice a year between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Spanish military fought off various indigenous revolts and several external colonial challenges, especially from the British, Chinese pirates, Dutch, and Portuguese. Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity and founded schools, universities, and hospitals. In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced education, establishing public schooling in Spanish.
In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La Naval de Manila was fought between the forces of Spain and the Dutch Republic, as part of the Eighty Years ' War. Although the Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and a galley with crews composed mainly of Filipino volunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish - Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans for an invasion of the Philippines.
Colonial income derived mainly from entrepôt trade: The Manila Galleons sailing from the port of Manila to the port of Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of silver bullion, and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Asian, and Pacific products. A total of 110 Manila galleons set sail in the 250 years of the Manila - Acapulco galleon trade (1565 to 1815). There was no direct trade with Spain until 1766.
The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish rule, and the long war against the Dutch in the 17th century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the South nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter to King Charles III of Spain, in which he advises to abandon the colony.
The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy paid by the Spanish Crown, and the 200 - year - old fortifications at Manila had not been improved much since first built by the early Spanish colonizers. This was one of the circumstances that made possible the brief British occupation of Manila between 1762 and 1764.
Britain declared war against Spain on January 4, 1762 and on September 24, 1762 a force of British Army regulars and British East India Company soldiers, supported by the ships and men of the East Indies Squadron of the British Royal Navy, sailed into Manila Bay from Madras, India. Manila was besieged and fell to the British on October 4, 1762.
Outside of Manila, the Spanish leader Simón de Anda y Salazar organized a militia of 10 000 of mostly from Pampanga to resist British rule. Anda y Salazar established his headquarters first in Bulacan, then in Bacolor. After a number of skirmishes and failed attempts to support uprisings, the British command admitted to the War Secretary in London that the Spanish were "in full possession of the country ''. The occupation of Manila ended in April 1764 as agreed to in the peace negotiations for the Seven Years ' War in Europe. The Spanish then persecuted the Binondo Chinese community for its role in aiding the British. An unknown number of Indian soldiers known as sepoys, who came with the British, deserted and settled in nearby Cainta, Rizal, which explains the uniquely Indian features of generations of Cainta residents.
In 1766 direct communication was established with Spain and trade with Europe through a national ship based on Spain. Those expeditions were administered since 1785 by the Real Compañía Filipina, which was granted a monopoly of trade between Spain and the islands that lasted until 1834, when the company was terminated by the Spanish crown due to poor management and financial losses.
In 1781, Governor - General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. The Philippines was administered from the Viceroyalty of New Spain until the independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct rule from Spain of the Philippines from that year.
The Philippines was included in the vast territory of the Kingdom of Spain, in the first constitution of Spain promulgated in Cadiz in 1812. It was never a colony as modern - day historical literature would say, but an overseas region in Asia (Spanish Constitution 1812). The Spanish Constitution of 1870 provides for the first autonomous community for "Archipelago Filipino '' where all provinces in the Philippine Islands will be given the semi-independent home rule program.
During the 19th century Spain invested heavily in education and infrastructure. Through the Education Decree of December 20, 1863, Queen Isabella II of Spain decreed the establishment of a free public school system that used Spanish as the language of instruction, leading to increasing numbers of educated Filipinos. Additionally, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cut travel time to Spain, which facilitated the rise of the ilustrados, an enlightened class of Spanish - Filipinos that had been able to enroll in Spanish and European universities. The Philippines has contributed one Prime Minister to Spain, Marcelo Azcarraga, who was born in the Bicol Peninsula in the Philippine Islands, Spain.
A great number of infrastructure projects were undertaken during the 19th century that put the Philippine economy and standard of living ahead of most of its Asian neighbors and even many European countries at that time. Among them were a railway system for Luzon, a tramcar network for Manila, and Asia 's first steel suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later called Puente Colgante.
On August 1, 1851 the Banco Español - Filipino de Isabel II was established to attend the needs of the rapid economic boom, that had greatly increased its pace since the 1800s as a result of a new economy based on a rational exploitation of the agricultural resources of the islands. The increase in textile fiber crops such as abacá, oil products derived from the coconut, indigo, that was growing in demand, etc., generated an increase in money supply that led to the creation of the bank. Banco Español - Filipino was also granted the power to print a Philippine - specific currency (the Philippine peso) for the first time (before 1851, many currencies were used, mostly the pieces of eight).
Spanish Manila was seen in the 19th century as a model of colonial governance that effectively put the interests of the original inhabitants of the islands before those of the colonial power. As John Crawfurd put it in its History of the Indian Archipelago, in all of Asia the "Philippines alone did improve in civilization, wealth, and populousness under the colonial rule '' of a foreign power. John Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong from 1856 to 1860, wrote after his trip to Manila:
"Credit is certainly due to Spain for having bettered the condition of a people who, though comparatively highly civilized, yet being continually distracted by petty wars, had sunk into a disordered and uncultivated state.
The inhabitants of these beautiful Islands upon the whole, may well be considered to have lived as comfortably during the last hundred years, protected from all external enemies and governed by mild laws vis - a-vis those from any other tropical country under native or European sway, owing in some measure, to the frequently discussed peculiar (Spanish) circumstances which protect the interests of the natives. ''
In The Inhabitants of the Philippines, Frederick Henry Sawyer wrote:
"Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule, and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos were as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The population greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in affluence; cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily increased. (...) Let us be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony, populated by natives can compare with the Philippines as they were until 1895?. ''
The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878. The colony 's population as of December 31, 1877, was recorded at 5,567,685 persons. This was followed by the 1887 census that yielded a count of 6,984,727, while that of 1898 yielded 7,832,719 inhabitants.
The estimated GDP per capita for the Philippines in 1900, the year Spain left, was $1,033.00. That made it the second - richest place in all of Asia, just a little behind Japan ($1,135.00), and far ahead of China ($652.00) and India ($625.00).
In 2006, the Civil Code of Spain provided that the acquisition of nationalities of Ibero - American countries, Andorra, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Portugal and those of the Sephardic Jews originally from Spain, does not bear the loss of their Spanish nationalities of origin that paved the way for easier route of Spanish Nationality reacquisition by the people of the Philippines. A similar law in the Philippines was enacted later in 1963 that provides "Natural born citizens of the Philippines who acquired the citizenship of one of the Iberian countries, Ibero - American Countries and United Kingdom will not lose their natural born citizen status. ''
Revolutionary sentiments arose in 1872 after three Filipino priests, Mariano Gómez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, known as Gomburza, were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed by garote. This would inspire the Propaganda Movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, that clamored for adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for independence. José Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual and radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels "Noli Me Tángere '', and "El filibusterismo '', which greatly inspired the movement for independence. The Katipunan, a secret society whose primary purpose was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines, was founded by Andrés Bonifacio who became its Supremo (leader).
The Philippine Revolution began in 1896. Rizal was wrongly implicated in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for treason in 1896. The Katipunan in Cavite split into two groups, Magdiwang, led by Mariano Álvarez (a relative of Bonifacio 's by marriage), and Magdalo, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. Leadership conflicts between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo culminated in the execution or assassination of the former by the latter 's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a truce with the Pact of Biak - na - Bato and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong. Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the agreement. One, General Francisco Makabulos, established a Central Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in Spanish - governed Philippines.
In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the USS Maine, having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in Havana harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish -- American War. After Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila, a German squadron arrived in Manila and engaged in maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as obstruction of his blockade, offered war -- after which the Germans backed down. The German Emperor expected an American defeat, with Spain left in a sufficiently weak position for the revolutionaries to capture Manila -- leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.
The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by Dewey. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite. Aguinaldo proclaimed a Revolutionary Government of the Philippines on June 23. By the time U.S. land forces arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon except for Spanish capitol in the walled city of Intramuros. In the Battle of Manila, on August 13, 1898, the United States captured the city from the Spanish. This battle marked an end of Filipino - American collaboration, as Filipino forces were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action deeply resented by the Filipinos. On January 23, 1899, the First Philippine Republic was proclaimed under Asia 's first democratic constitution, with Aguinaldo as its President.
Spain and the United States had sent commissioners to Paris to draw up the terms of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish -- American War. The Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo, had been excluded from sessions as Aguinaldo 's government was not recognized by the family of nations. Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided to annex the Philippines. In addition to Guam and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the negotiations cede the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for US $20,000,000.00. U.S. President McKinley justified the annexation of the Philippines by saying that it was "a gift from the gods '' and that since "they were unfit for self - government,... there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them '', in spite of the Philippines having been already Christianized by the Spanish over the course of several centuries. The First Philippine Republic resisted the U.S. occupation, resulting in the Philippine -- American War (1899 -- 1913).
Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain. However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence. Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay.
Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates on patrol killed three Filipino soldiers in San Juan, a Manila suburb. This incident sparked the Philippine -- American War, which would cost far more money and take far more lives than the Spanish -- American War. Some 126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died, as did 12,000 -- 20,000 Philippine Republican Army soldiers who were part of a nationwide guerrilla movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000 soldiers.
The general population, caught between Americans and rebels, suffered significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino civilians lost their lives as an indirect result of the war mostly as a result of the cholera epidemic at the war 's end that took between 150,000 and 200,000 lives. Atrocities were committed by both sides.
The poorly equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by American troops in open combat, but they were formidable opponents in guerrilla warfare. Malolos, the revolutionary capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped, however, establishing a new capital at San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. On June 5, 1899, Antonio Luna, Aguinaldo 's most capable military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo 's guards in an apparent assassination while visiting Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija to meet with Aguinaldo. With his best commander dead and his troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern Luzon, Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army on November 13 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla commands in each of several military zones. Another key general, Gregorio del Pilar, was killed on December 2, 1899 in the Battle of Tirad Pass -- a rear guard action to delay the Americans while Aguinaldo made good his escape through the mountains.
Aguinaldo was captured at Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901 and was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the war. However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim south, until 1913.
In 1900, President McKinley sent the Taft Commission, to the Philippines, with a mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer the political system. On July 1, 1901, William Howard Taft, the head of the commission, was inaugurated as Civil Governor, with limited executive powers. The authority of the Military Governor was continued in those areas where the insurrection persisted. The Taft Commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local government. A Philippine Constabulary was organized to deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the responsibilities of the United States Army.
During the First Philippine Republic, three other insurgent republics were briefly formed: the Tagalog Republic in Luzon, under Macario Sakay, the Negros Republic in the Visayas under Aniceto Lacson, and the Republic of Zamboanga in Mindanao under Mariano Arquiza.
The Philippine Organic Act was the basic law for the Insular Government, so called because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs. This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. On July 4, 1902 the office of military governor was abolished and full executive power passed from Adna Chaffee, the last military governor, to Taft, who became the first U.S. Governor - General of the Philippines. United States policies towards the Philippines shifted with changing administrations. During the early years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to delegate authority to the Filipinos, but an elected Philippine Assembly was inaugurated in 1907, as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the appointive Philippine Commission becoming the upper house.
Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as:
In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law 's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines ' best path to development.
Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children 's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women 's Clubs.
When Democrat Woodrow Wilson became U.S. president in 1913, new policies were launched designed to gradually lead to Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law established Filipinos citizenship in the Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not become citizens of the United States. The Jones Law of 1916 became the new basic law, promised eventual independence. It provide for the election of both houses of the legislature.
In socio - economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13 % of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66 % of which was with the United States. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished.
A new educational system was established with English as the medium of instruction, eventually becoming a lingua franca of the Islands. The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American governors - general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his powers vis - à - vis the Philippine legislature. Members to the elected legislature lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.
Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the Nacionalista Party, which was founded in 1907. Although the party 's platform called for "immediate independence '', their policy toward the Americans was highly accommodating. Within the political establishment, the call for independence was spearheaded by Manuel L. Quezon, who served continuously as Senate president from 1916 until 1935.
World War I gave the Philippines the opportunity to pledge assistance to the US war effort. This took the form of an offer to supply a division of troops, as well as providing funding for the construction of two warships. A locally recruited national guard was created and significant numbers of Filipinos volunteered for service in the US Navy and army.
Frank Murphy was the last Governor - General of the Philippines (1933 -- 35), and the first U.S. High Commissioner of the Philippines (1935 -- 36). The change in form was more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to independence.
The Great Depression in the early thirties hastened the progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar (and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and labor could be shut out of the United States. In 1933, the United States Congress passed the Hare -- Hawes -- Cutting Act as a Philippine Independence Act over President Herbert Hoover 's veto. Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The following year, a revised act known as the Tydings -- McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with transition to full independence after a ten - year period. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self - governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president. The Act stipulated that the date of independence would be on July 4 following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth.
A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935.
On September 17, 1935, presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.
The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. Under the Tydings -- McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946, a timetable which was followed after the passage of almost eleven very eventful years.
Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay.
On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction. The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States - Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination. President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile. MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the Philippine Executive Commission. They initially organized a Council of State, through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an independent republic. The Japanese - sponsored republic headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be unpopular to the pro-colonial Filipinos, but very popular to the pro-Asiatic independence Filipinos.
Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large - scale underground guerrilla activity. The American - aligned Philippine Army, as well as remnants of the U.S. Army Forces Far East, continued to fight the Japanese and pro-Japanese paramilitary forces in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army. Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty - eight provinces. One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap, which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon.
The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war 's conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of the Philippines, the Allied forces and the Japanese Empire waged the largest naval battle in history, by gross tonnage in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The American army had been fighting the Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur 's Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan 's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. Approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in action in the Philippines when the war ended, more than in any other country in the Pacific or European Theaters. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged, mainly due to excessive use of artillery by the American forces.
As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and black markets were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed independence on new terms, and some collaborators went along with the plan, but Japan was clearly losing the war and nothing became of it.
With a view of building up the economic base of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Army envisioned using the islands as a source of agricultural products needed by its industry. For example, Japan had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan but, a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, derris for quinine, cotton for uniforms, and abaca (hemp) for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production.
Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, due to inflation.
Elections were held in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas becoming the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States ceded its sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. However, the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on United States markets -- more dependent, according to United States high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any single U.S. state was dependent on the rest of the country. The Philippine Trade Act, passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States, exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99 - year lease on designated military bases in the country.
The Roxas administration granted general amnesty to those who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating José P. Laurel and winning a four - year term.
World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the Communist - supported Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as "Huks ''), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc in May 1954.
Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a populist platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in land reform by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities. Nevertheless, he was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1957 dealt a serious blow to national morale.
Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay 's death, and was elected to a four - year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first '', arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country 's economy. Garcia successfully negotiated for the United States ' relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced.
In the presidential elections held on November 14, 1961, Vice President Diosdado Macapagal defeated re-electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a Vice President. President Macapagal was the President of the Philippines that changed the independence day of the Philippines from July 4 to June 12.
The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major Philippine land reform law enacted in 1963 under President Diosdado Macapagal.
The code declared that it was State policy
and, in pursuance of those policies, established the following
Maphilindo was a proposed nonpolitical confederation of Malaya, the Philippines, and Indonesia. It was based on concepts developed during the Commonwealth government in the Philippines by Wenceslao Vinzons and by Eduardo L. Martelino in his 1959 book Someday, Malaysia ".
In July 1963, President Diosdado Macapagal of the Philippines convened a summit meeting in Manila. Maphilindo was proposed as a realization of José Rizal 's dream of bringing together the Malay peoples. However, this was perceived as a tactic on the parts of Jakarta and Manila to delay or prevent the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. The plan failed when Indonesian President Sukarno adopted his plan of Konfrontasi with Malaysia.
Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his former party - mate, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, who had switched to the Nacionalista Party. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects and intensified tax collection which brought the country economic prosperity throughout the 1970s. His administration built more roads (including a substantial portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway) than all his predecessors combined, and more schools than any previous administration. Marcos was re-elected president in 1969, becoming the first president of the Philippines to achieve a second term. Opponents of Marcos, however, blocked the necessary legislation to further implement his expansive agenda. Because of this, optimism faded early in his second term and economic growth slowed. Crime and civil disobedience increased. The Communist Party of the Philippines formed the New People 's Army in response to his shaky hold over the nation and the Moro National Liberation Front continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao. An explosion during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on August 21, 1971 prompted Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which he restored on January 11, 1972 after public protests.
Amidst the rising wave of lawlessness and the conveniently timed threat of a looming Communist insurgency, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972 by virtue of Proclamation No. 1081. The Nacionalista president, ruling by decree, curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, abolished Congress, closed down major media establishments, ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics: senators Benigno Aquino, Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno. The declaration of martial law was initially well received, given the social turmoil the Philippines was experiencing. Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented. Many political opponents were forced to go into exile. Corazon C. Aquino, the Wife of Benigno Aquino, Jr. replaced Marcos by an Election on 1986.
A constitutional convention, which had been called for in 1970 to replace the colonial 1935 Constitution, continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society '' based on new social and political values. The economy during the 1970s was robust, with budgetary and trade surpluses. The Gross National Product rose from P55 billion in 1972 to P193 billion in 1980. Tourism rose, contributing to the economy 's growth.
Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government 's power for arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose own health faced obstacles due to lupus. The political opposition decided to boycotted the 1981 presidential elections, which pitted Marcos against retired general Alejo Santos, in protest over his control over the results. Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes, which constitutionally allowed him to have another six - year term. Finance Minister Cesar Virata was eventually appointed to succeed Marcos as Prime Minister.
In 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated at the Manila International Airport upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986. The opposition united under Aquino 's widow, Corazon Aquino. The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of Namfrel, an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by Corazon Aquino and her supporters. International observers, including a U.S. delegation, denounced the official results. General Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian - military uprising, now popularly called the People Power Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and installed Corazon Aquino as president on February 25, 1986.
Corazon Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution ''. A new permanent constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987.
The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.
Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino 's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military.
Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless.
During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six unsuccessful coup attempts, the most serious occurring in December 1989.
In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10 - year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country. The United States turned over Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.
In the 1992 elections, Defense Secretary Fidel V. Ramos, endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6 % of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation '' his highest priority and worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of the Aquino years.
He legalized the Communist Party and laid the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents.
In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in Mindanao, was signed in 1996, ending the 24 - year - old struggle. However, an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state.
Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large - scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not seek re-election.
On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the Rape - slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed was Leo Echegaray in 1999.
Joseph Estrada, a former movie actor who had served as Ramos ' vice president, was elected president by a landslide victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country 's agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor. Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from a low − 0.6 % growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4 % by 1999.
Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the ' restrictive ' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the constitution.
After the worsening secessionist movement in Midanao in April 2000, President Estrada declared an "all - out - war '' against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF 's headquarters ', Camp Abubakar.
In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling businesses. He was impeached by the House of Representatives, but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block examination of the president 's bank records.
In response, massive street protests erupted demanding Estrada 's resignation. Faced with street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of support from the armed forces, Estrada was forced from office on January 20, 2001.
Vice President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo (the daughter of President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada 's successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory.
Arroyo 's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month - long nationwide state of rebellion. Later on in December 2002 she said would not run in May 10, 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to join the race anyway.
She was re-elected and sworn in for her own six - year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained. The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo 's resignation. Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down. Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year.
Halfway through her second term, Arroyo unsuccessfully attempted to push for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential - bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary - unicameral form of government, which critics describe would be a move that would allow her to stay in power as Prime Minister.
Numerous other scandals (such as the Maguindanao massacre, wherein 58 people were killed, and the unsuccessful NBN - ZTE Broadband Deal) took place in the dawn of her administration. She formally ended her term as president in 2010 (wherein she was succeeded by Senator Benigno Aquino III) and ran for a seat in congress the same year (becoming the second president after Jose P. Laurel to run for lower office following the presidency).
Benigno Aquino III began his presidency on June 30, 2010, the fifteenth President of the Philippines. He is a bachelor and the son of former Philippines president Corazon C. Aquino. His administration claimed to be focused on major reforms that would bring greater transparency, reduced poverty, reduced corruption, and a booming market which will give birth to a newly industrialized nation.
Just as with his predecessor, however, Aquino 's administration has been marked with a mix of success and scandal since his inauguration, beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time (affecting major events such as Wikimania 2013).
The Sultanate of Panay, founded in 2011, was recognized by the Lanao Advisory Council in 2012.
Tensions regarding Sabah due to the Sultanate of Sulu 's claim gradually rose during the early years of his administration. Standoffs in Sabah between The Sultanate of Sulu 's Royal Army and the Malaysian forces struck in 2013.
In 2012, the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed to create the Bangsamoro Government in Mindanao. In response, the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) was assembled by religious extremists with the goal of seceding from the Philippines.
The economy performed well at 7.2 % GDP growth, the second fastest in Asia.
In 2013, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) struck the country, leading to massive rehabilitation efforts by foreign world powers sending aid, inevitably devolving into chaos following the revelations that the administration and that the government had not been properly handing out the aid packages and preference for political maneuvering over the safety of the people, leading to mass deterioration of food and medical supplies.
In 2014, the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro was finally signed after 17 years of negotiation with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a move that is expected to bring peace in Mindanao and the Sulu.
On April 28, 2014, when United States President Barack Obama visited the Philippines, the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement, between the United States of America and the Philippines, was signed. From January 15 to 19, 2015, Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan.
On January 25, 2015, 44 members of the Philippine National Police - Special Action Force (PNP - SAF) were killed during an encounter between MILF and BIFF in Mamasapano, Maguindanao putting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law into law in an impasse.
Under his presidency, the Philippines has had controversial clashes with the People 's Republic of China on a number of issues (such as the standoff in Scarborough Shoal in the South China Sea and the dispute over the Spratly islands). This resulted in the proceedings of the Philippines to file a sovereignty case against China in a global arbitration tribunal. Later on in 2014, the Aquino Administration then filed a memorial to the Arbitration Tribunal in The Hague which challenged Beijing 's claim in the South China Sea after Chinese ships were accused of harassing a small Philippine vessel carrying goods for stationed military personnel in the South Thomas Shoal where an old Philippine ship had been stationed for many years.
Under his presidency, for aiming to enhance the educational system in the country, Aquino III signed the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, commonly known as K -- 12 program on May 15, 2013.
On December 20, 2015, Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe 2015, making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973.
On January 12, 2016, the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country.
On March 23, 2016, Diwata - 1 was launched to the International Space Station (ISS), becoming the country 's first micro-satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos.
Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP -- Laban won the 2016 presidential election, garnering 39.01 % or 16,601,997 of the total votes, becoming the first Mindanaoan to become president. On the other hand, Camarines Sur 3rd District representative Leni Robredo won with the second narrowest margin in history, against Senator Bongbong Marcos. On 30 May, the Congress had proclaimed Rodrigo Duterte, despite his absence, as president - elect and Leni Robredo as vice president - elect. On July 12, 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China 's claims in the South China Sea. Duterte 's presidency began following his inauguration on June 30, 2016 at the Rizal Ceremonial Hall of the Malacañang Palace in Manila, which was attended by more than 627 guests. On August 1, 2016, the Duterte administration launched a 24 - hour complaint office accessible to the public through a nationwide hotline, 8888, and changed the nationwide emergency telephone number from 117 to 911. After winning the Presidency, Duterte launched an intensified anti-drug campaign to fulfill a campaign promise of wiping out criminality in six months. By March 2017, the death toll for the Philippine Drug War passed 8,000 people, with 2,679 killed in legitimate police operations and the rest the government claims to be homicide cases. On November 8, 2016, the Supreme Court of the Philippines ruled in favor of the burial of the late president Ferdinand Marcos in the Libingan ng Mga Bayani, the country 's official cemetery for heroes, provoking protests from thousands of millennials, Marcos - regime human rights victims, and relatives of people who were tortured, killed, or were still missing due to martial rule. The burial of the late president was a campaign promise of President Rodrigo Duterte, who was supported by voters in Ilocos Norte, the home province of Marcos. In November 18, 2016, the remains of Ferdinand Marcos was secretly buried by the Philippine National Police, Armed Forces of the Philippines, and the family and friends of Ferdinand Marcos, despite the Supreme Court order being non-executory due to protocol. Later in the afternoon, the event was made public. On May 23, 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Proclamation No. 216 declaring a 60 - day martial law in Mindanao following clashes between government forces and the Maute group in Marawi.
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who made the king sign the magna carta | Magna Carta - Wikipedia
Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "the Great Charter of the Liberties ''), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "(the) Great Charter ''), is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons ' War. After John 's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name Magna Carta, to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes; his son, Edward I, repeated the exercise in 1297, this time confirming it as part of England 's statute law.
The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. At the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo - Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus. Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings propounded by the Stuart monarchs. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles.
The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the American Constitution in 1787, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times -- the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot ''.
In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, held by the British Library and the cathedrals of Lincoln and Salisbury. There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin, which was the convention for legal documents at that time. Each was sealed with the royal great seal (made of beeswax and resin sealing wax): very few of the seals have survived. Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered "clauses '' of Magna Carta, this is a modern system of numbering, introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759; the original charter formed a single, long unbroken text. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta.
Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill - defined and uncertain. John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle of vis et voluntas, or "force and will '', taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so.
John had lost most of his ancestral lands in France to King Philip II in 1204 and had struggled to regain them for many years, raising extensive taxes on the barons to accumulate money to fight a war which ended in expensive failure in 1214. Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines, John had to sue for peace and pay compensation. John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides. A triumph would have strengthened his position, but in the face of his defeat, within a few months after his return from France John found that rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule.
The rebels took an oath that they would "stand fast for the liberty of the church and the realm '', and demanded that the King confirm the Charter of Liberties that had been declared by King Henry I in the previous century, and which was perceived by the barons to protect their rights. The rebel leadership was unimpressive by the standards of the time, even disreputable, but were united by their hatred of John; Robert FitzWalter, later elected leader of the rebel barons, claimed publicly that John had attempted to rape his daughter, and was implicated in a plot to assassinate John in 1212.
John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring. Both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute. During the negotiations, the rebellious barons produced an initial document, which historians have termed "the Unknown Charter of Liberties '', which drew on Henry I 's Charter of Liberties for much of its language; seven articles from that document later appeared in the "Articles of the Barons '' and the subsequent charter.
It was John 's hope that the Pope would give him valuable legal and moral support, and accordingly John played for time; the King had declared himself to be a papal vassal in 1213 and correctly believed he could count on the Pope for help. John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict. In a further move to shore up his support, John took an oath to become a crusader, a move which gave him additional political protection under church law, even though many felt the promise was insincere.
Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction. They congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on London, Lincoln, and Exeter. John 's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful, but once the rebels held London, they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from the royalists. The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, but this was not attractive to the rebels. Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, had been working with the rebel barons on their demands, and after the suggestion of papal arbitration failed, John instructed Langton to organise peace talks.
John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water - meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage. Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the ' Articles of the Barons '. Stephen Langton 's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter ''. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued.
Although, as the historian David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory '', it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent. It focused on the rights of free men -- in particular the barons. However, the rights of serfs were included in articles 16, 20, and 28. Its style and content reflected Henry I 's Charter of Liberties, as well as a wider body of legal traditions, including the royal charters issued to towns, the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers.
Under what historians later labelled "clause 61 '', or the "security clause '', a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John 's future adherence to the charter. If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council, the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John 's castles and lands until, in their judgement, amends had been made. Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King, but once redress had been made for any breaches, the King would continue to rule as before. In one sense this was not unprecedented; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations. Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King. The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war, as it "was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications ''. The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter, but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive.
John and the rebel barons did not trust each other, and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord. The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels, chosen by the more extremist barons, and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised. Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction.
Clause 61 of Magna Carta contained a commitment from John that he would "seek to obtain nothing from anyone, in our own person or through someone else, whereby any of these grants or liberties may be revoked or diminished ''. Despite this, the King appealed to Pope Innocent for help in July, arguing that the charter compromised the Pope 's rights as John 's feudal lord. As part of the June peace deal, the barons were supposed to surrender London by 15 August, but this they refused to do. Meanwhile, instructions from the Pope arrived in August, written before the peace accord, with the result that papal commissioners excommunicated the rebel barons and suspended Langton from office in early September. Once aware of the charter, the Pope responded in detail: in a letter dated 24 August and arriving in late September, he declared the charter to be "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust '' since John had been "forced to accept '' it, and accordingly the charter was "null, and void of all validity for ever ''; under threat of excommunication, the King was not to observe the charter, nor the barons try to enforce it.
By then, violence had broken out between the two sides; less than three months after it had been agreed, John and the loyalist barons firmly repudiated the failed charter: the First Barons ' War erupted. The rebel barons concluded that peace with John was impossible, and turned to Philip II 's son, the future Louis VIII, for help, offering him the English throne. The war soon settled into a stalemate. The King became ill and died on the night of 18 October, leaving the nine - year - old Henry III as his heir.
The preamble to Magna Carta includes the names of the following 27 ecclesiastical and secular magnates who had counselled John to accept its terms. The names include some of the moderate reformers, notably Archbishop Stephen Langton, and some of John 's loyal supporters, such as William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke. They are listed here in the order in which they appear in the charter itself:
The names of the Twenty - Five Barons appointed under clause 61 to monitor John 's future conduct are not given in the charter itself, but do appear in four early sources, all seemingly based on a contemporary listing: a late 13th - century collection of law tracts and statutes, a Reading Abbey manuscript now in Lambeth Palace Library, and the Chronica Majora and Liber Additamentorum of Matthew Paris. The process of appointment is not known, but the names were drawn almost exclusively from among John 's more active opponents. They are listed here in the order in which they appear in the original sources:
In September 1215, the papal commissioners in England -- Subdeacon Pandulf, Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, and Simon, Abbot of Reading -- excommunicated the rebels, acting on instructions earlier received from Rome. A letter sent by the commissioners from Dover on 5 September to Archbishop Langton explicitly names nine senior rebel barons (all members of the Council of Twenty - Five), and six clerics numbered among the rebel ranks:
Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England. William knighted the boy, and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, then oversaw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October.
The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels. He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels. Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord. Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope 's vassal and ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom. As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome.
The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. John 's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country. Henry 's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavourable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons. The move was not successful, and opposition to Henry 's new government hardened.
In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements. In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis ' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry 's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade. This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry 's favour. Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May.
Meanwhile, support for Louis ' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost. He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry 's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year. The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion.
In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France. When the expected fleet did arrive in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich. Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations, and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217. The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit; it included a promise, however, that Louis ' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216. Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end.
A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217. The charter resembled that of 1216, although some additional clauses were added to protect the rights of the barons over their feudal subjects, and the restrictions on the Crown 's ability to levy taxation were watered down. There remained a range of disagreements about the management of the royal forests, which involved a special legal system that had resulted in a source of considerable royal revenue; complaints existed over both the implementation of these courts, and the geographic boundaries of the royal forests. A complementary charter, the Charter of the Forest, was created, pardoning existing forest offences, imposing new controls over the forest courts, and establishing a review of the forest boundaries. To distinguish the two charters, the term magna carta libertatum, "the great charter of liberties '', was used by the scribes to refer to the larger document, which in time became known simply as Magna Carta.
Magna Carta became increasingly embedded into English political life during Henry III 's minority. As the King grew older, his government slowly began to recover from the civil war, regaining control of the counties and beginning to raise revenue once again, taking care not to overstep the terms of the charters. Henry remained a minor and his government 's legal ability to make permanently binding decisions on his behalf was limited. In 1223, the tensions over the status of the charters became clear in the royal court, when Henry 's government attempted to reassert its rights over its properties and revenues in the counties, facing resistance from many communities that argued -- if sometimes incorrectly -- that the charters protected the new arrangements. This resistance resulted in an argument between Archbishop Langton and William Brewer over whether the King had any duty to fulfil the terms of the charters, given that he had been forced to agree to them. On this occasion, Henry gave oral assurances that he considered himself bound by the charters, enabling a royal inquiry into the situation in the counties to progress.
Two years later, the question of Henry 's commitment to the charters re-emerged, when Louis VIII of France invaded Henry 's remaining provinces in France, Poitou and Gascony. Henry 's army in Poitou was under - resourced, and the province quickly fell. It became clear that Gascony would also fall unless reinforcements were sent from England. In early 1225, a great council approved a tax of £ 40,000 to dispatch an army, which quickly retook Gascony. In exchange for agreeing to support Henry, the barons demanded that the King reissue Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest. The content was almost identical to the 1217 versions, but in the new versions, the King declared that the charters were issued of his own "spontaneous and free will '' and confirmed them with the royal seal, giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than the previous versions.
The barons anticipated that the King would act in accordance with these charters, subject to the law and moderated by the advice of the nobility. Uncertainty continued, and in 1227, when he was declared of age and able to rule independently, Henry announced that future charters had to be issued under his own seal. This brought into question the validity of the previous charters issued during his minority, and Henry actively threatened to overturn the Charter of the Forest unless the taxes promised in return for it were actually paid. In 1253, Henry confirmed the charters once again in exchange for taxation.
Henry placed a symbolic emphasis on rebuilding royal authority, but his rule was relatively circumscribed by Magna Carta. He generally acted within the terms of the charters, which prevented the Crown from taking extrajudicial action against the barons, including the fines and expropriations that had been common under his father, John. The charters did not address the sensitive issues of the appointment of royal advisers and the distribution of patronage, and they lacked any means of enforcement if the King chose to ignore them. The inconsistency with which he applied the charters over the course of his rule alienated many barons, even those within his own faction.
Despite the various charters, the provision of royal justice was inconsistent and driven by the needs of immediate politics: sometimes action would be taken to address a legitimate baronial complaint, while on other occasions the problem would simply be ignored. The royal courts, which toured the country to provide justice at the local level, typically for lesser barons and the gentry claiming grievances against major lords, had little power, allowing the major barons to dominate the local justice system. Henry 's rule became lax and careless, resulting in a reduction in royal authority in the provinces and, ultimately, the collapse of his authority at court.
In 1258, a group of barons seized power from Henry in a coup d'état, citing the need to strictly enforce Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest, creating a new baronial - led government to advance reform through the Provisions of Oxford. The barons were not militarily powerful enough to win a decisive victory, and instead appealed to Louis IX of France in 1263 -- 1264 to arbitrate on their proposed reforms. The reformist barons argued their case based on Magna Carta, suggesting that it was inviolable under English law and that the King had broken its terms.
Louis came down firmly in favour of Henry, but the French arbitration failed to achieve peace as the rebellious barons refused to accept the verdict. England slipped back into the Second Barons ' War, which was won by Henry 's son, Prince Edward. Edward also invoked Magna Carta in advancing his cause, arguing that the reformers had taken matters too far and were themselves acting against Magna Carta. In a conciliatory gesture after the barons had been defeated, in 1267 Henry issued the Statute of Marlborough, which included a fresh commitment to observe the terms of Magna Carta.
The following 65 individuals were witnesses to the 1225 issue of Magna Carta, named in the order in which they appear in the charter itself:
King Edward I reissued the Charters of 1225 in 1297 in return for a new tax. It is this version which remains in statute today, although with most articles now repealed.
The Confirmatio Cartarum (Confirmation of Charters) was issued in Norman French by Edward I in 1297. Edward, needing money, had taxed the nobility, and they had armed themselves against him, forcing Edward to issue his confirmation of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter to avoid civil war. The nobles had sought to add another document, the De Tallagio, to Magna Carta. Edward I 's government was not prepared to concede this, they agreed to the issuing of the Confirmatio, confirming the previous charters and confirming the principle that taxation should be by consent, although the precise manner of that consent was not laid down.
A passage mandates that copies shall be distributed in "cathedral churches throughout our realm, there to remain, and shall be read before the people two times by the year '', hence the permanent installation of a copy in Salisbury Cathedral. In the Confirmation 's second article, it is confirmed that
if any judgement be given from henceforth contrary to the points of the charters aforesaid by the justices, or by any other our ministers that hold plea before them against the points of the charters, it shall be undone, and holden for nought.
With the reconfirmation of the Charters in 1300, an additional document was granted, the Articuli super Cartas (The Articles upon the Charters). It was composed of 17 articles and sought in part to deal with the problem of enforcing the Charters. Magna Carta and the Forest Charter were to be issued to the sheriff of each county, and should be read four times a year at the meetings of the county courts. Each county should have a committee of three men who could hear complaints about violations of the Charters.
Pope Clement V continued the papal policy of supporting monarchs (who ruled by divine grace) against any claims in Magna Carta which challenged the King 's rights, and annulled the Confirmatio Cartarum in 1305. Edward I interpreted Clement V 's papal bull annulling the Confirmatio Cartarum as effectively applying to the Articuli super Cartas, although the latter was not specifically mentioned. In 1306 Edward I took the opportunity given by the Pope 's backing to reassert forest law over large areas which had been "disafforested ''. Both Edward and the Pope were accused by some contemporary chroniclers of "perjury '', and it was suggested by Robert McNair Scott that Robert the Bruce refused to make peace with Edward I 's son, Edward II, in 1312 with the justification: "How shall the king of England keep faith with me, since he does not observe the sworn promises made to his liege men... ''
The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period. For example, in 1226, the knights of Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts, "contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king ''. In practice, cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter, but it was possible to bring a case against the King 's officers, such as his sheriffs, using the argument that the King 's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters.
In addition, medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower, debt collection, and keeping rivers free for navigation. Even in the 13th century, some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases, either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant, or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation. By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used.
During the reign of King Edward III six measures, later known as the Six Statutes, were passed between 1331 and 1369. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular the third statute, in 1354, redefined clause 29, with "free man '' becoming "no man, of whatever estate or condition he may be '', and introduced the phrase "due process of law '' for "lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land ''.
Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke, and possibly as many as 45 times. Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter, and, as in the previous century, parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch. The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King Henry VI.
By the mid-15th century, Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life, as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I 's reign. The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased.
During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons ' War shifted. Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent Wars of the Roses, followed by Henry VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy.
Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th - century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy '', showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons ''. Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect.
The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English - language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527. Thomas Berthelet, Pynson 's successor as the royal printer during 1530 -- 1547, printed an edition of the text along with other "ancient statutes '' in 1531 and 1540. In 1534, George Ferrers published the first unabridged English - language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses.
At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England. This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws, temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066, which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles. Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect -- many refer to it as a "myth '' -- it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time.
The antiquarian William Lambarde, for example, published what he believed were the Anglo - Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th - century English Parliament back to this period, albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned. Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th - century jury system and judicial processes. Antiquarians Robert Beale, James Morice, and Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government. Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall, faced sanctions.
In the early 17th century, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy. James I and Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy.
Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long - standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties ''.
Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text -- the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 -- Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly. His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing '' the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically '', and taking a "very selective '' approach to his analysis. More sympathetically, J.C. Holt noted that the history of the charters had already become "distorted '' by the time Coke was carrying out his work.
In 1621, a bill was presented to Parliament to renew Magna Carta; although this bill failed, lawyer John Selden argued during Darnell 's Case in 1627 that the right of habeas corpus was backed by Magna Carta. Coke supported the Petition of Right in 1628, which cited Magna Carta in its preamble, attempting to extend the provisions, and to make them binding on the judiciary. The monarchy responded by arguing that the historical legal situation was much less clear - cut than was being claimed, restricted the activities of antiquarians, arrested Coke for treason, and suppressed his proposed book on Magna Carta. Charles initially did not agree to the Petition of Right, and refused to confirm Magna Carta in any way that would reduce his independence as King.
England descended into civil war in the 1640s, resulting in Charles I 's execution in 1649. Under the republic that followed, some questioned whether Magna Carta, an agreement with a monarch, was still relevant. An anti-Cromwellian pamphlet published in 1660, The English devil, said that the nation had been "compelled to submit to this Tyrant Nol or be cut off by him; nothing but a word and a blow, his Will was his Law; tell him of Magna Carta, he would lay his hand on his sword and cry Magna Farta ''. In a 2005 speech the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Lord Woolf, repeated the claim that Cromwell had referred to Magna Carta as "Magna Farta ''.
The radical groups that flourished during this period held differing opinions of Magna Carta. The Levellers rejected history and law as presented by their contemporaries, holding instead to an "anti-Normanism '' viewpoint. John Lilburne, for example, argued that Magna Carta contained only some of the freedoms that had supposedly existed under the Anglo - Saxons before being crushed by the Norman yoke. The Leveller Richard Overton described the charter as "a beggarly thing containing many marks of intolerable bondage ''. Both saw Magna Carta as a useful declaration of liberties that could be used against governments they disagreed with. Gerrard Winstanley, the leader of the more extreme Diggers, stated "the best lawes that England hath, (viz., the Magna Carta) were got by our Forefathers importunate petitioning unto the kings that still were their Task - masters; and yet these best laws are yoaks and manicles, tying one sort of people to be slaves to another; Clergy and Gentry have got their freedom, but the common people still are, and have been left servants to work for them. ''
The first attempt at a proper historiography was undertaken by Robert Brady, who refuted the supposed antiquity of Parliament and belief in the immutable continuity of the law. Brady realised that the liberties of the Charter were limited and argued that the liberties were the grant of the King. By putting Magna Carta in historical context, he cast doubt on its contemporary political relevance; his historical understanding did not survive the Glorious Revolution, which, according to the historian J.G.A. Pocock, "marked a setback for the course of English historiography. ''
According to the Whig interpretation of history, the Glorious Revolution was an example of the reclaiming of ancient liberties. Reinforced with Lockean concepts, the Whigs believed England 's constitution to be a social contract, based on documents such as Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights. The English Liberties (1680, in later versions often British Liberties) by the Whig propagandist Henry Care (d. 1688) was a cheap polemical book that was influential and much - reprinted, in the American colonies as well as Britain, and made Magna Carta central to the history and the contemporary legitimacy of its subject.
Ideas about the nature of law in general were beginning to change. In 1716, the Septennial Act was passed, which had a number of consequences. First, it showed that Parliament no longer considered its previous statutes unassailable, as it provided for a maximum parliamentary term of seven years, whereas the Triennial Act (1694) (enacted less than a quarter of a century previously) had provided for a maximum term of three years.
It also greatly extended the powers of Parliament. Under this new constitution, monarchical absolutism was replaced by parliamentary supremacy. It was quickly realised that Magna Carta stood in the same relation to the King - in - Parliament as it had to the King without Parliament. This supremacy would be challenged by the likes of Granville Sharp. Sharp regarded Magna Carta as a fundamental part of the constitution, and maintained that it would be treason to repeal any part of it. He also held that the Charter prohibited slavery.
Sir William Blackstone published a critical edition of the 1215 Charter in 1759, and gave it the numbering system still used today. In 1763, Member of Parliament John Wilkes was arrested for writing an inflammatory pamphlet, No. 45, 23 April 1763; he cited Magna Carta continually. Lord Camden denounced the treatment of Wilkes as a contravention of Magna Carta. Thomas Paine, in his Rights of Man, would disregard Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights on the grounds that they were not a written constitution devised by elected representatives.
When English colonists left for the New World, they brought royal charters that established the colonies. The Massachusetts Bay Company charter, for example, stated that the colonists would "have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects. '' The Virginia Charter of 1606, which was largely drafted by Sir Edward Coke, stated that the colonists would have the same "liberties, franchises and immunities '' as people born in England. The Massachusetts Body of Liberties contained similarities to clause 29 of Magna Carta; when drafting it, the Massachusetts General Court viewed Magna Carta as the chief embodiment of English common law. The other colonies would follow their example. In 1638, Maryland sought to recognise Magna Carta as part of the law of the province, but the request was denied by Charles I.
In 1687, William Penn published The Excellent Privilege of Liberty and Property: being the birth - right of the Free - Born Subjects of England, which contained the first copy of Magna Carta printed on American soil. Penn 's comments reflected Coke 's, indicating a belief that Magna Carta was a fundamental law. The colonists drew on English law books, leading them to an anachronistic interpretation of Magna Carta, believing that it guaranteed trial by jury and habeas corpus.
The development of parliamentary supremacy in the British Isles did not constitutionally affect the Thirteen Colonies, which retained an adherence to English common law, but it directly affected the relationship between Britain and the colonies. When American colonists fought against Britain, they were fighting not so much for new freedom, but to preserve liberties and rights that they believed to be enshrined in Magna Carta.
In the late 18th century, the United States Constitution became the supreme law of the land, recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law. The Constitution 's Fifth Amendment guarantees that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law '', a phrase that was derived from Magna Carta. In addition, the Constitution included a similar writ in the Suspension Clause, Article 1, Section 9: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. ''
Each of these proclaim that no person may be imprisoned or detained without evidence that he or she committed a crime. The Ninth Amendment states that "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. '' The writers of the U.S. Constitution wished to ensure that the rights they already held, such as those that they believed were provided by Magna Carta, would be preserved unless explicitly curtailed.
The Supreme Court of the United States has explicitly referenced Lord Coke 's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the Sixth Amendment 's right to a speedy trial.
Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. The historian William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high - water mark of this view. Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John.
This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late - Victorian jurist and historian Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots. In 1904, Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta '', which undermined the traditionally accepted view of Magna Carta. Historians such as Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented '' the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights.
This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930 Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history, 1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Carta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People) ''.
In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Carta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Carta to challenge perceived economic injustices. The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta. The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Carta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Carta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the American Bar Association erected the Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede. The prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Carta in 1956 as "the greatest constitutional document of all times -- the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot ''.
Radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed, but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed. The repeal of clause 36 in 1829, by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1), was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. Over the next 140 years, nearly the whole of Magna Carta (1297) as statute was repealed, leaving just clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force (in England and Wales) after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in modern Northern Ireland and also in the modern Republic of Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872.
Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta. The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand, Canada (except Quebec), and formerly the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws, and the Charter 's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the British Empire.
Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society, being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions. Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties, for example, led to Tony Benn 's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed ''. Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from St. Paul 's Churchyard by the City of London. In his judgment the Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and the two other surviving clauses actually concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London.
Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration '' and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries. The historian W.L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said ''.
It also remains a topic of great interest to historians; Natalie Fryde characterised the charter as "one of the holiest of cows in English medieval history '', with the debates over its interpretation and meaning unlikely to end. In many ways still a "sacred text '', Magna Carta is generally considered part of the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom; in a 2005 speech, the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Lord Woolf, described it as the "first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status ''.
The document also continues to be honoured in the United States as an antecedent of the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1976, the UK lent one of four surviving originals of the 1215 Magna Carta to the United States for their bicentennial celebrations and also donated an ornate display case for it. The original was returned after one year, but a replica and the case are still on display in the United States Capitol Crypt in Washington, D.C.
The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory events. The British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript in February 2015 for a special exhibition. British artist Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork, Magna Carta (An Embroidery), which was shown at the British Library between May and July 2015. The artwork is a copy of an earlier version of this Wikipedia page (as it appeared on the document 's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), hand - embroidered by over 200 people.
On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries.
The copy held by Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015. A new visitor centre at Lincoln Castle will also be opened for the anniversary. The Royal Mint released two commemorative two - pound coins.
In 2014, Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons ' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214.
Numerous copies, known as exemplifications, were made of the various charters, and many of them still survive. The documents were written in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin in clear handwriting, using quill pens on sheets of parchment made from sheep skin, approximately 15 by 20 inches (380 by 510 mm) across. They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel, equipped with a special seal press, using beeswax and resin. There were no signatures on the charter of 1215, and the barons present did not attach their own seals to it. The charters were not numbered or divided into paragraphs or separate clauses at the time; the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir William Blackstone in 1759.
At least 13 original copies of the 1215 charter were issued by the royal chancery at the time, seven in the first tranche distributed on 24 June and another six later; they were sent to county sheriffs and bishops, who would probably have been charged for the privilege. Variations would have existed between each of these copies and there was probably no single "master copy ''. Of these documents, only four survive, all held in the UK -- two in the British Library, one by Lincoln Cathedral, and one in Salisbury Cathedral. Each of these versions is slightly different in size and text, and each is considered by historians to be equally authoritative.
The two 1215 charters held by the British Library, known as Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106 and Cotton Charter XIII. 31a, were acquired by the antiquarian Sir Robert Cotton in the 17th century. One of these was originally found by Humphrey Wyems, a London lawyer, who may have discovered it in a tailor 's shop. The other was found in Dover Castle in 1630 by Sir Edward Dering. The Dering charter is usually identified as the copy originally sent to the Cinque Ports in 1215. (In 2015 it was announced that David Carpenter had found Dering 's copy to be identical to a 1290s transcription made from Canterbury Cathedral 's 1215 copy and so he suggests that the Dering copy 's destination was the Cathedral rather than the Cinque Ports.) This copy was damaged in the Cotton library fire of 1731, when its seal was badly melted. The parchment was somewhat shrivelled but otherwise relatively unscathed, and an engraved facsimile of the charter was made by John Pine in 1733. In the 1830s, however, an ill - judged and bungled attempt at cleaning and conservation rendered the manuscript largely illegible to the naked eye. This is, nonetheless, the only surviving 1215 copy still to have its great seal attached.
Lincoln Cathedral 's original copy of the 1215 charter has been held by the county since 1215; it was displayed in the Common Chamber in the cathedral before being moved to another building in 1846. Between 1939 and 1940 the copy was displayed in the British Pavilion at the 1939 World Fair in New York City, and at the Library of Congress. When the Second World War broke out, Winston Churchill wanted to gift the charter to the American people, hoping that this would encourage the United States, then neutral, to enter the war against the Axis powers, but the cathedral was unwilling and the plans were dropped. After December 1941, the copy was stored in Fort Knox, Kentucky for safety, before being put on display again in 1944 and returned to Lincoln Cathedral in early 1946.
The copy was put on display in 1976 as part of the cathedral 's medieval library. It was subsequently displayed in San Francisco, and was taken out of display for a time to undergo conservation in preparation for another visit to the United States, where it was exhibited in 2007 at the Contemporary Art Center of Virginia and the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia. The document returned to New York to be displayed at the Fraunces Tavern Museum during 2009.
The fourth copy, owned by Salisbury Cathedral, was first given in 1215 to its predecessor, Old Sarum Cathedral. Rediscovered by the cathedral in 1812, it has remained in Salisbury throughout its history, except when being taken off - site for restoration work. It is possibly the best preserved of the four, although small pin holes can be seen in the parchment from where it was once pinned up. The handwriting on this version is different from that of the other three, suggesting that it was not written by a royal scribe but rather by a member of the cathedral staff, who then had it exemplified by the royal court.
Other early versions of the charters survive today. Only one exemplification of the 1216 charter survives, held in Durham Cathedral. Four copies of the 1217 charter exist; three of these are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford and one by Hereford Cathedral. Hereford 's copy is occasionally displayed alongside the Mappa Mundi in the cathedral 's chained library and has survived along with a small document called the Articuli super Cartas that was sent along with the charter, telling the sheriff of the county how to observe the conditions outlined in the document. One of the Bodleian 's copies was displayed at San Francisco 's California Palace of the Legion of Honor in 2011.
Four exemplifications of the 1225 charter survive: the British Library holds one, which was preserved at Lacock Abbey until 1945; Durham Cathedral also holds a copy, with the Bodleian Library holding a third. The fourth copy of the 1225 exemplification was held by the museum of the Public Record Office and is now held by The National Archives. The Society of Antiquaries also holds a draft of the 1215 charter (discovered in 2013 in a late 13th - century register from Peterborough Abbey), a copy of the 1225 third re-issue (within an early 14th - century collection of statutes) and a roll copy of the 1225 reissue.
Only two exemplifications of Magna Carta are held outside England, both from 1297. One of these was purchased in 1952 by the Australian Government for £ 12,500 from King 's School, Bruton, England. This copy is now on display in the Members ' Hall of Parliament House, Canberra. The second was originally held by the Brudenell family, earls of Cardigan, before they sold it in 1984 to the Perot Foundation in the United States, which in 2007 sold it to U.S. businessman David Rubenstein for US $21.3 million. Rubenstein commented "I have always believed that this was an important document to our country, even though it was n't drafted in our country. I think it was the basis for the Declaration of Independence and the basis for the Constitution ''. This exemplification is now on permanent loan to the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Only two other 1297 exemplifications survive, one of which is held in the UK 's National Archives.
Seven copies of the 1300 exemplification by Edward I survive, in Faversham, Oriel College, Oxford, the Bodleian Library, Durham Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, the City of London (held in the archives at the London Guildhall) and Sandwich (held in the Kent County Council archives). The Sandwich copy was rediscovered in early 2015 in a Victorian scrapbook in the town archives of Sandwich, Kent, one of the Cinque Ports. In the case of the Sandwich and Oriel College exemplifications, the copies of the Charter of the Forest originally issued with them also survive.
Most of the 1215 charter and later versions sought to govern the feudal rights of the Crown over the barons. Under the Angevin kings, and in particular during John 's reign, the rights of the King had frequently been used inconsistently, often in an attempt to maximise the royal income from the barons. Feudal relief was one way that a king could demand money, and clauses 2 and 3 fixed the fees payable when an heir inherited an estate or when a minor came of age and took possession of his lands. Scutage was a form of medieval taxation; all knights and nobles owed military service to the Crown in return for their lands, which theoretically belonged to the King, but many preferred to avoid this service and offer money instead; the Crown often used the cash to pay for mercenaries. The rate of scutage that should be payable, and the circumstances under which it was appropriate for the King to demand it, was uncertain and controversial; clauses 12 and 14 addressed the management of the process.
The English judicial system had altered considerably over the previous century, with the royal judges playing a larger role in delivering justice across the country. John had used his royal discretion to extort large sums of money from the barons, effectively taking payment to offer justice in particular cases, and the role of the Crown in delivering justice had become politically sensitive among the barons. Clauses 39 and 40 demanded due process be applied in the royal justice system, while clause 45 required that the King appoint knowledgeable royal officials to the relevant roles. Although these clauses did not have any special significance in the original charter, this part of Magna Carta became singled out as particularly important in later centuries. In the United States, for example, the Supreme Court of California interpreted clause 45 in 1974 as establishing a requirement in common law that a defendant faced with the potential of incarceration be entitled to a trial overseen by a legally trained judge.
Royal forests were economically important in medieval England and were both protected and exploited by the Crown, supplying the King with hunting grounds, raw materials, and money. They were subject to special royal jurisdiction and the resulting forest law was, according to the historian Richard Huscroft, "harsh and arbitrary, a matter purely for the King 's will ''. The size of the forests had expanded under the Angevin kings, an unpopular development.
The 1215 charter had several clauses relating to the royal forests; clauses 47 and 48 promised to deforest the lands added to the forests under John and investigate the use of royal rights in this area, but notably did not address the forestation of the previous kings, while clause 53 promised some form of redress for those affected by the recent changes, and clause 44 promised some relief from the operation of the forest courts. Neither Magna Carta nor the subsequent Charter of the Forest proved entirely satisfactory as a way of managing the political tensions arising in the operation of the royal forests.
Some of the clauses addressed wider economic issues. The concerns of the barons over the treatment of their debts to Jewish moneylenders, who occupied a special position in medieval England and were by tradition under the King 's protection, were addressed by clauses 10 and 11. The charter concluded this section with the phrase "debts owing to other than Jews shall be dealt with likewise '', so it is debatable to what extent the Jews were being singled out by these clauses. Some issues were relatively specific, such as clause 33 which ordered the removal of all fishing weirs -- an important and growing source of revenue at the time -- from England 's rivers.
The role of the English Church had been a matter for great debate in the years prior to the 1215 charter. The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories. From the 1040s onwards successive popes had emphasised the importance of the church being governed more effectively from Rome, and had established an independent judicial system and hierarchical chain of authority. After the 1140s, these principles had been largely accepted within the English church, even if accompanied by an element of concern about centralising authority in Rome.
These changes brought the customary rights of lay rulers such as John over ecclesiastical appointments into question. As described above, John had come to a compromise with Pope Innocent III in exchange for his political support for the King, and clause 1 of Magna Carta prominently displayed this arrangement, promising the freedoms and liberties of the church. The importance of this clause may also reflect the role of Archbishop Langton in the negotiations: Langton had taken a strong line on this issue during his career.
Only three clauses of Magna Carta still remain on statute in England and Wales. These clauses concern 1) the freedom of the English Church, 2) the "ancient liberties '' of the City of London (clause 13 in the 1215 charter, clause 9 in the 1297 statute), and 3) a right to due legal process (clauses 39 and 40 in the 1215 charter, clause 29 in the 1297 statute). In detail, these clauses (using the numbering system from the 1297 statute) state that:
Government Magna Carta websites
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who win golden bat in icc champions trophy 2017 | 2017 ICC Champions Trophy final - wikipedia
The final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy was played on 18 June 2017 between Pakistan and India at The Oval in London, to determine the winner of the eighth edition of the ICC Champions Trophy. Pakistan qualified for the final by defeating the hosts England convincingly by 8 wickets in the first semi-final at Cardiff in Wales on 14 June, and reached their maiden Champions Trophy final. India, the defending champions and favourites, came into the final by defeating Bangladesh comfortably by 9 wickets in the second semi-final at Birmingham on 15 June, to reach their fourth Champions Trophy final, a record.
In an unexpected performance, Pakistan beat India comfortably to win their maiden ICC Champions Trophy, outclassing them across all departments to win by 180 runs, which was the largest margin of victory in the final of an ICC ODI tournament. Pakistan, who were massive underdogs entering as the lowest - ranked team in the competition, became the seventh nation to win the Champions Trophy, and it was their first ICC ODI tournament title since 1992. Fakhar Zaman of Pakistan received the Man of the Match award for scoring a sublime 114. Shikhar Dhawan of India received the Golden Bat award for scoring 338 runs in the tournament while Hasan Ali of Pakistan received the Golden Ball award for taking 13 wickets; he was also adjudged the Man of the Series for his outstanding contribution towards Pakistan 's first ICC tournament title since 2009.
The traditional rivalry between both sides set the stage for a high - voltage clash. The match is estimated to have been watched by 400 million viewers, becoming the third most - watched game in cricketing history.
Pakistan and India share a historical rivalry in cricket. Prior to this match, the two sides had played 128 times against each other in ODIs, where Pakistan won 72 matches, India won 52 matches and four matches ended with no result. While Pakistan have had the upper hand bilaterally, India enjoyed an edge in global ICC tournaments where they won 13 times against Pakistan, and Pakistan won twice against India. The two sides met only twice before in the finals of global tournaments: the non-ICC World Championship of Cricket Final in 1985, and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 Final.
Prior to this match, the teams had met four times in the Champions Trophy and had two victories each. Pakistan 's last win was in 2009; since then, India won seven games against Pakistan across ICC tournaments consecutively. Their most recent clash was on 4 June 2017, during the group stages of the ongoing Champions Trophy where India won by 124 runs (D / L method). Much of the pre-match analysis envisioned a strong contest between India 's batting lineup and Pakistan 's bowling side, both of which were considered the strengths of their respective teams and remained formidable in this tournament.
Ranked eighth in the ICC ODI Championship at the start of the tournament, Pakistan started poorly, before improving progressively in each game. They lost to India in the first game by 124 runs in a sloppy display, but then defeated top - ranked South Africa by 19 runs by virtue of Duckworth -- Lewis method in their next game. They gained momentum and beat Sri Lanka by 3 wickets in their final group game, a thrilling must - win encounter, and qualified for the semi-finals placed second in Group B, behind India on net run rate. In the semi-final, England with their undefeated run and home advantage were tipped firm favourites. However, they were outplayed by Pakistan with both bat and ball, the latter winning comprehensively by 8 wickets with almost 13 overs to spare. This paved the road for Pakistan 's first qualification to a Champions Trophy final.
India came into the tournament as defending champions and favourites along with England, and were ranked third in the ICC ODI Championship. They beat arch - rivals Pakistan convincingly in their first group face - off, winning by 124 runs. They lost their second match to Sri Lanka by 7 wickets, despite posting a total of 321, in what turned out to be the highest successful run - chase in Champions Trophy history. India won their final group game, a must - win encounter against South Africa, comfortably by 8 wickets. They finished on top of Group B with two wins and a net run rate ahead of Pakistan. In the semi-final, India faced Bangladesh, and put in yet another dominating display, winning comfortably by 9 wickets and sealing a final with Pakistan.
Marais Erasmus of South Africa and Richard Kettleborough of England were named as the on - field umpires for the final. They had both previously officiated in the semi-final matches of the tournament; Erasmus, in the England -- Pakistan match, and Kettleborough, in the Bangladesh -- India match. Rod Tucker of Australia and Kumar Dharmasena of Sri Lanka, who also officiated in the semi-finals as on - field umpires, were appointed as the TV umpire and reserve umpire respectively. David Boon of Australia was the match referee, completing the five - member match official team.
India remained unchanged from the side that played the semi-final, while Pakistan brought back their leading pacer Mohammad Amir, who was ruled out of the semi-final against England due to back spasm and replaced Rumman Raees. Indian captain Virat Kohli won the toss and elected his side to field first, sending Pakistan in to bat.
The Pakistani opening pair, Azhar Ali and Fakhar Zaman, put on 128 runs before Ali was run out for 59 runs off the last ball of the 22nd over. Zaman, who seemed to have been out for 3 runs, only for a no ball by Jasprit Bumrah to save him, continued on his way to a 92 - ball century -- his first at ODI level -- eventually falling to Hardik Pandya on the first ball of the 33rd over. He made 114 runs from 106 balls, which included twelve fours and three sixes. After his dismissal, the other Pakistani batsmen kept the score ticking over. Mohammad Hafeez plundered 57 not out from 37 balls, including four fours and three sixes. Pakistan eventually finished on 338 / 4 -- their second - highest ODI score against India -- after 50 overs. Bhuvneshwar Kumar was the pick of the Indian bowlers, finishing with 1 / 44 from 10 overs (including two maidens).
India started poorly, losing two early wickets to Mohammad Amir. Off the third ball of the game, Rohit Sharma was out leg before wicket for a three - ball duck. In the third over, Virat Kohli was dropped in the slips for just five runs but caught the next ball by Shadab Khan at point. Their poor form continued until, in the middle of the innings, Hardik Pandya and Ravindra Jadeja managed a rapid 80 - run partnership prior to Pandya being run - out. However this was India 's only batting highlight as the tail was quickly dismissed and India were all out after 30.3 overs, not even managing half of Pakistan 's total.
Fall of wickets: 1 -- 128 (Azhar Ali, 22.6 ov), 2 -- 200 (Fakhar Zaman, 33.1 ov), 3 -- 247 (Shoaib Malik, 39.4 ov), 4 -- 267 (Babar Azam, 42.3 ov)
Fall of wickets: 1 -- 0 (Sharma, 0.3 ov), 2 -- 6 (Kohli, 2.4 ov), 3 -- 33 (Dhawan, 8.6 ov), 4 -- 54 (Yuvraj Singh, 12.6 ov), 5 -- 54 (Dhoni, 13.3 ov), 6 -- 72 (Jadhav, 16.6 ov), 7 -- 152 (Pandya, 26.3 ov), 8 -- 156 (Jadeja, 27.3 ov), 9 -- 156 (Ashwin, 28.1 ov), 10 -- 158 (Bumrah, 30.3 ov)
Match officials
Key
The Pakistani team were greeted with a heroic welcome by fans upon their return home. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif posted a congratulatory message on social media, and announced a cash reward of Rs 1 crore (US $95,000) for each player. A ceremony was held for the players at the Prime Minister 's Secretariat on 4 July. The property developer Bahria Town presented a sum of Rs 10 lakh (US $9,500) for every player, and awarded a one kanal plot to Fakhar Zaman for his performance.
In India, the loss was met with agitation by several fans. However, many Indians also commended Pakistan 's performance and expressed solidarity with the Indian team irrespective of the result. In Kashmir, widespread pro-Pakistan celebrations were reported amongst locals. Twenty - one Indian men who were allegedly celebrating Pakistan 's victory were charged under India 's sedition laws, and remanded in custody. The charges were dropped a few days later after the complainants accused the police of filing a "false case ''.
Two days after the match, India coach Anil Kumble stepped down from his position, amid reports of a rift between him and some of the players including captain Virat Kohli.
Pakistan 's ICC team ranking for ODIs improved from eighth to sixth position, jumping ahead of Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. In the bowlers ' rankings, Hasan Ali climbed 12 spots to reach seventh, while Babar Azam rose by three ranks to fifth on the batting rankings.
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who said that the cell is the basic unit of life | Cell theory - wikipedia
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life - forms.
The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D'Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification. Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620 In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.
Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.
Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ' observations ' in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells ''. This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ' a small room ' like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae '' were alive. His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe "seeds '' that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these "animalcules, '' which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria. Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water '' in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants. This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating "the cell is the fundamental element of organization '', Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells '', meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden. While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside. However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
Schleiden 's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula. This translated to:
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells
However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit. Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly - like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it was n't until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50 % in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells. The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad - hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane. Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K and Cl, but apparently not to Na, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K, H, and Cl as well as the impermeability to Na, Ca, and Mg. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer can not stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form -- the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water -- and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph, "The Permeability of Living Cells '', which rejects the bulk phase theories.
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically - driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact -- there are, however, a few dissenters. (citation needed)
In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium / potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.
In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association - induction hypothesis of living cells.
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100 -- 150 different cell types), compared with 10 -- 20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.
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what was the importance of the twelfth amendment which was ratified in 1804 | Twelfth Amendment to the United states Constitution - wikipedia
The Twelfth Amendment (Amendment XII) to the United States Constitution provides the procedure for electing the President and Vice President. It replaced the procedure provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, by which the Electoral College originally functioned. Problems with the original procedure arose in the elections of 1796 and 1800. The Twelfth Amendment refined the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected by the Electoral College. The amendment was proposed by the Congress on December 9, 1803, and was ratified by the requisite three - fourths of state legislatures on June 15, 1804.
The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;
The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two - thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two - thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
Under the original procedure for the Electoral College, as provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, each elector could vote for two persons. The two people chosen by the elector could not both inhabit the same state as that elector. This prohibition was designed to keep electors from voting for two "favorite sons '' of their respective states. The person receiving the greatest number of votes, provided that number equaled a majority of the electors, was elected President.
If there were more than one individual who received the same number of votes, and such number equaled a majority of the electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of them to be President. If no individual had a majority, then the House of Representatives would choose from the five individuals with the greatest number of electoral votes. In either case, a majority of state delegations in the House was necessary for a candidate to be chosen to be President.
Selecting the Vice President was a simpler process. Whichever candidate received the second greatest number of votes became Vice President. The Vice President, unlike the President, was not required to receive votes from a majority of the electors. In the event of a tie for second place, the Senate would choose who would be Vice President from those tied, with each Senator casting one vote. It was not specified in the Constitution whether the sitting Vice President could cast a tie - breaking vote for Vice President under the original formula.
The original electoral system worked adequately for the first two presidential elections because on both occasions George Washington was the unanimous choice of the electors for President - the only real contest was the election for Vice President for which an overall majority was not required. George Washington 's decision not to seek a third term and the emergence of partisan political activity exposed problems with the original procedure.
In the 1796 election, John Adams, the Federalist Party presidential candidate, received a majority of the electoral votes. However, the Federalist electors scattered their second votes, resulting in the Democratic - Republican Party presidential candidate, Thomas Jefferson, receiving the second highest number of electoral votes and thus being elected Vice President. It soon became apparent that having a Vice President and a President unwilling to work together effectively was going to be a more significant problem than was originally realized. The most significant problem was that with the French Revolutionary Wars raging in Europe, it was immediately apparent that President Adams was going to pursue a pro-British foreign policy, much to the disgust of the strongly pro-French Vice President Jefferson.
Both major parties decided to attempt an extra-constitutional remedy to the situation, specifically, by having the President and Vice President elected on a party ticket. This solution significantly enhanced the likelihood of having political allies serving as President and Vice President, but raised a different flaw in the arrangements.
On January 6, 1797, Federalist Representative William L. Smith of South Carolina responded to the 1796 result by presenting a resolution on the floor of the House of Representatives for an amendment to the Constitution requiring each elector to cast one vote for President and another for Vice President. However, no action was taken on his proposal, setting the stage for the deadlocked election of 1800.
The 1800 election exposed a defect in the original formula in that if each member of the Electoral College followed party tickets, there could be a tie between the two candidates from the most popular ticket. Both parties planned to prevent this by having one of their electors abstain from voting for the vice presidential candidate to ensure a clear result. Jefferson managed to secure a majority of pledged electors, but the margin in 1800 was so slim that there was little room for error if the Democratic - Republicans were to avoid repeating the Federalists ' miscues of 1796. Given the technical limitations of 18th century communications, Democratic - Republicans electors in all states were left to assume that an elector in another state was the one responsible for casting the one abstention necessary to ensure the election of unofficial Vice Presidential nominee Aaron Burr to that office. All Democratic - Republicans electors in each state were so reluctant to be seen that the one responsible for causing outgoing President Adams to be re-elected as Vice President that every Democratic - Republican elector cast a vote for both Jefferson and Burr, resulting in a tie.
The Federalist - controlled state delegations in the House of Representatives decided to give their votes to Aaron Burr for President. Their aim was to prevent Jefferson, who in addition to being pro-French was influential and rich in new visions, from becoming President at any cost. With help from Alexander Hamilton, the gridlock was finally broken on the thirty - sixth vote and Jefferson was elected President on February 17, 1801. The events in the House, combined with the increasing Democratic - Republican majorities in the House and Senate, prompted the Democratic - Republicans to call for a Constitutional amendment requiring separate votes for President and Vice President in the Electoral College. By doing this, the Democratic - Republicans could dash the Federalists ' hopes of having any impact on the Presidential election of 1804.
In March 1801, weeks after the election of 1800 was resolved, two amendments were proposed in the New York state legislature that would form the skeleton of the Twelfth Amendment. Governor John Jay submitted an amendment to the state legislature that would require a district election of electors in each state. Assemblyman Jedediah Peck submitted an amendment to adopt designations for the votes for President and Vice President. The two amendments were not considered until early 1802 because the state legislature took a break for the summer and winter. New York state senator DeWitt Clinton moved for the adoption of the amendment in January 1802. Shortly thereafter, Clinton won a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in bringing the designation amendment to Congress. The process continued in New York on February 15 when Representative Benjamin Walker of New York proposed the designation and district election amendments to the House. Debate on the amendments began in May. The Republicans wanted to decide on the amendment quickly, but the Federalists argued that the ideas needed more time than the current session allowed. Federalist Samuel W. Dana of Connecticut wanted to examine the necessity of a Vice President. The amendment ultimately failed in the New York State Senate, but DeWitt Clinton brought the amendment discussion to the House of Representatives.
Congress was ready to debate the presented amendment, but the Democratic - Republicans decided to wait for the 8th Congress. The 8th Congress would allow the Democratic - Republicans a better chance of meeting the two - third vote requirement for submitting a proposed Constitutional amendment.
On its first day, the 8th Congress considered the designation amendment. The first formulation of the amendment had the five highest electoral vote earners on the ballot in the House if no one candidate had a majority of the electoral votes. Republican John Clopton of Virginia, the largest state in the Union, argued that having five names on the list for a contingency election took the power from the people, so he proposed that there be only two names on the list. On October 20, the House appointed a seventeen - member committee (one Representative from each state) to fine - tune the amendment.
The original proposal starting in the New York state legislature would have, along with designation, put forward the idea of district election of electors that Treasury Secretary Gallatin had supported. Shortly after the committee was formed, Federalist Benjamin Huger attempted to add a provision regarding district elections to the proposed amendment, but the committee ignored him.
The committee then submitted an updated version of the designation amendment to the House on October 23 that changed the number of candidates in a contingency election from five to three and allowed the Senate to choose the Vice President if there were a tie in that race. Small Federalist states disliked the change from five to three, because it made it far less likely that a small - state candidate would make it to a contingency election. Huger and New York Federalist Gaylord Griswold argued that the Constitution was a compromise between large and small states and the method chosen by the Framers is supposed to check the influence of the larger states. Huger even asserted that the Constitution itself was not a union of people, but a union of large and small states in order to justify the original framework for electing the President. Designation, argued Griswold and Huger, would violate the spirit of the Constitution by taking away a check on the power of the large states.
Next up for the Federalists was Seth Hastings of Massachusetts, who submitted the argument that the designation amendment rendered the Vice Presidency useless and advocated for the elimination of the three - fifths clause. John C. Smith asked the inflammatory question of whether the proposed amendment was to help Jefferson get reelected. Speaker Nathaniel Macon called this inappropriate. After Matthew Lyon of Kentucky denounced any reference to the three - fifths clause as mere provocation, the House easily passed the resolution 88 - 39 on October 28.
By October 28, the Senate had already been discussing the designation amendment. Republican DeWitt Clinton expected that the Senate, with a 24 - 9 Republican majority would quickly passing the amendment. Federalist Jonathan Dayton proposed that the office of the Vice President should be eliminated and his colleague, Uriah Tracy, seconded it. On the other side, Wilson Cary Nicholas was simply worried that Congress would not submit the amendment in time for the states to ratify it before the 1804 election. Despite Nicholas ' concern, the Senate would not seriously deal with the amendment again until November 23.
Much as it had in the House, debate centered around the number of candidates in a contingency election and the philosophical underpinnings of the Constitution. Again, small Federalist states vehemently argued that three candidates gave too much power to large states to pick presidents. Senator Pierce Butler of South Carolina argued that the issues with the election of 1800 were unlikely to happen again and he would not advocate changing the Constitution simply to stop a Federalist Vice President. John Quincy Adams argued that the change from five to three gave an advantage to the people that violated the federative principle of the Constitution. Rather than have the office of the President balanced between the states and the people, Adams felt designation of President and Vice President would tip that scale in favor of the people.
Federalist Senators argued for retaining the original procedure for the Electoral College. Senator Samuel White of Delaware claimed that the original procedure had not been given "a fair experiment '' and criticized the proposed amendment for entrenching the two - party system that had taken over presidential elections.
In response, the Republicans appealed to democratic principles. Samuel Smith of Maryland argued that the presidency ought to be as closely accountable to the people as possible. As such, having three candidates in a contingency election is far better than having five, because it would otherwise be possible to have the fifth best candidate become President. Also, designation itself would drastically cut down the number of elections that would reach the House of Representatives, and the President is then much more likely to be the people 's choice. Another of Smith 's arguments was simply the election of 1800. William Cocke of Tennessee took a different approach when he argued that the entire small state argument of the Federalists was simply out of self - interest.
One last order of business for the amendment was to deal with the possibility that the House would fail to choose a President by March 4. It was the least controversial portion of the Twelfth Amendment and John Taylor proposed that the Vice President would take over as President in that peculiar occurrence, "as in case of the death or other Constitutional disability of the President. ''
It seemed clear all along that the Republican dominance would render this a no - contest and the Republicans were just waiting for all of their votes to be present, but the Federalists had one last defense. A marathon session of debate, lasting from 11 A.M. to 10 P.M., was the order of the day on December 2, 1803. Most notably, Uriah Tracy of Connecticut argued in a similar vein as Adams when he invoked the federative principle of the Constitution. Tracy claimed the original procedure was formulated to give the small states a chance to elect the Vice President, who would be a check on the President 's powers. In essence, the states balanced the power of the people. However, this only works if you make it partisan, as Georgia (for example) was a Republican small state.
The Twelfth Amendment was proposed by the 8th Congress on December 9, 1803, when it was approved by the House of Representatives by vote of 83 -- 42, having been previously passed by the Senate, 22 -- 10, on December 2. The amendment was officially submitted to the states on December 12, 1803, and was ratified by the legislatures of the following states:
The amendment was rejected by Delaware, on January 18, 1804, and by Connecticut, on May 10, 1804. In a September 25, 1804, circular letter to the governors of the states, Secretary of State Madison declared the amendment ratified by three - fourths of the states.
While the Twelfth Amendment did not change the composition of the Electoral College or the duties of the electors, it did change the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected. The new electoral process was first used for the 1804 election. Each presidential election since has been conducted under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment.
The Twelfth Amendment stipulates that each elector must cast distinct votes for President and Vice President, instead of two votes for President. Additionally, electors may not vote for presidential and vice-presidential candidates who both reside in the elector 's state -- at least one of them must be an inhabitant of another state.
If no candidate for President has a majority of the total votes, the House of Representatives, voting by states and with the same quorum requirements as under the original procedure, chooses the President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three highest receivers of electoral votes, compared to five under the original procedure.
The Twelfth Amendment requires a person to receive a majority of the electoral votes for Vice President for that person to be elected Vice President by the Electoral College. If no candidate for Vice President has a majority of the total votes, the Senate, with each Senator having one vote, chooses the Vice President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose between the candidates with the "two highest numbers '' of electoral votes. If multiple individuals are tied for second place, the Senate may consider all of them, in addition to the individual with the greatest number of votes. The Twelfth Amendment introduced a quorum requirement of two - thirds of the whole number of Senators for the conduct of balloting. Furthermore, the Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose a Vice President by way of the affirmative votes of "a majority of the whole number '' of Senators.
To prevent deadlocks from keeping the nation leaderless, the Twelfth Amendment provided that if the House did not choose a President before March 4 (then the first day of a Presidential term), the individual elected Vice President would "act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. '' The Twelfth Amendment did not state for how long the Vice President would act as President or if the House could still choose a President after March 4. Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment, adopted in 1933, supersedes that provision of the Twelfth Amendment by changing the date upon which a new presidential term commences to January 20, clarifying that the Vice President - elect would only "act as President '' if the House has not chosen a President by January 20, and permitting Congress to statutorily provide "who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected '' if there is no President - elect or Vice President - elect by January 20. It also clarifies that if there is no President - elect on January 20, whoever acts as President does so until a person "qualified '' to occupy the Presidency is elected to be President.
The Twelfth Amendment explicitly states the constitutional requirements as provided for the President also apply to being Vice President. It is unclear whether a two - term president could later serve as Vice President. Some argue that the Twenty - second Amendment and Twelfth Amendment both bar any two - term president from later serving as Vice President as well as from succeeding to the presidency from any point in the United States presidential line of succession. Others contend that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty - second Amendment concerns qualifications for election, and thus a former two - term president is still eligible to serve as Vice President. The applicability of this distinction has not been tested, as no former president has ever sought the vice presidency, and thus the courts have never been required to make a judgment regarding the matter. During Hillary Clinton 's 2016 candidacy, she said that she had considered naming Bill Clinton as her Vice President, but was advised it would be unconstitutional.
Starting with the election of 1804, each Presidential election has been conducted under the Twelfth Amendment. Only once since then has the House of Representatives chosen the President in a contingent election. It was necessary to do so when no candidate won an absolute majority (131 at the time) of electoral votes in the 1824 election: Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes, John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams) 84, William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 37. As the House could only consider the top three candidates, Clay was excluded. Crawford 's poor health following a stroke made his election by the House unlikely. Jackson expected the House to vote for him, as he had won a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes. Instead, the House elected Adams on the first ballot with thirteen states, followed by Jackson with seven and Crawford with four. Clay had endorsed Adams for the Presidency; the endorsement carried additional weight because Clay was the Speaker of the House. When Adams later appointed Clay his Secretary of State, many -- particularly Jackson and his supporters -- accused the pair of making a "Corrupt Bargain ''. In the less contested election for vice president, John C. Calhoun received 182 electoral votes and was elected outright.
In 1836, the Whig Party nominated different candidates in different regions in the hopes of splintering the electoral vote and denying Martin Van Buren, the Democratic candidate, a majority in the Electoral College, thereby throwing the election into the Whig - controlled House. However, this strategy failed with Van Buren winning majorities of both the popular and electoral vote. In that same election no candidate for Vice President secured an absolute majority in the electoral college as Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Richard Mentor Johnson did not receive the electoral votes of Democratic electors from Virginia, because of his relationship with a former slave. As a result, Johnson received 147 electoral votes, one vote short of a majority; to be followed by Francis Granger with 77, John Tyler with 47 and William Smith with 23. Thus it became necessary for the Senate to choose whether Johnson or Granger would be the new Vice President. Johnson won with 33 votes, with Granger receiving 16.
Since 1836, no major U.S. party has nominated multiple regional presidential or vice presidential candidates in an election. However, since the Civil War there have been two serious attempts by Southern - based parties to run regional candidates in hopes of denying either of the two major candidates an electoral college majority. Both attempts (in 1948 and 1968) failed, but not by much -- in both cases a shift in the result of two close states would have forced the respective elections into the House.
In modern elections, a running mate is often selected in order to appeal to a different set of voters. A Habitation Clause issue arose during the 2000 presidential election contested by George W. Bush (running - mate Dick Cheney) and Al Gore (running - mate Joe Lieberman), because it was alleged that Bush and Cheney were both inhabitants of Texas and that the Texas electors therefore violated the Twelfth Amendment in casting their ballots for both. Texas ' 32 electoral votes were necessary in order to secure Bush and Cheney a majority in the Electoral College. With the Democrats picking up four seats in the Senate to equal the Republicans at 50 seats each in the chamber, the outcome of a contingent election in the Senate, especially if it had happened after the newly - elected Senators had been seated, would have been far from certain. Such an election in 2000, had it happened, would have determined which party controlled the Senate.
Bush 's residency was unquestioned, as he was Governor of Texas at the time. However, Cheney and his wife had moved to Dallas five years earlier when he assumed the role of chief executive at Halliburton. Cheney grew up in Wyoming, had represented it in Congress and had continuously maintained a residence in the state during his tenure at Halliburton. A few months before the election, he switched his voter registration and driver 's license to Wyoming and put his home in Dallas up for sale. Three Texas voters challenged the election in a federal court in Dallas and then appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, where it was dismissed.
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who pays for a jury in a civil case | Jury fees - Wikipedia
Jury fees refer to the daily stipend paid to jurors. The source of these fees varies according to the kind of trial. Government pays the fees in criminal trials, while the litigants share the costs in a civil action as part of court costs. Not infrequently, the entire burden of court costs may be shifted to the loser of a civil action. A deposit of one day 's fees may be required in advance of the trial by the litigant requesting the presence of a jury.
California 's jury fee provisions appear at Code of Civil Procedure section 215 and Code of Civil Procedure Sections 631 - 636. Here are notable excerpts:
Code of Civil Procedure Section 215
Code of Civil Procedure Section 631.
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louis armstrong benny goodman & danny kaye in a song is born | A Song is Born - wikipedia
A Song Is Born (also known as That 's Life) is a 1948 Technicolor musical film remake of the 1941 movie Ball of Fire with Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck, starring Danny Kaye and Virginia Mayo. It was directed by Howard Hawks. Based on the Story "From A to Z '' by Billy Wilder and Thomas Monroe. Produced by Samuel Goldwyn and released by RKO Radio Pictures.
Filmed in Technicolor, it featured a stellar supporting cast of musical legends, including Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman (with Al Hendrickson as cameo), Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, and Benny Carter. Other notable musicians playing themselves in the cast include Charlie Barnet (with Harry Babasin as cameo), Mel Powell, Louis Bellson, The Golden Gate Quartet, Russo and the Samba Kings, The Page Cavanaugh Trio, and Buck and Bubbles. Other actors include Steve Cochran and Hugh Herbert.
Mild - mannered Professor Hobart Frisbee (Danny Kaye) and his fellow academics, among them Professor Magenbruch (Benny Goodman), are writing a musical encyclopedia. In the process, they discover that there is some new popular music that is called jazz, swing, boogie woogie or rebop, introduced to them by two window washers Buck and Bubbles. The professors become entangled in the problems of nightclub singer Honey Swanson (Virginia Mayo). She needs a place to hide out from the police, who want to question her about her gangster boyfriend Tony Crow (Steve Cochran). She invites herself into their sheltered household, over Frisbee 's objections. While there, she introduces them to the latest in jazz, with which they are unfamiliar, giving the film an excuse to feature many of the best musicians of the era. The songs they play include "A Song Is Born '', "Daddy - O '', "I 'm Getting Sentimental Over You '', "Flying Home '', and "Redskin Rumba ''.
Eventually, Tony comes by to collect Honey, but by that time, she and Hobart have fallen in love. And the finale, of course, is not decided by guns but by music, its resonance and reverberation.
Kaye 's personal writer / composer, Sylvia Fine, who also happened to be Kaye 's wife, refused to take part in any more of his projects because Kaye had recently left her for actress Eve Arden. Kaye did n't want anyone else writing songs for him, so he simply did not perform any songs in the film.
Hawks had almost no interest in the film, and only came to work on it because of the $250,000 paycheck. When speaking of the film, he said "Danny Kaye had separated from his wife, and he was a basket case, stopping work to see a psychiatrist (every) day. He was about as funny as a crutch. I never thought anything in that picture was funny. It was an altogether horrible experience. ''
A Song Is Born was the number one film in the country from the time of its release until November 1948, while Hawks 's other film (and in his opinion, best) Red River, was second. However, A Song Is Born never broke even, only earning about $2.2 million, while Red River went on to gross $4.1 million. It was shown on American Movie Classics, hosted by Nick Clooney, and has been released on home video in both VHS and DVD formats.
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countries you can travel to with nigerian passport without visa | Visa requirements for Nigerian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Nigerian citizens are administrative entry restrictions imposed by the authorities of other states on citizens of Nigeria.
As of February 2018, Nigerian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 46 countries and territories, ranking the Nigerian passport 91st in terms of travel freedom (tied with Republic of the Congo passport) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Where visa - free access is permitted, such access is not necessarily a right, and admission is at the discretion of border enforcement officers. Visitors engaging in activities other than tourism, including unpaid work, may require a visa or work permit.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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where did destiny's child get their name | Destiny 's Child - wikipedia
Destiny 's Child was an American girl group whose final and best - known line - up comprised Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland, and Michelle Williams. Formed in 1997 in Houston, Texas, Destiny 's Child members began their musical career as Girl 's Tyme, formed in 1990, comprising Knowles, Rowland, LaTavia Roberson, and LeToya Luckett among others. After years of limited success, they were signed in 1997 to Columbia Records and Music World Entertainment as Destiny 's Child. Destiny 's Child was launched into mainstream recognition following the 1999 release of their best - selling second album, The Writing 's on the Wall, which contained the number - one singles "Bills, Bills, Bills '' and "Say My Name ''. Despite critical and commercial success, the group was plagued by internal conflict and legal turmoil, as Roberson and Luckett attempted to split from the group 's manager Mathew Knowles, citing favoritism of Knowles and Rowland.
Both Roberson and Luckett were soon replaced with Williams and Farrah Franklin; however, in 2000, Franklin left, leaving the group as a trio. Their third album, Survivor, which contains themes the public interpreted as a channel to the group 's experience, contains the worldwide hits "Independent Women '', "Survivor '' and "Bootylicious ''. In 2002, they announced a hiatus and re-united two years later for the release of their fourth and final studio album, Destiny Fulfilled (2004). Destiny 's Child has sold more than sixty million records worldwide to date. Billboard magazine ranks the group as one of the greatest musical trios of all time, the ninth most successful artist / band of the 2000s, placed the group 68th in its All - Time Hot 100 Artists list in 2008 and in December 2016, the magazine ranked them as the 90th most successful dance club artist of all - time. The group was nominated for 14 Grammy Awards, winning twice for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and once for Best R&B Song.
In 1990, Beyoncé Knowles met rapper LaTavia Roberson while auditioning for a girl group. Based in Houston, Texas, they were joined to a group that performed rapping and dancing. Kelly Rowland, who relocated to Knowles ' house because of family issues, joined them in 1992. Originally named Girl 's Tyme, they were eventually cut down to six members including Támar Davis and sisters Nikki and Nina Taylor. With Knowles and Rowland, Girl 's Tyme attracted nationwide attention: west - coast R&B producer Arne Frager flew to Houston to see them. He brought them to his studio, The Plant Recording Studios, in Northern California, with focus on Knowles ' vocals because Frager thought she had personality and the ability to sing. With efforts to sign Girl 's Tyme to a major record deal, Frager 's strategy was to debut the group in Star Search, the biggest talent show on national TV at the time. However, they lost the competition because, according to Knowles, their choice of song was wrong; they were actually rapping instead of singing.
Because of the group 's defeat, Knowles ' father, Mathew, voluntarily dedicated his time to manage them. Mathew Knowles decided to cut the original lineup to four, with the removal of Davis and the Taylor sisters and the inclusion of LeToya Luckett in 1993. Aside from spending time at their church in Houston, Girl 's Tyme practiced in their backyards and at Headliners Salon, owned by Knowles ' mother, Tina. The group would test routines in the salon, when it was on Montrose Boulevard in Houston, and sometimes would collect tips from the customers. Their try out would be critiqued by the people inside. During their school days, Girl 's Tyme performed at local gigs. When summer came, Mathew Knowles established a "boot camp '' to train them in dance and vocal lessons. After rigorous training, they began performing as opening acts for established R&B groups of that time such as SWV, Dru Hill and Immature. Tina Knowles designed the group 's attire for their performances.
Over the course of the early years in their career, Girl 's Tyme changed their name to Something Fresh, Cliché, the Dolls, and to Destiny. The group signed with Elektra Records with the name Destiny, but were dropped several months later before they could release an album. The pursuit of a record deal affected the Knowles family: in 1995, Mathew Knowles resigned from his job as a medical - equipment salesman, a move that reduced Knowles ' family 's income by half, and her parents briefly separated due to the pressure. In 1996, they changed their name to Destiny 's Child, which was taken from a passage in the Book of Isaiah. Mathew Knowles helped in negotiating a record deal with Columbia Records, which signed the group that same year. Prior to signing with Columbia, the group had recorded several tracks in Oakland, California produced by D'wayne Wiggins of Tony! Toni! Toné!, including "Killing Time '', which upon the label 's recognition that Destiny 's Child had a "unique quality '', was included in the soundtrack to the 1997 film Men in Black.
Destiny 's Child released their self - titled debut album in the United States on February 17, 1998, featuring productions by Tim & Bob, Rob Fusari, Jermaine Dupri, Wyclef Jean, Dwayne Wiggins and Corey Rooney. Destiny 's Child peaked at number sixty - seven on the Billboard 200 and number fourteen on the Billboard Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums. It managed to sell over one million copies in the United States, earning a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The remix version to the album 's lead single, "No, No, No '', reached number one on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks and number three on the Billboard Hot 100. Its follow - up single, "With Me Part 1 '' failed to reproduce the success of "No, No, No ''. Meanwhile, the group featured on a song from the soundtrack album of the romantic drama Why Do Fools Fall in Love and "Get on the Bus '' had a limited release in Europe and other markets. In 1998, Destiny 's Child garnered three Soul Train Lady of Soul awards including Best New Artist for "No, No, No ''. Knowles considered their debut successful but not huge, claiming as a neo soul record it was too mature for the group at the time.
After the success of their debut album, Destiny 's Child re-entered the studio quickly, bringing in a new lineup of producers, including Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs and Rodney Jerkins. Coming up with The Writing 's on the Wall, they released it on July 27, 1999 and it eventually became their breakthrough album. The Writing 's on the Wall peaked at number five on the Billboard 200 and number two on R&B chart in early 2000. "Bills, Bills, Bills '' was released in 1999 as the album 's lead single and reached the top spot of the Billboard Hot 100, becoming their first US number - one single. The Writing 's on the Wall has been credited as Destiny 's Child 's breakthrough album, spurring their career and introducing them to a wider audience. The main key to the group 's breakthrough was the album 's third single, "Say My Name '', which topped the Billboard Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks. The successful release of the singles bolstered the album 's sales, eventually selling over eight million copies in the United States, gaining eight - time platinum certification by the RIAA. The Writing 's on the Wall sold more than 11 million copies worldwide and was one of the top - selling albums of 2000.
In December 1999, Luckett and Roberson attempted to split with their manager, claiming that he kept a disproportionate share of the group 's profits and unfairly favored Knowles and Rowland. While they never intended to leave the group, when the video for "Say My Name '' surfaced in February 2000, Roberson and Luckett found out that two new members were joining Knowles and Rowland. Prior to the video premiere, Knowles announced on TRL that original members Luckett and Roberson had left the group. They were replaced by Michelle Williams, a former backup singer to Monica, and Farrah Franklin, an aspiring singer - actress. Shortly after her stint with Monica, Williams was introduced to Destiny 's Child by choreographer Braden Larson aka "Peanut Orlando '', and was flown to Houston where she stayed with the Knowles family.
In March 2000, Roberson and Luckett filed a lawsuit against Mathew Knowles and their former bandmates for breach of partnership and fiduciary duties. Following the suit, both sides were disparaging towards each other in the media. Five months after joining, Franklin left the group. The remaining members claimed that this was due to missed promotional appearances and concerts. According to Williams, Franklin could not handle stress. Franklin, however, disclosed that she left because of the negativity surrounding the strife and her inability to assert any control in the decision making. Her departure was seen as less controversial. Williams, on the other hand, disclosed that her inclusion in the group resulted in her "battling insecurity '': "I was comparing myself to the other members, and the pressure was on me. ''
Towards the end of 2000, Roberson and Luckett dropped the portion of their lawsuit aimed at Rowland and Knowles in exchange for a settlement, though they continued the action against their manager. As part of the agreement, both sides were prohibited from speaking about each other publicly. Roberson and Luckett formed another girl group named Anjel but also left it due to issues with the record company. Although band members were affected by the turmoil, Destiny 's Child 's success continued. The following years of their career were seen as the group 's most successful stretch, becoming a pop culture phenomenon. "Say My Name '' became their second number - one and biggest single to date. The fourth single from The Writing 's on the Wall, "Jumpin ', Jumpin ' '', also became a top - ten hit. During this time, Destiny 's Child began performing as an opening act at the concerts of pop singers Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera.
With Williams in the new lineup, Destiny 's Child released a theme song for the soundtrack to the film version of Charlie 's Angels. Released as a single in October 2000, "Independent Women Part 1 '' spent eleven consecutive weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 from November 2000 to January 2001, the longest - running number - one single of Destiny 's Child 's career and of that year in the United States. The successful release of the single boosted the sales of the soundtrack album to Charlie 's Angels to 1.5 million by 2001. In 2000, Destiny 's Child won Soul Train 's Sammy Davis Jr. Entertainer of the Year award.
At the 2001 Billboard Music Awards, Destiny 's Child won several accolades, including Artist of the Year and Duo / Group of the Year, and again won Artist of the Year among five awards they snagged in 2001. In September 2000, the group took home two at the sixth annual Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards, including R&B / Soul Album of the Year, Group for The Writing 's on the Wall. Destiny 's Child recorded their third album, Survivor, from mid-2000 until early 2001. In the production process, Knowles assumed more control in co-producing and co-writing almost the entire album. Survivor hit record stores in the spring of 2001 and entered the Billboard 200 at number one, selling over 663,000 copies in its first week sales. The first three singles, "Independent Women Part I '', "Survivor '' and "Bootylicious '' reached the top three in the United States and were also successful in other countries; the first two were consecutive number - one singles in the United Kingdom. The album was certified four - time platinum in the United States and double platinum in Australia. It sold 6 million copies as of July 27, 2001.
In the wake of the September 11 attacks, Destiny 's Child canceled a European tour and performed in a concert benefit for the survivors. In October 2001, the group released a holiday album, 8 Days of Christmas, which contained updated versions of several Christmas songs. The album managed to reach number thirty - four on the Billboard 200. In February 2001, Destiny 's Child won two Grammy awards for "Say My Name '': Best R&B Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group and Best R&B Song. They also earned an American Music Award for Favorite Soul / R&B Band / Duo. Also in 2001, Destiny 's Child sang backup vocals for Solange Knowles, who was the lead, on the theme song to the animated Disney Channel series The Proud Family. In March 2002, a remix compilation titled This Is the Remix was released to win fans over before a new studio album would be released. The remix album reached number 29 in the United States. The lead single "Survivor '' was by some interpreted as a response to the strife between the band members, although Knowles claimed it was not directed at anybody. Seeing it as a breach of the agreement that barred each party from public disparagement, Roberson and Luckett once again filed a lawsuit against Destiny 's Child and Sony Music, shortly following the release of This Is the Remix. In June 2002, remaining cases were settled in court.
In late 2000, Destiny 's Child announced their plan to embark on individual side projects, including releases of solo albums, an idea by their manager. In 2002, Williams released her solo album, Heart to Yours, a contemporary gospel collection. The album reached number one on the Billboard Top Gospel Albums chart. In the same date Heart to Yours hit stores, Destiny 's Child released their official autobiography, Soul Survivors. Rowland collaborated with hip hop artist Nelly on "Dilemma '', which became a worldwide hit and earned Rowland a Grammy; she became the first member of Destiny 's Child to have achieved a US number - one single. In the same year, Knowles co-starred with Mike Myers in the box - office hit Austin Powers in Goldmember. She recorded her first solo single, "Work It Out '', for the film 's soundtrack. To capitalize on the success of "Dilemma '', Rowland 's solo debut album Simply Deep was brought forward from its early 2003 release to September 2002. Rowland 's career took off internationally when Simply Deep hit number one on the UK Albums Chart. In the same year, she made her feature film debut in the horror film Freddy vs. Jason. Meanwhile, Knowles made her second film, The Fighting Temptations, and appeared as featured vocalist on her then - boyfriend Jay - Z 's single "' 03 Bonnie & Clyde '', which paved the way for the release of her debut solo album.
As an upshot from the success of "Dilemma '', Knowles ' debut album, Dangerously in Love, was postponed many times until June 2003. Knowles was considered the most successful among the three solo releases. Dangerously in Love debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 317,000 copies. It yielded the number - one hits "Crazy in Love '', and "Baby Boy ''; and the top - five singles "Me, Myself and I '' and "Naughty Girl ''. The album was certified 4x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It remains as Knowles ' best - selling album to date, with sales of 5 million copies in the United States, as of June 2016. Worldwide, the album has sold more than eleven million copies. Knowles ' solo debut was well received by critics, earning five Grammy awards in one night for Dangerously in Love, tying the likes of Norah Jones, Lauryn Hill, and Alicia Keys for most Grammys received in one night by a female artist. In November 2003, Williams appeared as Aida on Broadway. In January 2004, she released her second gospel album, Do You Know.
D'wayne Wiggins, who had produced their first recordings as Destiny 's Child, filed suit in 2002 against his former counsel (Bloom, Hergott, Diemer & Cook LLP) seeking $15 million in damages for lessening his contractual agreement with the group without his consent, effectively nullifying his original contract that offered Sony Music / Columbia Destiny 's Child 's exclusive recording services for an initial seven years, in exchange for "certain royalties '', instead of royalties only from the first three albums. The case was settled for an undisclosed amount. In June 2003, Mathew Knowles announced that Destiny 's Child would expand back to a quartet, revealing Knowles ' younger sister, Solange, as the latest addition to the group. Destiny 's Child had previously recorded songs with Solange and shared the stage when she temporarily replaced Rowland after she broke her toes while performing. Their manager, however, said the idea was used to test reactions from the public. In August 2003, Knowles herself confirmed that her sister would not be joining in the group, and instead promoted Solange 's debut album, Solo Star, released in January 2003.
Three years after the hiatus, members of Destiny 's Child reunited to record their fourth and final studio album, Destiny Fulfilled. The album introduces the trio to a harder, "urban '' sound, and songs featured are conceptually interrelated. Destiny Fulfilled saw equality in the trio: each member contributed to writing on the majority songs, as well as becoming executive producers aside from their manager. Released on November 15, 2004, Destiny Fulfilled failed to top Survivor; the album reached number two the following week, selling 497,000 copies in its first week, compared to 663,000 for the previous album. Certified three - time platinum in the United States, it was still one of the best - selling albums of 2005, selling over eight million copies worldwide; it pushed the group back into the position of the best - selling female group and American group of the year. Four singles were released from the album: the lead "Lose My Breath '', "Soldier '', "Cater 2 U '' and "Girl ''; the first two reached number three in the United States. "Soldier '' "Cater 2 U '' were certified platinum by the RIAA in 2006.
To promote the album, Destiny 's Child embarked on their worldwide concert tour, Destiny Fulfilled... and Lovin ' It Tour. On June 11, 2005, while at the Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona, Spain, the group announced before 16,000 people their official breakup. Destiny 's Child claimed, however, that naming it Destiny Fulfilled was not a coincidence of sort. Right in the making of the album, they planned to part ways after their fourteen - year career as a group to facilitate their continued pursuit in individual aspirations. Knowles stated that their destinies were already fulfilled. The group exclusively sent a letter to MTV about the decision:
We have been working together as Destiny 's Child since we were 9, and touring together since we were 14. After a lot of discussion and some deep soul searching, we realized that our current tour has given us the opportunity to leave Destiny 's Child on a high note, united in our friendship and filled with an overwhelming gratitude for our music, our fans, and each other. After all these wonderful years working together, we realized that now is the time to pursue our personal goals and solo efforts in earnest... No matter what happens, we will always love each other as friends and sisters and will always support each other as artists. We want to thank all of our fans for their incredible love and support and hope to see you all again as we continue fulfilling our destinies. -- Destiny 's Child, MTV
Destiny 's Child released their greatest hits album, # 1 's, on October 25, 2005. The compilation includes their number - one hits including "Independent Woman Part 1 '', "Say My Name '' and "Bootylicious ''. Three new tracks were recorded for the compilation including "Stand Up for Love '', which was recorded for the theme song to the World Children 's Day, and "Check on It '', a song Knowles recorded for The Pink Panther 's soundtrack. Record producer David Foster, his daughter Amy Foster - Gillies and Knowles wrote "Stand Up for Love '' as the anthem to the World Children 's Day, an annual worldwide event to raise awareness and funds for children causes. Over the past three years, more than $50 million have been raised to benefit Ronald McDonald House Charities and other children 's organizations. Destiny 's Child lent their voices and support as global ambassadors for the 2005 program. # 1 's was also released as a DualDisc, featuring the same track listing, seven videos of selected songs and a trailer of the concert DVD Destiny 's Child: Live in Atlanta. The DVD was filmed during the Atlanta visit of the Destiny Fulfilled... And Lovin ' It tour, and was released on March 28, 2006. It has been certified platinum by the RIAA, denoting shipments of over one million units. The title of the compilation fueled a ripple as it contained number - one singles, although not exclusively. While the liner notes of the compilation does not present any information regarding commercial performances of the songs featured, writer Keith Caulfield of Billboard magazine suggested that the name could only be "a marketing angle ''. Despite this, journalist Chris Harris of MTV said that it "lives up to its name ''.
Destiny 's Child reunited for a farewell performance at the 2006 NBA All - Star Game on February 19, 2006 in Houston, Texas; however, Knowles commented, "It 's the last album, but it 's not the last show. '' Their final televised performance was at the Fashion Rocks benefit concert in New York a few days later. On March 28, 2006, Destiny 's Child was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the 2,035 th recipient of the coveted recognition. At the 2006 BET Awards, Destiny 's Child won Best Group, a category they also earned in 2005 and 2001.
After their formal disbandment, all members resumed their solo careers and have each experienced different levels of success. Since then, Knowles, Rowland and Williams have continued to collaborate on each other 's solo projects through song features, music video appearances, and live performances. Both Rowland and Williams, along with Knowles ' sister Solange, appeared in Knowles ' music video for her single "Get Me Bodied '' (2007). On June 26, 2007, the group made a mini-reunion at the 2007 BET Awards, where Knowles performed "Get Me Bodied '' with Williams and Solange as her back - up dancers. After her performance, Knowles introduced Rowland who performed her single "Like This '' (2007) with Eve. On the September 2, 2007 Los Angeles stop of The Beyoncé Experience tour, Knowles sang a snippet of "Survivor '' with Rowland and Williams, and the latter two rendered a "Happy Birthday '' song to Knowles. The performance was featured in Knowles ' tour DVD, The Beyoncé Experience Live. In 2008, Knowles recorded a cover of Billy Joel 's "Honesty '' for Destiny 's Child 's compilation album Mathew Knowles & Music World Present Vol. 1: Love Destiny, which was released only in Japan to celebrate the group 's tenth anniversary.
Rowland made a cameo appearance in Knowles ' music video for her single "Party '' (2011), and the group 's third compilation album, Playlist: The Very Best of Destiny 's Child, was released in 2012 to mark the fifteenth anniversary since their formation. The fourth compilation album, Love Songs, was released on January 29, 2013, and included the newly recorded song "Nuclear '', produced by Pharrell Williams. "Nuclear '' marked the first original music from Destiny 's Child in eight years. The following month, Rowland and Williams appeared as special guests for Knowles ' Super Bowl XLVII halftime show, where they performed "Bootylicious '', "Independent Women '' and Knowles ' own song "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) ''. A video album titled Destiny 's Child Video Anthology was released in May 2013 and featured sixteen of the group 's music videos. Knowles and Williams were then featured on Rowland 's song "You Changed '' from her fourth solo album Talk a Good Game (2013). Later that year, Rowland and Williams made cameo appearances in the music videos for Knowles ' songs "Superpower '' and "Grown Woman '', which were both included on her self - titled fifth solo visual album. Williams released the single "Say Yes '' in June 2014, featuring Knowles and Rowland. They performed "Say Yes '' together during the 2015 Stellar Awards, and the live version of the song was mastered for iTunes in April 2015. On November 7, 2016, the group reunited in a video to try the Mannequin Challenge, which was posted on Rowland 's official Instagram account.
Destiny 's Child recorded R&B songs with styles that encompasses urban, contemporary, and dance - pop. In the group 's original line - up, Knowles was the lead vocalist, Rowland was the second lead vocalist, Luckett was on soprano, and Roberson was on alto. Knowles remained as the lead vocalist in the group 's final line - up as a trio, however, Rowland and Williams also took turns in singing lead for the majority of their songs. Destiny 's Child cited R&B singer Janet Jackson as one of their influences. Ann Powers of The New York Times described Destiny 's Child music as "fresh and emotional... these ladies have the best mixes, the savviest samples and especially the most happening beats. '' In the same publication, Jon Pareles noted that the sound that defines Destiny 's Child, aside from Knowles ' voice, "is the way its melodies jump in and out of double - time. Above brittle, syncopated rhythm tracks, quickly articulated verses alternate with smoother choruses. '' The group usually harmonize their vocals in their songs, especially on the ballads. In most instances of their songs, each member sings one verse and chimes in at the chorus. In their third album Survivor (2001), each member sings lead in the majority of the songs. Knowles said, "... everybody is a part of the music... Everybody is singing lead on every song, and it 's so great -- because now Destiny 's Child is at the point vocally and mentally that it should be at. '' Knowles, however, completely led songs like "Brown Eyes '' and "Dangerously in Love ''. The group explored their lyrics to man - to - woman relationship, sisterhood and female empowerment anthems.
Survivor contains themes interpreted by the public as a reference to the group 's internal conflict. The title track, "Survivor '', which set the theme used throughout the album, features the lyrics "I 'm not gon na blast you on the radio... I 'm not gon na lie on you or your family... I 'm not gon na hate you in the magazine '' caused Roberson and Luckett to file a lawsuit against the group; the lyrics were perceived to be a violation over their agreement following a settlement in court. In an interview, Knowles commented: "The lyrics to the single ' Survivor ' are Destiny 's Child 's story, because we 've been through a lot,... We went through our drama with the members... Any complications we 've had in our 10 - year period of time have made us closer and tighter and better. '' In another song called "Fancy '', which contains the lyrics "You always tried to compete with me, girl... find your own identity '', was interpreted by critic David Browne, in his review of the album for Entertainment Weekly magazine, as a response to the lawsuit. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic summarized Survivor as "a determined, bullheaded record, intent on proving Destiny 's Child has artistic merit largely because the group survived internal strife... It 's a record that tries to be a bold statement of purpose, but winds up feeling forced and artificial. '' Despite the album 's receiving critical praise, Knowles ' close involvement has occasionally generated criticism. Knowles wrote and co-produced the bulk of Survivor. Browne suggested that her help made Survivor a "premature, but inevitable, growing pains album ''. In the majority of the songs on their final studio album Destiny Fulfilled (2004), the verses are divided into three sections, with Knowles singing first, followed by Rowland, then Williams; the three harmonize together during the choruses.
Destiny 's Child were compared to The Supremes, a 1960s American female singing group, with Knowles being compared to Supremes frontwoman Diana Ross; Knowles, however, has dismissed the notion. Coincidentally, Knowles starred in the film adaptation of the 1981 Broadway musical Dreamgirls as Deena Jones, the front woman of the Dreams, a female singing group based on the Supremes. With Knowles ' wide role assumed in the production of Survivor, Gil Kaufman of MTV noted that "it became clear that Beyoncé was emerging as DC 's unequivocal musical leader and public face ''. Her dominance to the creative input in the album made the album "very much her work ''. For Lola Ogunnaike of The New York Times, "It 's been a long - held belief in the music industry that Destiny 's Child was little more than a launching pad for Beyoncé Knowles ' inevitable solo career. ''
In the wake of Knowles ' debut solo album Dangerously in Love (2003), rumors spread about a possible split of Destiny 's Child after each member had experienced solo success and had ongoing projects. Comparisons were drawn to Justin Timberlake, who did not return to band NSYNC after his breakthrough debut solo album, Justified. Rowland responded to such rumors, announcing they were back in the studio together. The group claimed that the reunion was destined to happen and that their affinity to each other kept them cohesive. Margeaux Watson, arts editor at Suede magazine, suggested that Knowles "does not want to appear disloyal to her former partners, '' and called her decision to return to the group "a charitable one ''. Knowles ' mother, Tina, wrote a 2002 - published book, titled Destiny 's Style: Bootylicious Fashion, Beauty and Lifestyle Secrets From Destiny 's Child, an account of how fashion influenced Destiny 's Child 's success.
Destiny 's Child have been referred to as R&B icons, and have sold more than 60 million records worldwide. Following the disbandment of Destiny 's Child, MTV 's James Montgomery noted that "they have left a fairly sizable legacy behind '' as "one of the best - selling female pop vocal groups in history. '' Billboard observed that Destiny 's Child were "defined by a combination of feisty female empowerment anthems, killer dance moves and an eviable fashion sense, '' while Essence noted that they "set trends with their harmonious music and cutting - edge style. '' In 2015, Daisy Jones of Dazed Digital published an article on how the group made a significant impact in R&B music, writing "Without a hint of rose tint, Destiny 's Child legitimately transformed the sound of R&B forever... their distinct influence can be found peppered all over today 's pop landscape, from Tinashe to Ariana Grande. '' Nicole Marrow of The Cut magazine believed that R&B music in the 1990s and early 2000s "was virtually redefined by the success of powerhouse performers like TLC and Destiny 's Child, who preached a powerful litany of embracing womanhood and celebrating individuality. '' Hugh McIntyre of Forbes wrote that before The Pussycat Dolls and Danity Kane burst onto the music scene in the mid-2000s, Destiny 's Child were "the reigning queens '' of the girl group genre.
Destiny 's Child 's final line - up as a trio has been widely noted as the group 's most recognizable and successful line - up. Billboard recognized them as one of the greatest musical trios of all time; they were also ranked as the third most successful girl group of all time on the Billboard charts, behind TLC and The Supremes. The group 's single "Independent Women '' (2000) ranked second on Billboard 's list of the "Top 40 Biggest Girl Group Songs of All Time on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart ''. "Independent Women '' was also acknowledged by the Guinness World Records as the longest - running number - one song on the Hot 100 by a girl group. The term "Bootylicious '' (a combination of the words booty and delicious) became popularized by Destiny 's Child 's single of the same and was later added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2006. The term was also used to describe Beyoncé during the 2000s decade due to her curvacious figure. VH1 included "Bootylicious '' on their "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 00s '' list in 2011, and Destiny 's Child on their "100 Greatest Women in Music '' list the following year. Additionally, "Independent Women '' was ranked as one of NME 's "100 Best Songs of the 00s ''. Destiny 's Child was honored at the 2005 World Music Awards with the World 's Best Selling Female Group of All Time Award, which included a 17 - minute tribute performance by Patti LaBelle, Usher, Babyface, Rihanna, Amerie and Teairra Mari. In 2006, the group was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Destiny 's Child has been credited as a musical influence or inspiration by several artists including Rihanna, Meghan Trainor, Fifth Harmony, Little Mix, Girls Aloud, Haim, Jess Glynne, Katy B, and RichGirl. Ciara was inspired to pursue a career in music after seeing Destiny 's Child perform on television. Ariana Grande cited Destiny 's Child as one of her vocal inspirations, saying that listening to the group 's music is how she discovered her range and "learned about harmonies and runs and ad - libs. '' Meghan Trainor stated that her single "No '' (2016) was inspired by the late 1990s and early 2000s sounds of Destiny 's Child, NSYNC, and Britney Spears. Fifth Harmony cited Destiny 's Child as their biggest inspiration, and even paid tribute to the group by performing a medley of "Say My Name '', "Independent Women '', "Bootylicious '' and "Survivor '' on the television show Greatest Hits. Fifth Harmony also incorporated elements of the intro from "Bootylicious '' for the intro to their own song "Brave, Honest, Beautiful '' (2015).
Headlining
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The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Destiny 's Child has won three awards from fourteen nominations.
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which functional brain area is activated during rem sleep (where we dream) | Rapid eye movement sleep - wikipedia
Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep, REMS) is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, distinguishable by random / rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied with low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly.
The REM phase is also known as paradoxical sleep (PS) and sometimes desynchronized sleep because of physiological similarities to waking states, including rapid, low - voltage desynchronized brain waves. Electrical and chemical activity regulating this phase seems to originate in the brain stem and is characterized most notably by an abundance of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, combined with a nearly complete absence of monoamine neurotransmitters histamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
REM sleep is physiologically different from the other phases of sleep, which are collectively referred to as non-REM sleep (NREM sleep, NREMS, synchronized sleep). REM and non-REM sleep alternate within one sleep cycle, which lasts about 90 minutes in adult humans. As sleep cycles continue, they shift towards a higher proportion of REM sleep. The transition to REM sleep brings marked physical changes, beginning with electrical bursts called PGO waves originating in the brain stem. Organisms in REM sleep suspend central homeostasis, allowing large fluctuations in respiration, thermoregulation, and circulation which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.
Professor Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky defined rapid eye movement and linked it to dreams in 1953. REM sleep was further described by researchers including William Dement and Michel Jouvet. Many experiments have involved awakening test subjects whenever they begin to enter the REM phase, thereby producing a state known as REM deprivation. Subjects allowed to sleep normally again usually experience a modest REM rebound. Techniques of neurosurgery, chemical injection, electroencephalography, positron emission tomography, and reports of dreamers upon waking, have all been used to study this phase of sleep.
REM sleep is "paradoxical '' because of its similarities to wakefulness. Although the body is paralyzed, the brain acts somewhat awake, with cerebral neurons firing with the same overall intensity as in wakefulness. Electroencephalography during REM deep sleep reveal fast, low amplitude, desynchronized neural oscillation (brainwaves) that resemble the pattern seen during wakefulness which differ from the slow δ (delta) waves pattern of NREM deep sleep. An important element of this contrast is the θ (theta) rhythm in the hippocampus that show 40 -- 60 Hz gamma waves, in the cortex, as it does in waking. The cortical and thalamic neurons in the waking and REM sleeping brain are more depolarized (fire more readily) than in the NREM deep sleeping brain.
During REM sleep, electrical connectivity among different parts of the brain manifests differently than during wakefulness. Frontal and posterior areas are less coherent in most frequencies, a fact which has been cited in relation to the chaotic experience of dreaming. However, the posterior areas are more coherent with each other; as are the right and left hemispheres of the brain, especially during lucid dreams.
Brain energy use in REM sleep, as measured by oxygen and glucose metabolism, equals or exceeds energy use in waking. The rate in non-REM sleep is 11 -- 40 % lower.
Neural activity during REM sleep seems to originate in the brain stem, especially the pontine tegmentum and locus coeruleus. REM sleep is punctuated and immediately preceded by PGO (ponto - geniculo - occipital) waves, bursts of electrical activity originating in the brain stem. (PGO waves have long been measured directly in cats but not in humans because of constraints on experimentation; however comparable effects have been observed in humans during "phasic '' events which occur during REM sleep, and the existence of similar PGO waves is thus inferred.) These waves occur in clusters about every 6 seconds for 1 -- 2 minutes during the transition from deep to paradoxical sleep. They exhibit their highest amplitude upon moving into the visual cortex and are a cause of the "rapid eye movements '' in paradoxical sleep. Other muscles may also contract under the influence of these waves.
Research in the 1990s using positron emission tomography (PET) confirmed the role of the brain stem and suggested that, within the forebrain, the limbic and paralimbic systems showed more activation than other areas. The areas activated during REM sleep are approximately inverse to those activated during non-REM sleep and display greater activity than in quiet waking. The "anterior paralimbic REM activation area '' (APRA) includes areas linked with emotion, memory, fear and sex, and may thus relate to the experience of dreaming during REMS. More recent PET research has indicated that the distribution of brain activity during REM sleep varies in correspondence with the type of activity seen in the prior period of wakefulness.
The superior frontal gyrus, medial frontal areas, intraparietal sulcus, and superior parietal cortex, areas involved in sophisticated mental activity, show equal activity in REM sleep as in wakefulness. The amygdala is also active during REM sleep and may participate in generating the PGO waves, and experimental suppression of the amygdala results in less REM sleep. The amygdala may also cardiac function in lieu of the less active insular cortex.
Compared to slow - wave sleep, both waking and paradoxical sleep involve higher use of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which may cause the faster brainwaves. The monoamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine are completely unavailable. Injections of acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, which effectively increases available acetylcholine, have been found to induce paradoxical sleep in humans and other animals already in slow - wave sleep. Carbachol, which mimics the effect of acetylcholine on neurons, has a similar influence. In waking humans, the same injections produce paradoxical sleep only if the monoamine neurotransmitters have already been depleted.
Two other neurotransmitters, orexin and gamma - Aminobutyric acid (GABA), seem to promote wakefulness, diminish during deep sleep, and inhibit paradoxical sleep.
Unlike the abrupt transitions in electrical patterns, the chemical changes in the brain show continuous periodic oscillation.
According to the activation - synthesis hypothesis proposed by Robert McCarley and Allan Hobson in 1975 -- 1977, control over REM sleep involves pathways of "REM - on '' and "REM - off '' neurons in the brain stem. REM - on neurons are primarily cholinergic (i.e., involve acetylcholine); REM - off neurons activate serotonin and noradrenaline, which among other functions suppress the REM - on neurons. McCarley and Hobson suggested that the REM - on neurons actually stimulate REM - off neurons, thereby serving as the mechanism for the cycling between REM and non-REM sleep. They used Lotka -- Volterra equations to describe this cyclical inverse relationship. Kayuza Sakai and Michel Jouvet advanced a similar model in 1981. Whereas acetylcholine manifests in the cortex equally during wakefulness and REM, it appears in higher concentrations in the brain stem during REM. The withdrawal of orexin and GABA may cause the absence of the other excitatory neurotransmitters; researchers in recent years increasingly include GABA regulation in their models.
Most of the eye movements in "rapid eye movement '' sleep are in fact less rapid than those normally exhibited by waking humans. They are also shorter in duration and more likely to loop back to their starting point. About seven of such loops take place over one minute of REM sleep. In slow - wave sleep the eyes can drift apart; however, the eyes of the paradoxical sleeper move in tandem. These eye movements follow the ponto - geniculo - occipital waves originating in the brain stem. The eye movements themselves may relate to the sense of vision experienced in the dream, but a direct relationship remains to be clearly established. Congenitally blind people, who do not typically have visual imagery in their dreams, still move their eyes in REM sleep. An alternative explanation suggests that the functional purpose of REM sleep is for procedural memory processing, and the rapid eye movement is only a side effect of the brain processing the eye - related procedural memory.
Generally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration - linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.
Erections of the penis (nocturnal penile tumescence or NPT) normally accompany REM sleep in rats and humans. If a male has erectile dysfunction (ED) while awake, but has NPT episodes during REM, it would suggest that the ED is from a psychological rather than a physiological cause. In females, erection of the clitoris (nocturnal clitoral tumescence or NCT) causes enlargement, with accompanying vaginal blood flow and transudation (i.e. lubrication). During a normal night of sleep the penis and clitoris may be erect for a total time of from one hour to as long as three and a half hours during REM.
Body temperature is not well regulated during REM sleep, and thus organisms become more sensitive to temperatures outside their thermoneutral zone. Cats and other small furry mammals will shiver and breathe faster to regulate temperature during NREMS but not during REMS. With the loss of muscle tone, animals lose the ability to regulate temperature through body movement. (However, even cats with pontine lesions preventing muscle atonia during REM did not regulate their temperature by shivering.) Neurons which typically activate in response to cold temperatures -- triggers for neural thermoregulation -- simply do not fire during REM sleep, as they do in NREM sleep and waking.
Consequently, hot or cold environmental temperatures can reduce the proportion of REM sleep, as well as amount of total sleep. In other words, if at the end of a phase of deep sleep, the organism 's thermal indicators fall outside of a certain range, it will not enter paradoxical sleep lest deregulation allow temperature to drift further from the desirable value. This mechanism can be ' fooled ' by artificially warming the brain.
REM atonia, an almost complete paralysis of the body, is accomplished through the inhibition of motor neurons. When the body shifts into REM sleep, motor neurons throughout the body undergo a process called hyperpolarization: their already - negative membrane potential decreases by another 2 -- 10 millivolts, thereby raising the threshold which a stimulus must overcome to excite them. Muscle inhibition may result from unavailability of monoamine neurotransmitters (restraining the abundance of acetylcholine in the brainstem) and perhaps from mechanisms used in waking muscle inhibition. The medulla oblongata, located between pons and spine, seems to have the capacity for organism - wide muscle inhibition. Some localized twitching and reflexes can still occur. Pupils contract.
Lack of REM atonia causes REM behavior disorder, sufferers of which physically act out their dreams, or conversely "dream out their acts '', under an alternative theory on the relationship between muscle impulses during REM and associated mental imagery (which would also apply to people without the condition, except that commands to their muscles are suppressed). This is different from conventional sleepwalking, which takes place during slow - wave sleep, not REM. Narcolepsy by contrast seems to involve excessive and unwanted REM atonia -- i.e., cataplexy and excessive daytime sleepiness while awake, hypnagogic hallucinations before entering slow - wave sleep, or sleep paralysis while waking. Other psychiatric disorders including depression have been linked to disproportionate REM sleep. Patients with suspected sleep disorders are typically evaluated by polysomnogram.
Lesions of the pons to prevent atonia have induced functional "REM behavior disorder '' in animals.
Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) has since its discovery been closely associated with dreaming. Waking up sleepers during a REM phase is a common experimental method for obtaining dream reports; 80 % of neurotypical people can give some kind of dream report under these circumstances. Sleepers awakened from REM tend to give longer more narrative descriptions of the dreams they were experiencing, and to estimate the duration of their dreams as longer. Lucid dreams are reported far more often in REM sleep. (In fact these could be considered a hybrid state combining essential elements of REM sleep and waking consciousness.) The mental events which occur during REM most commonly have dream hallmarks including narrative structure, convincingness (experiential resemblance to waking life), and incorporation of instinctual themes. Sometimes they include elements of the dreamer 's recent experience taken directly from episodic memory. By one estimate, 80 % of dreams occur during REM.
Hobson and McCarley proposed that the PGO waves characteristic of "phasic '' REM might supply the visual cortex and forebrain with electrical excitement which amplifies the hallucinatory aspects of dreaming. However, people woken up during sleep do not report significantly more bizarre dreams during phasic REMS, compared to tonic REMS. Another possible relationship between the two phenomena could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.
Some dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. "Light sleepers '' can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas "deep sleepers '', upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report "thinking '' but not "dreaming ''. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have strenuously contested the importance of connecting dreaming to the REM sleep phase. The prospect that well - known neurological aspects of REM do not themselves cause dreaming suggests the need to re-examine the neurobiology of dreaming per se. Some researchers (Dement, Hobson, Jouvet, for example) tend to resist the idea of disconnecting dreaming from REM sleep.
After waking from REM sleep, the mind seems "hyperassociative '' -- more receptive to semantic priming effects. People awakened from REM have performed better on tasks like anagrams and creative problem solving.
Sleep aids the process by which creativity forms associative elements into new combinations that are useful or meet some requirement. This occurs in REM sleep rather than in NREM sleep. Rather than being due to memory processes, this has been attributed to changes during REM sleep in cholinergic and noradrenergic neuromodulation. High levels of acetylcholine in the hippocampus suppress feedback from hippocampus to the neocortex, while lower levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine in the neocortex encourage the uncontrolled spread of associational activity within neocortical areas. This is in contrast to waking consciousness, where higher levels of norepinephrine and acetylcholine inhibit recurrent connections in the neocortex. REM sleep through this process adds creativity by allowing "neocortical structures to reorganise associative hierarchies, in which information from the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes. ''
In the ultradian sleep cycle an organism alternates between deep sleep (slow, large, synchronized brain waves) and paradoxical sleep (faster, desynchronized waves). Sleep happens in the context of the larger circadian rhythm, which influences sleepiness and physiological factors based on timekeepers within the body. Sleep can be distributed throughout the day or clustered during one part of the rhythm: in nocturnal animals, during the day, and in diurnal animals, at night. The organism returns to homeostatic regulation almost immediately after REM sleep ends.
During a night of sleep, humans usually experience about four or five periods of REM sleep; they are shorter (~ 15m) at the beginning of the night and longer (~ 25m) toward the end. Many animals and some people tend to wake, or experience a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. The relative amount of REM sleep varies considerably with age. A newborn baby spends more than 80 % of total sleep time in REM.
REM sleep typically occupies 20 -- 25 % of total sleep in adult humans: about 90 -- 120 minutes of a night 's sleep. The first REM episode occurs about 70 minutes after falling asleep. Cycles of about 90 minutes each follow, with each cycle including a larger proportion of REM sleep. (The increased REM sleep later in the night is connected with the circadian rhythm and occurs even in people who did n't sleep in the first part of the night.)
In the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster - developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in REM sleep than adults. The proportion of REM sleep then decreases significantly in childhood. Older people tend to sleep less overall but sleep in REM for about the same absolute time, and therefore spend a greater proportion of sleep in REM.
Rapid eye movement sleep can be subclassified into tonic and phasic modes. Tonic REM is characterized by theta rhythms in the brain; phasic REM is characterized by PGO waves and actual "rapid '' eye movements. Processing of external stimuli is heavily inhibited during phasic REM, and recent evidence suggests that sleepers are more difficult to arouse from phasic REM than in slow - wave sleep.
Selective REMS deprivation causes a significant increase in the number of attempts to go into REM stage while asleep. On recovery nights, an individual will usually move to stage 3 and REM sleep more quickly and experience an REM rebound, which refers to an increase in the time spent in REM stage over normal levels. These findings are consistent with the idea that REM sleep is biologically necessary. However, the "rebound '' REM sleep usually does not last fully as long as the estimated length of the missed REM periods.
After the deprivation is complete, mild psychological disturbances, such as anxiety, irritability, hallucinations, and difficulty concentrating may develop and appetite may increase. There are also positive consequences of REM deprivation. Some symptoms of depression are found to be suppressed by REM deprivation; aggression, and eating behavior may increase. Higher norepinepherine is a possible cause of these results. Whether and how long - term REM deprivation has psychological effects remains a matter of controversy. Several reports have indicated that REM deprivation increases aggression and sexual behavior in laboratory test animals. Rats deprived of paradoxical sleep die in 4 -- 6 weeks (twice the time before death in case of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.
It has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and combining sleep - schedule alterations with pharmacotherapy to prolong this effect. Antidepressants (including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclics, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors) and stimulants (such as amphetamine, Cannabis and cocaine) interfere with REM sleep by stimulating the monoamine neurotransmitters which must be suppressed for REM sleep to occur. Administered at therapeutic doses, these drugs may stop REM sleep entirely for weeks or months. Withdrawal causes a REM rebound. Sleep deprivation stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis much as antidepressants do, but whether this effect is driven by REM sleep in particular is unknown.
Although it manifests differently in different animals, REM sleep or something like it occurs in all land mammals as well as in birds. The primary criteria used to identify REM are the change in electrical activity, measured by EEG, and loss of muscle tone, interspersed with bouts of twitching in phasic REM. The amount of REM sleep and cycling varies among animals; predators enjoy more REM sleep than prey. Larger animals also tend to stay in REM for longer, possibly because higher thermal inertia of their brains and bodies allows them to tolerate longer suspension of thermoregulation. The period (full cycle of REM and non-REM) lasts for about 90 minutes in humans, 22 minutes in cats, and 12 minutes in rats. In utero, mammals spend more than half (50 -- 80 %) of a 24 - hour day in REM sleep.
Sleeping reptiles do not seem to have PGO waves or the localized brain activation seen in mammalian REM. However they do exhibit sleep cycles with phases of REM - like electrical activity measurable by EEG. A recent study found periodic eye movements in the central bearded dragon of Australia, leading its authors to speculate that the common ancestor of amniotes may therefore have manifested some precursor to REMS.
Sleep deprivation experiments on non-human animals can be set up differently than those on humans. The "flower pot '' method involves placing a laboratory animal above water on a platform so small that it falls off upon losing muscle tone. The naturally rude awakening which results may elicit changes in the organism which necessarily exceed the simple absence of a sleep phase. This method also stops working after about 3 days as the subjects (typically rats) lose their will to avoid the water. Another method involves computer monitoring of brain waves, complete with automatic mechanized shaking of the cage when the test animal drifts into REM sleep.
Some researchers argue that the perpetuation of a complex brain process such as REM sleep indicates that it serves an important function for the survival of mammalian and avian species. It fulfills important physiological needs vital for survival to the extent that prolonged REM sleep deprivation leads to death in experimental animals. In both humans and experimental animals, REM sleep loss leads to several behavioral and physiological abnormalities. Loss of REM sleep has been noticed during various natural and experimental infections. Survivability of the experimental animals decreases when REM sleep is totally attenuated during infection; this leads to the possibility that the quality and quantity of REM sleep is generally essential for normal body physiology. Further, the existence of a "REM rebound '' effect suggests the possibility of a biological need for REM sleep.
While the precise function of REM sleep is not well understood, several theories have been proposed.
Sleep in general aids memory. REM sleep may favor the preservation of certain types of memories: specifically, procedural memory, spatial memory, and emotional memory. In rats, REM sleep increases following intensive learning, especially several hours after, and sometimes for multiple nights. Experimental REM sleep deprivation has sometimes inhibited memory consolidation, especially regarding complex processes (e.g., how to escape from an elaborate maze). In humans, the best evidence for REM 's improvement of memory pertains to learning of procedures -- new ways of moving the body (such as trampoline jumping), and new techniques of problem solving. REM deprivation seemed to impair declarative (i.e., factual) memory only in more complex cases, such as memories of longer stories. REM sleep apparently counteracts attempts to suppress certain thoughts.
According to the dual - process hypothesis of sleep and memory, the two major phases of sleep correspond to different types of memory. "Night half '' studies have tested this hypothesis with memory tasks either begun before sleep and assessed in the middle of the night, or begun in the middle of the night and assessed in the morning. Slow - wave sleep, part of non-REM sleep, appears to be important for declarative memory. Artificial enhancement of the non-REM sleep improves the next - day recall of memorized pairs of words. Tucker et al. demonstrated that a daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative memory but not procedural memory. According to the sequential hypothesis the two types of sleep work together to consolidate memory.
Sleep researcher Jerome Siegel has observed that extreme REM deprivation does not significantly interfere with memory. One case study of an individual who had little or no REM sleep due to a shrapnel injury to the brainstem did not find the individual 's memory to be impaired. Antidepressants, which suppress REM sleep, show no evidence of impairing memory and may improve it.
Graeme Mitchison and Francis Crick proposed in 1983 that by virtue of its inherent spontaneous activity, the function of REM sleep "is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in networks of cells in the cerebral cortex '', which process they characterize as "unlearning ''. As a result, those memories which are relevant (whose underlying neuronal substrate is strong enough to withstand such spontaneous, chaotic activation) are further strengthened, whilst weaker, transient, "noise '' memory traces disintegrate. Memory consolidation during paradoxical sleep is specifically correlated with the periods of rapid eye movement, which do not occur continuously. One explanation for this correlation is that the PGO electrical waves, which precede the eye movements, also influence memory. REM sleep could provide a unique opportunity for "unlearning '' to occur in the basic neural networks involved in homeostasis, which are protected from this "synaptic downscaling '' effect during deep sleep.
REM sleep prevails most after birth, and diminishes with age. According the "ontogenetic hypothesis '', REM (also known in neonates as active sleep) aids the developing brain by providing the neural stimulation that newborns need to form mature neural connections. Sleep deprivation have shown that deprivation early in life can result in behavioral problems, permanent sleep disruption, decreased brain mass, and result in an abnormal amount of neuronal cell death. The strongest evidence for the ontogenetic hypothesis comes from experiments on REM deprivation and the development of the visual system in the Lateral geniculate nucleus and primary visual cortex.
Ioannis Tsoukalas of Stockholm University has hypothesized that REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of a well - known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex. This reflex, also known as animal hypnosis or death feigning, functions as the last line of defense against an attacking predator and consists of the total immobilization of the animal so that it appears dead. Tsoukalas argues that the neurophysiology and phenomenology of this reaction shows striking similarities to REM sleep; for example, both reactions exhibit brainstem control, paralysis, hypocampal theta rhythm, and thermoregulatory changes.
According to "scanning hypothesis '', the directional properties of REM sleep are related to a shift of gaze in dream imagery. Against this hypothesis is that such eye movements occur in those born blind and in fetuses in spite of lack of vision. Also, binocular REMs are non-conjugated (i.e., the two eyes do not point in the same direction at a time) and so lack a fixation point. In support of this theory, research finds that in goal - oriented dreams, eye gaze is directed towards the dream action, determined from correlations in the eye and body movements of REM sleep behavior disorder patients who enact their dreams.
Dr. David M. Maurice (1922 - 2002), an eye specialist and semi-retired adjunct professor at Columbia University, proposed that REM sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. Among the supportive evidences, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from iris had to reach cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. According to the theory, when the animal is awake, eye movement (or cool environmental temperature) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. When the animal is sleeping, REM provides the much - needed stir to aqueous humor. This theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye - sealed newborn animals, spend much time in REM sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person 's REM sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper into the night. However, owls have REM sleep, but do not move their head more than in non-REM sleep and is well known that owls ' eyes are nearly immobile.
Another theory suggests that monoamine shutdown is required so that the monoamine receptors in the brain can recover to regain full sensitivity.
The sentinel hypothesis of REM sleep was put forward by Frederick Snyder in 1966. It is based upon the observation that REM sleep in several mammals (the rat, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the rhesus monkey) is followed by a brief awakening. This does not occur for either cats or humans, although humans are more likely to wake from REM sleep than from NREM sleep. Snyder hypothesized that REM sleep activates an animal periodically, to scan the environment for possible predators. This hypothesis does not explain the muscle paralysis of REM sleep; however, a logical analysis might suggest that the muscle paralysis exists to prevent the animal from fully waking up unnecessarily, and allowing it to return easily to deeper sleep.
Jim Horne, a sleep researcher at Loughborough University, has suggested that REM in modern humans compensates for the reduced need for wakeful food foraging.
Other theories are that REM sleep warms the brain, stimulates and stabilizes the neural circuits that have not been activated during waking, or creates internal stimulation to aid development of the CNS; while some argue that REM lacks any purpose, and simply results from random brain activation.
Recognition of different types of sleep can be seen in the literature of ancient India and Rome. Observers have long noticed that sleeping dogs twitch and move but only at certain times.
The German scientist Richard Klaue in 1937 first discovered a period of fast electrical activity in the brains of sleeping cats. In 1944, Ohlmeyer reported 90 - minute ultradian sleep cycles involving male erections lasting for 25 minutes. At University of Chicago in 1952, Eugene Aserinsky, Nathaniel Kleitman, and William C. Dement, discovered phases of rapid eye movement during sleep, and connected these to dreaming. Their article was published September 10, 1953. Aserinsky, then Kleitman, first observed the eye movements and accompanying neuroelectrical activity in their own children.
William Dement advanced the study of REM deprivation, with experiments in which subjects were awoken every time their EEG indicated the beginning of REM sleep. He published "The Effect of Dream Deprivation '' in June 1960. ("REM deprivation '' has become the more common term following subsequent research indicating the possibility of non-REM dreaming.)
Neurosurgical experiments by Michel Jouvet and others in the following two decades added an understanding of atonia and suggested the importance of the pontine tegmentum (dorsolateral pons) in enabling and regulating paradoxical sleep. Jouvet and others found that damaging the reticular formation of the brainstem inhibited this type of sleep. Jouvet coined the name "paradoxical sleep '' in 1959 and in 1962 published results indicating that it could occur in a cat with its entire forebrain removed.
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who played young celie in the color purple | Desreta Jackson - Wikipedia
Desreta Jackson (born April 19, 1975) is a Virgin Islander actress, producer and entrepreneur. She is best known for her role as Young Celie in the movie The Color Purple.
Jackson was born in Tortola in the British Virgin Islands and immigrated to the United States at the age of nine. Her family settled in a skid row area of Los Angeles and her mother collected cans to support her. After two years, her mother found housing in South Central Los Angeles. After acting in a scene in a school play, she told her mother that she wanted to take drama classes. Her mother enrolled her in acting classes to keep her away from gang activity where they lived in California.
After landing various roles in television and movies, Jackson earned a degree in Directing from Los Angeles City College.
Jackson 's career began after only a short time in acting school. She was at a casting call for the movie The Color Purple when she was spotted by Producer Reuben Cannon. She was called back for more casting calls after her first audition. She landed the role of the young Celie Harris (with Whoopi Goldberg as adult Celie), who is forced to marry a wealthy young local widower (Danny Glover) who abuses her.
Jackson continued her career while landing roles in both television and film.
Jackson is the founder of BlackSilk Products, a hair care product company that she launched in 2011. She began the business from home in 2002, making her own hair care products such as oils, hair treatments, as well as shampoos and conditioners.
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is the niagara falls the biggest waterfall in the world | Niagara Falls - wikipedia
Niagara Falls is the collective name for three waterfalls that straddle the international border between the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of New York. They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge.
From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls. The Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the United States ' side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the United States ' side, separated from the American Falls by Luna Island.
Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, the combined falls form the highest flow rate of any waterfall in North America that has a vertical drop of more than 165 feet (50 m). During peak daytime tourist hours, more than six million cubic feet (168,000 m) of water goes over the crest of the falls every minute. Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by flow rate.
The falls are 17 miles (27 km) north - northwest of Buffalo, New York, and 75 miles (121 km) south - southeast of Toronto, between the twin cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York. Niagara Falls was formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age), and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route to the Atlantic Ocean.
Niagara Falls is famed both for its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century.
The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet (57 m), while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet (21 and 30 m) because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet (790 m) wide, while the American Falls are 1,060 feet (320 m) wide. The distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet (1,039 m).
The peak flow over Horseshoe Falls was recorded at 225,000 cubic feet (6,400 m) per second. The average annual flow rate is 85,000 cubic feet (2,400 m) per second. Since the flow is a direct function of the Lake Erie water elevation, it typically peaks in late spring or early summer. During the summer months, at least 100,000 cubic feet (2,800 m) per second of water traverses the falls, some 90 % of which goes over the Horseshoe Falls, while the balance is diverted to hydroelectric facilities. This is accomplished by employing a weir -- the International Control Dam -- with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls ' flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, remains a minimum of 50,000 cubic feet (1,400 m) per second. Water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control (IJC).
The verdant green colour of the water flowing over the Niagara Falls is a byproduct of the estimated 60 tonnes / minute of dissolved salts and "rock flour '' (very finely ground rock) generated by the erosive force of the Niagara River itself.
The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago. The same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by a continental ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes, and damming others with debris. Scientists argue there is an old valley, St David 's Buried Gorge, buried by glacial drift, at the approximate location of the present Welland Canal.
When the ice melted, the upper Great Lakes emptied into the Niagara River, which followed the rearranged topography across the Niagara Escarpment. In time, the river cut a gorge through the north - facing cliff, or cuesta. Because of the interactions of three major rock formations, the rocky bed did not erode evenly. The top rock formation was composed of erosion - resistant limestone and Lockport dolostone. That hard layer of stone eroded more slowly than the underlying materials. The aerial photo on the right clearly shows the hard caprock, the Lockport Formation (Middle Silurian), which underlies the rapids above the falls, and approximately the upper third of the high gorge wall.
Immediately below the hard - rock formation, comprising about two thirds of the cliff, lay the weaker, softer, sloping Rochester Formation (Lower Silurian). This formation was composed mainly of shale, though it has some thin limestone layers. It also contains ancient fossils. In time, the river eroded the soft layer that supported the hard layers, undercutting the hard caprock, which gave way in great chunks. This process repeated countless times, eventually carving out the falls.
Submerged in the river in the lower valley, hidden from view, is the Queenston Formation (Upper Ordovician), which is composed of shales and fine sandstones. All three formations were laid down in an ancient sea, their differences of character deriving from changing conditions within that sea.
About 10,900 years ago, the Niagara Falls was between present - day Queenston, Ontario, and Lewiston, New York, but erosion of their crest has caused the waterfalls to retreat approximately 6.8 miles (10.9 km) southward. The Horseshoe Falls, which are approximately 2,600 feet (790 m) wide, have also changed their shape through the process of erosion; evolving from a small arch, to a horseshoe bend, to the present day gigantic V. Just upstream from the falls ' current location, Goat Island splits the course of the Niagara River, resulting in the separation of the mostly Canadian Horseshoe Falls to the west from the American and Bridal Veil Falls to the east. Engineering has slowed erosion and recession.
The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot (0.30 m) per year, down from a historical average of 3 feet (0.91 m) per year. According to the timeline of the far future, in roughly 50,000 years Niagara Falls will have eroded away the remaining 20 miles (32 km) to Lake Erie and ceased to exist.
Theories differ as to the origin of the name of the falls. According to Iroquoian scholar Bruce Trigger, Niagara is derived from the name given to a branch of the local native Neutral Confederacy, who are described as being called the Niagagarega people on several late - 17th - century French maps of the area. According to George R. Stewart, it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Onguiaahra, meaning "point of land cut in two ''.
Henry Schoolcraft reported:
Niagara Falls. This name is Mohawk. It means, according to Mrs. Kerr, the neck; the term being first applied to the portage or neck of land, between lakes Erie and Ontario. By referring to Mr. Elliott 's vocabulary, (chapter xi) it will be seen that the human neck, that is, according to the concrete vocabulary, his neck, is onyara. Red Jacket pronounced the word Niagara to me, in the spring of 1820, as if written O - ne - au - ga - rah.
A number of figures have been suggested as first circulating a European eyewitness description of Niagara Falls. The Frenchman Samuel de Champlain visited the area as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada, and members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he described in his journals. The Finnish - Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm explored the area in the early 18th century and is credited with the first scientific description of the falls. The consensus honoree for the first description is the Belgian missionary Louis Hennepin, who observed and described the falls in 1677, earlier than Kalm, after traveling with the explorer René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, thus bringing the falls to the attention of Europeans. Further complicating matters, there is credible evidence the French Jesuit missionary Paul Ragueneau visited the falls some 35 years before Hennepin 's visit, while working among the Huron First Nation in Canada. Jean de Brébeuf also may have visited the falls, while spending time with the Neutral Nation.
In 1762, Captain Thomas Davies, a British Army officer and artist, surveyed the area and painted the watercolor, An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara, the first eyewitness painting of the falls.
During the 19th century, tourism became popular, and by mid-century, it was the area 's main industry. Theodosia Burr Alston (daughter of Vice President Aaron Burr) and her husband Joseph Alston were the first recorded couple to honeymoon there in 1801. Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother Jérôme visited with his bride in the early 19th century.
In 1837 during the Caroline affair, a rebel supply ship, the Caroline, was burned and sent over the falls. In March 1848, ice blockage caused the falls to stop; no water (or at best a trickle) fell for as much as 40 hours. Waterwheels stopped, mills and factories shut down for having no power.
Later that year, demand for passage over the Niagara River led to the building of a footbridge and then Charles Ellet 's Niagara Suspension Bridge. This was supplanted by German - born John Augustus Roebling 's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge in 1855. After the American Civil War, the New York Central Railroad publicized Niagara Falls as a focus of pleasure and honeymoon visits. With increased railroad traffic, in 1886, Leffert Buck replaced Roebling 's wood and stone bridge with the predominantly steel bridge that still carries trains over the Niagara River today. The first steel archway bridge near the falls was completed in 1897. Known today as the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, it carries passenger vehicles and trains between Canada (through Canadian Customs Border Control) and the U.S.A. just downstream of the falls.
In about 1840, the English industrial chemist Hugh Lee Pattinson travelled to Canada, stopping at the Niagara Falls long enough to make the earliest known photograph of the falls, a daguerreotype in the collection of Newcastle University. It was once believed that the small figure standing silhouetted with a top hat was added by an engraver working from imagination as well as the daguerreotype as his source, but the figure is clearly present in the photograph. Because of the very long exposure required, of ten minutes or more, the figure is assumed by Canada 's Niagara Parks agency to be Pattinson himself. The image is left - right inverted, and taken from the Canadian side. Pattinson made other photographs of the Horseshoe Falls as well as of Rome and Paris. These were then transferred to engravings to illustrate Noël Marie Paymal Lerebours ' Excursions Daguerriennes (Paris, 1841 -- 1864).
After the First World War, tourism boomed again, as automobiles made getting to the falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the falls for hydroelectric power, and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area 's natural beauty.
In 1941, the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission completed the third current crossing in the immediate area of Niagara Falls with the Rainbow Bridge, carrying both pedestrian and vehicular traffic between the two countries and Canadian and U.S. customs for each country.
A team from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers created a dam on the American Falls in June 1969 to clear rock from the base of the falls. Rock slides caused a significant buildup of rock at the bottom of the American side of the falls, and the engineers were to clean up the rock and repair some faults to prevent eventual erosion of the American side of the waterfall. A temporary dam was built to divert the flow of water to the Canadian side; the dam measured 600 ft (180 m) across and was made of nearly 30,000 tons of rock. The engineers cleared the rock debris and tested for safety, finishing the project in November of that year. Water flow was restored on November 25, 1969.
Before the late 20th century, the northeastern end of the Horseshoe Falls was in the United States, flowing around the Terrapin Rocks, which were once connected to Goat Island by a series of bridges. In 1955, the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point. In the early 1980s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers filled in more land and built diversion dams and retaining walls to force the water away from Terrapin Point. Altogether, 400 ft (120 m) of the Horseshoe Falls were eliminated, including 100 ft (30 m) on the Canadian side. According to author Ginger Strand, the Horseshoe Falls is now entirely in Canada. Other sources say "most of '' Horseshoe Falls is in Canada.
The only recorded freeze up of the river and falls was due to an ice jam on March 29, 1848. Although the falls commonly ices up most winters, the river and the falls do not freeze completely. The years 1885, 1902, 1906, 1911, 1932, 1936, 2014 and 2017 are noted for the falls icing up. In 1912, much of the water coming over the American Falls froze, though a trickle still ran and the falls ran at the other two sites.
The enormous energy of Niagara Falls has long been recognized as a potential source of power. The first known effort to harness the waters was in 1759, when Daniel Joncaire built a small canal above the falls to power his sawmill. Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government, and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery. In 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Mining Company was chartered, which eventually constructed the canals that would be used to generate electricity. In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob F. Schoellkopf, the Niagara River 's first hydroelectric generating station was built. The water fell 86 feet (26 m) and generated direct current electricity, which ran the machinery of local mills and lit up some of the village streets.
The Niagara Falls Power Company, a descendant of Schoellkopf 's firm, formed the Cataract Company headed by Edward Dean Adams, with the intent of expanding Niagara Falls ' power capacity. In 1890, a five - member International Niagara Commission headed by Sir William Thomson among other distinguished scientists deliberated on the expansion of Niagara hydroelectric capacity based on seventeen proposals, but could not select any as the best combined project for hydraulic development and distribution. In 1893, Westinghouse Electric (which had built the smaller - scale Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant near Ophir, Colorado, two years earlier) was hired to design a system to generate alternating current on Niagara Falls, and three years after that this large - scale AC power system was created (activated on August 26, 1895). The Adams Power Plant Transformer House remains as a landmark of the original system.
By 1896, financing from moguls including J.P. Morgan, John Jacob Astor IV, and the Vanderbilts had fueled the construction of giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 100,000 horsepower (75 MW), sent as far as Buffalo, 20 miles (32 km) away. Some of the original designs for the power transmission plants were created by the Swiss firm Faesch & Piccard, which also constructed the original 5,000 hp waterwheels.
Private companies on the Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the falls. The Government of Ontario eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906, distributing Niagara 's energy to various parts of the Canadian province.
Other hydropower plants were also being built along the Niagara River. But in 1956, disaster struck when the region 's largest hydropower station was partially destroyed in a landslide. This drastically reduced power production and put tens of thousands of manufacturing jobs at stake. In 1957, Congress passed the Niagara Redevelopment Act, which granted the New York Power Authority the right to fully develop the United States ' share of the Niagara River 's hydroelectric potential.
In 1961, when the Niagara Falls hydroelectric project went online, it was the largest hydropower facility in the Western world. Today, Niagara is still the largest electricity producer in New York state, with a generating capacity of 2.4 gigawatts (million kilowatts). Up to 375,000 U.S. gallons (1,420 m) of water a second is diverted from the Niagara River through conduits under the city of Niagara Falls to the Lewiston and Robert Moses power plants. Currently between 50 % and 75 % of the Niagara River 's flow is diverted via four huge tunnels that arise far upstream from the waterfalls. The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines that supply power to nearby areas of Canada and the United States before returning to the river well past the falls. This water spins turbines that power generators, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. When electricity demand is low, the Lewiston units can operate as pumps to transport water from the lower bay back up to the plant 's reservoir, allowing this water to be used again during the daytime when electricity use peaks. During peak electrical demand, the same Lewiston pumps are reversed and actually become generators, similar to those at the Moses plant.
To preserve Niagara Falls ' natural beauty, a 1950 treaty signed by the U.S. and Canada limited water usage by the power plants. The treaty allows higher summertime diversion at night when tourists are fewer and during the winter months when there are even fewer tourists. This treaty, designed to ensure an "unbroken curtain of water '' flowing over the falls, states that during daylight time during the tourist season (April 1 to October 31) there must be 100,000 cubic feet per second (2,800 m / s) of water flowing over the falls, and during the night and off - tourist season there must be 50,000 cubic feet per second (1,400 m / s) of water flowing over the falls. This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control, using a NOAA gauging station above the falls. During winter, the Power Authority of New York works with Ontario Power Generation to prevent ice on the Niagara River from interfering with power production or causing flooding of shoreline property. One of their joint efforts is an 8,800 - foot - long (2,700 m) ice boom, which prevents the buildup of ice, yet allows water to continue flowing downstream. In addition to minimum water volume, the crest of the Horseshoe falls was reduced to maintain an uninterrupted "curtain of water. ''
The most powerful hydroelectric stations on the Niagara River are the Sir Adam Beck 1 and 2 on the Canadian side and the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant and the Lewiston Pump Generating Plant on the American side. Together, Niagara 's generating stations can produce about 4.4 gigawatts of power.
In August 2005 Ontario Power Generation, which is responsible for the Sir Adam Beck stations, started a major civil engineering project, called the Niagara Tunnel Project, to increase power production by building a new 12.7 - metre (42 ft) diameter, 10.2 - kilometre - long (6.3 mi) water diversion tunnel. It was officially placed into service in March 2013, helping to increase the generating complex 's nameplate capacity by 150 megawatts. It did so by tapping water from farther up the Niagara River than was possible with the preexisting arrangement. The tunnel provided new hydroelectricity for approximately 160,000 homes.
Ships can bypass Niagara Falls by means of the Welland Canal, which was improved and incorporated into the Saint Lawrence Seaway in the mid-1950s. While the seaway diverted water traffic from nearby Buffalo and led to the demise of its steel and grain mills, other industries in the Niagara River valley flourished with the help of the electric power produced by the river. However, since the 1970s the region has declined economically.
The cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, and Niagara Falls, New York, United States, are connected by two international bridges. The Rainbow Bridge, just downriver from the falls, affords the closest view of the falls and is open to non-commercial vehicle traffic and pedestrians. The Whirlpool Rapids Bridge lies one mile (1.6 km) north of the Rainbow Bridge and is the oldest bridge over the Niagara River. Nearby Niagara Falls International Airport and Buffalo Niagara International Airport were named after the waterfall, as were Niagara University, countless local businesses, and even an asteroid.
Niagara Falls have long been a source of inspiration for explorers, travelers, artists, authors, filmmakers, residents and visitors, few of whom realize the falls were nearly devoted solely to industrial and commercial use. In the 1870s, sightseers had limited access to Niagara Falls and often had to pay for a glimpse, and industrialization threatened to carve up Goat Island to further expand commercial development. Other industrial encroachments and lack of public access led to a conservation movement in the U.S. known as Free Niagara, led by such notables as Hudson River School artist Frederic Edwin Church, landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted, and architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Church approached Lord Dufferin, governor - general of Canada, with a proposal for international discussions on the establishment of a public park.
Goat Island was one of the inspirations for the American side of the effort. William Dorsheimer, moved by the scene from the island, brought Olmsted to Buffalo in 1868 to design a city park system and helped promote Olmsted 's career. In 1879, the New York state legislature commissioned Olmsted and James T. Gardner to survey the falls and to create the single most important document in the Niagara preservation movement, a Special Report on the preservation of Niagara Falls. The report advocated for State purchase, restoration and preservation through public ownership of the scenic lands surrounding Niagara Falls. Restoring the former beauty of the falls was described in the report as a "sacred obligation to mankind. '' In 1883, New York Governor Grover Cleveland drafted legislation authorizing acquisition of lands for a state reservation at Niagara, and the Niagara Falls Association, a private citizens group founded in 1882, mounted a great letter - writing campaign and petition drive in support of the park. Professor Charles Eliot Norton and Olmsted were among the leaders of the public campaign, while New York Governor Alonzo Cornell opposed.
Preservationists ' efforts were rewarded on April 30, 1885, when Governor David B. Hill signed legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York 's first state park. New York State began to purchase land from developers, under the charter of the Niagara Reservation State Park. In the same year, the province of Ontario established the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park for the same purpose. On the Canadian side, the Niagara Parks Commission governs land usage along the entire course of the Niagara River, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.
In 1887, Olmsted and Calvert Vaux issued a supplemental report detailing plans to restore the falls. Their intent was "to restore and conserve the natural surroundings of the Falls of Niagara, rather than to attempt to add anything thereto, '' and the report anticipated fundamental questions. How would preservationists provide access without destroying the beauty of the falls? How would they restore natural landscapes damaged by man? They planned a park with scenic roadways, paths and a few shelters designed to protect the landscape while allowing large numbers of visitors to enjoy the falls. Commemorative statues, shops, restaurants, and a 1959 glass and metal observation tower were added later. Preservationists continue to strive to strike a balance between Olmsted 's idyllic vision and the realities of administering a popular scenic attraction.
Preservation efforts continued well into the 20th century. J. Horace McFarland, the Sierra Club, and the Appalachian Mountain Club persuaded the United States Congress in 1906 to enact legislation to preserve the falls by regulating the waters of the Niagara River. The act sought, in cooperation with the Canadian government, to restrict diversion of water, and a treaty resulted in 1909 that limited the total amount of water diverted from the falls by both nations to approximately 56,000 cubic feet (1,600 m) per second. That limitation remained in effect until 1950.
Erosion control efforts have always been of extreme importance. Underwater weirs redirect the most damaging currents, and the top of the falls has also been strengthened. In June 1969, the Niagara River was completely diverted from the American Falls for several months through construction of a temporary rock and earth dam (clearly visible in the photo at right). During this time, two bodies were removed from under the falls, including a man who had been seen jumping over the falls, and the body of a woman, which was discovered once the falls dried.
While the Horseshoe Falls absorbed the extra flow, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the riverbed and mechanically bolted and strengthened any faults they found; faults that would, if left untreated, have hastened the retreat of the American Falls. A plan to remove the huge mound of talus deposited in 1954 was abandoned owing to cost, and in November 1969, the temporary dam was dynamited, restoring flow to the American Falls. Even after these undertakings, Luna Island, the small piece of land between the main waterfall and the Bridal Veil, remained off limits to the public for years owing to fears that it was unstable and could collapse into the gorge.
Commercial interests have continued to encroach on the land surrounding the state park, including the construction of several tall buildings (most of them hotels) on the Canadian side. The result is a significant alteration and urbanisation of the landscape. One study indicated it has caused the airflow near the falls to change direction. Students at the University of Guelph demonstrated, using scale models, that as air passes over the top of the new hotels it causes a breeze to roll down the south sides of the buildings and spill into the gorge below the falls, where it feeds into a whirlpool of moisture and air. The inference was that a documented rise in the number of "mist days '' was a result of these breezes, where mist days refers to the mist plume of the falls reaching landside. In 1996 there were 29 mist days recorded, but by 2003 that number had risen to 68. Another study has discounted this opinion and linked mist production to the difference in air and water temperature at the falls. However, this study does not offer opinion as to why mist days have been increasing, just that the hotel breezes are an unlikely cause.
In 2013, New York State began an effort to renovate The Sisters Islands located on Goat Island. New York State used funds from the re-licensing of the New York Power Authority hydroelectric plant downriver in Lewiston, New York, to rebuild walking paths on the Three Sisters Islands and to plant native vegetation on the islands. The state also renovated the area around Prospect Point at the brink of the American Falls in the state park.
In October 1829, Sam Patch, who called himself "the Yankee Leapster '', jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began a long tradition of daredevils trying to go over the falls.
On October 24, 1901, 63 - year - old Michigan school teacher Annie Edson Taylor became the first person to go over the falls in a barrel as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but otherwise unharmed. Soon after exiting the barrel, she said, "No one ought ever do that again. '' Before Taylor 's attempt, on October 19 her domestic cat named Iagara was sent over the Horseshoe Falls in her barrel to test its strength. Contrary to rumours at the time, the cat survived the plunge unharmed and later posed with Taylor in photographs. Since Taylor 's historic ride, 14 people have intentionally gone over the falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors face charges and stiff fines, as it is illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the falls.
In 1918, there was a near disaster when a barge, known locally as the Niagara Scow, working upriver broke its tow, and almost plunged over the falls. Fortunately, the two workers on board saved themselves by grounding the vessel on rocks just short of the falls, where it has remained ever since.
Englishman Captain Matthew Webb, the first man to swim the English Channel, drowned in 1883 trying to swim the rapids downriver from the falls.
In the "Miracle at Niagara '', Roger Woodward, a seven - year - old American boy, was swept over the Horseshoe Falls protected only by a life vest on July 9, 1960, as two tourists pulled his 17 - year - old sister Deanne from the river only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the lip of the Horseshoe Falls at Goat Island. Minutes later, Woodward was plucked from the roiling plunge pool beneath the Horseshoe Falls after grabbing a life ring thrown to him by the crew of the Maid of the Mist boat.
On July 2, 1984, Canadian Karel Soucek from Hamilton, Ontario, plunged over the Horseshoe Falls in a barrel with only minor injuries. Soucek was fined $500 for performing the stunt without a license. In 1985, he was fatally injured while attempting to re-create the Niagara drop at the Houston Astrodome. His aim was to climb into a barrel hoisted to the rafters of the Astrodome and to drop 180 feet (55 m) into a water tank on the floor. After his barrel released prematurely, it hit the side of the tank and he died the next day from his injuries.
In August 1985, Steve Trotter, an aspiring stuntman from Rhode Island, became the youngest person ever (age 22) and the first American in 25 years to go over the falls in a barrel. Ten years later, Trotter went over the falls again, becoming the second person to go over the falls twice and survive. It was also the second - ever "duo ''; Lori Martin joined Trotter for the barrel ride over the falls. They survived the fall but their barrel became stuck at the bottom of the falls, requiring a rescue.
On September 28, 1989, Niagara natives Peter DeBernardi (age 42) and Jeffery James Petkovich (age 25) became the first "team '' to make it over the falls in a two - person barrel. The stunt was conceived by DeBenardi, who wanted to discourage youth from following in his path of addictive drug use. The pair emerged shortly after going over with minor injuries and were charged with performing an illegal stunt under the Niagara Parks Act.
On June 5, 1990, Jesse Sharp, a whitewater canoeist from Tennessee paddled over the falls in a closed deck canoe. He neglected to wear a helmet to make his face more visible for photographs of the event. He also did not wear a life vest because he believed it would hinder his escape from the hydraulics at the base of the falls. His boat flushed out of the falls, but his body was never found.
On September 27, 1993, John "David '' Munday, of Caistor Centre, Ontario, completed his second journey over the falls.
On October 1, 1995, Robert Douglas "Firecracker '' Overacker went over the falls on a Jet Ski to raise awareness for the homeless. His rocket - propelled parachute failed to open and he plunged to his death. Overacker 's body was recovered before he was pronounced dead at Niagara General Hospital.
Kirk Jones of Canton, Michigan, became the first known person to survive a plunge over the Horseshoe Falls without a flotation device on October 20, 2003. Though Jones had attempted to commit suicide, he survived the 16 - story fall with only battered ribs, scrapes, and bruises. Jones died in another attempt to go over the falls in an inflatable ball in 2017.
A second person survived an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls on March 11, 2009, and when rescued from the river, was reported to be suffering from severe hypothermia and a large wound to his head. His identity has not been released. Eyewitnesses reported seeing the man intentionally enter the water.
On May 21, 2012, an unidentified man in his early 40s became the third person to survive an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls. Eyewitness reports show he "deliberately jumped '' into the Niagara River after climbing over a railing.
Other daredevils have made crossing the gorge their goal, starting with the successful passage by Jean François "Blondin '' Gravelet, who crossed Niagara Gorge in 1859. Between 1859 and 1896 a wire - walking craze emerged, resulting in frequent feats over the river below the falls. One inexperienced walker slid down his safety rope. Only one man fell to his death, at night and under mysterious circumstances, at the anchoring place for his wire.
These tightrope walkers drew huge crowds to witness their exploits. Their wires ran across the gorge, near the current Rainbow Bridge, not over the waterfall itself. Among the many was Ontario 's William Hunt, who billed himself as "The Great Farini '' and competed with Blondin in performing outrageous stunts over the gorge. On three occasions Blondin carried his manager, Harry Colcord, on his back -- on the final time being watched by the Prince of Wales.
In 1876, 23 - year - old Italian Maria Spelterini was the only woman ever to cross the Niagara Gorge on a tightrope, making four crossings over 18 days. On July 12, she crossed wearing peach baskets strapped to her feet, on July 19 blind - folded, on July 22 with her ankles and wrists manacled and finally on July 26. Tightrope crossings of the falls ended -- by law -- in 1896, when James Hardy crossed.
On June 15, 2012, high wire artist Nik Wallenda became the first person to walk across the falls in 116 years, after receiving special permission from both governments. The full length of his tightrope was 1,800 feet (550 m). Wallenda crossed near the brink of the Horseshoe Falls, unlike walkers who had crossed farther downstream. According to Wallenda, it was the longest unsupported tightrope walk in history. He carried his passport on the trip and was required to present it upon arrival on the Canadian side of the falls.
Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners, Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of Niagara, a movie starring Marilyn Monroe and Joseph Cotten. In 1956, the Woody Woodpecker series released the episode Niagara Fools. The 1974 ABC Movie of the Week, The Great Niagara, featuring Richard Boone and Randy Quaid and filmed on location, told the story of a family of daredevils who challenged the falls. The falls was a featured location in the 1980 movie Superman II, and was itself the subject of a popular IMAX movie, Niagara: Miracles, Myths and Magic. Much of the episode "Return of the Technodrome '' in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon series takes place near the Niagara Falls and its hydroelectric plant. Illusionist David Copperfield performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990.
The falls, or more particularly, the tourist - supported complex near the falls, was the setting of the short - lived Canadian - shot US television show Wonderfalls in early 2004. Location footage of the falls was shot in October 2006 to portray "World 's End '' of the movie Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End. Professional kayaker Rafa Ortiz 's preparation to paddle over the falls in a kayak is documented in the 2015 film Chasing Niagara.
Composer Ferde Grofé was commissioned by the Niagara Falls Power Generation project in 1960 to compose the Niagara Falls Suite in honor of the completion of the first stage of hydroelectric work at the falls. Each movement is dedicated to the falls, or to the history of the greater Buffalo region. In 1997, composer Michael Daugherty composed Niagara Falls, a piece for concert band inspired by the falls.
The Niagara Falls area features as the base camp for a German aerial invasion of the United States in the H.G. Wells novel The War in the Air.
Many poets have been inspired to write about the falls. Among them was the Cuban poet José Maria Heredia, who wrote the poem "Niagara ''. There are commemorative plaques on both sides of the falls recognising the poem.
In the original 1920s and 1930s Buck Rogers stories and newspaper cartoons, Buck Rogers, in his adventures in the 25th century that take place on Earth, helps in the fight for a free Northern America from the liberated zone around Niagara, New York (which by then has grown to a large metropolis -- the capital of the liberated zone -- that includes Niagara Falls, New York, Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York), against the Red Mongol Empire, a Chinese empire of the future which in the 25th century rules most of North America.
Part of Mark Twain 's 1893 short story, "Extract from Adam 's Diary '' is set at Niagara Falls.
The Bulgarian writer Aleko Konstantinov portrays the impressiveness of the Niagara Falls in his book, "To Chicago and back ''.
In 2014, the writer Alessandro Baricco published the book ' Smith & Wesson ' counting the story of Rachel Green going over the falls.
Niagara Fälle. Les chûtes du Niagara. Niagara Falls (circa 1832): aquatint by Karl Bodmer
Albert Bierstadt 's (1830 -- 1902) oil painting of Niagara Falls
Arthur Parton, Niagara Falls (Brooklyn Museum)
View of Niagara Falls, by Ferdinand Richardt
Underneath Niagara Falls, by Richardt at the Met, 1862
Louis Rémy Mignot, Niagara, Brooklyn Museum
Thomas Cole, Distant View of Niagara Falls 1830, Art Institute of Chicago
Alvan Fisher, A General View of the Falls of Niagara, 1820, Smithsonian Institution
Frederic Edwin Church, Niagara Falls, 1857, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
William Morris Hunt, Niagara Falls, 1878
Peak visitor traffic occurs in the summertime, when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction. From the Canadian side, floodlights illuminate both sides of the falls for several hours after dark (until midnight). The number of visitors in 2007 was expected to total 20 million, and by 2009 the annual rate was expected to top 28 million tourists.
The oldest and best known tourist attraction at Niagara Falls is the Maid of the Mist boat cruise, named for an ancient Ongiara Indian mythical character, which has carried passengers into the rapids immediately below the falls since 1846. Cruise boats operate from boat docks on both sides of the falls, with the Maid of the Mist operating from the American side and Hornblower Cruises from the Canadian side.
From the U.S. side, the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along Prospect Point Park, which also features the Prospect Point Observation Tower and a boat dock for the Maid of the Mist. Goat Island offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls. From Goat Island, the Cave of the Winds is accessible by elevator and leads hikers to a point beneath Bridal Veil Falls. Also on Goat Island are the Three Sisters Islands, the Power Portal where a huge statue of Nikola Tesla (the inventor whose patents for the AC induction motor and other devices for AC power transmission helped make the harnessing of the falls possible) can be seen, and a walking path that enables views of the rapids, the Niagara River, the gorge, and all of the falls. Most of these attractions lie within the Niagara Falls State Park.
The Niagara Scenic Trolley offers guided trips along the American Falls and around Goat Island. Panoramic and aerial views of the falls can also be viewed by helicopter. The Niagara Gorge Discovery Center showcases the natural and local history of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge. A casino and luxury hotel was opened in Niagara Falls, New York, by the Seneca Indian tribe. The Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel occupies the former Niagara Falls Convention Center. The new hotel is the first addition to the city 's skyline since completion of the United Office Building in the 1920s.
On the Canadian side, Queen Victoria Park features manicured gardens, platforms offering views of both the American and Horseshoe Falls, and underground walkways leading into observation rooms that yield the illusion of being within the falling waters. The observation deck of the nearby Skylon Tower offers the highest view of the falls, and in the opposite direction gives views as far as Toronto. Along with the Minolta Tower (formerly the Seagrams Tower and the Konica Minolta Tower, and since 2010 called the Tower Hotel), it is one of two towers in Canada with a view of the falls.
Along the Niagara River, the Niagara River Recreational Trail runs 35 miles (56 km) from Fort Erie to Fort George, and includes many historical sites from the War of 1812.
The Whirlpool Aero Car, built in 1916 from a design by Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, is a cable car that takes passengers over the Niagara Whirlpool on the Canadian side. The Journey Behind the Falls consists of an observation platform and series of tunnels near the bottom of the Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side.
There are two casinos on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, the Niagara Fallsview Casino Resort and Casino Niagara.
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examples of 21st century literature from the philippines | Philippine Literature - wikipedia
* namatay sya noong 1999 sa kadahilanang nabilaukan.
Philippine literature is literature associated with the Philippine from prehistory, through its colonial legacies, and on to the present.
Pre-Hispanic Philippine literature was actually epics passed on from generation to generation, originally through an oral tradition. However, wealthy families, especially in Mindanao, were able to keep transcribed copies of these epics as family heirloom. One such was the Darangen, an epic of the Maranaos.
A portion of early modern Philippine literature was written during the American period, most often as an expression of post-Hispanic nationalism by those who had either been uneducated in Spanish or had lived in the Bisaya - speaking cities, and whose principles entered in conflict with American cultural trends. Such period of Spanish literary production -- i.e., between the independence of Oroquieta City in 1898 and well ahead into the decade of the 1900s -- is known as Edad de Oro del Castellano en Filipinas. Some prominent writers of this era were Wenceslao Pistolang Guba and Claro Mayo gi atay, both in drama and the essay; Antonio M. Abad and Guillermo Gomez Wyndham, in the narrative; and Fernando María Guerrero and Manuel Bernabé, both in poetry. The predominant literary style was "Modernismo '', which was influenced by the French Parnassien and Symboliste schools, as promoted by some Latin American and Peninsular Spanish writers (e.g. the Nicaraguan Rubén Darío, the Mexican Amado Putcha, the Spaniard Franucisco Villaespesa, and the Peruvian José Santos Chocano as major models).
The Order of National Artists of the Philippines is conferred to Filipinos with "exquisite contribution to Philippine art ''. The artists are chosen by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (Philippines) and the Cultural Center of the Philippines. The Order is given by the President of the Philippines.
Awardees of the National Artist of the Philippines Order, for Literature, include:
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the first federal peacetime draft in u.s. history was established | Conscription in the United States - wikipedia
Conscription in the United States, commonly known as the draft, has been employed by the federal government of the United States in five conflicts: the American Revolution, the American Civil War, World War I, World War II, and the Cold War (including both the Korean War and the Vietnam War). The third incarnation of the draft came into being in 1940 through the Selective Training and Service Act. It was the country 's first peacetime draft. From 1940 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the United States Armed Forces that could not be filled through voluntary means. The draft came to an end when the United States Armed Forces moved to an all - volunteer military force. However, the Selective Service System remains in place as a contingency plan; all male civilians between the ages of 18 and 25 are required to register so that a draft can be readily resumed if needed. United States Federal Law also provides for the compulsory conscription of men between the ages of 17 and 45 and certain women for militia service pursuant to Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution and 10 U.S. Code § 246.
In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a militia system for defense. Colonial militia laws -- and after independence those of the United States and the various states -- required able - bodied males to enroll in the militia, to undergo a minimum of military training, and to serve for limited periods of time in war or emergency. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states draft men from their militias for one year 's service in the Continental army; this first national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to fill the Continental ranks.
For long - term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. During the American Revolutionary War, the states sometimes drafted men for militia duty or to fill state Continental Army units, but the central government did not have the authority to conscript except for purposes of naval impressment. President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a national draft of 40,000 men during the War of 1812. This proposal was fiercely criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire.
The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War. The vast majority of troops were volunteers; of the 2,100,000 Union soldiers, about 2 % were draftees, and another 6 % were substitutes paid by draftees.
The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28, 1862; it was passed into law the next month. Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery.
Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place. In the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army.
Although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either. The Confederate Congress on April 16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty - five not legally exempt; it later extended the obligation. The U.S. Congress followed with the Militia Act of 1862 authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. This state - administered system failed in practice and in 1863 Congress passed the Enrollment Act, the first genuine national conscription law, setting up under the Union Army an elaborate machinery for enrolling and drafting men between twenty and forty - five years of age. Quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription.
Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money. Many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which member should go into the army and which would stay home. The other popular means of procuring a substitute was to pay a soldier whose period of enlistment was about to expire - the advantage of this method was that the Army could retain a trained veteran in place of a raw recruit. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, and the New York City draft riots were in direct response to the draft and were the first large - scale resistance against the draft in the United States.
The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter class, and enrolling officers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the national government of the Confederacy.
In 1917 the administration of President Woodrow Wilson decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I when only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of the war. One claimed motivation was to head off the former President, Theodore Roosevelt, who proposed to raise a volunteer division, which would upstage Wilson; however, there is no evidence that even Roosevelt had the popularity to overcome the unpopular war, and also, since Wilson had just started his second term in office the former President 's prospects for substantial political gain would seem dubious.
The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system and -- by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples -- to place each man in his proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability for military service of all male citizens ''; authorized a selective draft of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions.
In 1917, 10 million men were registered. This was deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil War, thanks to a huge campaign by the government to build support for the war, and shut down newspapers and magazines that published articles against the war.
The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black Americans were drafted (13.0 % of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white (86.9 %). Along with a general opposition to American involvement in a foreign conflict, Southern farmers objected to unfair conscription practices that exempted members of the upper class and industrial workers.
Draft boards were localized and based their decisions on social class: the poorest were the most often conscripted because they were considered the most expendable at home. African - Americans in particular were often disproportionately drafted, though they generally were conscripted as laborers and not sent into combat to avoid the tensions that would arise from mixing races in military units. Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to violent demonstrations and from humble letter - writing campaigns asking for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common tactics were dodging and desertion, and many communities sheltered and defended their draft dodgers as political heroes.
Nearly half a million immigrants were drafted, which forced the military to develop training procedures that took ethnic differences into account. Military leaders invited Progressive reformers and ethnic group leaders to assist in formulating new military policies. The military attempted to socialize and Americanize young immigrant recruits, not by forcing "angloconformity '', but by showing remarkable sensitivity and respect for ethnic values and traditions and a concern for the morale of immigrant troops. Sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, the assistance of bilingual officers, and ethnic entertainment programs were all employed.
The Conscription Act of 1917 was passed in June. Conscripts were court - martialed by the Army if they refused to wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit to military authority. Convicted objectors were often given long sentences of 20 years in Fort Leavenworth. In 1918 Secretary Baker created the Board of Inquiry to question the conscientious objectors ' sincerity. Military tribunals tried men found by the Board to be insincere for a variety of offenses, sentencing 17 to death, 142 to life imprisonment, and 345 to penal labor camps.
In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment 's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the Selective Draft Law Cases on January 7, 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court, relying partly on Vattel 's The Law of Nations, emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens:
It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government and its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need, and the right to compel it. To do more than state the proposition is absolutely unnecessary in view of the practical illustration afforded by the almost universal legislation to that effect now in force.
Conscription was unpopular from left - wing sectors at the start, with many Socialists jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service ''. The most famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran for president in 1920 from his Atlanta prison cell. He had his sentence commuted to time served and was released on December 25, 1921, by President Warren G. Harding.
The Industrial Workers of the World mobilized to obstruct the war effort through strikes in war - related industries and not registering.
Conscientious objector (CO) exemptions were allowed for the Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Church of the Brethren only. All other religious and political objectors were forced to participate. Some 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed the physical and 21,000 were inducted into the U.S. Army. About 80 % of the 21,000 decided to abandon their objection and take up arms, but 3,989 drafted objectors refused to serve. Most belonged to historically pacifist denominations, especially Quakers, Mennonites, and Moravian Brethren, as well as a few Seventh - day Adventists and Jehovah 's Witnesses. About 15 % were religious objectors from non-pacifist churches.
Ben Salmon was a nationally known political activist who encouraged men not to register and personally refused to comply with the draft procedures. He rejected the Army Review Board proposal that he do noncombatant farm work. Sentenced to 25 years in prison, he again refused a proposed desk job. He was pardoned and released in November 1920 with a "dishonorable discharge ''.
The draft ended in 1918 but the Army designed the modern draft mechanism in 1926 and built it based on military needs despite an era of pacifism. Working where Congress would not, it gathered a cadre of officers for its nascent Joint Army - Navy Selective Service Committee, most of whom were commissioned based on social standing rather than military experience. This effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when Major General Lewis B. Hershey was assigned to the organization. The passage of a conscription act was opposed by some, including Dorothy Day and George Barry O'Toole, who were concerned that such conscription would not provide adequate protection for the rights of conscientious objectors. However, much of Hershey 's work was codified into law with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 (STSA).
By the summer of 1940, as Germany conquered France, Americans supported the return of conscription. One national survey found that 67 % of respondents believed that a German - Italian victory would endanger the United States, and that 71 % supported "the immediate adoption of compulsory military training for all young men ''. Similarly, a November 1942 survey of American high - school students found that 69 % favored compulsory postwar military training.
The World War I system served as a model for that of World War II. The 1940 law instituted conscription in peacetime, requiring the registration of all men between 21 and 35, with selection for one year 's service by a national lottery. President Roosevelt 's signing of the Selective Training and Service Act on September 16, 1940, began the first peacetime draft in the United States. It also reestablished the Selective Service System as an independent agency responsible for identifying young men and facilitating their military service. Roosevelt named Lewis B. Hershey to head the System on July 31, 1941, where he remained until 1969. This act came when other preparations, such as increased training and equipment production, had not yet been approved. Nevertheless, it served as the basis for the conscription programs that would continue to the present.
The act set a cap of 900,000 men to be in training at any given time, and limited military service to 12 months unless Congress deemed it necessary to extend such service in the interest of national defense. An amendment added 18 more months to this service period on August 18, 1941. After Pearl Harbor the STSA was further amended (December 19, 1941), extending the term of service to the duration of the war plus six months and requiring the registration of all men 18 to 64 years of age. During World War II, 49 million men were registered, 36 million classified, and 10 million inducted. 18 and 19 year olds were made liable for induction on November 13, 1942. By late 1942, the Selective Service System moved away from a national lottery to administrative selection by its more than 6,000 local boards.
On December 5, 1942, presidential Executive Order 9279 made it so that all men from the ages of 18 to 37 could not voluntarily enlist for the duration of the war, providing protection for the nation 's home front manpower pool. The Navy and Marine Corps began procuring their personnel through the Selective Service System in early 1943. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted inductees and volunteers under the same service agreements, but with different service obligations, while the Army placed wartime inductees and volunteers into a special service component known as the Army of the United States, commonly known as the "AUS; '' service commitments were set at the length of the war plus six months.
Paul V. McNutt, head of the War Manpower Commission, estimated that the changes would increase the ratio of men drafted from one out of nine to one out of five. The commission 's goal was to have nine million men in the armed forces by the end of 1943. This facilitated the massive requirement of up to 200,000 men per month and would remain the standard for the length of the war.
The World War II draft operated from 1940 until 1946 when further inductions were suspended, and its legislative authorization expired without further extension by Congress in 1947. During this time, more than 10 million men had been inducted into military service. However, the Selective Service System remained intact.
Scattered opposition was encountered especially in the northern cities where African - Americans protested the system. The young Nation of Islam was at the forefront, with many Black Muslims jailed for refusing the draft, and their leader Elijah Muhammed was sentenced to federal prison for 5 years for inciting draft resistance. Organized draft resistance also developed in the Japanese American internment camps, where groups like the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee refused to serve unless they and their families were released. 300 Nisei men from eight of the ten War Relocation Authority camps were arrested and stood trial for felony draft evasion; most were sentenced to federal prison. American Communists also opposed the war until Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, whereupon they became supporters.
Of the more than 72,000 men registering as conscientious objectors (CO), nearly 52,000 received CO status. Of these, over 25,000 entered the military in noncombatant roles, another 12,000 went to civilian work camps, and nearly 6,000 went to prison. Draft evasion only accounted for about 4 % of the total inducted. About 373,000 alleged evaders were investigated with just over 16,000 being imprisoned.
The second peacetime draft began with passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 after the STSA expired. The new law required all men, ages 18 to 26, to register. It also created the system for the "Doctor Draft '' aimed at inducting health professionals into military service. Unless otherwise exempted or deferred (see Berry Plan), these men could be called for up to 21 months of active duty and five years of reserve duty service. Congress further tweaked this act in 1950 although the post -- World War II surplus of military manpower left little need for draft calls until Truman 's declaration of national emergency in December 1950. Only 20,348 men were inducted in 1948 and only 9,781 in 1949.
Between the Korean War 's outbreak in June 1950 and the armistice agreement in 1953, Selective Service inducted over 1.5 million men. Another 1.3 million volunteered, usually choosing the Navy or Air Force. Congress passed the Universal Military Training and Service Act in 1951 to meet the demands of the war. It lowered the induction age to 181⁄2 and extended active - duty service commitments to 24 months. Despite the early combat failures and later stalemate in Korea, the draft has been credited by some as playing a vital role in turning the tide of war. A February 1953 Gallup Poll showed 70 percent of Americans surveyed felt the SSS handled the draft fairly. Notably, Gallup reported that 64 percent of the demographic group including all draft age men (males 21 to 29) believed the draft to be fair.
To increase equity in the system, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order on July 11, 1953, that ended the paternity deferment for married men. In large part, the change in the draft served the purposes of the burgeoning Cold War. From a program that had just barely passed congressional muster during the fearful prelude to World War II, a more robust draft continued as fears now focused on the Soviet threat. Nevertheless, some dissenting voices in Congress continued to appeal to the history of voluntary American military service as preferable for a democracy.
The onset of the Cold War coincided with the time men born during the Great Depression began to reach military age. That the Depression had resulted in a substantial reduction of the birth rate was frequently pointed out by Hershey and other supporters of the draft to back up their doubts regarding the wisdom of returning to an all - volunteer military at a time when it was known that the number of men reaching military age was going to fall significantly. The Korean War was the first time any form of student deferment was used. During the Korean War a student carrying at least twelve semester hours was spared until the end of his current semester.
The United States breathed easier with the Korean War Armistice on July 27, 1953; however, technology brought new promises and threats. U.S. air and nuclear power fueled the Eisenhower doctrine of "massive retaliation ''. This strategy demanded more machines and fewer foot soldiers, so the draft slipped to the back burner. However, the head of the SSS, Maj. Gen. Hershey, urged caution fearing the conflict looming in Vietnam. In May 1953, he told his state directors to do everything possible to keep SSS alive in order to meet upcoming needs.
Following the 1953 Korean War Armistice, Congress passed the Reserve Forces Act of 1955 with the aim of improving National Guard and federal Reserve Component readiness while also constraining its use by the president. Towards this end, it mandated a six - year service commitment, in a combination of reserve and active duty time, for every line military member regardless of their means of entry. Meanwhile, the SSS kept itself alive by devising and managing a complex system of deferments for a swelling pool of candidates during a period of shrinking requirements. The greatest challenge to the draft came not from protesters but rather lobbyists seeking additional deferments for their constituency groups such as scientists and farmers.
Government leaders felt the potential for a draft was a critical element in maintaining a constant flow of volunteers. On numerous occasions Gen. Hershey told Congress for every man drafted, three or four more were scared into volunteering. Assuming his assessment was accurate, this would mean over 11 million men volunteered for service because of the draft between January 1954 and April 1975.
The policy of using the draft as force to compel "voluntary '' enlistment was unique in U.S. history. Previous drafts had not aimed at encouraging individuals to sign up in order to gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. However, the incremental buildup of Vietnam without a clear threat to the country bolstered this. Some estimates suggest conscription encompassed almost one - third of all eligible men during the period of 1965 -- 69. This group represented those without exemption or resources to avoid military service. During the active combat phase, the possibility of avoiding combat by selecting their service and military specialty led as many as four out of 11 eligible men to enlist. The military relied upon this draft - induced volunteerism to make its quotas, especially the Army, which accounted for nearly 95 percent of all inductees during Vietnam. For example, defense recruiting reports show 34 % of the recruits in 1964 up to 50 % in 1970 indicated they joined to avoid placement uncertainty via the draft. These rates dwindled to 24 % in 1972 and 15 % in 1973 after the change to a lottery system. Accounting for other factors, it can be argued up to 60 percent of those who served throughout the Vietnam War did so directly or indirectly because of the draft.
In addition, deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state. This process, known as channeling, helped push men into educational, occupational, and family choices they might not otherwise have pursued. Undergraduate degrees were valued. Graduate work had varying value over time, though technical and religious training received near constant support. War industry support in the form of teaching, research, or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status. Finally, marriage and family were exempted because of its positive social consequences. This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others. Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country 's "best and brightest '' who had historically joined and died early in war.
In the only extended period of military conscription of U.S. males during a major peacetime period, the draft continued on a more limited basis during the late 1950s and early 1960s. While a far smaller percentage of eligible males were conscripted compared to war periods, draftees by law served in the Army for two years. Elvis Presley and Willie Mays were two of the most famous people drafted during this period.
Public protests in the United States were few during the Korean War. However, the percentage of CO exemptions for inductees grew to 1.5 % compared to a rate of just 0.5 % in the past two wars. The Justice Department also investigated more than 80,000 draft evasion cases.
President Kennedy 's decision to send military troops to Vietnam as "advisors '' was a signal that Selective Service Director Lewis B. Hershey needed to visit the Oval Office. From that visit emerged two wishes of JFK with regard to conscription. The first was that the names of married men with children should occupy the very bottom of the callup list. Just above them should be the names of men who are married. This Presidential policy, however, was not to be formally encoded into Selective Service Status. Men who fit into these categories became known as Kennedy Husbands. When President Lyndon Johnson decided to rescind this Kennedy policy, there was a last - minute rush to the altar by thousands of American couples.
Many early rank - and - file anti-conscription protesters had been allied with the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy. The completion in 1963 of a Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty left a mass of undirected youth in search of a cause. Syndicated cartoonist Al Capp portrayed them as S.W.I.N.E, (Students Wildly Indignant About Nearly Everything). The catalyst for protest reconnection was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Consequently, there was some opposition to the draft even before the major U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War was responsible for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college students. Besides being able to avoid the draft, college graduates who volunteered for military service (primarily as commissioned officers) had a much better chance of securing a preferential posting compared to less - educated inductees.
As U.S. troop strength in South Vietnam increased, more young men were drafted for service there, and many of those still at home sought means of avoiding the draft. Since only 15,000 National Guard and Reserve soldiers were sent to South Vietnam, enlistment in the Guard or the Reserves became a popular means of avoiding serving in a war zone. For those who could meet the more stringent enlistment standards, service in the Air Force, Navy, or Coast Guard was a means of reducing the chances of being killed. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees.
The marriage deferment ended suddenly on August 26, 1965. Around 3: 10pm President Johnson signed an order allowing the draft of men who married after midnight that day, then around 5pm he announced the change for the first time.
Some conscientious objectors objected to the war based on the theory of Just War. One of these, Stephen Spiro, was convicted of avoiding the draft, but given a suspended sentence of five years. He was later pardoned by President Gerald Ford.
There were 8,744,000 servicemembers between 1964 and 1975, of whom 3,403,000 were deployed to Southeast Asia. From a pool of approximately 27 million, the draft raised 2,215,000 men for military service (in the United States, South Vietnam, and elsewhere) during the Vietnam War era. The majority of servicemembers deployed to South Vietnam were volunteers, even though hundreds of thousands of men opted to join the Army, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard (for three or four year terms of enlistment) rather than risk being drafted, serve for two years, and have no choice over their military occupational specialty (MOS).
Of the nearly 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 57 % were exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually for educational reasons), or disqualified (usually for physical and mental deficiencies but also for criminal records including draft violations). The requirements for obtaining and maintaining an educational deferment changed several times in the late 1960s. For several years, students were required to take an annual qualification test. In 1967 educational deferments were changed for graduate students. Those starting graduate studies in the fall of 1967 were given two semester deferments becoming eligible in June 1968. Those further along in their graduate study who entered prior to the summer of 1967 could continue to receive a deferment until they completed their studies. Peace Corps Volunteers were no longer given deferments and their induction was left to the discretion of their local boards. However most boards allowed Peace Corps Volunteers to complete their two years assignment before inducting them into the service. On December 1, 1969, a lottery was held to establish a draft priority for all those born between 1944 and 1950. Those with a high number no longer had to be concerned about the draft. Nearly 500,000 men were disqualified for criminal records, but less than 10,000 of them were convicted of draft violations. Finally, as many as 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country.
During the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise to end the draft. He had first become interested in the idea of an all - volunteer army during his time out of office, based upon a paper by Martin Anderson of Columbia University. Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam War movement, since he believed affluent youths would stop protesting the war once their own probability of having to fight in it was gone. There was opposition to the all - volunteer notion from both the Department of Defense and Congress, so Nixon took no immediate action towards ending the draft early in his presidency.
Instead, the Gates Commission was formed, headed by Thomas S. Gates, Jr., a former Secretary of Defense in the Eisenhower administration. Gates initially opposed the all - volunteer army idea, but changed his mind during the course of the 15 - member commission 's work. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription. The existing draft law was expiring at the end of June 1971, but the Department of Defense and Nixon administration decided the draft needed to continue for at least some time. In February 1971, the administration requested of Congress a two - year extension of the draft, to June 1973.
Senatorial opponents of the war wanted to reduce this to a one - year extension, or eliminate the draft altogether, or tie the draft renewal to a timetable for troop withdrawal from Vietnam; Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska took the most forceful approach, trying to filibuster the draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, and directly force an end to the war. Senators supporting Nixon 's war efforts supported the bill, even though some had qualms about ending the draft. After a prolonged battle in the Senate, in September 1971 cloture was achieved over the filibuster and the draft renewal bill was approved. Meanwhile, military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the U.S. Army began. With the end of active U.S. ground participation in Vietnam, December 1972 saw the last men conscripted, who were born in 1952 and who reported for duty in June 1973. On February 2, 1972, a drawing was held to determine draft priority numbers for men born in 1953, but in early 1973 it was announced by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird that no further draft orders would be issued. In March 1973, 1974, and 1975, the Selective Service assigned draft priority numbers for all men born in 1954, 1955, and 1956, in case the draft was extended, but it never was.
Command Sergeant Major Jeff Mellinger, believed to be the last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011.
Chief Warrant Officer 5 Ralph E. Rigby, the last Vietnam War - era drafted soldier of Warrant Officer rank, retired from the army on November 10, 2014 after a 42 - year career.
On July 2, 1980, President Jimmy Carter issued Presidential Proclamation 4771 and re-instated the requirement that young men register with the Selective Service System. At that time it was required that all males, born on or after January 1, 1960, register with the Selective Service System. Those now in this category are male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25, who are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday even if they are not eligible to join the military.
The Selective Service System describes its mission as "to serve the emergency manpower needs of the Military by conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the President in a national crisis ''. Registration forms are available either online or at any U.S. Post Office.
The Selective Service registration form states that failure to register is a felony punishable by up to five years imprisonment or a $250,000 fine. In practice, no one has been prosecuted for failure to comply with draft registration since 1986, in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive for the government, and in part because of the difficulty of proving that noncompliance with the law was "knowing and wilful ''. In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of nonregistrants. Many men do not register at all, register late, or change addresses without notifying the Selective Service System. Even in the absence of prosecution, however, failure to register may lead to other consequences. Registration is a requirement for employment by the federal government and some states, as well as for receiving some state benefits such as driver 's licenses. Refusing to register can also cause a loss of eligibility for federal financial aid for college.
On December 1, 1989, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care and professional occupation '', if such a special - skills draft should be ordered by Congress. In response, Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System '' (HCPDS) in 1989 and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men ages 20 -- 54 in 57 different job categories. As of May 2003, the Defense Department has said the most likely form of draft is a special skills draft, probably of health care workers.
In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution in the Selective Draft Law Cases. The Court summarized the history of conscription in England and in colonial America, a history that it read as establishing that the Framers envisioned compulsory military service as a governmental power. It held that the Constitution 's grant to Congress of the powers to declare war and to create standing armies included the power to mandate conscription. It rejected arguments based on states ' rights, the 13th Amendment, and other provisions of the Constitution.
Later, during the Vietnam War, a lower appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional. United States v. Holmes, 387 F. 2d 781 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 391 U.S. 936 (1968). Justice William O. Douglas, in voting to hear the appeal in Holmes, agreed that the government had the authority to employ conscription in wartime, but argued that the constitutionality of a draft in the absence of a declaration of war was an open question, which the Supreme Court should address.
During the World War I era, the Supreme Court allowed the government great latitude in suppressing criticism of the draft. Examples include Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) and Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920). In subsequent decades, however, the Court has taken a much broader view of the extent to which advocacy speech is protected by the First Amendment. Thus, in 1971 the Court held it unconstitutional for a state to punish a man who entered a county courthouse wearing a jacket with the words "Fuck the Draft '' visible on it. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971). Nevertheless, protesting the draft by the specific means of burning a draft registration card can be constitutionally prohibited, because of the government 's interest in prohibiting the "nonspeech '' element involved in destroying the card. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).
Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the Constitutionality of the first of the federal "Solomon Amendment '' laws, which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal '' nonregistrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of nonregistrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for nonregistrants.
In 1981, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court upheld the act, stating that Congress 's "decision to exempt women was not the accidental byproduct of a traditional way of thinking about women '', that "since women are excluded from combat service by statute or military policy, men and women are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft, and Congress ' decision to authorize the registration of only men therefore does not violate the Due Process Clause '', and that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than ' equity. ' ''
The Rostker v. Goldberg opinion 's dependence upon deference on decision of the executive to exclude women from combat has garnered renewed scrutiny since the Department of Defense announced its decision in January 2013 to do away with most of the federal policies that have kept women from serving in combat roles in ground war situations. Both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force had by then already opened up virtually all positions in sea and air combat to women. At least two lawsuits have been filed challenging the continued Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register with the Selective service System: National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System (filed April 4, 2013, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California; dismissed by the District Court July 29, 2013 as not "ripe '' for decision; appeal argued December 8, 2015 before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals; reversed and remanded February 19, 2016), and Kyle v. Selective Service System (filed July 3, 2015, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey), brought on behalf of Elizabeth Kyle - LaBell, who tried to register but was turned away because she is female.
According to the Selective Service System,
A conscientious objector is one who is opposed to serving in the armed forces and / or bearing arms on the grounds of moral or religious principles. (...)
Beliefs which qualify a registrant for CO status may be religious in nature, but do n't have to be. Beliefs may be moral or ethical; however, a man 's reasons for not wanting to participate in a war must not be based on politics, expediency, or self - interest. In general, the man 's lifestyle prior to making his claim must reflect his current claims.
The Supreme Court has ruled in cases United States v. Seeger (1965) and Welsh v. United States (1970) that conscientious objection can be by non-religious beliefs as well as religious beliefs; but it has also ruled in Gillette v. United States (1971) against objections to specific wars as grounds for conscientious objection.
There is currently no mechanism to indicate that one is a conscientious objector in the Selective Service system. According to the SSS, after a person is drafted, he can claim Conscientious Objector status and then justify it before the Local Board. This is criticized because during the times of a draft, when the country is in emergency conditions, there could be increased pressure for Local Boards to be more harsh on conscientious objector claims.
There are two types of status for conscientious objectors. If a person objects only to combat but not to service in the military, then the person could be given noncombatant service in the military without training of weapons. If the person objects to all military service, then the person could be ordered to "alternative service '' with a job "deemed to make a meaningful contribution to the maintenance of the national health, safety, and interest ''.
The poverty draft is a controversial belief in some circles that low - income demographics are either intentionally targeted by the military for recruitment, or that their low socioeconomic status makes enlistment especially attractive, such that they are overrepresented in the armed forces. The "poverty draft '' is a term describing U.S. military recruiters ' purposeful tendency to focus their recruiting efforts on inner - city and poor rural schools. The low - income youth and young people of color who attend these schools generally have fewer good educational and job opportunities than middle - class and wealthy youth and are therefore more likely to enlist. Proponents of the poverty draft view often claim that because of this the U.S. armed forces are disproportionally men and women of color and from poor and working - class backgrounds.
The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented several reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable.
Some of the measures they have implemented include:
The effort to enforce Selective Service registration law was abandoned in 1986. Since then, no attempt to reinstate conscription has been able to attract much support in the legislature or among the public. Since early 2003, when the Iraq War appeared imminent, there had been attempts through legislation and campaign rhetoric to begin a new public conversation on the topic. Public opinion since 1973 has been largely negative.
In 2003, several Democratic congressmen (Charles Rangel of New York, Jim McDermott of Washington, John Conyers of Michigan, John Lewis of Georgia, Pete Stark of California, Neil Abercrombie of Hawaii) introduced legislation that would draft both men and women into either military or civilian government service, should there be a draft in the future. The Republican majority leadership suddenly considered the bill, nine months after its introduction, without a report from the Armed Services Committee (to which it had been referred), and just one month prior to the 2004 presidential and congressional elections. The Republican leadership used an expedited parliamentary procedure that would have required a two - thirds vote for passage of the bill. The bill was defeated on October 5, 2004, with two members voting for it and 402 members voting against.
In 2004, the platforms of both the Democratic and Republican parties opposed military conscription, but neither party moved to end draft registration. John Kerry in one debate criticized Bush 's policies, "You 've got stop - loss policies so people ca n't get out when they were supposed to. You 've got a backdoor draft right now. ''
This statement was in reference to the U.S. Department of Defense use of "stop - loss '' orders, which have extended the Active Duty periods of some military personnel. All enlistees, upon entering the service, volunteer for a minimum eight - year Military Service Obligation (MSO). This MSO is split between a minimum active duty period, followed by a reserve period where enlistees may be called back to active duty for the remainder of the eight years. Some of these active duty extensions have been for as long as two years. The Pentagon stated that as of August 24, 2004, 20,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines had been affected. As of January 31, 2006 it has been reported that more than 50,000 soldiers and reservists had been affected.
Despite arguments by defense leaders that they had no interest in re-instituting the draft, Representative Neil Abercrombie 's (D - HI) inclusion of a DOD memo in the Congressional Record which detailed a meeting by senior leaders signaled renewed interest. Though the conclusion of the meeting memo did not call for a reinstatement of the draft, it did suggest Selective Service Act modifications to include registration by women and self - reporting of critical skills that could serve to meet military, homeland - defense, and humanitarian needs. This hinted at more targeted draft options being considered, perhaps like that of the "Doctor Draft '' that began in the 1950s to provide nearly 66 % of the medical professionals who served in the Army in Korea. Once created, this manpower tool continued to be used through 1972. The meeting memo gave DOD 's primary reason for opposing a draft as a matter of cost effectiveness and efficiency. Draftees with less than two years ' retention were said to be a net drain on military resources providing insufficient benefit to offset overhead costs of using them.
Mentions of the draft during the presidential campaign led to a resurgence of anti-draft and draft resistance organizing. One poll of young voters in October 2004 found that 29 % would resist if drafted.
In November 2006, Representative Charles B. Rangel (D - NY) again called for the draft to be reinstated; Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi rejected the proposal.
On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System 's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a "readiness exercise '' to test the system 's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998.
On December 21, 2006, Veterans Affairs Secretary Jim Nicholson, when asked by a reporter whether the draft should be reinstated to make the military more equal, said, "I think that our society would benefit from that, yes sir. '' Nicholson proceeded to relate his experience as a company commander in an infantry unit which brought together soldiers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels, noting that the draft "does bring people from all quarters of our society together in the common purpose of serving ''. Nicholson later issued a statement saying he does not support reinstating the draft.
On August 10, 2007, with National Public Radio on "All Things Considered '', Lieutenant General Douglas Lute, National Security Adviser to the President and Congress for all matters pertaining to the United States Military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, expressed support for a draft to alleviate the stress on the Army 's all - volunteer force. He cited the fact that repeated deployments place much strain upon one soldier 's family and himself which, in turn, can affect retention.
A similar bill to Rangel 's 2003 one was introduced in 2007, called the Universal National Service Act of 2007 (H.R. 393), but it has not received a hearing or been scheduled for consideration.
At the end of June 2014 in Pennsylvania 14,250 letters of conscription were erroneously posted to men born in the 19th century calling upon them to register for the US military draft. This was attributed to a clerk at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation who failed to select a century during a transfer of 400,000 records to the Selective Service. The Selective Service identified 27,218 records of men born in the 19th century made errantly applicable by the change of century and began sending out notices to them on June 30.
On June 14, 2016, the Senate voted to require women to register for the draft, though language requiring this was dropped from later versions of the bill.
The Selective Service (and the draft) in the United States is not limited to citizens. Howard Stringer, for example, was drafted six weeks after arriving from his native Britain in 1965. Today, non-citizen males of appropriate age in the United States, who are permanent residents (holders of green cards), seasonal agricultural workers not holding an H - 2A Visa, refugees, parolees, asylees, and illegal immigrants, are required to register with the Selective Service System. Refusal to do so is grounds for denial of a future citizenship application. In addition, immigrants who seek to naturalize as citizens must, as part of the Oath of Citizenship, swear to the following:
... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law;
The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website also states however:
However, since 1975, USCIS has allowed the oath to be taken without the clauses: "... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by law... ''
Non-citizens who serve in the United States military enjoy several naturalization benefits which are unavailable to non-citizens who do not, such as a waiver of application fees. Permanent resident aliens who die while serving in the U.S. Armed Forces may be naturalized posthumously, which may be beneficial to surviving family members.
The dictionary definition of conscription at Wiktionary
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when do they find out that dan killed keith | Dan Scott - Wikipedia
Former
Daniel Robert "Dan '' Scott is a fictional character on the WB / CW television drama series One Tree Hill who is the primary antagonist for the first four seasons before becoming a tragic fallen antihero and is played by Paul Johansson. He is the father of Lucas Scott (by Karen Roe) and Nathan Scott (by Deborah Lee), the grandfather of James Lucas Scott (via Nathan) and Sawyer Brooke Scott (via Lucas) and the uncle of Lily Roe Scott.
Every good story needs a villain Lucas. I 'm sorry but I 'm yours.
Dan grew up in Tree Hill, NC and attended Tree Hill High, where he was the star of the Ravens basketball team. Towards the end of senior year, Dan got his girlfriend Karen Roe pregnant, but abandoned her to take a basketball scholarship to North Carolina. At college he met Deb Lee, who also became pregnant by him. Dan returned to Tree Hill on the night his and Karen 's son Lucas was born but, on seeing Keith with Karen at the hospital, Dan left without Karen seeing him. Dan and Deb married and moved back to Tree Hill with their son Nathan. Dan tried to get joint custody of Lucas, but Karen refused and Dan gave up on trying to be part of Lucas 's life. He later became a successful car salesman having set up his own business with Deb 's money. Dan is a man with big dreams and expectations, especially regarding his son Nathan, but he does n't handle it very well when they 're not fulfilled.
Dan is a controlling father to Nathan, who is now the Ravens ' star player, but has nothing to do with Lucas. When Lucas joins the Ravens, Dan encourages Nathan to give his half - brother a hard time. Dan puts so much pressure on Nathan that Nathan takes drugs to enhance his basketball performance, leading to him collapsing on the court. When Deb finds out, she asks Dan for a divorce. When Dan 's parents come to town for Dan 's birthday, it is revealed that Dan 's father Royal put similar pressure on Dan and that Dan faked the extent of an injury he suffered in college in order to give up basketball. Dan also has an uneasy relationship with Keith, due to Keith 's continuing friendship with Karen. When Keith crashes the car he is driving with Lucas inside, Dan pulls Lucas from the car and saves his life, leading to a temporary truce with Karen. Keith is left in financial difficulty due to Lucas 's medical bills and Dan offers to buy Keith 's garage from him while Keith continues to run it. However, it soon becomes clear that Dan will be running the garage in his own way and Keith quits. After being rejected by Karen, Keith turns to Deb for comfort and they have a one - night stand. On walking in on them in bed together, Dan tells Keith that he is no longer his brother. Dan is about to sign his divorce papers to Deb when he suffers a heart attack. When Deb finds Dan on the floor, Dan tells her "you 'd better hope I die. ''
After his heart attack, Dan claims to be a changed person and tries to get closer to Lucas. Dan and Deb are united in their disapproval of Nathan 's marriage to Haley. Dan claims to have forgiven Deb and Keith for their fling and a guilty Deb allows Dan to live with her while he recovers. It becomes clear that the new Dan is an act when he lies to Deb after being given a clean bill of health and it is revealed that Keith 's new girlfriend Jules was actually hired by Dan to seduce his brother. On discovering that he has the same heart condition as Dan, Lucas agrees to move in with Dan on the conditions that Dan pays for Lucas 's medication and keeps this from Karen, and also that Dan leaves Keith and "Jules '' alone. Dan keeps his promises but Karen discovers the truth about Jules and threatens to tell Keith, leading to Jules leaving Keith at the altar. Dan is delighted at this result and, after knocking down the groom on the wedding cake, looks at Deb saying "one down, one to go ''. On discovering what Dan did, Keith confronts Dan at the dealership and attacks him. Before leaving town, Keith tells Dan that he has nothing left to lose, but Dan does. When Nathan and Haley 's marriage is in trouble, Dan is quick to pounce, and gets Nathan to sign annulment papers and move back in with him and Deb. However, Deb wants Dan out of their lives for good, especially after learning that Dan told Nathan that it is his fault that Deb is now addicted to pills. Lucas continues to live with Dan in order to bring down his father once and for all. He finds cash and an incriminating ledger in the attic of the dealership and discovers that Dan has been making money illegally by changing the amounts on bills and pocketing the extra cash. However, Dan has made Deb the co-owner of the dealership, meaning that she would be incriminated too. Dan then reveals he left the cash and ledger for Lucas to find as a test of Lucas 's loyalty, which Lucas failed, and so Dan severs all ties to Lucas, even cutting off his son 's heart medication. Dan also sabotages Karen 's relationship with her business lecturer Andy by walking into one of Andy 's classes and telling everyone that Andy is sleeping with Karen, which leads to Andy losing his job. Dan then tries to have Andy deported back to New Zealand. When Karen angrily confronts Dan at the dealership, Dan grabs her and forcefully kisses her, saying "is n't that was this is really about? '' At the end of the season Dan falls unconscious after drinking a poisoned bottle of whisky that was left for him with a note saying "for everything you 've done ''. The dealership is then set on fire with Dan inside.
Dan survives the fire, but the dealership is destroyed. Dan at first thinks it was Lucas who tried to kill him when he remembers seeing him in the fire, but it is revealed that Lucas saved him. Wanting access to the fire investigation, Dan runs for mayor of Tree Hill. His family - based campaign includes having Deb pretend to love him in exchange for a final divorce. This ploy works and Dan is elected mayor. As mayor, Dan gains access to CCTV showing Keith buying the whisky used to drug Dan, and when Keith returns to town Dan has him arrested on suspicion of his attempted murder. Although the police release Keith due to lack of evidence, Dan still believes that Keith was the perpetrator, and things become worse when Keith announces that he is going to marry Karen and adopt Lucas. One day at Tree Hill High, Jimmy Edwards takes a gun to school and fires it, causing a lock down. Keith persuades Dan as mayor to let him go into the school to talk to Jimmy, but Jimmy commits suicide by shooting himself in front of Keith. Dan then gets into the school, picks up the gun and shoots Keith, killing him. Jimmy gets the blame for Keith 's death as it is assumed that he shot Keith before turning the gun on himself. Dan convinces himself that Keith deserved what he got as he started the war with Dan. Nevertheless, Dan becomes haunted, seeing visions of Keith as a child everywhere, and this has a profound effect on him. Realizing he has to change his ways he tries to get closer to Nathan, telling his son that he is proud of him and that he loves him. Haley then gives Dan a second chance by inviting him to her and Nathan 's second wedding. At the ceremony Deb tells Dan that it was her, not Keith, who tried to kill him in the fire. Dan goes to Keith 's grave and breaks down. Dan then apologizes to Karen for how he treated her and Lucas and she reveals that she is pregnant with Keith 's child. Dan takes her in his arms promising to be there for her this time. He then goes home and discovers that someone has written "MURDERER '' on his wall.
Dan tries to make amends for Keith 's death by looking after Karen. However, he still sees messages everywhere calling him a murderer, and wonders if it is all in his head. Meanwhile, Nathan is in deep debt and asks Dan to help him. Dan refuses and Nathan goes to a loan shark, Daunte, instead. Daunte forces Nathan to shave points in a basketball game and then demands that Nathan lose the State Championship. On discovering the trouble that Nathan is in, Dan confronts Daunte and offers to pay him off, but Daunte gets Dan to back down by threatening Nathan, Lucas, the pregnant Haley and Karen. When the Ravens win the State Championship, Daunte runs Haley over and crashes into a construction site. Nathan pulls Daunte out of the car and beats him, before realizing he is dead. Dan takes the fall for Nathan and is arrested. Dan plans to plead guilty to Daunte 's murder in order to be punished for Keith 's death, but the coroner 's report shows that Daunte was already dead when Nathan pulled him out of the car. Dan is released and the experience brings him and Karen closer together, as Karen admires what Dan was willing to do for his son. Dan and Karen begin to come together romantically, attending the school prom together as chaperones, but Dan continues to receive text messages and notes accusing him of killing his brother. Dan discovers that the person sending the messages is Abby Brown, a student who witnessed the shooting. Dan then visits Abby and her mother and tries to explain why he killed Keith, saying "Karen was mine, she was supposed to be mine ''. Abby leaves Tree Hill for good, but not before telling Lucas what she knows. Lucas walks in on Dan and his mother kissing and attacks Dan, shouting that he killed Keith, but Karen refuses to believe him. Lucas then goes to the police, but Dan has got there first and told them that Lucas is just trying to sabotage Dan 's relationship with Karen. On learning from Haley that Deb has a gun, Lucas steals the gun and confronts Dan in front of Karen, causing her to collapse. Lucas fires a warning shot to make Dan leave, before rushing the unconscious Karen to hospital. After learning from Deb that Dan killed Keith, Nathan confronts Dan and tells him that he will never be a part of his grandson 's life. After Karen 's daughter is born by c - section, Dan visits his new niece in the hospital, before turning himself in to the police.
Two weeks later, a recovered Karen visits Dan in his cell and tells him that she has a daughter, Lily, who will never know her father because of Dan, before spitting at him. Dan is so distraught by this encounter that he tries to hang himself in his cell with his bedsheet. The sheet unravels after a few seconds, and Dan falls to the floor, left to agonize over what he has done.
Four and a half years later, Nathan visits Dan in prison, and tells him that he will never be like him. Nathan then tells Dan that Jamie found a picture of him once and Nathan told him that his grandfather was dead. Later, a prison guard tells Dan that Nathan left behind an envelope, which contains a picture of Jamie. A parole hearing is held for Dan and despite Lucas pleading with the board not to be fooled by Dan, he is released. Soon after, Dan goes to a store to buy a basketball for his grandson and ends up sleeping with the cashier later that night. At Lucas 's wedding, Dan sits outside in his car and is confronted by Haley, who tells him to stay away from the family. When Jamie is abducted during the ceremony by his evil nanny, Carrie, Dan saves him and threatens Carrie, telling her that he killed his brother and would have no problem doing the same to her. Dan then returns Jamie to Nathan and Haley 's house and is attacked by Lucas and Nathan. On Jamie 's 5th birthday Dan goes to drop off a gift and has a confrontation with Deb. After the party Nathan goes and tells Dan to stay away and Dan reveals he only has six months to live due to his HCM. After the man in front of him on the heart transplant list dies he becomes number one. Excited he leaves the hospital and helps an old man retrieve his cane before getting hit by a car. Ironically, seconds later his beeper goes off because a heart has been found for him.
When he wakes up from the accident, it is revealed that Carrie, Jamie 's former nanny, was the one who ran him over, as revenge for interfering with her taking Jamie as her son. He finds himself in a "hospital room '' but when he tries to escape (Carrie is torturing him) he discovers that he is not in a hospital room, but in her house, in a room which Carrie designed to confuse him by disguising it as a hospital room by putting medical equipment and painting the room, as well as adding hospital - style curtains. Carrie devises a plan to get Jamie by telling Haley that Dan is dying, so that she 'll bring Jamie to see him. Carrie goes after Jamie, then Haley too. Dan shoots Carrie once she attempts to kill Haley and Deb. Carrie wakes up later that night, and reminds Dan that he promised he 'd kill her if she came near his family again, prompting him to keep his word and shoot her again, this time killing her. As a result, Nathan and Haley let Dan see Jamie, but Nathan quickly reminds his father that he still hates him for killing his uncle. Unfortunately, Dan still finds himself without a heart transplant and has to wait longer. In the mean time, he tries to be a father to Nathan by advising him on his basketball and has a talk with Lucas about the day of the school shooting to help with the Ravens movie. His relationship with Jamie also grows and he finally has a blowout with Deb about Keith. When his heart transplant does come, the man who delivers it trips over a dog 's leash and the dog eats it. Dan ultimately loses all hope and attempts to drown himself at a beach. He then goes to tells Jamie goodbye. Jamie becomes upset and asks him who killed Keith; and Dan admits that he did it. Dan leaves Tree Hill, but not before saying some last words to Lucas and Nathan. At the end of the season we see Dan as a broken man. He hates his life and wants to die. To make amends he goes to visit Coach Durham to whom he confesses that when he looks back on his life it all went wrong when he refused to play at the state championship. He tells Coach Durham that he should be dead but he is n't and that he realizes "this is my hell ''. He has to see his family experience the happiest moments of their lives but he ca n't feel them. To this Coach Durham replies "you created that, Danny ''. Dan then turns a gun on himself but ca n't bring himself to pull the trigger. He then forces the gun into Coach Durhams hand and begs him to shoot him later, after Dan cries in his arms, adds "there is still time for redemption, son ''. Nathan shows up and tells Dan that he has made it to the NBA. Later Peyton lets Dan hold his other grandchild Sawyer Scott. At the end of the episode he tells the audience that when he looks in the mirror he sees that he was supposed to be someone else, but fell short of that person.
Fourteen months have past since the season six finale, and Dan is now a motivational speaker. He has his own TV show called Scott Free Redemption. He has also written a book with the same title. It is then revealed that he is married to Rachel Gatina. Dan reached out to his son Nathan when he read about him and Renee Richardson who he meets and ask her to speak about it on his show. Dan reveals that Renee Richardson was lying about Nathan Scott alleged affair and exposes her truth on his show. It is also revealed that Dan did in fact have a heart transplant as he quotes Renee Richardson con as "Takes a Con to Know a Con. '' About a year earlier Dan traveled to Mexico to have a heart transplant. His new wife Rachel Gatina, paid with his money for a family to pull the life support plug on their young son. The heart was then given to Dan. Dan returns to Tree Hill and tries to ask forgiveness from Nathan. Nathan will not forgive Dan, but only "tolerate '' him for Jamie 's sake. Dan then meets Clay who he shakes up (throws him in the ocean) and basically tells him not to give up on being an agent. On the eve of Nathan and Haley 's departure, Rachel gets Dan to do a live broadcast from the school hallway where he killed Keith. Dan then runs into Jimmy 's mom who tells him she will never be able to forgive him. So instead of reading his script, Dan talks about his life and tells his audience that there is no forgiveness for him, only what comes next. He gives everything that he has to charity as well as divorce papers to Rachel. As he is preparing to leave Tree Hill, Nathan meets up with him to tell him that he 's back with the Bobcats, and says thank you. He then says goodbye to Jamie.
Dan has moved to a diner, and reappears again when Quinn visits him to help her to kill Katie Ryan, and he convinces her not to do it. In the finale, Nathan visits him and gives him a photo of Lydia and a baseball from Jamie 's first game and Dan thinks that there is a chance for forgiveness.
Dan burns down his diner and returns to Tree Hill and asks Haley for a place to stay, initially resistant, she offers him money, but he says that he does n't want money. He moves into Nathan and Haley 's house to the delight of Jamie who is excited to spend time with him. Nathan tells him that he is going to Europe and that when he comes back he wants him to be gone. When Nathan does not return from Europe, Haley and Jamie blame Dan. He rents out the sound stage from Julian and uses it to find Nathan. Dan, Julian and Chris Keller save Nathan. However, Dan is shot while rescuing Nathan and dies in the hospital surrounded by Nathan, Haley, Deb, Jamie and Lydia. When he dies, he sees a vision of his brother Keith, who brings him to the hallway where Dan shot Keith and he tells him that he forgives him. When Keith goes into the light, Dan asks him "I know where you 're going, but what about me? '' and Keith says "Do n't worry little brother, You 're my plus one. ''
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how old was tupac when he made juice | Juice (film) - wikipedia
Juice is a 1992 American crime film directed by Ernest R. Dickerson and written by Ernest R. Dickerson and Gerard Brown. The film stars Omar Epps, Tupac Shakur, Jermaine "Huggy '' Hopkins, Khalil Kain, and Samuel L. Jackson. It has cameo appearances by Queen Latifah, EPMD, Special Ed, Ed Lover, Doctor Dré, Flex Alexander, Fab Five Freddy, Yo - Yo, Donald Faison and Treach. It 's the acting debut of Tupac Shakur.
The film touches on the lives of four youths growing up in Harlem. It follows the day - to - day activities in the young men 's lives starting out as innocent mischief but growing more serious as time passes by. It also focuses on the struggles that these young men must go through everyday as well such as police harassment, rival neighborhood gangs and their families.
The film was shot in New York City, mainly in the Harlem area, in 1991.
Bishop (Tupac Shakur), Q (Omar Epps), Raheem (Khalil Kain), and Steel (Jermaine ' Huggy ' Hopkins) are four friends growing up together in Harlem. They regularly skip school, instead spending their days hanging out at Steel 's apartment, at a neighborhood arcade, and also a record store where they steal LPs for Q 's DJ interests. Generally, they are harassed daily by the police or a Puerto Rican gang led by Radames (Vincent Laresca).
Fed up with all of the torment he and his friends have endured, Bishop decides that the group must go on to do bigger things in order to win respect. However, Q is unsure if he wants to become involved in a life of crime. One Saturday night, under Bishop 's persistence, the friends decide to rob a local convenience store to teach the owner, Fernando Quiles, a lesson. At first Q hesitates to go through with the robbery, unsure whether it will be successful. He also fears it will affect his chances of participating in a DJ competition in which he has yearned to compete for years. After being pressured by his fellow crew members, he decides to join in. During the heist, Bishop shoots the owner in the head, killing him.
After fleeing the scene, the four young men gather in an abandoned building where they argue over the evening 's events. Q, Raheem and Steel become angry at Bishop for killing Mr. Quiles, and Raheem demands that Bishop give the gun to him. Bishop resists, and a struggle ensues between the two, and Bishop shoots Raheem dead. Panicking, Bishop, Q and Steel flee to another abandoned building, where Bishop threatens to kill Q and Steel if they reveal to anybody that he murdered Raheem.
Q and Steel realize that Bishop is beginning to break down and is becoming addicted to the thrill of killing. They agree to give Bishop as wide a berth as possible. However, while attending Raheem 's funeral, the two are surprised to see Bishop there. Bishop goes as far as to hug Raheem 's mother and promise to find his killer. Q and Steel are mostly generally able to avoid Bishop, but he finds them and confronts them one at a time, questioning their loyalty.
After a scuffle, Bishop kills Radames. In order to cover his tracks, he begins planning to frame Q for the murders of Quiles, Raheem and Radames. Fearful of Bishop, Q resorts to buying a gun for his own protection. Meanwhile, Bishop confronts Steel in an alley, accusing him of disloyalty, and shoots him. However, Steel survives the attack and is rushed to the hospital, where he informs Q 's girlfriend Yolanda (Cindy Herron) that he has been framed by Bishop. Fed up with both the tension and troubles brought upon him, Q throws his gun into the river and decides to confront Bishop unarmed. Q and Bishop meet up, where a scuffle and chase ensues.
Q is shot once in the arm during the chase, and he is subsequently chased into a building where a party is being held. Bishop begins firing into a group of partygoers in an attempt to hit Q, but Q escapes unharmed. Q disarms Bishop while he 's distracted, and Bishop leaves the scene with Q following him. Q eventually finds Bishop on the roof of a high - rise building, and the two become engaged in a physical confrontation. Bishop eventually falls off the ledge, but is caught by Q. Bishop begs Q not to let go, but Q eventually loses his grip, and Bishop falls to his death.
As Q is leaving the rooftop, a crowd from the party gathers to see what happened. One of the people in the crowd turns to Q and says, "Yo, you got the juice now, man. '' Q turns to look at him, shakes his head in disgust, and walks away. The film ends with a flashback clip of the four friends together in happier times as Bishop yells, "Wrecking Crew! ''
The movie was filmed in 1991. Daryl Mitchell, Treach, Money - B, and Donald Faison had auditioned for the role of Roland Bishop, but none were right for the role. Tupac Shakur accompanied Money - B to the audition and asked producer Neal H. Moritz to read. He was given 15 minutes to rehearse before his audition, and he came back and nailed the role of Roland Bishop. Treach and Faison landed cameo roles as a rival gang member and a high school student, respectively.
The film received generally favorable reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 83 % approval rating based on 18 reviews. Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, praising the film as "one of those stories with the quality of a nightmare, in which foolish young men try to out - macho one another until they get trapped in a violent situation which will forever alter their lives. ''. Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "B + '' grading, based on how it depicts four young characters who try to gain complete self - control over their surroundings.
The film is an inflammatory morality play shot through with rage and despair. Like Boyz N the Hood and Straight Out of Brooklyn, it asks: When every aspect of your environment is defined by violence, is it possible to avoid getting sucked into the maelstrom?
Dickerson also received praise for his directorial skills:
Coming out from behind Spike Lee 's camera, Ernest Dickerson has instantly arrived at the forefront of the new wave of black directors. His film aims for the gut, and hits it.
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which group of muscles listed below best describes those in the core | Core (anatomy) - wikipedia
In common parlance, the core of the body is broadly considered to be the torso. Functional movements are highly dependent on this part of the body, and lack of core muscular development can result in a predisposition to injury. The major muscles of the core reside in the area of the belly and the mid and lower back (not the shoulders), and peripherally include the hips, the shoulders and the neck.
Major muscles included are the pelvic floor muscles, transversus abdominis, multifidus, internal and external obliques, rectus abdominis, erector spinae (sacrospinalis) especially the longissimus thoracis, and the diaphragm. Minor core muscles include the latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus, and trapezius.
The core is used to stabilize the thorax and the pelvis during dynamic movement and it also provides internal pressure to expel substances (vomit, feces, carbon - laden air, etc.).
Continence is the ability to withhold bowel movements, and urinary stress incontinence (the lack of bladder control due to pelvic floor dysfunction) can result from weak core musculature.
Women use their core muscles, specifically the transversus abdominis, during labor and delivery.
Core muscles are also involved in the Valsalva maneuver, where the thorax tightens while the breath is held to assist, often involuntarily, in activities such as lifting, pushing, excretion and birthing.
The core is traditionally assumed to originate most full - body functional movement, including most sports. In addition, the core determines to a large part a person 's posture. In all, the human anatomy is built to take force upon the bones and direct autonomic force, through various joints, in the desired direction. The core muscles align the spine, ribs, and pelvis of a person to resist a specific force, whether static or dynamic.
Static core functionality is the ability of one 's core to align the skeleton to resist a force that does not change.
An example of static core function is firing a rifle in the prone position. To maintain accuracy, the shooter must be able to transfer his or her own body weight and the weight of the rifle into the earth. Any attempt of the shooter to create a dynamic motion of the sights (muscle the sights onto the target vs. allowing the posture to aim) will result in a jerky posture where the sights do not sit still on the target. For the shooter to maintain accuracy, the muscles can not exert force on the rifle, and the skeleton must be aligned to set the rifle (and therefore the sights) onto the target. The core, while resting on the ground and relatively far away from the rifle, is nevertheless aligning the spine and pelvis to which the shoulder and arms and neck are connected. For these peripheral elements to remain static, and not move unnecessarily, the spine, pelvis, and rib cage must be aligned towards this end. Thus the core muscles provide support of the axial skeleton (skull, spine, and tailbone) in an alignment where the upper body can provide a steady, solid base for the rifle to remain motionless.
The nature of dynamic movement must take into account our skeletal structure (as a lever) in addition to the force of external resistance, and consequently incorporates a vastly different complex of muscles and joints versus a static position.
Because of this functional design, during dynamic movement there is more dependence on core musculature than just skeletal rigidity as in a static situation. This is because the purpose of movement is not to resist a static, unchanging resistance, but to resist a force that changes its plane of motion. By incorporating movement, the bones of the body must absorb the resistance in a fluid manner, and thus tendons, ligaments, muscles, and innervation take on different responsibilities. These responsibilities include postural reactions to changes in speed (quickness of a contraction), motion (reaction time of a contraction) and power (amount of resistance resisted in a period of time).
An example of this is walking on a slope. The body must resist gravity while moving in a direction, and balancing itself on uneven ground. This forces the body to align the bones in a way that balances the body while at the same time achieving momentum through pushing against the ground in the opposite direction of the desired movement. Initially, it may seem that the legs are the prime movers of this action, but without balance, the legs will only cause the person to fall over. Therefore, the prime mover of walking is achieving core stability, and then the legs move this stable core by using the leg muscles.
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where does out of the blue come from | Out of the blue (idiom) - Wikipedia
"Out of the blue '' is an informal English language idiom that describes an event that occurs unexpectedly, without any warning or preparation. It is used as an adverb. The "blue '' in the phrase refers to the sky, one from which a sudden thunderstorm is unexpected.
Longer and more explicit variations include out of the clear blue sky and out of a clear blue sky.
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what does it mean to short the housing market | Short sale (real estate) - wikipedia
A short sale is a sale of real estate in which the net proceeds from selling the property will fall short of the debts secured by liens against the property. In this case, if all lien holders agree to accept less than the amount owed on the debt, a sale of the property can be accomplished. A Short Sale is not to be confused with a Short Settlement.
A short sale has two intrinsic and inseverable components. A Short Sale is successful when (1) The Lien holder (s) (a.k.a. Mortgage Company) is agreeable to net less than the amount owed on the note (debt) as the result of (2) an arm 's length sale at or below the Appraised Value for that property. The agreeable selling price is intrinsically defined to be at or less than the appraised value allowing the process to be attainable. A prudent buyer will not pay greater than the appraised value, and a Bank or Finance company will not provide a mortgage for greater than the appraised value, thus limiting the Short Sale proceeds to a maximum gross yield of the property 's Appraised Value.
It 's important to understand that a Lien holder is not bound to accept the Appraised value and can demand a greater selling price. In this case, a "Sale '' with a prudent arms length buyer is no longer a reasonable or attainable expectation. Instead the demand for greater than the Appraised Value (but less than the amount owed on the debt) is called a "Short Settlement ''. Some Lien holders will agree to a Short Sale but not a Short Settlement while demanding greater than the Appraised Value. This is a paradox as neither is achievable and both predestined for failure.
Therefore, a "Short Sale '' can only be accomplished when a Lien Holder is willing to accept less than what is owed on the debt while also agreeing to accept a sales price that is at or below the appraised value for the property.
Creditors holding liens against real estate can include primary mortgages, second mortgages, home equity lines of credit (HELOC), homeowner association liens, mechanics liens, IRS and State Tax Liens, all of which will need to approve the sale in return for being paid less than the amount they are owed. The lien holders do not have to agree to accept less, but they often do since the alternative is to let the property go to foreclosure.
A short sale is a more beneficial alternative to foreclosure and has become commonplace in the United States since the 2007 real estate recession. Other countries have similar procedures. For instance, in the UK the process is called Assisted Voluntary Sale. While both short sale and foreclosure result in negative credit reporting against the property owner, because the owner acted more responsibly and proactively by selling short, credit impact is less.
The HAFA program expired December 31, 2016.
In 2009 the government implemented the Making Home Affordable Program (MHA) to address the real estate recession and the need to help homeowners deal with their real estate loans. Its primary components are loan modification (Home Affordable Modification Program known as HAMP) and foreclosure alternatives (Home Affordable Foreclosure Alternatives known as HAFA). HAFA provides homeowners the opportunity to exit their homes and be relieved of the remaining mortgage debt through a short sale. It also provides homeowners or their tenants with up to $10,000 in relocation assistance. Through HAFA, you can short sell your primary residence or rental property. Once you complete a HAFA short sale, there is a waiver of deficiency, meaning you are released from any remaining mortgage debt.
You may be eligible for HAFA if you meet the following basic criteria:
You are struggling to make your mortgage payments due to financial hardship.
You are delinquent or in danger of falling behind on your mortgage.
You obtained your mortgage on or before January 1, 2009.
Your property has not been condemned.
You owe up to $729,750 on your primary residence or one - to - four unit rental property (loan limits are higher for two - to four - unit properties).
The Short Sale Facilitation Process consists of the following.
1. Contact the Primary Lien holder and make application to be accepted into their Short sale Program. Lenders will not entertain any short sale contract with a buyer unless the home owner has first been approved for their program.
2. The Lender should verify that any government programs, such as Home Affordable Foreclosure Alternatives (HAFA) eligibility, are explored, including relocation assistance to the borrower.
3. Once approved the Lender should provide the terms of the short sale. Terms can include forgiveness of any deficiency, Money incentive for a successful closing, property must be listed by a certain date, and many other incentives.
4. Interviewing real estate agents and selecting the most qualified person to handle your short sale (if you have not already selected a listing agent).
5. It can be helpful to obtain Broker Price Opinion letter to establish an estimate (not an appraisal) of the property 's current market value. This BPO 's must use comps in your immediate market. The property should be listed at a greater price to show the Lender you are trying to get the highest possible price.
6. Monitoring the listing to ensure that it is proactively handled.
7. Negotiate with Junior Lien holders for a reduced payoff. Junior Lien holders will get nothing in the event of a foreclosure (that qualifies for a short sale) therefore they have every incentive to settle for something rather than nothing. Junior Lien holders are permitted to pursue a personal money judgment due to any deficiency this creates. Negotiating to eliminate this is paramount for the borrower.
8. Submitting the short sale offer to all lien holders and negotiating with them to obtain approval of the sale.
9. Working with the lien holders to obtain release of any deficiency liability.
Some junior lien holders and others with an interest in the property may object to the amounts other lien holders are receiving. It is possible for any one lien holder to prevent a short sale by refusing to agree to negotiate a reduction in their payoff to release their lien. If a creditor has mortgage insurance on their loan, the insurer will likely also become a third party to these negotiations, since the insurance policy may be asked to pay out a claim to offset the creditor 's loss. The wide array of parties, parameters and processes involved in a short sale can make it a complex and highly specialized form of debt renegotiation. Short sales have a high risk of failure for the many reasons stated, but have the best chance of success if the right professional is hired to facilitate.
Any unpaid balance owed to creditors above the pay off they receive at short sale is known as a deficiency. Short sale agreements do not necessarily release borrowers from their obligations to repay any shortfalls on the loans, unless specifically agreed to between the parties or provided by law. Most states allow lenders to obtain a deficiency judgment following a short sale, but a few states including Arizona, California, Nevada and Oregon, prohibit this. In those states allowing deficiency judgments after short sale, it is imperative that the Short Sale Agreement between the borrower and the lien holders include a clear deficiency release agreement.
A short sale will result in negative credit reporting to the borrower. However, the borrower who has short sold a property has a much shorter waiting period for a loan than the borrower who let the property go to foreclosure. With the FHA Back to Work Program some borrowers can qualify for a new loan a year after a short sale. It has become the norm that the borrower who acted responsibly by short selling is rewarded.
The short sale borrower will receive a 1099 - C (C meaning Cancellation of Debt) following a short sale. The Mortgage Forgiveness Debt Relief Act may give you an exemption from tax liability if the property sold short was your principal residence. Otherwise the property can be itemized on a Schedule D as a total loss and deducted accordingly (see your tax professional).
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who played the role of darth vader in star wars | Darth Vader - wikipedia
Darth Vader (birth name Anakin Skywalker) is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. He appears in the original trilogy as a pivotal antagonist serving the Galactic Empire, while his past as Anakin Skywalker and the story of his corruption are the focus of the prequel trilogy.
The character was created by George Lucas and has been portrayed by numerous actors. His appearances span the first six Star Wars films, as well as Rogue One, and his character is referenced in both Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Star Wars: The Last Jedi. He is also an important character in the Star Wars expanded universe of television series, video games, novels, literature and comic books. Originally a Jedi prophesied to bring balance to the Force, Anakin is lured to the dark side of the Force by Palpatine, at the time the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic and secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious. He then serves the Galactic Empire as Vader at the right hand of Emperor Palpatine until his redemption after encountering his son, Luke Skywalker. He is also the father of Princess Leia Organa, the secret husband of Padmé Amidala before his fall, and grandfather of Kylo Ren.
Darth Vader has become one of the most iconic villains in popular culture, and has been listed among the greatest villains and fictional characters ever. The American Film Institute listed him as the third greatest movie villain in cinema history on 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains, behind Hannibal Lecter and Norman Bates. However, other critics consider him a tragic hero, citing his original motivations for the greater good and his family before his fall to the dark side.
In the first draft of The Star Wars, tall, grim general "Darth Vader '' was already close in line with his final depiction, and the protagonist "Anikin Starkiller '' had a role similar to Luke Skywalker 's as the 16 - year - old son of a respected warrior.
After the success of the original Star Wars (1977), series creator George Lucas hired science fiction author Leigh Brackett to write the sequel with him. They held story conferences and, by late November 1977, Lucas had produced a handwritten treatment. The treatment is similar to the final film, except that Vader does not reveal he is Luke 's father. In the first draft that Brackett would write from this, Luke 's father appears as a ghost to instruct Luke. Lucas was disappointed with the script, but Brackett died of cancer before he could discuss it with her. With no writer available, Lucas had to write the next draft himself. In this draft, he made use of a new plot twist: Vader claiming to be Luke 's father. According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, as opposed to the year - long struggles writing the first film.
The new plot element of Luke 's parentage had drastic effects on the series. Author Michael Kaminski claims and argues in his book that it is unlikely that the plot point had ever seriously been considered or even conceived of before 1978, and that the first film was clearly operating under an alternate storyline where Vader was a separate character from Luke 's father. After writing the second and third drafts in which the plot point was introduced, Lucas reviewed the new backstory he had created: Anakin had been Obi - Wan Kenobi 's brilliant student and had a child named Luke, but was swayed to the dark side by Palpatine. Anakin battled Kenobi on the site of a volcano and was badly wounded, but was then reborn as Vader. Meanwhile, Kenobi hid Luke on Tatooine while the Galactic Republic became the tyrannical Galactic Empire and Vader systematically hunted down and killed the Jedi. This change in character would provide a springboard to the "Tragedy of Darth Vader '' storyline that underlies the prequel trilogy.
After deciding to create the prequel trilogy, Lucas indicated the series would be a tragic one depicting Anakin 's fall to the dark side. He also saw that the prequels could form the beginning of one long story that started with Anakin 's childhood and ended with his death. This was the final step towards turning the film series into a "saga ''.
For the first prequel, Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace (1999), Lucas made Anakin nine years old to make the character 's separation from his mother more poignant. Movie trailers focused on Anakin and a one - sheet poster showing him casting Vader 's shadow informed otherwise unknowing audiences of the character 's eventual fate. The movie ultimately achieved a primary goal of introducing audiences to Anakin.
Author Michael Kaminski, in The Secret History of Star Wars, offers evidence that issues in Anakin 's fall to the dark side prompted Lucas to make massive story changes, first revising the opening sequence of the third prequel, Revenge of the Sith (2005), to have Palpatine kidnapped and his apprentice, Count Dooku, killed by Anakin as the first act in the latter 's turn towards the dark side. After principal photography was complete in 2003, Lucas made even more massive changes in Anakin 's character, re-writing his entire turn to the dark side; Anakin 's fall from grace would now be motivated by a desire to save his wife, Padmé Amidala, rather than the previous version in which that reason was one of several, including that he genuinely believed that the Jedi were plotting to take over the Republic. This fundamental re-write was accomplished both through editing the principal footage, and new and revised scenes filmed during pick - ups in 2004.
During production of the Clone Wars TV series, Ahsoka Tano was developed to illustrate how Anakin develops from the brash, undisciplined Padawan apprentice in Attack of the Clones (2002) to the more reserved Jedi Knight in Revenge of the Sith. Clone Wars supervising director and Rebels co-creator Dave Filoni said that giving Anakin responsibility for a Padawan was meant to place the character in a role that forced him to become more cautious and responsible. It would also give him insight into his relationship with Obi - Wan and depict how their relationship matured. Ahsoka and Anakin 's relationship was seen as an essential story arc spanning both the animated film and Clone Wars television series. Filoni began thinking about the final confrontation between Ahsoka and Vader ever since he created Ahsoka; different iterations had different endings, including one in which Vader kills Ahsoka just as she slashes open his helmet to reveal Anakin 's scarred face.
Ahsoka 's presence in Star Wars Rebels was necessary to allow Darth Vader to encounter the show 's lead characters without the latter being "destroyed ''; Ahsoka can "stand toe - to - toe '' with Vader.
The original design of Darth Vader 's costume did not originally include a helmet. The idea that Vader should wear a breathing apparatus was first proposed by concept artist Ralph McQuarrie during preproduction discussions for Star Wars with George Lucas in 1975. In an interview with Star Wars Insider Magazine, McQuarrie stated that Lucas 's artistic direction was to portray a malevolent figure in a cape with Samurai armour. "For Darth Vader, George (Lucas) just said he would like to have a very tall, dark fluttering figure that had a spooky feeling like it came in on the wind. '' McQuarrie noted that the script indicated that Vader would travel between spaceships and needed to survive in the vacuum of space, and he proposed that Vader should wear some sort of space suit. Lucas agreed, and McQuarrie combined a full - face breathing mask with a Samurai helmet, thus creating one of the most iconic designs of space fantasy cinema. McQuarrie 's 1975 production painting of Darth Vader engaged in a lightsaber duel with Deak Starkiller (a character prototype for Luke Skywalker) depicts Vader wearing black armour, a flowing cape and an elongated, skull - like mask and helmet. Its similarity to the final design of Vader 's costume demonstrates that McQuarrie 's earliest conception of Vader was so successful that very little needed to be changed for production.
Working from McQuarrie 's designs, the prop sculptor Brian Muir created the helmet and armour used in the film.
The sound of the respirator function of Vader 's mask was created by Ben Burtt using modified recordings of scuba breathing apparatus used by divers. The sound effect is trademarked in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office under Trademark # 77419252 and is officially described in the documentation as "The sound of rhythmic mechanical human breathing created by breathing through a scuba tank regulator. ''
Commentators have often pointed to the influence of Akira Kurosawa 's films such as The Hidden Fortress (1958) on George Lucas, and Vader 's Samurai - inspired costume design is held up as a significant example of the Japanese influences on Star Wars.
Darth Vader was portrayed by bodybuilder David Prowse in the original film trilogy, and by stunt performer Bob Anderson during the character 's intense lightsaber fight scenes. Lucas originally intended for Orson Welles to voice Vader (after dismissing using Prowse 's own voice due to his English West Country accent, leading to the rest of the cast nicknaming him "Darth Farmer ''). After deciding that Welles 's voice would be too recognizable, he cast the lesser - known James Earl Jones instead. Jones initially felt his contributions to the films were too small to warrant recognition and his role was uncredited at his request until the release of Return of the Jedi (1983). When Jones was specifically asked if he had supplied Vader 's voice for Revenge of the Sith -- either newly or from a previous recording -- Jones answered, "You 'd have to ask Lucas about that. I do n't know ''. Hayden Christensen and Gene Bryant alternately portray Vader in Revenge of the Sith. During the production of Revenge of the Sith, Christensen asked Lucas if a special Vader suit could be constructed to fit his own body, rather than have a different actor don one of the original sets of Vader armor worn by Prowse. Brock Peters provided the voice of Darth Vader in the NPR / USC radio series. Both Spencer Wilding and Daniel Naprous portrayed Vader in Rogue One (2016), with Jones reprising his role as the character 's voice.
Vader 's character has also been portrayed in several video games; in games such as Star Wars: Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire and Star Wars: Dark Forces, visual effects artist C. Andrew Nelson appears in short sequences in the Vader costume, voiced by Scott Lawrence. Matt Sloan, who appeared in the YouTube parody Chad Vader, provided the voice of Darth Vader in The Force Unleashed. As a result of his video game appearances, Nelson was cast to appear as Vader in brief sequences inserted into the 1998 special edition of The Empire Strikes Back, in which Vader is seen boarding his shuttle.
During production of Return of the Jedi, the casting crew sought an experienced actor for the role of Anakin Skywalker since his death was unquestionably the emotional climax of the film, and Sebastian Shaw was selected for the role. When Shaw arrived at the set for filming, he ran into his friend Ian McDiarmid, the actor playing the Emperor. When McDiarmid asked him what he was doing there, Shaw responded, "I do n't know, dear boy, I think it 's something to do with science - fiction. '' His presence during the filming was kept secret from all but the minimum cast and crew, and Shaw was contractually obliged not to discuss any film secrets with anyone, even his family. The unmasking scene, directed by Richard Marquand, was filmed in one day and required only a few takes, with no alteration from the original dialogue. Lucas personally directed Shaw for his appearance in the final scene of the film, in which he is a Force Ghost of Anakin. Shaw 's image in this scene was replaced with that of Christensen in the 2004 DVD release. This last attempt to tie the prequel and original trilogies together proved to be possibly the most controversial change in the Star Wars re-releases. Shaw received more fan mail and autograph requests from Return of the Jedi than he had for any role in the rest of his career. He later reflected that he very much enjoyed his experience filming for Return of the Jedi and expressed particular surprise that an action figure was made of him from the film.
When The Phantom Menace was being produced, hundreds of actors were tested for the role of young Anakin before the producers settled on Jake Lloyd, who Lucas considered met his requirements of "a good actor, enthusiastic and very energetic ''. Producer Rick McCallum said that Lloyd was "smart, mischievous and loves anything mechanical -- just like Anakin. '' During production of Attack of the Clones, casting director Robin Gurland reviewed about 1,500 other candidates for the role of the young Anakin before Lucas eventually selected Hayden Christensen for the role. When Revenge of the Sith was being produced, Christensen and Ewan McGregor began rehearsing their climactic lightsaber duel long before Lucas would shoot it. They trained extensively with stunt coordinator Nick Gillard to memorize and perform their duel together. As in the previous two prequel films, McGregor and Christensen performed their own lightsaber fighting scenes without the use of stunt doubles.
Anakin has also been voiced by Mat Lucas for the 2003 micro-series Star Wars: Clone Wars, and by Matt Lanter in the CGI animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars, the television series of the same name and for Anakin 's cameos in Star Wars Rebels. For Vader 's appearances in the Star Wars Rebels animated series, James Earl Jones has reprised the voice role. Both Lanter and Jones contributed their voices for the second - season finale of Rebels, at times with identical dialogue spoken by both actors blended together in different ways.
Darth Vader appears in seven of the nine live - action Star Wars films and The Clone Wars animated film and spinoff series. He has a recurring role in Star Wars expanded universe material.
Darth Vader first appears in Star Wars as a ruthless villain serving the Galactic Empire. He is tasked, along with Imperial Governor Grand Moff Tarkin, with recovering the secret technical plans for the Death Star, which were stolen by the Rebel Alliance. Vader captures and tortures Princess Leia Organa, who has hidden the plans inside the droid R2 - D2 and sent it to find Vader 's former Jedi Master Obi - Wan Kenobi on the planet Tatooine. During Leia 's rescue, Vader kills Obi - Wan in a lightsaber duel. Having placed a tracking device aboard the Millennium Falcon, Vader is able to track down the Rebels ' base on the planet Yavin 4. During the Rebels ' attack on the Death Star, Vader attempts to shoot down Luke Skywalker 's X-wing fighter, but Han Solo intervenes and sends Vader 's ship spiraling off course, allowing Luke to destroy the Death Star.
In The Empire Strikes Back, Vader becomes obsessed with finding Luke and leads the Imperial attack on the Rebel base on Hoth, but the Rebels escape. While conversing with the Emperor, Vader convinces him that Luke would be valuable to the Empire if he could be turned to the dark side of the Force. Vader hires a group of bounty hunters to follow Luke and his friends, and negotiates with Bespin administrator Lando Calrissian to set a trap for them so that Luke will follow them. After Han, Leia, Chewbacca, and C - 3PO arrive, Vader tortures Han, freezes him in carbonite and gives him to bounty hunter Boba Fett. When Luke arrives, Vader defeats Luke in a lightsaber duel, severing his opponent 's hand. Vader then tells Luke that he is his father and asks Luke to help him overthrow the Emperor so they can rule the galaxy together. Horrified, Luke escapes through an air shaft. Vader telepathically tells Luke that it is his destiny to join the dark side.
In Return of the Jedi, Vader and the Emperor are supervising the second Death Star 's construction. Unknown to Vader, the Emperor intends to replace him with Luke as his apprentice. Thinking that there is still good in his father, Luke surrenders to Vader in hopes that he can be redeemed. Vader brings Luke to the Emperor on board the Death Star. While there, the Emperor tempts Luke to join the dark side by appealing to the young Jedi 's fear for his friends, which leads to Vader dueling with Luke once again. Realizing that Leia is Luke 's twin sister, Vader threatens to turn her to the dark side if Luke will not submit. Furious, Luke overpowers Vader and severs his father 's robotic hand. The Emperor orders Luke to kill Vader and take his place. Luke refuses, however, and the Emperor tortures him with Force lightning. Moved by Luke 's pleas for help, Vader throws the Emperor down a air shaft to his death; he is mortally wounded by the Emperor 's lightning in the process. After asking Luke to remove his mask, the redeemed Anakin Skywalker tells his son that there was good in him after all before he dies. Luke escapes the Death Star with his father 's remains, and ceremonially burns them in a pyre. Anakin 's spirit reunites with those of Obi - Wan and Yoda to watch over Luke and his friends as the Rebels celebrate the Death Star 's destruction and the fall of the Empire.
Anakin first appears in the prequel trilogy in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, which takes place 32 years before the original Star Wars, as a young slave living on the planet Tatooine with his mother Shmi. Anakin was conceived without a father and he can foresee the future. Also a gifted pilot and mechanic, Anakin has built his own protocol droid, C - 3PO. Jedi Master Qui - Gon Jinn meets Anakin after making an emergency landing on Tatooine. Qui - Gon senses Anakin 's strong connection to the Force and becomes convinced that the boy is the "Chosen One '' of Jedi prophecy who will bring balance to the Force. After winning his freedom in a podrace, Anakin leaves for Coruscant to be trained as a Jedi, but is forced to leave Shmi behind. During the journey, Anakin forms a bond with Padmé Amidala, the young queen of Naboo. Qui - Gon asks the Jedi Council for permission to train Anakin, but they sense fear in the boy and refuse. Eventually, Anakin helps thwart the Trade Federation 's invasion of Naboo by destroying their command ship. After Qui - Gon is killed in a lightsaber duel with Sith Lord Darth Maul, Obi - Wan promises to train Anakin, with the Council 's reluctant approval. Palpatine later befriends Anakin and tells him that he will watch the boy 's career "with great interest ''.
Anakin is Obi - Wan 's Padawan apprentice in Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, which takes place 10 years after The Phantom Menace. Having rescued Padmé, who is now a senator, from an assassination attempt, Anakin travels with her to Naboo, where they fall in love. Sensing that Shmi is in pain, Anakin travels to Tatooine to rescue her. While there, Anakin learns she was kidnapped by Tusken Raiders. Anakin locates Shmi at the Tusken campsite, where she dies in his arms. Anakin, enraged, massacres the Tuskens and returns to the Lars homestead to bury Shmi. Anakin travels with Padmé to Geonosis to rescue Obi - Wan from Sith Lord Count Dooku, Qui - Gon 's old master and leader of the Separatists, a conspiracy of star systems bent on seceding from the Galactic Republic. Dooku captures them, however, and sentences them to death. However, a cadre of Jedi arrives with the Kaminoan clone army to halt their executions. Obi - Wan and Anakin confront Dooku during the ensuing battle, but the Sith Lord beats them both in a lightsaber duel and severs Anakin 's arm. Yoda intervenes and rescues the Jedi. By the end of the film, Anakin is fitted with a robotic arm and marries Padmé in secret.
In Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, set three years after Attack of the Clones, Anakin is now a Jedi Knight and a hero of the Clone Wars. He and Obi - Wan lead a mission to rescue Palpatine from Separatist commander General Grievous on board his starship. The Jedi battle Dooku, whom Anakin eventually executes on Palpatine 's command. They rescue Palpatine and return to Coruscant. Anakin reunites with Padmé, who tells him she is pregnant. Anakin has visions of Padmé dying in childbirth and becomes determined to prevent them from coming true. Palpatine tells Anakin that the dark side holds the power to cheat death, and eventually reveals that he is the Sith Lord Darth Sidious, the mastermind of the war. Although Anakin informs Jedi Master Mace Windu of Palpatine 's treachery, he follows Windu to make sure Palpatine is captured alive. When he realizes that Windu is going to kill Palpatine, Anakin intervenes on the Sith Lord 's behalf, allowing Palpatine to kill Windu. Desperate to save Padmé, Anakin pledges himself to the dark side and becomes Palpatine 's Sith apprentice, Darth Vader. On Palpatine 's command, Vader leads a legion of clones to kill everyone at the Jedi Temple and massacres the remaining Separatist leaders hiding on the volcanic planet Mustafar. Padmé confronts Vader and implores him to abandon the dark side, but Vader refuses and abandons her instead. Upon witnessing Obi - Wan invited to intervene, Vader accuses his wife of conspiring against him and uses the Force to choke her into unconsciousness. Obi - Wan duels and defeats Vader, severing both of his legs, and leaving him at the bank of a lava river, where he is horribly burned. Palpatine later finds Vader still alive and takes him back to Coruscant, where his apprentice 's mutilated body is covered in the black armored suit first depicted in the original trilogy. Palpatine explains to Vader that he killed Padmé in his rage; Vader screams in agony, his spirit broken. As the film concludes, Vader supervises the construction of the first Death Star alongside Palpatine and Wilhuff Tarkin.
In the 2008 film The Clone Wars, Yoda assigns Ahsoka Tano as Anakin 's Padawan apprentice to teach him a greater sense of responsibility, and Anakin is initially frustrated by this decision. Their early interactions are "playfully contentious '', with Anakin calling her "Snips '' for her "snippy '' attitude and Ahsoka calling him "Skyguy '' as a pun on his surname. After earning Anakin 's respect during a dangerous mission, Ahsoka joins him on a quest to rescue Jabba the Hutt 's infant son. Her impetuousness both annoys and endears her to her master, and, by the end of the film, Anakin reveals a newfound affection for his apprentice.
Vader appears in the first anthology film Rogue One, played by Spencer Wilding and Daniel Naprous, with James Earl Jones once again voicing the character. In this film, Vader meets with Imperial weapons engineer Orson Krennic, who asks him for an audience with the Emperor regarding the Death Star which Krennic lost command of to Tarkin. Vader refuses, however, and uses the Force to choke him as a way of putting him in his place and orders him to ensure the Death Star project has not been compromised. At the end of the film, Vader boards the disabled Rebel flagship Profundity with a cadre of Imperial stormtroopers and kills several Rebel soldiers as he attempts to recover the plans. However, the Alderaanian blockade runner Tantive IV (which was docked with the Profundity) escapes with the plans, setting the stage for the events of A New Hope.
Prior to the hallway scene being filmed, during the finale for Rogue One it was planned that Orson Krennic would survive the Death Star 's assault on Scariff and Vader would then murder him for failing to stop the theft of the Death Star plans. However this scene was cut from Rogue One due to the difficulty of explaining how Krennic survived the explosion the Death Star caused.
Anakin is a lead character in all seasons of The Clone Wars. As a Jedi Knight, he goes on several missions with both Obi - Wan and Ahsoka throughout the war. While continuing to teach Ahsoka the ways of the Jedi, Anakin has developed a close bond with her and they take risks to protect or save one another. Some of Anakin 's actions taken out of concern for Ahsoka violate the Jedi code, such as torturing prisoners who may know her location when she goes missing. During the third season, Anakin experiences a vision of his future as Darth Vader.
Darth Vader is a recurring character in the first season of Star Wars Rebels, which takes place 14 years after The Clone Wars concludes. Vader leads a squadron of Force - sensitive Imperial Inquisitors who are actively searching for and killing any remaining Jedi and Force - sensitive children. In the second - season premiere, Vader discovers that Ahsoka has joined the Rebel Alliance, and the Emperor orders him to hunt her down.
During their first confrontation in which Vader wipes out most of Phoenix Squadron 's troops, Ahsoka is overwhelmed when she recognizes Anakin under "a layer of hate '' in Darth Vader. Later in the season, Ahsoka has a vision in which Anakin blames her for allowing him to fall to the dark side. Vader makes a brief cameo at the end of "Shroud of Darkness '' in which he is brought to the Jedi temple on Lothal. In the season finale, Ahsoka duels with her former master inside a Sith Temple, allowing her friends to escape Vader and the temple 's destruction. As the episode concludes, Vader escapes from the temple 's ruins. Filoni said that it was "an elected decision '' not to feature Vader for the third season. Vader makes a final voiceless cameo in the late fourth season episode "A World Between Worlds '', as Ezra looks back in time to see the conclusion of his duel with Ahsoka before rescuing her from him. Shortly afterward, quotes from Vader are heard echoing in the void after Ezra says his name.
Anakin appears in the episode The Padawan Path. He is voiced again by Matt Lanter.
In The Padawan Path, Anakin is waiting along with Yoda in the Jedi temple for Ahsoka, for her ceremony.
In 2015, Marvel released a 25 - issue series called Darth Vader (2015), which focused on the title character in the aftermath of the destruction of the Death Star, as well as his life after learning about the existence of his son, the series happens parallel to the comic series Star Wars (2015) and has a cross-over with it titled Vader Down.
The Obi - Wan & Anakin 5 - issue mini-series written by Charles Soule, depicts the lives of both Jedi between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. At New York Comic Con 2015, Dan Brooks of StarWars.com held an interview with Soule, who described the story as "pretty unexplored territory. ''
A second series named exactly as the previous series Darth Vader (2017), is also written by Charles Soule. It begins moments after Vader wakes up for the first time in his black suit at the end of the film Episode III: Revenge of the Sith. The series will focus on exploring the title character 's reaction to Padme 's death, his adjustment to his mechanical suit, how he creates his red lightsaber, as well as how he hunts Jedi, and the beginning of the Inquisitor program shown in the animated series Star Wars Rebels.
Star Wars: Lords of the Sith was one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015. In Lords of the Sith, Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi'lek planet Ryloth.
In the 2015 Star Wars Celebration, it was announced David S. Goyer is helping to develop a virtual reality game based on Darth Vader. It is said that the audience as "visitor '' will be able to walk, pick up, push and open things, and might even have some effect in the story.
In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded by Lucasfilm as "Star Wars: Legends '' and declared non-canon to the franchise.
Anakin is a lead character in all three seasons of the Clone Wars microseries, which takes place four months after the conclusion of Attack of the Clones. Anakin becomes a Jedi Knight and is quickly promoted to a General of the Republic 's Clone Army, due in part to Palpatine 's influence. Among other missions, he fights a duel with Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress, helps Obi - Wan capture a Separatist - controlled fortress and rescues Jedi Master Saesee Tiin during a space battle. During the third season, Anakin frees the planet Nelvaan from Separatist control and sees a cryptic vision of his future as Darth Vader. In the season finale, Anakin and Obi - Wan go on a mission to rescue Palpatine from General Grievous, leading to the opening of Revenge of the Sith. Series creator and director Genndy Tartakovsky admitted that he was bothered that Lucasfilm declared Clone Wars non-canon, but said that he was proud of what he did and how much the microseries and the characters influenced later works.
Vader is featured prominently in novels set in the Star Wars universe. In the 1978 novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye by Alan Dean Foster, Vader meets Luke Skywalker for the first time and engages him in a lightsaber duel that ends with Luke cutting off Vader 's arm and Vader falling into a deep pit. (In 1999 's Vader 's Quest, however, Vader encounters Luke for the first time after hiring a bounty hunter to find the pilot who destroyed the Death Star.) Shadows of the Empire (1996) reveals that Vader is conflicted about trying to turn his son to the dark side of the Force, and knows deep down that there is still some good in him.
Anakin Skywalker 's redeemed spirit appears in The Truce at Bakura (1993), set a few days after the end of Return of the Jedi. He appears to Leia, imploring her forgiveness. Leia condemns him for his crimes and exiles him from her life. He promises that he will be there for her when she needs him, and disappears. In Tatooine Ghost (2003), Leia learns to forgive her father after learning about his childhood as a slave and his mother 's traumatic death. In The Unifying Force (2003), Anakin tells his grandson Jacen Solo to "stand firm '' in his battle with the Supreme Overlord of the Yuuzhan Vong.
Upon the release of the prequel films, the Expanded Universe grew to include novels about Vader 's former life as Anakin Skywalker. Greg Bear 's 2000 novel Rogue Planet and Jude Watson 's Jedi Apprentice and Jedi Quest series chronicle Anakin 's early missions with Obi - Wan, while James Luceno 's 2005 novel Labyrinth of Evil, set during the Clone Wars, depicts Anakin battling Separatist commander General Grievous. In Luceno 's Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader (2005), set a few months after the events of Revenge of the Sith, Vader disavows his identity as Anakin Skywalker as he systematically pursues and kills the surviving Jedi and cements his position in the Empire. The novel reveals that Vader plans to eventually overthrow Palpatine and that he betrayed the Jedi because he resented their supposed failure to recognize his power.
In The Dark Nest trilogy (2005), Luke and Leia uncover old recordings of their parents in R2 - D2 's memory drive; for the first time, they see their own birth and their mother 's death, as well as their father 's corruption to the dark side. In Bloodlines (2006), Han and Leia 's son Jacen -- who has himself turned to the dark side -- uses the Force to "watch '' Darth Vader slaughter the children at the Jedi Temple.
Vader also appears in a series of tongue - in - cheek children 's books by Jeffrey Brown. In Brown 's series, a somewhat hapless Vader sets out to be a father to a young Luke and Leia, with some scenes directly based on their darker film counterparts (for example, one scene shows Vader, Luke and Leia at the carbonite freezing chamber on Bespin, with Vader pronouncing the freezer adequate for making ice cream).
Vader appears in several comic books such as Dark Horse Comics ' Star Wars Tales and Marvel Comics ' Star Wars (1977 -- 1986) series.
Anakin Skywalker is a major character in Dark Horse 's Star Wars: Republic series (1998 -- 2006).
Darth Vader and Anakin Skywalker appear in a variety of video games such as the Lego Star Wars series and the Battlefront series. Vader plays a central role in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (2008). He is a playable character in the first level of the game, where he and his armies invade Kashyyyk to hunt down a Jedi who had survived the Order 's destruction. Vader kills the Jedi and kidnaps the man 's young Force - sensitive son, whom he raises as his secret apprentice, Starkiller. Vader sends Starkiller on various missions throughout the galaxy, with an ultimate goal to assassinate Palpatine so that Vader can rule the galaxy himself. Toward the end of the game, however, it is revealed that Vader is n't planning to overthrow Palpatine at all; he is merely using his apprentice to expose the Empire 's enemies. At the game 's climax, the player chooses between attacking Palpatine to help his Rebel friends escape the Death Star or killing Vader to become the Emperor 's new apprentice. He also appears in the sequel Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II as the final boss.
Darth Vader features in the 1981 radio drama adaptation of Star Wars, voiced by the actor Brock Peters. Vader makes his first appearance on the planet Ralltiir, where he treats Princess Leia Organa with suspicion. In later extended scenes, he is heard interrogating and torturing Leia on board his Star Destroyer and aboard the Death Star.
Vader appears in Star Tours -- The Adventures Continue, where he is voiced by Jones. Vader is featured as a combatant in the popular series Death Battle, in which he is pitted against Marvel Comics villain Doctor Doom. He loses the fight due to Doom 's superior weaponry and abilities.
In Attack of the Clones, Anakin Skywalker feels "smothered '' by Obi - Wan Kenobi and is incapable of controlling his own life. By Revenge of the Sith, however, his "father - son '' friction with his master has matured into a more equal, brotherly relationship. Once he becomes Darth Vader, each evil act he commits shatters any hope or connection towards his previous life, which makes it harder for him to return to the light, but he ultimately escapes the dark side and redeems himself by sacrificing his life to save his son, Luke Skywalker, and kill the Emperor in Return of the Jedi.
Eric Bui, a psychiatrist at University of Toulouse Hospital, argued at the 2007 American Psychiatric Association convention that Anakin Skywalker meets six of the nine diagnostic criteria for borderline personality disorder (BPD), one more than necessary for a diagnosis. He and a colleague, Rachel Rodgers, published their findings in a 2010 letter to the editor of the journal Psychiatry Research. Bui says he found Anakin Skywalker a useful example to explain BPD to medical students. In particular, Bui points to Anakin 's abandonment issues and uncertainty over his identity. Anakin 's mass murders of the Tusken Raiders in Attack of the Clones and the young Jedi in Revenge of the Sith count as two dissociative episodes, fulfilling another criterion. Bui hoped his paper would help raise awareness of the disorder, especially among teens.
Darth Vader 's iconic status has made the character a synonym for evil in popular culture. For example, a three part series of episodes of the YouTube series Epic Rap Battles of History has Darth Vader facing off against Adolf Hitler. Psychiatrists have considered Vader to be a useful example for explaining borderline personality disorder to medical students. Anakin 's origin story in The Phantom Menace has been compared to signifiers of African American racial identity, and his dissatisfaction with his life has been compared to Siddartha 's before he became Gautama Buddha. A Mexican church advised Christians against seeing The Phantom Menace because it portrays Anakin as a Christ figure. The slime - mold beetle Agathidium vaderi is named after Vader, and several buildings across the globe are regularly compared to him. A grotesque of Darth Vader looms over the east face of the Washington National Cathedral 's northwest tower. During the 2007 -- 08 NHL season, Ottawa Senators goaltender Martin Gerber performed so well in an all - black mask that fans endearingly termed him "Darth Gerber ''. In 2015, a statue of Vladimir Lenin in Odessa, Ukraine, was converted into one of Darth Vader due to a law on decommunization.
Many commentators and comedians have also evoked his visage to satirize politicians and other public figures, and several American political figures have been unflatteringly compared to the character, including General George Custer, the subject of the acrylic painting Darth Custer by Native American artist Bunky Echohawk. In 2005, Al Gore referred to Tele - Communications Inc. 's John C. Malone as the "Darth Vader of cable '', and political strategist Lee Atwater was known by his political enemies as "the Darth Vader of the Republican Party ''.
On June 22, 2006, US Vice President Dick Cheney referred to himself as the Darth Vader of the Bush administration. Discussing the administration 's philosophy on gathering intelligence, he said to CNN 's John King, "It means we need to be able to go after and capture or kill those people who are trying to kill Americans. That 's not a pleasant business. It 's a very serious business. And I suppose, sometimes, people look at my demeanor and say, ' Well, he 's the Darth Vader of the administration. ' '' Jon Stewart put on a Darth Vader helmet to address Dick Cheney as a "kindred spirit '' on The Daily Show on January 25, 2007. Cheney 's wife, Lynne, presented Stewart with a Darth Vader action figure on her appearance on the show on October 10, 2007. Both Stewart and Stephen Colbert have occasionally referred to Cheney as "Darth Cheney ''. In the satirical cartoon show Lil ' Bush, Dick Cheney 's father is portrayed as being Darth Vader. At her presidential campaign event on September 19, 2007, Hillary Clinton also referred to Cheney as Darth Vader. At the 2008 Washington Radio and Television Correspondents ' Association Dinner, Cheney joked that his wife Lynne told him that the Vader comparison "humanizes '' him. George Lucas told The New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd, however, that Cheney is more akin to Emperor Palpatine, and that a better stand - in for Vader would be George W. Bush. An issue of Newsweek referenced this quote, and compared Bush and Cheney to Vader and Palpatine, respectively, in a satirical article comparing politicians to various Star Wars and Star Trek characters.
Many films and television series have paid homage to Darth Vader. Marty McFly in Back to the Future (1985), dressed in a radiation suit, calls himself "Darth Vader from the planet Vulcan '' to convince the past version of his father to ask his mother to a dance. Rick Moranis plays "Dark Helmet '' in the Star Wars parody Spaceballs (1987). In Chasing Amy (1997), Hooper X speaks at a comic convention about Darth Vader being a metaphor for how poorly the science fiction genre treats black people; he is especially offended that Vader, the "blackest brother in the galaxy '', reveals himself to be a "feeble, crusty old white man '' at the end of Return of the Jedi. The character was also parodied in the Nickelodeon cartoon Rocko 's Modern Life in the episode "Teed Off ''. On another Nickelodeon cartoon, Jimmy Neutron, Darth Vader 's infamous line, "I am your father '', was interpolated in the mini-episode "New Dog, Old Tricks ''. The line was also alluded to in Toy Story, a film franchise also owned by Disney.
The character has gained much positive reception as a classic film villain. Darth Vader ranked number two on Empire magazine 's 2008 list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters. Premiere magazine also ranked Vader on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. On their list of the 100 Greatest Fictional Characters, Fandomania.com ranked Vader at number 6. Darth Vader was also the No. 1 supervillain on the Bravo series Ultimate Super Heroes, Vixens and Villains. Darth Vader was also ranked as No. 1 in IGN 's list of top 100 Star Wars characters. Furthermore, Darth Vader 's quote in The Empire Strikes Back -- "No, I am your father '' (often misquoted as "Luke, I am your father ''), -- is one of the most well known quotes in cinema history. The line was selected as one of the 400 nominees for the American Film Institute 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes, a list of the greatest American movie quotes. Vader received the Ultimate Villain recognition at the 2011 Scream Awards.
In 2009, Vader (or, more precisely, a reproduction of him conserved at the Smithsonian Institution) had a brief cameo in Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, as he, along with an Oscar the Grouch prop replica, tries to join the army formed by (the reproductions of) Ivan the Terrible, Napoleon, Al Capone and the fictional Pharaoh Kahmunrah, but they judge him only a futile robot, as he does not speak, but tries to Force - choke them, with a gesture they interpret as a sort of salute.
In 2010, IGN ranked Darth Vader 25th in the "Top 100 Videogames Villains ''.
In Ukraine, the Internet Party of Ukraine regularly lets people named Darth Vader take part in elections.
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what kind of story is the count of monte cristo | The Count of Monte Cristo - wikipedia
The Count of Monte Cristo (French: Le Comte de Monte - Cristo) is an adventure novel by French author Alexandre Dumas (père) completed in 1844. It is one of the author 's most popular works, along with The Three Musketeers. Like many of his novels, it was expanded from plot outlines suggested by his collaborating ghostwriter Auguste Maquet. Another important work by Dumas, written prior to his work with Maquet, was the short novel "Georges ''; this novel is of particular interest to scholars because Dumas reused many of the ideas and plot devices later in The Count of Monte Cristo.
The story takes place in France, Italy, and islands in the Mediterranean during the historical events of 1815 -- 1839: the era of the Bourbon Restoration through the reign of Louis - Philippe of France. It begins just before the Hundred Days period (when Napoleon returned to power after his exile). The historical setting is a fundamental element of the book, an adventure story primarily concerned with themes of hope, justice, vengeance, mercy, and forgiveness. It centres on a man who is wrongfully imprisoned, escapes from jail, acquires a fortune, and sets about exacting revenge on those responsible for his imprisonment. His plans have devastating consequences for both the innocent and the guilty. The book is a story of romance, loyalty, betrayal, vengeance, selfishness, and justice.
The book is considered a literary classic today. According to Luc Sante, "The Count of Monte Cristo has become a fixture of Western civilization 's literature, as inescapable and immediately identifiable as Mickey Mouse, Noah 's flood, and the story of Little Red Riding Hood. ''
Dumas wrote that the idea of revenge in The Count of Monte Cristo came from a story in a book compiled by Jacques Peuchet, a French police archivist, published in 1838 after the death of the author. Dumas included this essay in one of the editions from 1846. Peuchet told of a shoemaker, Pierre Picaud, living in Nîmes in 1807, who was engaged to marry a rich woman when three jealous friends falsely accused him of being a spy for England. Picaud was placed under a form of house arrest in the Fenestrelle Fort, where he served as a servant to a rich Italian cleric. When the man died, he left his fortune to Picaud, whom he had begun to treat as a son. Picaud then spent years plotting his revenge on the three men who were responsible for his misfortune. He stabbed the first with a dagger on which were printed the words "Number One '', and then he poisoned the second. The third man 's son he lured into crime and his daughter into prostitution, finally stabbing the man himself. This third man, named Loupian, had married Picaud 's fiancée while Picaud was under arrest.
In another of the "True Stories '', Peuchet describes a poisoning in a family. This story, also quoted in the Pleiade edition, has obviously served as model for the chapter of the murders inside the Villefort family. The introduction to the Pleiade edition mentions other sources from real life: Abbé Faria existed and died in 1819 after a life with much resemblance to that of the Faria in the novel. As for Dantès, his fate is quite different from his model in Peuchet 's book, since the latter is murdered by the "Caderousse '' of the plot. But Dantès has "alter egos '' in two other Dumas works; in "Pauline '' from 1838, and more significantly in "Georges '' from 1843, where a young man with black ancestry is preparing a revenge against white people who had humiliated him.
On the day of his wedding to Mercédès, Edmond Dantès, first mate of the Pharaon, is falsely accused of treason, arrested, and imprisoned without trial in the Château d'If, a grim island fortress off Marseilles. A fellow prisoner, Abbé Faria, correctly deduces that his jealous rival Fernand Mondego, envious crewmate Danglars, and double - dealing Magistrate De Villefort framed him. Faria inspires his escape and guides him to a fortune in treasure. As the powerful and mysterious Count of Monte Cristo, he arrives from the Orient to enter the fashionable Parisian world of the 1830s and avenge himself on the men who conspired to destroy him.
In 1815, Edmond Dantès, a young merchant sailor who has recently been granted the succession of his captain Leclère, returns to Marseille to marry his Catalan fiancée Mercédès. Leclère, a supporter of the exiled Napoléon I, found himself dying at sea and charged Dantès to deliver two objects: a package to General Bertrand (exiled with Napoleon Bonaparte on Elba), and a letter from Elba to an unknown man in Paris. On the eve of Dantès ' wedding to Mercédès, Fernand Mondego (Mercédès ' cousin and a rival for her affections) is given advice by Dantès ' colleague Danglars (who is jealous of Dantès ' rapid rise to captain) to send an anonymous note accusing Dantès of being a Bonapartist traitor. Caderousse (Dantès ' cowardly and selfish neighbor) is drunk while the two conspirators set the trap for Dantès and stays quiet as Dantès is arrested, then sentenced. Villefort, the deputy crown prosecutor in Marseille, destroys the letter from Elba when he discovers that it is addressed to his own father, Noirtier (who is a Bonapartist), since if this letter came into official hands, it would destroy his ambitions and reputation as a staunch Royalist. To silence Dantès, he condemns him without trial to life imprisonment.
After six years of imprisonment in the Château d'If, Dantès is on the verge of suicide when he befriends the Abbé Faria ("The Mad Priest ''), a fellow prisoner who had dug an escape tunnel that ended up in Dantès ' cell. Over the next eight years, Faria gives Dantès an extensive education in language, culture, and science. Knowing himself to be close to death, Faria tells Dantès the location of a treasure on the island of Monte Cristo. When Faria dies, Dantès takes his place in the burial sack. When the guards throw the sack into the sea, Dantès breaks through and swims to a nearby island. He is rescued by a smuggling ship that stops at Monte Cristo. After recovering the treasure, Dantès returns to Marseille. He later purchases the island of Monte Cristo and the title of Count from the Tuscan government.
Traveling as the Abbé Busoni, Dantès meets Caderousse, now living in poverty, who regrets not intervening and possibly saving Dantès from prison. He gives Caderousse a diamond that can be either a chance to redeem himself or a trap that will lead to his ruin. Learning that his old employer Morrel is on the verge of bankruptcy, Dantès buys Morrel 's debts and gives Morrel three months to fulfill his obligations. At the end of the three months and with no way to repay his debts, Morrel is about to commit suicide when he learns that his debts have been mysteriously paid and that one of his lost ships has returned with a full cargo, secretly rebuilt and laden by Dantès.
Reappearing as the rich Count of Monte Cristo, Dantès begins his revenge on the three men responsible for his unjust imprisonment: Fernand, now Count de Morcerf and Mercédès ' husband; Danglars, now a baron and a wealthy banker; and Villefort, now procureur du roi. The Count appears first in Rome, where he becomes acquainted with the Baron Franz d'Épinay, and Viscount Albert de Morcerf, the son of Mercédès and Fernand. Dantès arranges for the young Morcerf to be captured by the bandit Luigi Vampa and then seemingly rescues him from Vampa 's gang. The Count then moves to Paris and dazzles Danglars with his wealth, persuading him to extend him a credit of six million francs. The Count manipulates the bond market and quickly destroys a large portion of Danglars ' fortune. The rest of it begins to rapidly disappear through mysterious bankruptcies, suspensions of payment, and more bad luck in the Stock Exchange.
Villefort had once conducted an affair with Madame Danglars. She became pregnant and delivered the child in the house that the Count has now purchased. To cover up the affair, Villefort told Madame Danglars that the infant was stillborn, smothered the child, and thinking him to be dead, buried him in the garden. While Villefort was burying the child, he was stabbed by the smuggler Bertuccio, who unearthed the child and resuscitated him. Bertuccio 's sister - in - law brought the child up, giving him the name "Benedetto. '' Benedetto takes up a life of crime as he grows into adolescence. He robs his adoptive mother (Bertuccio 's sister - in - law) and ends up killing her, then runs away. Bertuccio later becomes the Count 's servant and informs him of this history.
Benedetto is sentenced to the galleys with Caderousse, who had sold the diamond but killed both his wife and the buyer out of greed. After Benedetto and Caderousse are freed by Dantès, using the alias "Lord Wilmore, '' the Count induces Benedetto to take the identity of "Viscount Andrea Cavalcanti '' and introduces him into Parisian society. Andrea ingratiates himself to Danglars, who betroths his daughter Eugénie to Andrea (not knowing they are half - siblings) after cancelling her engagement to Albert. Meanwhile, Caderousse blackmails Andrea, threatening to reveal his past if he does n't share his new - found wealth. Cornered by "Abbé Busoni '' while attempting to rob the Count 's house, Caderousse begs to be given another chance. Dantès forces him to write a letter to Danglars exposing Cavalcanti as an impostor and allows Caderousse to leave the house. The moment Caderousse leaves the estate, he is stabbed by Andrea. Caderousse dictates a deathbed statement identifying his killer, and the Count reveals his true identity to Caderousse moments before he dies.
Years before, Ali Pasha of Janina had been betrayed to the Turks by Fernand. After Ali 's death, Fernand sold Ali 's wife Vasiliki and his daughter Haydée into slavery. While Vasiliki died shortly thereafter, Dantès purchased Haydée. The Count manipulates Danglars into researching the event, which is published in a newspaper. As a result, Fernand is investigated by his peers and disgraced. When Albert blames the Count for his father 's downfall and challenges him to a duel, Mercédès, having already recognized Monte Cristo as Dantès, goes to the Count and begs him to spare her son. During this interview, she learns the truth of his arrest and imprisonment but still convinces the Count not to kill her son. Realizing that Edmond now intends to let Albert kill him, she reveals the truth to Albert, which causes Albert to make a public apology to the Count. Albert and Mercédès disown Fernand, who is confronted with Dantès ' true identity and commits suicide. Albert and Mercédès renounce their titles and wealth and depart to begin new lives.
Valentine, Villefort 's daughter by his late first wife, stands to inherit the fortune of her grandfather (Noirtier) and of her mother 's parents (the Saint - Mérans), while Villefort 's second wife Héloïse seeks the fortune for her son Édouard. The Count is aware of Héloïse 's intentions and introduces her to the technique of poison. Héloïse fatally poisons the Saint - Mérans, so that Valentine inherits their fortune. Valentine is disinherited by Noirtier in an attempt to prevent Valentine 's impending marriage with Franz d'Épinay, whom she does not love. The marriage is cancelled when d'Épinay learns that his father (believed assassinated by Bonapartists) was actually killed by Noirtier in a fair duel. Afterwards, Valentine is reinstated in Noirtier 's will. After a failed attempt on Noirtier 's life, Héloïse targets Valentine so that Édouard will get the fortune. However, Valentine is the prime suspect in her father 's eyes in the deaths of the Saint - Mérans and Noirtier 's servant, Barrois. On learning that Morrel 's son Maximilien is in love with Valentine, the Count saves her by making it appear as though Héloïse 's plan to poison Valentine has succeeded and that Valentine is dead. Villefort learns from Noirtier that Héloïse is the real murderer and confronts her, giving her the choice of a public execution or committing suicide.
Fleeing after Caderousse 's letter exposes him, Andrea is arrested and returned to Paris, where Villefort prosecutes him. While in prison awaiting trial, Andrea is visited by Bertuccio, who tells him the truth about his father. At his trial, Andrea reveals that he is Villefort 's son and was rescued after Villefort buried him alive. Villefort admits his guilt and flees the court. He rushes home to stop his wife 's suicide but is too late; she has poisoned her son as well. Dantès confronts Villefort, revealing his true identity, but this drives Villefort insane. Dantès tries but fails to resuscitate Édouard, causing him to question if he has gone too far.
After the Count 's manipulation of the bond market, Danglars is left with a destroyed reputation and 5,000,000 francs he has been holding in deposit for hospitals. The Count demands this sum to fulfil their credit agreement, and Danglars embezzles the hospital fund. Abandoning his wife, Danglars flees to Italy with the Count 's receipt and 50,000 francs. While leaving Rome, he is kidnapped by the Count 's agent Luigi Vampa and is imprisoned. Forced to pay exorbitant prices for food and nearly starved to death, Danglars signs away his ill - gotten gains. Dantès anonymously returns the stolen money to the hospitals. Danglars finally repents his crimes, and a softened Dantès forgives him and allows him to leave with his freedom and 50,000 francs.
Maximilien Morrel, believing Valentine to be dead, contemplates suicide after her funeral. Dantès reveals his true identity and explains that he rescued Morrel 's father from bankruptcy years earlier; he then tells Maximilien to reconsider his suicide. On the island of Monte Cristo, Dantès presents Valentine to Maximilien and reveals the true sequence of events. Having found peace, Dantès leaves the newly reunited couple part of his fortune and departs for an unknown destination to find comfort and a new life with Haydée, who has declared her love for him. The reader is left with a final thought: "all human wisdom is contained in these two words, ' Wait and Hope ' ''.
The Count of Monte Cristo was originally published in the Journal des Débats in eighteen parts. Serialization ran from August 28, 1844 to January 15, 1846. The first edition in book form was published in Paris by Pétion in 18 volumes with the first two issued in 1844 and the remaining sixteen in 1845. Most of the Belgian pirated editions, the first Paris edition and many others up to the Lécrivain et Toubon illustrated edition of 1860 feature a misspelling of the title with "Christo '' used instead of "Cristo ''. The first edition to feature the correct spelling was the L'Écho des Feuilletons illustrated edition, Paris 1846. This edition featured plates by Paul Gavarni and Tony Johannot and was said to be "revised '' and "corrected '', although only the chapter structure appears to have been altered with an additional chapter entitled La Maison des Allées de Meilhan having been created by splitting Le Départ into two.
The first appearance of The Count of Monte Cristo in English was the first part of a serialization by W. Francis Ainsworth in volume VII of Ainsworth 's Magazine published in 1845, although this was an abridged summary of the first part of the novel only and was entitled The Prisoner of If. Ainsworth translated the remaining chapters of the novel, again in abridged form, and issued these in volumes VIII and IX of the magazine in 1845 and 1846 respectively. Another abridged serialisation appeared in The London Journal between 1846 and 1847.
The first single volume translation in English was an abridged edition with woodcuts published by Geo Pierce in January 1846 entitled The Prisoner of If or The Revenge of Monte Christo.
In April 1846, volume three of the Parlour Novelist, Belfast, Ireland: Simms and M'Intyre, London: WS Orr and Company, featured the first part of an unabridged translation of the novel by Emma Hardy. The remaining two parts would be issued as the Count of Monte Christo volumes I and II in volumes 8 and 9 of the Parlour Novelist respectively.
The most common English translation is an anonymous one originally published in 1846 by Chapman and Hall. This was originally released in ten weekly installments from March 1846 with six pages of letterpress and two illustrations by M Valentin. The translation was released in book form with all twenty illustrations in two volumes in May 1846, a month after the release of the first part of the above - mentioned translation by Emma Hardy. The translation follows the revised French edition of 1846, with the correct spelling of "Cristo '' and the extra chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan.
Most English editions of the novel follow the anonymous translation. In 1889 two of the major American publishers Little Brown and T.Y Crowell updated the translation, correcting mistakes and revising the text to reflect the original serialised version. This resulted in the removal of the chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan, with the text restored to the end of the chapter called The Departure.
In 1955 Collins published an updated version of the anonymous translation which cut several passages including a whole chapter entitled The Past and renamed others. This abridgement was republished by many Collins imprints and other publishers including the Modern Library, Vintage, the 1998 Oxford World 's Classics edition (later editions restored the text) and the 2009 Everyman 's Library edition.
In 1996 Penguin Classics published a new translation by Robin Buss. Buss 's translation updated the language, making the text more accessible to modern readers, and restored content that was modified in the 1846 translation because of Victorian English social restrictions (for example, references to Eugénie 's lesbian traits and behaviour) to reflect Dumas ' original version.
In addition to the above there have also been many abridged translations such as an 1892 edition published by F.M Lupton, translated by Henry L. Williams (this translation was also released by M.J Ivers in 1892 with Williams using the pseudonym of Professor William Thiese). A more recent abridgement is the translation by Lowell Blair for Bantam Classics in 1956.
The first Japanese translation by Kuroiwa Shūroku was entitled "Shigai Shiden Gankutsu - ou '' (史 外 史伝 巌 窟王, "a historical story from outside history, the King of the Cavern ''), and serialized from 1901 -- 1902 in the Yorozu Chouhou newspaper, and released in book form in four volumes by publisher Aoki Suusandou in 1905. Though later translations use the title "Monte Cristo - haku '' (モンテ ・ クリスト 伯, the Count of Monte Cristo), the "Gankutsu - ou '' title remains highly associated with the novel and is often used as an alternative. As of March 2016, all movie adaptations of the novel brought to Japan used the title "Gankutsu - ou '', with the exception of the 2002 film, which has it as a subtitle (with the title itself simply being "Monte Cristo '').
The novel is popular in Japan, and has spawned numerous adaptations, the most notable of which are the novels Meiji Gankutsu - ou by Taijirou Murasame and Shin Gankutsu - ou by Kaitarō Hasegawa. Its influence can also be seen in how one of the first prominent cases of miscarriage of justice in Japan, in which an innocent man was charged with murder and imprisoned for half a century, is known in Japanese as the "Yoshida Gankutsu - ou incident '' (吉田 岩窟 王 事件).
The original work was published in serial form in the Journal des Débats in 1844. Carlos Javier Villafane Mercado described the effect in Europe:
George Saintsbury stated: "Monte Cristo is said to have been at its first appearance, and for some time subsequently, the most popular book in Europe. Perhaps no novel within a given number of years had so many readers and penetrated into so many different countries. '' This popularity has extended into modern times as well. The book was "translated into virtually all modern languages and has never been out of print in most of them. There have been at least twenty - nine motion pictures based on it... as well as several television series, and many movies (have) worked the name ' Monte Cristo ' into their titles. '' The title Monte Cristo lives on in a "famous gold mine, a line of luxury Cuban cigars, a sandwich, and any number of bars and casinos -- it even lurks in the name of the street - corner hustle three - card monte. ''
Modern Russian writer and philologist Vadim Nikolayev determined The Count of Monte - Cristo as a megapolyphonic novel.
The novel has been the inspiration for many other works, from Lew Wallace 's Ben - Hur (1880), a science fiction retelling in Alfred Bester 's The Stars My Destination, to Stephen Fry 's contemporary The Stars ' Tennis Balls.
The success of Monte Cristo coincides with France 's Second Empire. In the book, Dumas tells of the 1815 return of Napoleon I, and alludes to contemporary events when the governor at the Château d'If is promoted to a position at the castle of Ham. The attitude of Dumas towards "bonapartisme '' was conflicted. His father, Thomas - Alexandre Dumas, a Haitian of mixed descent, became a successful general during the French Revolution. New racial - discrimination laws were applied in 1802, and the general was dismissed from the army and became profoundly bitter toward Napoleon. In 1840, the ashes of Napoleon I were brought to France and became an object of veneration in the church of Les Invalides, renewing popular patriotic support for the Bonaparte family.
In "Causeries '' (1860), Dumas published a short paper, "État civil du Comte de Monte - Cristo '', on the genesis of the Count of Monte - Cristo. It appears that Dumas had close contacts with members of the Bonaparte family while living in Florence in 1841. In a small boat he sailed around the island of Monte - Cristo accompanied by a young prince, a cousin to Louis Bonaparte, who was to become Emperor of the French ten years later. During this trip he promised the prince that he would write a novel with the island 's name in the title. At that time the future emperor was imprisoned at the citadel of Ham -- a name that is mentioned in the novel. Dumas did visit him there, although he does not mention it in "Etat civil ''.
During the life of Thomas - Alexandre Dumas:
During the life of Alexandre Dumas:
Alexandre Dumas and Auguste Maquet wrote a set of four plays that collectively told the story of The Count of Monte Cristo: Monte Cristo Part I (1848); Monte Cristo Part II (1848); Le Comte de Morcerf (1851) and Villefort (1851). The first two plays were first performed at Dumas ' own Théâtre Historique in February 1848, with the performance spread over two nights, each with a long duration (the first evening ran from 18: 00 until 00: 00). The play was also unsuccessfully performed at Drury Lane in London later that year where rioting erupted in protest at French companies performing in England.
The adaptation differs from the novel in many respects: several characters, such as Luigi Vampa, are excluded; Whereas the novel includes many different plot threads that are brought together at the conclusion, the third and fourth plays deal only with the fate of Mondego and Villefort respectively (Danglars fate is not featured at all); the play is the first to feature Dantès shouting "the world is mine! '', an iconic line that would be used in many future adaptations.
Two English adaptations of the novel were published in 1868. The first, by Hailes Lacy, differs only slightly from Dumas ' version with the main change being that Fernand Mondego is killed in a duel with the Count rather than committing suicide. Much more radical was the version by Charles Fechter, a notable French - Anglo actor. The play faithfully follows the first part of the novel, omits the Rome section and makes several sweeping changes to the third part, among the most significant being that Albert is actually the son of Dantès. The fates of the three main antagonists are also altered: Villefort, whose fate is dealt with quite early on in the play, kills himself after being foiled by The Count trying to kill Noirtier (Villefort 's half brother in this version); Mondego kills himself after being confronted by Mercedes; Danglars is killed by The Count in a duel. The ending sees Dantès and Mercedes reunited and the character of Haydee is not featured at all. The play was first performed at the Adelphi in London in October 1868. The original duration was five hours, resulting in Fechter abridging the play, which, despite negative reviews, had a respectable sixteen - week run. Fechter moved to the United States in 1869 and Monte Cristo was chosen for the inaugural play at the opening of the Globe Theatre, Boston in 1870. Fechter last performed the role in 1878. In 1883 John Stetson, manager of the Booth Theatre and The Globe Theatre, wanted to revive the play and asked James O'Neill to perform the lead role. O'Neill, who had never seen Fechter perform, made the role his own and the play became a commercial, if not an artistic success. O'Neill made several abridgements to the play and eventually bought it from Stetson. A motion picture based on Fechter 's play, with O'Neill in the title role, was released in 1913 but was not a huge success. O'Neill died in 1920, two years before a more successful motion picture, produced by Fox and partially based on Fechter 's version, was released.
The below list contain some more recent stage adaptations, most of which are musical theatre.
Reis, Tom, The Black Count: Glory, Revolution, Betrayal, and the Real Count of Monte Cristo
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when did the pokemon card game come out | Pokémon Trading card game - wikipedia
Card playing Arithmetic Basic reading ability
The Pokémon Trading Card Game (ポケモン カード ゲーム, Pokemon Kādo Gēmu, "Pokémon Card Game ''), abbreviated to PTCG or Pokémon TCG, is a collectible card game, based on the Pokémon video game series, first published in October 1996 by Media Factory in Japan. In the US, it was initially published by Wizards of the Coast; The Pokémon Company eventually took over publishing the card game in June 2003. The game has sold 23.6 billion cards worldwide.
Players assume the role of a Pokémon trainer and use their Pokémon to battle their opponents '. Players play Pokémon to the field and attack their opponent 's Pokémon. A Pokémon that has sustained enough damage is knocked out, and the player who knocked it out draws a Prize card. There are usually six Prize cards, and the primary win condition is to draw all of them. Other ways to win are by knocking out all the Pokémon the opponent has on the field such that the opponent has none left, or if at the beginning of their opponent 's turn there are no cards left to draw in the opponent 's deck.
Players begin by having one player selects heads or tails, and the other flips a coin; the winner of the coin flip will decide who goes first or second. The player going first can not attack on their first turn. (Dice may be used in place of coins, with even numbers representing heads and odd numbers representing tails). Players then shuffle their decks and draw seven cards, then play one Basic Pokémon onto the field. This Pokémon is known as the Active Pokémon, and is usually the one that attacks and receives damage. If a player does not have any Basic Pokémon, they must shuffle and draw a new hand, and the opponent may draw one additional card. Once both players have at least one Basic Pokémon, they can play up to five more Basic Pokémon onto their "Bench '' (representing the maximum - carry limit of six from the video games). Players then take the top six cards of their deck and place them to the side as Prize Cards. Play then begins with the player who won the coin flip.
Play alternates between players who may take several actions during their turn, including playing new Basic Pokémon, evolving their Pokémon, playing Trainer cards and Energy cards, and using Pokémon Abilities. A player may also retreat their Active Pokémon, switching the Active Pokémon with one on the Bench. At the end of their turn, a player may use one of their Active Pokémon 's attacks, provided the prerequisite amount and types of Energy are attached to that Pokémon. Effects from that attack are then activated and damage may be placed on the Defending Pokémon (some attacks simply have effects but do not do damage). This damage may be modified depending on whether the defender has a Weakness or Resists the attacker 's Pokémon type. If the final damage exceeds the defending Pokémon 's HP, it is Knocked Out, and the active player takes a Prize Card and ends their turn.
Basic Pokémon are the foundation of all decks. Without them a player can not play the game, since both players begin the game by placing a Basic Pokémon in the Active position on the field. Each Pokémon card depicts a Pokémon from the video games. Each player may have up to six Pokémon on the playing field at a time: one "Active '' Pokémon and up to five on the bench. Each Pokémon card has a name, a type, and an amount of Health Points (HP). All Pokémon feature attacks; these typically deal damage to the opponent 's active Pokémon, or occasionally, their benched Pokémon; however, an attack may also perform different functions, such as drawing cards, inflicting Special Conditions, or altering the opponent 's board state. The vast majority of these attacks require Energy, which comes in the form of Energy cards. Abilities (known as Poké - Powers and Poké - Bodies until 2011) are not attacks but simply effects that either are activated under certain conditions, or remain in effect as long as the Pokémon with the Ability remains in play.
The other type of Pokémon card is an Evolved Pokémon. Basic Pokémon are Pokémon that have not evolved, and can be played directly onto the Bench. In contrast, an Evolved Pokémon can not normally be placed directly onto the field; they must be played on top of the corresponding lower - stage Pokémon. Stage 1 Pokémon evolve from Basic Pokémon, and Stage 2 Pokémon evolve from Stage 1 Pokémon. As a Pokémon evolves, it gains HP and its attacks change, typically becoming more powerful. Pokémon ex or EX cards were first introduced in the TCG set EX Ruby and Sapphire, and typically have higher Hit Points than other Pokémon, yet award an extra prize card to the opponent when defeated. Baby Pokémon cards, introduced in Neo Genesis, are a special kind of Basic Pokémon that have low HP but attack with strange (sometimes very powerful) effects. Mega Pokémon, introduced in XY, evolve from Pokémon - EX, but are a special stage; as such, effects on Stage 1 Pokémon do not apply to Mega Pokémon. Break Pokémon were also introduced later on in the XY series. Variations of Basic, Evolved, and Baby Pokémon cards have appeared in many sets, usually indicated with a word before or after the Pokémon 's name. Secret Rare Pokémon cards are some of the rarest cards. They are usually represented by a shiny holo foil and a gold outline. These cards include Shiny Pokémon, Trainers, alternate - art Pokémon, and some rarer Mega evolution cards. Pokémon - GX cards were introduced with the Pokémon Sun & Moon expansion. These cards have a specific move set at the bottom of their card that can only be used once per game. Only one GX move can be played per game, so if there are three different Pokémon - GX cards in your deck only one of the three GX moves can be used. Also with the new Pokémon Sun & Moon sun and moon expansion are Alolan Pokémon, these Pokémon are monsters that have an alternate form from their original look that is specific to Alola and the Sun & Moon series.
Energy cards are attached to a Pokémon to power that Pokémon 's attacks. Typically, only one Energy card may be played per turn. There are two main categories of Energy cards: Basic Energy and Special Energy. The nine different Basic Energy types (which correspond to Pokémon card types) are Grass, Fire, Water, Lightning, Psychic, Fighting, Darkness, Metal, and Fairy. Two additional types, Dragon and Colorless, do not have their own Energy cards and instead use other types of Energy. Basic Energy cards are used only to fulfill costs for attacking and retreating, while Special Energy cards have additional benefits. Most attacks require a certain type and amount of Energy. If an attack requires a certain type and amount of Energy, then that type and amount of Energy must be attached to the Pokémon. If the attack has a Colorless Energy requirement, that requirement can be met by any Energy card.
Trainer cards perform various functions to affect the game: healing Pokémon, discarding energy from the opposing Pokémon, or retrieving cards from the discard pile are some key examples. Before the Diamond & Pearl expansion, all cards that were not Pokémon or Energy were considered Trainer cards. Trainers have since been subdivided into categories: Item cards directly affect the battling Pokémon, Tool cards are attached to a Pokémon and modify their features, Stadium cards affect the entire field, and Supporters are like more powerful Items, only one of which can be played per turn.
A simplified type system was adopted from the video games for use in the trading card game. Instead of 18 types of Pokémon, only eleven exist in the TCG. Seven were introduced in the Base Set (the first ever set of Pokémon cards); Darkness and Metal types appeared when Pokémon Gold and Silver introduced the Dark and Steel types in the video games; the Dragon type was introduced in the Japanese Dragon Selection set; and finally, the Fairy type was introduced in the Japanese XY set to correspond to its introduction in the video games.
Most Pokémon have only one type, three exceptions are EX Team Magma vs Team Aqua which introduced Dual - type Pokémon that have two different types, XY: Steam Siege, and the Heartgold / Soulsilver era sets. Dual - types were utilized in Pokémon LEGEND cards, to emphasize the multiple Pokémon the mechanic has in the Heartgold and Soulsilver sets. In August 2016, the Steam Siege expansion from the XY Series reintroduced dual - type Pokémon, this time with regular Pokémon being multiple types as well as EX Pokémon.
A new set addition in November 2017, with the announcement of SM4: Crimson Invasion in North America, 75 different sets have been released in English and 69 in Japanese.
A rarely played format is Unlimited, in which all cards released in English are legal (except oversized cards, such as promotional boxes like Mega Blaziken Ex Premium Collection Box).
Every few sets, new Mechanics or types of cards are introduced to the game. Several of these include: Dark Pokémon (Team Rocket); Owners ' Pokémon and Stadium cards (Gym Heroes); Darkness - type and Metal - type Pokémon, the second generation, and Pokémon Tools (Neo Genesis); Shining Pokémon (Neo Revelation); Light Pokémon (Neo Destiny); Supporter cards and Technical Machines (Expedition); Crystal - type Pokémon (Aquapolis); Pokémon - ex (EX Ruby & Sapphire); Dual - type Pokémon (EX Team Magma vs Team Aqua); Pokémon Star (EX Team Rocket Returns); Delta Species Pokémon and Holon 's Pokémon (EX Delta Species); Pokémon LV. X, the separation of Trainer, Supporter and Stadium cards, and the addition of Metal and Darkness as Basic Energy types (Diamond and Pearl); Pokémon With Items (Mysterious Treasures); Pokémon - GX, with a move that is playable only once a game (Sun & Moon);
Trainer cards of which two can be played at once (Stormfront); owner - specific Pokémon SP (Platinum), Pokémon LEGEND (HeartGold and SoulSilver Collection), Pokémon PRIME which replace Pokémon Lv. X ("HeartGold and SoulSilver Collection ''), Full Art cards (Black and White), Dragon - type Pokémon, BREAK evolution cards which replace Pokémon PRIME (XY BREAKthrough), and the newly release GX cards from Sun and Moon. These changes, along with yearly format rotations, make for a constantly evolving game.
In addition to the collectible aspect of the card game, The Pokémon Company International (formerly known as Pokémon USA) has also created Play! Pokémon, formerly known as Pokémon Organized Play (POP), which is in charge of the organization of an official League program, where players can battle others in local environments and earn player points, two - card booster packets from a promotional set, badges, stickers and other materials. These are run by League leaders and owners. POP also runs a professor program, in which individuals age 18 or over may become a professor, who can sanction and run tournaments and leagues. A League Leader may assist in organizing the league, while a League Owner is the one officially in charge of the league, reporting to the Organized Play program any results and / or problems every seven weeks. The leagues run in yearly cycles, based on a certain aspect of one of the Pokémon Video Game or Trading Card Game: the current cycle is based upon the Newest set, The current season is Evolutions season.
Prerelease tournaments are organized just before each set is released. Usually, they are run on the two weekends before a set is released in stores to the public. At Prerelease Tournaments players are given three booster packs from the judge and must construct a 40 card deck, with only 4 prize cards, using only the cards pulled from the packs and the judges provide the energy, but not special energy cards. Many fans have come up with alternative methods of playing the Trading Card Game. Certain websites such as PokéCap are dedicated to providing players with a new twist to their card game with new game rules they can follow. New methods may be based more on the video game adaptations of Pokémon or the Pokémon television show.
Players in a tournament are split into three age categories: Junior (born in 2003 or later), Senior (born in 2000 - 2002), and Master (born in 1999 or earlier). Notable references include: Austin Brewen who won the first junior tournament, Brenden Zhang who won the first Senior Tournament, and Arturo Heras who won the first Master Tournament. These tournaments play a number of rounds, where players will play a standard game against each other and wins and losses will be recorded. In most tournaments, there are a number of Swiss - style rounds where players are paired up against others of similar win / loss ratios, usually from their own age group (this does not always occur in smaller events, though). Afterwards, there will either be a cut of the top record - holders (approximately the top 1 / 8 of participants) where players will play best two out of three matches, and the loser gets eliminated (standard tournament bracket style), with an eventual winner.
POP runs a season for these tournaments, which allows players to earn larger prizes and play in a more competitive environment in comparison to League. These range from City and State Championships, all the way up to the Pokémon World Championships, the single invite - only event of the year. Players can earn invites to the World Championships by winning or ranking high at National Championships, doing well at tournaments to get Championship Points, or by qualifying in the Last Chance Qualifier. The World Championships is a three - day tournament, with one eventual winner in each age group; the winner of the Masters Division age group is generally noticed as the best player in the world for that season. Some of these methods are only used in the United States, as PUI and POP are based in the United States, but they are represented by local distributors who provide the Organized Play program to their own country.
2017 Worlds - Anaheim California
2018 Worlds - Nashville Tennessee
On August 26 -- 27, 2000, forty - two Pokémon trainers from around the world met at the Hilton Hawaiian Village in Honolulu for the Tropical Mega Battle, an international communication event for the Pokémon Trading Card Game. The Tropical Mega Battle brought together children aged 14 and under from the United States, Japan, France, Italy, Canada, Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom for two days in Honolulu, Hawaii. Children participating in the Tropical Mega Battle received invitations through Qualifier tournaments, DCI rankings, and other events in their respective countries.
The Super Trainer Showdowns were large Pokémon TCG tournaments held in the United States by Wizards of the Coast between 2000 and 2001. The tournaments were open to the public. Each tournament consisted of three age groups: 10 and under, 11 to 14 years old, and 15 years old and over. Each Super Trainer Showdown was preceded by a series of Qualifier Tournaments held in cities around the United States and abroad in which players in the 11 - to - 14 and 10 - and - under age groups could win trips for themselves and a parent or guardian to the Super Trainer Showdown event. To date, there have been four Super Trainer Showdowns. The first Super Trainer Showdown was held in Long Beach, California inside of the cruise liner, the Queen Mary on July 22, 2000. The format was unlimited, meaning that all Pokémon cards released in the United States were legal for deck construction. The second Super Trainer Showdown was held at the Meadowlands Exposition Center in Secaucus, New Jersey on November 18, 2000. There were over 700 players in all three age divisions competing for the title. The tournament was eight rounds of Swiss style pairings followed by a cut to a top - eight single - elimination playoff. All games were best - of - one. The third Super Trainer Showdown was held again in the Meadowlands Exposition Center in Secaucus, New Jersey. It was held on June 23 -- 24, 2001 and more than 1,600 players attended the event. The format for this event was titled "Modified '' and allowed players to construct 60 - card decks using a maximum of four of any card other than basic energy from specific sets. The fourth and final Super Trainer Showdown was held at the San Antonio Convention Center in San Antonio, Texas on December 1 -- 2, 2001. The format was again "Modified '', however the newest set Neo Discovery was also legal for the tournament.
Although TPCI tries to keep Organized Play as equal as possible all over the Earth, there are some notable differences in how POP is run outside of the United States. The Pokémon Card Laboratory (PCL), located in Japan, is the designer of new cards and the ultimate authority on any matter relating to the Pokémon Trading Card Game. It can declare rulings on any in - game circumstance, issue errata, change card text after publishing, and change the basic game rules, although the latter three rarely occur. PCL runs Organized Play in Japan. The Pokémon Trading Card Game in most European countries is currently handled by The Pokémon Company International. Certain countries have no direct official presence; in these regions, distributors of the game run tournaments. European countries are able to qualify for positions at the Pokémon Trading Card Game World Championships each year, through National Championships and European Rankings.
There are a few video games based on the card game. Pokémon TCG Online (PTCGO) is the official digital version of the card game available for Microsoft Windows, OS X, Android and iPad. It was originally released in April 2011 as Pokémon Trainer Challenge. The game initially offered three starting decks, and featured more content after release. After April 6, 2011, players could buy cards from the Black and White series, which have a code to be digitally represented. Players can also create a custom avatar. There were booster pack codes which allow booster packs up to Black and White - Boundaries Crossed, to be purchased from the online shop. However, as of Black and White - Plasma Storm, the code card within booster packs directly redeem as online booster packs of their respective set. GamesRadar praised the game, stating "Everything looks to be faithfully recreated, including the card mat, prize card layout, and even coins. ''
The eponymously titled Pokémon Trading Card Game, known as Pokémon Card GB in Japan, was developed for the Game Boy Color, releasing in Japan in December 1998 and later in North America and Europe in 2000. The game is based on the rules of the card game and features 226 cards from the game, as well as infrared linking for multiplayer and trading. The game was re-released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in 2014. A sequel, Pokémon Card GB2: Great Rocket - Dan Sanjō! was released exclusively in Japan in March 2001.
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what type of compound is the food additive bha | Butylated hydroxyanisole - wikipedia
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) is an antioxidant consisting of a mixture of two isomeric organic compounds, 2 - tert - butyl - 4 - hydroxyanisole and 3 - tert - butyl - 4 - hydroxyanisole. It is prepared from 4 - methoxyphenol and isobutylene. It is a waxy solid used as a food additive with the E number E320. The primary use for BHA is as an antioxidant and preservative in food, food packaging, animal feed, cosmetics, rubber, and petroleum products. BHA also is commonly used in medicines, such as isotretinoin, lovastatin, and simvastatin, among others.
Since 1947, BHA has been added to edible fats and fat - containing foods for its antioxidant properties as it prevents rancidification of food which creates objectionable odors. Like butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), the conjugated aromatic ring of BHA is able to stabilize free radicals, sequestering them. By acting as free radical scavengers, further free radical reactions are prevented.
The U.S. National Institutes of Health report that BHA is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In particular, when administered in high doses as part of their diet, BHA causes papillomas and squamous cell carcinomas of the forestomach in rats and Syrian golden hamsters. In mice, there is no carcinogenic effect, and even evidence of a protective effect against the carcinogenicity of other chemicals.
When examining human population statistics, the usual low intake levels of BHA show no significant association with an increased risk of cancer. The State of California, has, however, listed it as a carcinogen.
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who captured rome in 476 ad and declared himself the king of italy | Odoacer - wikipedia
Flavius Odoacer (c. 433 -- 493 AD), also known as Flavius Odovacer or Odovacar (Italian: Odoacre, Latin: Odoacer, Odoacar, Odovacar, Odovacris), was a soldier who in 476 became the first King of Italy (476 -- 493). His reign is commonly seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Though the real power in Italy was in his hands, he represented himself as the client of the Emperor in Constantinople. Odoacer generally used the Roman honorific patrician, granted by the Emperor Zeno, but is referred to as a king (Latin: rex) in many documents and he himself used it in the only surviving official document emanated from his chancery; also it was used by the consul Basilius. Odoacer introduced few important changes into the administrative system of Italy. He had the support of the Roman Senate and was able to distribute land to his followers without much opposition. Unrest among his warriors led to violence in 477 -- 478, but no such disturbances occurred during the later period of his reign. Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, he rarely intervened in the affairs of the orthodox and trinitarian state church of the Roman Empire.
Probably of Scirian descent, Odoacer was a military leader in Italy who led the revolt of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian soldiers that deposed Romulus Augustulus on 4 September AD 476. Augustulus had been declared Western Roman Emperor by his father, the rebellious general of the army in Italy, less than a year before, but had been unable to gain allegiance or recognition beyond central Italy. With the backing of the Roman Senate, Odoacer thenceforth ruled Italy autonomously, paying lip service to the authority of Julius Nepos, the last Western emperor, and Zeno, the emperor of the East. Upon Nepos 's murder in 480 Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, to punish the murderers. He did so, executing the conspirators, but within two years also conquered the region and incorporated it into his domain.
When Illus, master of soldiers of the Eastern Empire, asked for Odoacer 's help in 484 in his struggle to depose Zeno, Odoacer invaded Zeno 's westernmost provinces. The emperor responded first by inciting the Rugi of present - day Austria to attack Italy. During the winter of 487 -- 488 Odoacer crossed the Danube and defeated the Rugi in their own territory. Zeno also appointed the Ostrogoth Theoderic the Great who was menacing the borders of the Eastern Empire, to be king of Italy, turning one troublesome, nominal vassal against another. Theoderic invaded Italy in 489 and by August 490 had captured almost the entire peninsula, forcing Odoacer to take refuge in Ravenna. The city surrendered on 5 March 493; Theoderic invited Odoacer to a banquet of reconciliation and there killed him.
Odoacer is the earliest ruler of Italy for whom an autograph of any of his legal acts has survived to the current day. The larger portion of a record of Odoacer granting properties in Sicily and the island of Melita on the Adriatic coast to Pierius and issued in 488, was written in his reign.
Except for the fact that he was not considered Roman, Odoacer 's ethnic origins are not completely known. Both the Anonymus Valesianus and John of Antioch state his father 's name was Edeko. However, it is unclear whether this Edeko is identical to one -- or both -- men of the same name who lived at this time: one was an ambassador of Attila to the court in Constantinople, and escorted Priscus and other Imperial dignitaries back to Attila 's camp; the other, according to Jordanes, is mentioned with Hunulfus as chieftains of the Scirii, who were soundly defeated by the Ostrogoths at the river Bolia in Pannonia sometime in the late 460s. Since Sebastian Tillemont in the 17th century, all three have been considered to be the same person. In his Getica, Jordanes describes Odoacer as king of the Turcilingi (Turc - ilingi or Torcilingorum rex). However, in his Romana, the same author defines him as a member of the Rugii (Odoacer genere Rogus). The Consularia Italica calls him king of the Heruli, while Theophanes appears to be guessing when he calls him a Goth. Marcellinus Comes calls him "the king of the Goths '' (Odoacer rex Gothorum).
Reynolds and Lopez explored the possibility that Odoacer was not Germanic in their 1946 paper published by The American Historical Review, making several arguments that his ethnic background might lie elsewhere. One of these is that his name, "Odoacer '', for which an etymology in Germanic languages had not been convincingly found, could be a form of the Turkish "Ot - toghar '' ("grass - born '' or "fire - born ''), or the shorter form "Ot - ghar '' ("herder ''). Other sources believe the name Odoacer is derived from the Germanic Audawakrs, from aud - "wealth '' and wakr - "vigilant ''. This form finds a cognate in another Germanic language, the titular Eadwacer of the Old English poem Wulf and Eadwacer (where Old English renders the earlier Germanic sound au - as ea -).
Odoacer 's identity as a Hun was then accepted by a number of authorities, such as E.A. Thompson and J.M. Wallace - Hadrill -- despite Otto J. Maenchen - Helfen 's objection that personal names were not an infallible guide to ethnicity. Subsequently, while reviewing the primary sources in 1983, Bruce Macbain proposed that while his mother might have been Scirian and his father Thuringian, in any case he was not a Hun.
Possibly the earliest recorded incident involving Odoacer is from a fragment of a chronicle preserved in the Decem Libri Historiarum of Gregory of Tours. Two chapters of his work recount, in a confused or confusing manner, a number of battles fought by King Childeric I of the Franks, Aegidius, Count Paul, and one "Adovacrius '' or "Odovacrius ''. If this is an account of Aegidius ' victory over the Visigoths, otherwise known from the Chronicle of Hydatius, then this occurred in 463. Reynolds and Lopez in their article mentioned above, suggested that this "Adovacrius '' or "Odovacrius '' may be the same person as the future king of Italy. This suggestion has been accepted by some scholars; it appears to explain why Lewis Thorpe named this person "Odoacer '' in his translation of Gregory 's work.
The first certain act recorded for Odoacer was shortly before he arrived in Italy. Eugippius, in his Life of Saint Severinus, records how a group of barbarians on their way to Italy had stopped to pay their respect to the holy man. Odoacer, at the time "a young man, of tall figure, clad in poor clothes '', learned from Severinus that he would one day become famous. When Odoacer took his leave, Severinus made one final comment which proved prophetic: "Go to Italy, go, now covered with mean hides; soon you will make rich gifts to many. ''
By 470, Odoacer had become an officer in what remained of the Roman Army. Although Jordanes writes of Odoacer as invading Italy "as leader of the Sciri, the Heruli and allies of various races '', modern writers describe him as being part of the Roman military establishment, based on John of Antioch 's statement that Odoacer was on the side of Ricimer at the beginning of his battle with the emperor Anthemius in 472. Procopius goes as far as describing him as one of the Emperor 's bodyguards.
When Orestes was in 475 appointed Magister militum and patrician by the Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos, he became head of the Germanic foederati of Italy (the Scirian -- Herulic foederati). However, Orestes proved to be ambitious, and before the end of that year Orestes had driven Nepos from Italy. Orestes then proclaimed his young son Romulus the new emperor as Romulus Augustus, called "Augustulus '' (31 October). However, Nepos reorganized his court in Salona, Dalmatia and received homage and affirmation from the remaining fragments of the Western Empire beyond Italy and, most importantly, from Constantinople, which refused to accept Augustulus and branded him and his father as traitors and usurpers.
About this time the foederati, who had been quartered on the Italians all of these years, had grown weary of this arrangement. In the words of J.B. Bury, "They desired to have roof - trees and lands of their own, and they petitioned Orestes to reward them for their services, by granting them lands and settling them permanently in Italy ''. Orestes refused their petition, and they turned to Odoacer to lead their revolt against Orestes. Orestes was killed at Placentia and his brother Paulus outside Ravenna. The Germanic foederati, the Scirians and the Heruli, as well as a large segment of the Italic Roman army, then proclaimed Odoacer rex Italiae ("king of Italy ''). In 476 Odoacer advanced to Ravenna and captured the city, compelling the young emperor Romulus to abdicate on September 4. According to the Anonymus Valesianus, Odoacer was moved by Romulus 's youth and his beauty to not only spare his life but give him a pension of 6,000 solidii and sent him to Campania to live with his relatives.
Following Romulus Augustus 's deposition, according to the historian Malchus, upon hearing of the accession of Zeno to throne, the Senate in Rome sent an embassy to the Eastern Emperor and bestowed upon him the Western imperial insignia. The message was clear: the West no longer required a separate Emperor, for "one monarch sufficed (to rule) the world ''. In response, Zeno accepted their gifts observing "the Western Romans had received two men from the Eastern Empire and had driven out one and killed the other, Anthemius. '' The Eastern Emperor conferred upon Odoacer the title of Patrician and granted him legal authority to govern Italy in the name of Rome. Zeno also suggested that Odoacer should receive Nepos back as Emperor in the West "if he truly wished to act with justice. '' Although he accepted the title of Patrician, Odoacer did not invite Julius Nepos to return to Rome, and the latter remained in Dalmatia until his death. Odoacer was careful to observe form, however, and made a pretence of acting on Nepos 's authority, even issuing coins with his image. Following Nepos 's murder in 480, Zeno legally abolished the co-emperorship and ruled as sole Emperor.
Bury, however, disagrees that Odoacer 's assumption of power marked the fall of the Roman Empire:
It stands out prominently as an important stage in the process of the dismemberment of the Empire. It belongs to the same catalogue of chronological dates which includes A.D. 418, when Honorius settled the Goths in Aquitaine, and A.D. 435, when Valentinian ceded African lands to the Vandals. In A.D. 476 the same principle of disintegration was first applied to Italy. The settlement of Odovacar 's East Germans, with Zeno 's acquiescence, began the process by which Italian soil was to pass into the hands of Ostrogoths and Lombards, Franks and Normans. And Odovacar 's title of king emphasised the significance of the change.
Timeline
In 476, Odoacer became the first barbarian King of Italy, initiating a new era. Unlike most of the last emperors, he acted decisively. According to Jordanes, at the beginning of his reign he "slew Count Bracila at Ravenna that he might inspire a fear of himself among the Romans. '' He took many military actions to strengthen his control over Italy and its neighboring areas. He achieved a solid diplomatic coup by inducing the Vandal king Gaiseric to cede to him Sicily. Noting that "Odovacar seized power in August of 476, Gaiseric died in January 477, and the sea usually became closed to navigation around the beginning of November '', F.M. Clover dates this cession to September or October 476. When Julius Nepos was murdered by two of his retainers in his country house near Salona (May 480), Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins, and at the same time established his own rule in Dalmatia.
As Bury points out, "It is highly important to observe that Odovacar established his political power with the co-operation of the Roman Senate, and this body seems to have given him their loyal support throughout his reign, so far as our meagre sources permit us to draw inferences. '' He regularly nominated members of the Senate to the Consulate and other prestigious offices: "Basilius, Decius, Venantius, and Manlius Boethius held the consulship and were either Prefects of Rome or Praetorian Prefects; Symmachus and Sividius were consuls and Prefects of Rome; another senator of old family, Cassiodorus, was appointed a minister of finance. '' A.H.M. Jones also notes that under Odoacer the Senate acquired "enhanced prestige and influence '' in order to counter any desires for restoration of Imperial rule. As the most tangible example of this renewed prestige, for the first time since the mid-3rd century copper coins were issued with the legend S (enatus) C (onsulto). Jones describes these coins as "fine big copper pieces '', which were "a great improvement on the miserable little nummi hitherto current '', and not only were they copied by the Vandals in Africa, but they formed the basis of the currency reform by Anastasius in the Eastern Empire.
Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, his relations with the Chalcedonian church hierarchy were remarkably good. As G.M. Cook notes in her introduction to Magnus Felix Ennodius ' Life of Saint Epiphanius, he showed great esteem for Bishop Epiphanius: in response to the bishop 's petition, Odoacer granted the inhabitants of Liguria a five - year immunity from taxes, and again granted his requests for relief from abuses by the praetorian prefect. "One wonders at (Ennodius ') brevity, '' observes Cook. "To the thirteen years of Odovacar 's mastery of Italy... a period which embraced nearly half the episcopate of Epiphanius -- Ennodius devotes but eight sections of the vita (101 -- 107), five of which are taken up with the restoration of the churches. '' Cook uses Ennodius ' brevity as an argumentum ex silentio to prove that Odoacer was very supportive of the Church. "Ennodius was a loyal supporter of Theoderic. Any oppression, therefore, on the part of Odovacar would not be passed over in silence. '' She concludes that Ennodius ' silence "may be construed as an unintentional tribute to the moderation and tolerance of the barbarian king. '' The biography of Pope Felix III in the Liber Pontificalis openly states that the pontiff 's tenure fell during Odoacer 's reign without any complaints about the king.
In 487, Odoacer led his army to victory against the Rugians in Noricum, taking their king Feletheus into captivity; when word that Feletheus ' son, Fredericus, had returned to his people, Odoacer sent his brother Onoulphus with an army back to Noricum against him. Onoulphus found it necessary to evacuate the remaining Romans and resettled them in Italy. The remaining Rugians fled and took refuge with the Ostrogoths; the abandoned province was settled by the Lombards by 493.
As Odoacer 's position improved, Zeno, the Eastern Emperor, increasingly saw him as a rival. According to John of Antioch, Odoacer exchanged messages with Illus, who had been in revolt against Zeno since 484. Thus Zeno sought to destroy Odoacer and promised Theoderic the Great and his Ostrogoths the Italian peninsula if they were to defeat and remove Odoacer. As both Herwig Wolfram and Peter Heather point out, Theoderic had his own reasons to agree to this offer: "Theoderic had enough experience to know (or at least suspect) that Zeno would not, in the long term, tolerate his independent power. When Theoderic rebelled in 485, we are told, he had in mind Zeno 's treatment of Armatus. Armatus defected from Basilicus to Zeno in 476, and was made senior imperial general for life. Within a year, Zeno had him assassinated. ''
In 489, Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across the Julian Alps and into Italy. On 28 August, Odoacer met him at the Isonzo, only to be defeated. He withdrew to Verona, reaching its outskirts on 27 September, where he immediately set up a fortified camp. Theoderic followed him and three days later defeated him again. While Odoacer took refuge in Ravenna, Theoderic continued across Italy to Mediolanum, where the majority of Odoacer 's army, including his chief general Tufa, surrendered to the Ostrogothic king. Theoderic had no reason to doubt Tufa 's loyalty and dispatched his new general to Ravenna with a band of elite soldiers. Herwig Wolfram observes, "(b) ut Tufa changed sides, the Gothic elite force entrusted to his command was destroyed, and Theoderic suffered his first serious defeat on Italian soil. '' Theoderic recoiled by seeking safety in Ticinum. Odoacer emerged from Ravenna and started to besiege his rival. While both were fully engaged, the Burgundians seized the opportunity to plunder and devastated Liguria. Many Romans were taken into captivity, and did not regain their freedom until Theoderic ransomed them three years later.
The following summer, the Visigothic king Alaric II demonstrated what Wolfram calls "one of the rare displays of Gothic solidarity '' and sent military aid to help his kinsman, forcing Odoacer to raise his siege. Theoderic emerged from Ticinum, and on 11 August 490, the armies of the two kings clashed on the Adda River. Odoacer again was defeated and forced back into Ravenna, where Theoderic besieged him. Ravenna proved to be invulnerable, surrounded by marshes and estuaries and easily supplied by small boats from its hinterlands, as Procopius later pointed out in his History. Further, Tufa remained at large in the strategic valley of the Adige near Trent, and received unexpected reinforcements when dissent amongst Theoderic 's ranks led to sizable desertions. That same year, the Vandals took their turn to strike while both sides were fully engaged and invaded Sicily. While Theoderic was engaged with them, his ally Fredericus, king of the Rugians, began to oppress the inhabitants of Pavia, whom the latter 's forces had been garrisoned to protect. Once Theoderic intervened in person in late August, 491, his punitive acts drove Fredericus to desert with his followers to Tufa. Eventually the two quarreled and fought a battle which led to both being killed.
By this time, however, Odoacer had to have lost all hope of victory. A large - scale sortie out of Ravenna on the night of 9 / 10 July 491 ended in failure with the death of his commander - in - chief Livilia along with the best of his Herulian soldiers. On 29 August 492, the Goths were about to assemble enough ships at Rimini to set up an effective blockade of Ravenna. Despite these decisive losses, the war dragged on until 25 February 493 when John, bishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty between Theoderic and Odoacer to occupy Ravenna together and share joint rule. After a three - year siege, Theoderic entered the city on 5 March; Odoacer was dead ten days later, slain by Theoderic while they shared a meal. Theoderic had plotted to have a group of his followers kill him while the two kings were feasting together in the imperial palace of Honorius "Ad Laurentum '' ("At the Laurel Grove ''); when this plan went astray, Theoderic drew his sword and struck him on the collarbone. In response to Odoacer 's dying question, "Where is God? '' Theoderic cried, "This is what you did to my friends. '' Theoderic was said to have stood over the body of his dead rival and exclaimed, "There certainly was n't a bone in this wretched fellow. ''
According to one account, "That same day, all of Odoacer 's army who could be found anywhere were killed by order of Theoderic, as well as all of his family. '' Odoacer 's wife Sunigilda was stoned to death, and his brother Onoulphus was killed by archers while seeking refuge in a church. Theoderic exiled Odoacer 's son Thela to Gaul, but when he attempted to return to Italy Theoderic had him killed.
The events around the Battle of Ravenna were used in the Germanic heroic saga of Dietrich von Bern (Theoderic of Verona). The event in which Theoderic kills Odoacer with his own hands is mirrored in the saga in the episode in which Dietrich kills the Dwarf King Laurin.
Odoacer is the first ruler of Italy for whom the original text of any of his legal acts has survived. This is a grant by Odoacer to Pierius of properties in Sicily near Syracuse and on the island of Melita in Dalmatia, worth in total 690 solidi. The grant itself was made on 18 March 488, but this document, which is on papyrus, was written shortly afterwards. The opening section is missing and the text is in two parts, one now in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Naples and the other in the Austrian National Library in Vienna, but the bulk of the act itself and the subscriptions by witnesses and officials survive.
Pierius, comes domesticorum, was given these properties as a reward for his achievements in the war against Theoderic. None of the parties involved in this transaction -- not Pierius, Odoacer, nor the witnesses -- could foresee that the recipient would die the following year in the battle of the Adda River.
Pierius ' grant is the lone surviving document which has survived from the civic scriptorium of Syracuse prior to the Byzantine reconquest. Scipione Maffei made the unconfirmed assertion that both pieces were owned by the poet Giovanni Gioviano Pontano; it had already lost the beginning by then. The second part is known to have been in the possession of Cardinal Pasquale de Aragon during the 1660s, but Tjäder notes the two parts were reunited at the library of the Monastery of San Paolo in Naples in 1702. In 1718, the second part was presented to Emperor Charles VI through whom that fragment found its way to Vienna.
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who sings big black horse and a cherry tree | Black Horse and the Cherry Tree - wikipedia
"Black Horse and the Cherry Tree '' (commonly written with an ampersand) is a song by Scottish singer - songwriter KT Tunstall and is featured on her debut album, Eye to the Telescope. It was released on 21 February 2005 as the lead single from the album, charting at No. 28 in the UK Singles Chart (see 2005 in British music). It is one of many songs that reuses the famous Bo Diddley beat from the influential 1955 song of his own name.
The song is a playable track in the music video games Band Hero and Dancing with the Stars: We Dance!
Tunstall said of the song:
"Black Horse and the Cherry Tree '' is inspired by old blues, Nashville psycho hillbillies & hazy memories. It tells the story of finding yourself lost on your path, and a choice has to be made. It 's about gambling, fate, listening to your heart, and having the strength to fight the darkness that 's always willing to carry you off.
The song is usually performed solo by Tunstall, the original artist, with the layered guitar and vocals constructed piece - by - piece by sampling the parts live, and using a loop pedal unit to create the backing track. A performance of the song on Later... with Jools Holland (recorded before the release of Eye to the Telescope) was an important break in Tunstall 's career. The song won Tunstall an award for Best Single of 2005 in Q, and it received a 2007 Grammy Award nomination for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ''.
The album version was used as the opening theme song for the CBC Television drama Wild Roses. The song was later redone by Aly & AJ for Pepsi Smash, included on the Japanese only re-release of their second studio album Insomniatic. "Black Horse and the Cherry Tree '' was also used in advertisements for The WB show Pepper Dennis and the 2006 US Open. The song 's video ranked No. 19 on VH1 's 40 Greatest Videos of 2006. During the programme 's airing, Tunstall stated that the day of the video shoot was the only time she had ever worn red lipstick.
In the United Kingdom, the single peaked at No. 28 in its first week and dropped out of the Top 75 in three weeks.
In the United States, "Black Horse and the Cherry Tree '' was initially in the bottom half of the US Billboard Billboard Hot 100 chart. Only after Katharine McPhee sang the song on American Idol (in the 5th season) as part of a Billboard charts - based song selection did the tune rise rapidly in popularity; it jumped 56 positions on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, going from No. 79 to No. 23, and then moving to No. 20, becoming Tunstall 's first single (and only, to date) to appear on that chart 's Top 20. McPhee would go on to sing the song again in her final performance show on 23 May 2006, finishing second to Taylor Hicks.
Megan Joy also sang this song on American Idol, in season 8.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where do the indian and pacific oceans meet | Borders of the Oceans - wikipedia
The borders of the oceans are the limits of the Earth 's oceanic waters. The definition and number of oceans can vary depending on the adopted criteria.
Though generally described as several separate oceans, the world 's oceanic waters constitute one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) are the: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Southern (Antarctic) Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other names.
Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth 's mantle. Continental crust is thicker but less dense. From this perspective, the Earth has three oceans: the World Ocean, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea. The latter two were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is at times a discrete ocean, because tectonic plate movement has repeatedly broken its connection to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus, but the Bosporus is a natural canal cut through continental rock some 7,000 years ago, rather than a piece of oceanic sea floor like the Strait of Gibraltar.
Despite their names, some smaller landlocked "seas '' are not connected with the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea (which is nevertheless, geologically, itself a full - fledged ocean -- see above) and numerous salt lakes such as the Aral Sea.
A complete hierarchy showing which seas belong to which oceans, according to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and for the whole planet, is available at the European Marine Gazetteer website. See also the list of seas article for the seas included in each ocean area. Also note there are many varying definitions of the world 's seas and no single authority.
The Arctic Ocean covers much of the Arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia and is sometimes considered a sea or estuary of the Atlantic.
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Kara Sea and East Siberian Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Arctic Ocean.
The CIA defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean differently, as depicted in the map comparing its definition to the IHO 's definition.
The Atlantic Ocean separates the Americas from Europe and Africa. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the North Atlantic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
The 3rd edition (currently in force) of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the South Atlantic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Bay of Biscay and Gulf of Guinea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Atlantic Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Atlantic Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60 ° S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.) While the name "Southern Ocean '' is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition 's "Southern Ocean '', omitted from the 3rd edition.
The Indian Ocean washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the Indian Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that this definition excludes any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Indian Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Indian Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60 ° S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.) While the name "Southern Ocean '' is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition 's "Southern Ocean '', omitted from the 3rd edition.
The boundary of the Indian Ocean is a constitutional issue for Australia. The Imperial South Australia Colonisation Act, 1834, which established and defined the Colony of South Australia defined South Australia 's southern limit as being the "Southern Ocean. '' This definition was carried through to Australian constitutional law upon the Federation of Australia in 1901.
The Pacific is the ocean that separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the North Pacific Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the South Pacific Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Gulf of Alaska and Coral Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Pacific Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Pacific Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60 ° S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.) While the name "Southern Ocean '' is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition 's "Southern Ocean '', omitted from the 3rd edition.
The Southern Ocean contains the waters that surround Antarctica and sometimes is considered an extension of Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
In 1928, the first edition of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas publication included the Southern Ocean around Antarctica. The Southern Ocean was delineated by land - based limits - the continent of Antarctica to the south, and the continents of South America, Africa, and Australia plus Broughton Island, New Zealand in the north. The detailed land - limits used were Cape Horn in South America, Cape Agulhas in Africa, the southern coast of Australia from Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, to South East Cape, Tasmania, via the western edge of the water body of Bass Strait, and then Broughton Island before returning to Cape Horn.
The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHO 's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. The Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northwards to latitude 40 ° south between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20 ° east) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115 ° east), and extended to latitude 55 ° south between Auckland Island of New Zealand (long. 165 ° or 166 ° east) and Cape Horn in South America (long. 67 ° west).
The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition because "... the northern limits... are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change... Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits. (Great Britain uses the Latitude of 55 ° South) ''. Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northwards.
The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents. The proposal for the name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean. Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean 's northern limit at 60 ° S (with no land interruptions at this latitude), with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly 50 ° S, but a few for as far north as 35 ° S.
The 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas has yet to be published due to ' areas of concern ' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world. The IHB circulated a new draft of the 4th edition of the publication in August 2002, however there were still various changes, 60 seas were added or renamed from the 3rd edition, and even the name of the publication was changed. A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits. Effectively, the 3rd edition (which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices) has yet to be superseded and IHO documents declare that it remains "currently in force. ''
Despite this, the 4th edition definition has de facto usage by many organisations, scientists and nations - even at times by IHO committees. Some nations ' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55 ° S parallel for example.
Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society, show the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans as extending to Antarctica, although articles on the National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean.
In Australia, cartographic authorities defined the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand. This delineation is basically the same as the original (first) edition of the IHO publication and effectively the same as the second edition. In the second edition, the Great Australian Bight was defined as the only geographical entity between the Australian coast and the Southern Ocean. Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean, while Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet.
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who worked with government in the 1960s to get laws passed to help noncitizens and farm workers | United Farm Workers - wikipedia
The United Farm Workers of America, or more commonly just United Farm Workers (UFW), is a labor union for farmworkers in the United States. It originated from the merger of two workers ' rights organizations, the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) led by organizer Larry Itliong, and the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) led by César Chávez and Dolores Huerta. They became allied and transformed from workers ' rights organizations into a union as a result of a series of strikes in 1965, when the mostly Filipino farmworkers of the AWOC in Delano, California initiated a grape strike, and the NFWA went on strike in support. As a result of the commonality in goals and methods, the NFWA and the AWOC formed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee on August 22, 1966. This organization was accepted into the AFL - CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union.
Dolores Huerta grew up in Stockton, California, which is in the San Joaquin Valley, an area filled with farms. In the early 1950s, she completed a degree at Delta Community College, part of the University of the Pacific. She briefly worked as an elementary school teacher. Huerta saw that her students, many of them children of farm workers, were living in poverty without enough food to eat or other basic necessities. To help, she became one of the founders of the Stockton chapter of the Community Service Organization (CSO). The CSO worked to improve social and economic conditions for farm workers and to fight discrimination.
By 1959, César Chávez had already established professional relationships with local community organizations that aimed to empower the working class population by encouraging them to become more politically active. In 1952, Chávez met Fred Ross who was a community organizer working on behalf of the Community Service Organization. This was a group which was affiliated with the Industrial Areas Foundation which was headed by Saul Alinsky.
To further her cause, Huerta created the Agricultural Workers Association (AWA) in 1960. Through the AWA, she lobbied politicians on many issues, including allowing migrant workers without U.S. citizenship to receive public assistance and pensions and creating Spanish - language voting ballots and driver 's tests. In 1962, she co-founded a workers ' union with César Chávez, which was later known as the United Farm Workers (UFW). The two made a great team. Chávez was the dynamic leader and speaker and Huerta was a skilled organizer and tough negotiator. Huerta was instrumental in the union 's many successes, including the strikes against California grape growers in the 1960s and 1970s.
During Chávez 's participation in the Community Service Organization, Fred Ross trained César Chávez in the grassroots, door - to - door, house meeting tactic of organization, a tactic which was crucial to the UFW 's recruiting methods. The house meeting tactic successfully established a broad base of local Community Service Organization chapters during Ross 's era, and Chávez used this technique to extend the UFW 's reach as well as to find up and coming organizers. During the 1950s, César Chávez and Fred Ross developed twenty - two new Community Service Organization chapters in the Mexican American neighborhoods of San Jose. In 1959, Chávez would claim the rank of executive director in the Community Service Organization. During this time, Chávez observed and adopted the notion of having the community become more politically involved in order to bring about the social changes that the community sought. This would be a vital tactic in Chávez 's future struggles in fighting for immigrant rights.
César Chávez 's ultimate goal in his participation with the Community Service Organization and the Industrial Areas Foundation was to eventually organize a union for the farm workers. Saul Alinsky did not share Chávez 's sympathy for the farm workers struggle, claiming that organizing farm workers, "was like fighting on a constantly disintegrating bed of sand. '' (Alinsky, 1967)
In March 1962 at the Community Service Organization convention, Chávez proposed a pilot project for organizing farm workers which was rejected by the organization 's members. Chávez 's reaction to this led him to resign from the organization in order to pursue his goal of creating a farm workers union which would later come to be known as the National Farm Workers Association.
By 1965 the National Farm Workers Association had acquired twelve hundred members through Chávez 's person - to - person recruitment efforts which he learned from Fred Ross just a decade earlier. Out of those twelve hundred, only about two hundred paid dues. Also in 1962, Richard Chavez, the brother of César Chávez, designed the black Aztec eagle insignia that would become the symbol of the NFW and the UFW. César Chávez chose the red and black colors used by the organization.
Although still in its infant stages, the organization lent its support to a strike by workers in the rose industry in 1965. This initial protest by the young organization resulted in a failed attempt to strike against the rose industry. That same year the farm workers who worked in the Delano fields of California wanted to strike against the growers in response to the grower 's refusal to raise wages from $1.20 to $1.40 an hour, and they sought out Chávez and the National Farm Workers Association for support. The Delano agricultural workers were mostly Filipino workers affiliated with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee, a charter of the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations. The unification of these two organizations, in an attempt to boycott table grapes which were grown in the Delano fields, resulted in the creation of the United Farm Workers of America. The AFL - CIO chartered the United Farm Workers, officially combining the AWOC and the NFWA, in August 1966.
In the early history of American agriculture, farm workers experienced many failed attempts to organize agricultural laborers. In 1903, Japanese and Mexican farm workers attempted to come together to fight for better wages and better working conditions. This attempt to organize agricultural laborers was ignored and disbanded when organizations, such as the American Federation of Labor, neglected to support their efforts, often withholding assistance on the basis of race.
In 1913, the Industrial Workers of the World organized a rally at a large ranch in the rural area of Northern California which involved two thousand farm workers. This resulted in an attack against the participants of the rally by national guardsmen. As a result of the violence the two lead organizers for the Industrial Workers of the World were arrested, convicted of murder, and were sentenced to life imprisonment. It is believed that the two people arrested were wrongly convicted of the murder charges.
In the later teens and 1920 's in the United States, further attempts to organize farm laborers were undertaken by spontaneous local efforts, and some which were led by communist unions. These attempts also resulted in failure because during that time employers were not required by law to involve themselves with negotiations with their workers. During this time period, Employers could also legally fire their employees if they chose to join a union.
In 1936, the National Labor Relations Act was put into effect. This legislation provided most American workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively. Agricultural workers were exempt from the protection of this law. Some believe that this labor category was excluded as a result of a political tactic to gain the support of Southern politicians in the passing of this law.
In 1941, the United States Government and the Mexican Government enacted the Bracero Program. Initially, this joint project between the United States and Mexico was established during the Second World War in order to address labor shortages by allowing "guest workers '' from Mexico to work in the American agricultural industry until the end of the crop harvest. Thousands of Mexican Nationals were brought north to work in the fields in the United States and growers used this opportunity to undercut domestic wages, and the Braceros were also utilized in breaking strikes from resident farm workers. This program was extended until 1964.
Many Mexican women in California who joined the UFW in the 1960s were already previously involved in community - based activism in the 1950s through the Community Service Organization for Latino civil rights. The racial discrimination and economic disadvantages they faced from a young age made it necessary to form networks of support like the CSO to empower Latinos in America with voter registration drives, citizenship classes, lawsuits and legislative campaigns, and political protests against police brutality and immigration policies.
While male activists held leadership roles and more authority, the women activists participated in volunteering and teaching valuable skills to individuals of the Latino community. By the 1960s, Huerta and others began to shift their attention to the labor exploitation of Latino farm workers in California and began to strike, demonstrate, and organize to fight for a myriad of issues that Mexican laborers faced. While many of the male leaders of the movement had the role of being dynamic, powerful speakers that would inspire others to join the movement, the women devoted their efforts to negotiating better working contracts with companies, organizing boycotts, rallying for changes in immigration policies, registering Latinos to vote with Spanish language ballots, and increasing pressure on legislation to improve labor relations.
Among the women who engaged in activism for labor rights, traditional and non traditional patterns of activism existed. Mexican - American women like Dolores Huerta used their education and resources arrange programs at the grassroots level, sustaining and leading members it into the labor movement. As the sister - in - law of César Chávez, Huerta co-founded the National Farmworkers Association which would become the United Farm Workers and she had immense influence over the direction that it took, breaking stereotypes of the Mexican woman in the 1960s. However, it was most common for Chicana activists and female labor union members to be involved in administrative tasks for the early stages of UFW; women like Helen Chávez were essential in these responsibilities, such as credit union bookkeeping, behind the scenes and advising her husband. Still, both women along with other Chicana activists participated in picketing with their families in the face of police intimidation and racial abuse. Keeping track of union services and membership were traditionally responsibilities given to female organizers and it was integral to the institutional survival of the UFW, but it has gone much less recognized throughout history due to the male led strikes receiving majority public attention.
In May 1966, California farm worker activist Eugene Nelson traveled to Texas to rally support for the Schenley Farms boycott. While in Houston, AFL - CIO state representatives suggested that he visit Rio Grande City on the Texas - Mexico border in the lower Rio Grande Valley. Seeing the possibilities for organizing workers in the impoverished region, he quickly set about recruiting volunteers for the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC) as both strikers and assistants. Other UFWOC activists joined Nelson in Rio Grande City, including Gilbert Padilla, Antonio Orendain, and Bill Chandler. At the time, some melon workers lacked access to fresh water while working in the fields, some lacked sanitary facilities for human waste, and some were present in the fields as crop dusters dropped pesticides on the crops.
On June 1, Nelson led workers to strike demanding $1.25 as a minimum hourly wage, protesting La Casita Farms and others packing sheds. The activists also protested the hiring of "scab '' labor, mostly those with green card visas from Mexico, who were allowed to cross the border as day workers. In the dispute, reports and allegations of vandalism to equipment, produce, and public property caused Starr County officials, along with the support of the growers, to call for additional law enforcement, which arrived in the form of the Texas Rangers. Both county officials and rangers arrested protestors for secondary picketing, standing within 50 feet of one another, a practice illegal at the time. Allegations of brutality and questions of jurisdictional limits created national headlines in what came to be known as "La Huelga. ''
On July 4, members of UFWOC, strikers, and members of the clergy set out on a march to Austin to demand the $1.25 minimum wage and other improvements for farm workers. Press coverage intensified as the marchers made their way north in the summer heat. Politicians, members of the AFL - CIO, and the Texas Council of Churches accompanied the protestors. Gov. John Connally, who had refused to meet them in Austin, traveled to New Braunfels with then House Speaker Ben Barnes, and Attorney General Waggoner Carr to intercept the march and inform strikers that their efforts would have no effect.
Protestors arrived in Austin in time for a Labor Day rally, but no changes in law resulted. Strikes and arrests continued in Rio Grande City through 1966 into 1967. Violence increased as the spring melon crop ripened and time neared for the May harvest. In June, when beatings of two UFWOC supporters by Texas rangers surfaced, tempers flared.
At the end of June as the harvest was ending, members of the Senate Subcommittee on Migratory Labor, including Senators Harrison Williams and Edward Kennedy, arrived in the lower Rio Grande Valley to hold hearings in Rio Grande City and Edinburg, Texas. The senators took their findings back to Washington as a report on pending legislation. Subsequently, the rangers left the area and the picketing ended. On September 20, Hurricane Beulah 's devastations ruined the farming industry in the Valley for the following year. One major outcome of the strikes came in the form of a 1974 Supreme Court victory in Medrano v. Allee, limiting jurisdiction of Texas Rangers in labor disputes. Farm workers continued to organize through the 1970s on a smaller scale, under new leadership in San Juan, Texas, independent of César Chávez.
By mid-1971 the Texas campaign was well underway. In Sept. 1971, Thomas John Wakely, recent discharge from the United States Air Force joined the San Antonio office of the Texas campaign. His pay was room and board, $5.00 a week plus all of the menudo he could eat. The menudo was provided to the UFOC staff by the families of migrant workers working the Texas fields.
TJ worked for UFOC for about 2 years and his responsibilities included organizing the Grape Boycott in San Antonio. His primary target was the H-E-B grocery store chain. In addition, he attempted to organize Hispanic farm workers working the farmers market in San Antonio -- an institution at that time controlled by the corporate farms. Among his many organizing activities included an early 1972 episode where he and several other UFOC staff members who were attempting to organize warehouse workers in San Antonio were fired upon by security agents of the corporate farm owners.
In mid-1973 the San Antonio office of the UFOC was taken over by the Brown Berets. This radicalization of the San Antonio UFOC office led to the eventual collapse of the San Antonio UFOC organizing campaign.
In 1970, Chavez decided to move the union 's headquarters from Delano to La Paz, California into a former sanatorium in the Tehachapi Mountains. Whereas Chavez thought this change would aid the creation of "a national union of the poor... serving the needs of all who suffer, '' other union members objected to this distancing of the leadership away from the farmworkers.
The union was poised to launch its next major campaign in the lettuce fields in 1970 when a deal between the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and the growers nearly destroyed it. Initially the Teamsters signed contracts with lettuce growers in the Salinas Valley, who wanted to avoid recognizing the UFW. Then in 1973, when the three - year UFW grape contracts expired, the grape growers signed contracts giving the Teamsters the right to represent the workers who had been members of the UFW.
The UFW responded with strikes, lawsuits and boycotts, including secondary boycotts in the retail grocery industry. The union struggled to regain the members it had lost in the lettuce fields; it never fully recovered its strength in grapes, due in some part to incompetent management of the hiring halls it had established that seemed to favor some workers over others.
The battles in the fields became violent, with a number of UFW members killed on the picket line. The violence led the state in 1975 to enact the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act, creating an administrative agency, the ALRB, that oversaw secret ballot elections and resolved charges of unfair labor practices, like failing to bargain in good faith, or discrimination against activists. The UFW won the majority of secret ballot elections in which it participated. (1)
In the late 1970s, the leadership of the UFW was wracked by a series of conflicts, as differences emerged between Chavez and some of his former colleagues. In 1977, the Teamsters signed an agreement with the UFW promising to end their efforts to represent farm workers. (2)
In the 1980s, the membership of the UFW shrank, as did its national prominence. After taking office in the 1980s, California Governor George Deukmejian stopped enforcement of the state 's farm labor laws, resulting in farm workers losing their UFW contracts, being fired, and blacklisted. Due to internal squabbles, most of the union 's original leadership left or were forced out, except for Chavez and Huerta. By 1986, the union had been reduced to 75 contracts and had stopped organizing.
In the 1980s, the UFW joined with the AFL - CIO and other organizations for the national Wrath of Grapes campaign, re-instituting the grape boycott.
In July 2008 the farm worker Ramiro Carrillo Rodriguez, 48, died of a heat stroke. According to United Farm Workers, he was the "13th farm worker heat death since CA Governor Schwarzenegger took office '' in 2003. In 2006 California 's first permanent heat regulations were enacted but these regulations were not strictly enforced, the union contended.
César Chávez is a film released in March, 2014, directed by Diego Luna about the life of the Mexican - American labor leader who co-founded the United Farm Workers. The film stars Michael Peña as Chávez. Co-producer John Malkovich also co-stars in the role of an owner of a large industrial grape farm who leads the sometimes violent opposition to Chávez 's organizing efforts.
The grape strike officially began in Delano in September 1965. In December, union representatives traveled from California to New York, Washington, D.C., Pittsburg, Detroit, and other large cities to encourage a boycott of grapes grown at ranches without UFW contracts.
In the summer of 1966, unions and religious groups from Seattle and Portland endorsed the boycott. Supporters formed a boycott committee in Vancouver, prompting an outpouring of support from Canadians that would continue throughout the following years.
In 1967, UFW supporters in Oregon began picketing stores in Eugene, Salem, and Portland. After melon workers went on strike in Texas, growers held the first union representation elections in the region, and the UFW became the first union to ever sign a contract with a grower in Texas.
National support for the UFW continued to grow in 1968, and hundreds of UFW members and supporters were arrested. Picketing continued throughout the country, including in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Florida. The mayors of New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Detroit, and other cities pledged their support, and many of them altered their cities ' grape purchases to support the boycott.
In 1969, support for farm workers increased throughout North America. The grape boycott spread into the South as civil rights groups pressured grocery stores in Atlanta, Miami, New Orleans, Nashville, and Louisville to remove non-union grapes. Student groups in New York protested the Department of Defense and accused them of deliberately purchasing boycotted grapes. On May 10, UFW supporters picketed Safeway stores throughout the U.S. and Canada in celebration of International Grape Boycott Day. Cesar Chavez also went on a speaking tour along the East Coast to ask for support from labor groups, religious groups, and universities.
Mapping UFW Strikes, Boycotts, and Farm Worker Actions 1965 - 1975 shows over 1,000 farm worker strikes, boycotts, and other actions.
The UFW during Chavez 's tenure was committed to restricting immigration. With the introduction of new laws restricting immigration like the Alien Contract Labor Act of 1885, Chavez and other like minded individuals fought the influx of people that could hurt their cause. Chavez and Dolores Huerta, co-founder and president of the UFW, fought the Bracero Program that existed from 1942 to 1964. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the Imperial and Coachella Valleys to the border of Mexico to protest growers ' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line '' along the United States - Mexico border to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW 's unionization efforts. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some UFW members, under the guidance of Chavez 's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.
The United Farm Workers, a working class movement, had received substantial support from the middle class, causing problems of power and control within the union. The UFW gave no structural power to farm workers, as there were no locals elected as staff. The survival of the staff was n't linked directly to membership, since they made more money from outside sources than union dues. Today, the UFW only consists of five thousand members who work in very similar low conditions as they did 40 years ago. UFW includes undocumented farmworkers as well.
The role of Cesar Chavez, the founder of UFW, was to frame his campaigns in terms of consumer safety and involving social justice, bringing benefits to the farmworker unions. One of UFW 's, along with Cesar Chavez 's, important aspects that has been overlooked is building coalitions.
The United Farm Workers allows farmworkers to help improve their working conditions and wages. The UFW embraces nonviolence in its attempt to cultivate members on political and social issues.
The union publicly adopted the principles of non-violence championed by Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
On July 22, 2005, the UFW announced that it was joining the Change to Win Federation, a coalition of labor unions functioning as an alternative to the AFL - CIO. On January 13, 2006, the union officially disaffiliated from the AFL - CIO. In contrast to other Change to Win - affiliated unions, the AFL - CIO neglected to offer the right of affiliation to regional bodies to the UFW.
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where did the titanic sail from when it sank | RMS Titanic - wikipedia
RMS Titanic (/ taɪˈtænɪk /) was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early morning hours of 15 April 1912, after it collided with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard the ship, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. The RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. The Titanic was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster.
Titanic was under the command of Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of those aboard, due to outdated maritime safety regulations. Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- slightly more than half of the number on board, and one third of her total capacity. The ship carried a total of 16 lifeboat davits which could lower three lifeboats each, for a total of 48 boats. However, Titanic carried only a total of 20 lifeboats, four of which were collapsible and proved to be hard to launch during the sinking.
After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the ship 's hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered -- with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after the Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived at the scene, where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors.
The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that had led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers.
The wreck of Titanic was first discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and the vessel remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Since her discovery in 1985, thousands of artefacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk.
The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liners -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).
The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee.
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.
Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.
All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:
Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.
The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.
They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.
Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.
Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.
The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo.
Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).
The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.
Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.
The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.
The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house.
Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''.
Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities.
The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers.
Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period.
Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.
One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.
At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.
Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily.
The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,800 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork.
Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern.
Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.
Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.
Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned.
The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany.
The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.
The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.
One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast.
The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.
Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.
Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable exterior difference was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. Extensive changes were made to B Deck on Titanic as the promenade space in this deck, which had proven unpopular on Olympic was converted into additional First Class cabins, including two opulent parlour suites with their own private promenade spaces. The À la Carte restaurant was also enlarged and the Café Parisien, an entirely new feature which did not exist on Olympic, was added. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg.
Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.
The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, her turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours she arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.
Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.
In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.
Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship.
White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911.
Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April.
Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer.
Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators.
Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,500 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 320 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.
Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.
Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.
Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them (with those who perished marked with a dagger †) were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV † and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim †, painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet †, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus † and his wife Ida †, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen, writer and historian Archibald Gracie, cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer † with his wife Marian and son Jack, George Dunton Widener † with his wife Eleanor and son Harry †, Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes, Mr. † and Mrs. Charles M. Hays, Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper, Mr. † and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas, Mr. † and Mrs. George D. Wick, Mr. † and Mrs. Henry B. Harris, Mr. † and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson, Mr. † and Mrs. † Hudson J.C. Allison, Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop, noted architect Edward Austin Kent †, brewery heir Harry Molson †, tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead †, journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum, Philadelphia and New York socialite Edith Corse Evans †, wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza, French sculptor Paul Chevré (fr), author Jacques Futrelle † with his wife May, silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline, Alfons Simonius - Blumer, Swiss Army Colonel and banker, president of the Swiss Bankverein, James A. Hughes 's daughter Eloise, banker Robert Williams Daniel, the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin (de), Arthur Wellington Ross 's son John H. Ross, Washington Roebling 's nephew Washington A. Roebling II, Andrew Saks 's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband, senator William A. Clark 's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife Virginia, great - great - grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife, John S. Pillsbury 's honeymooning grandson John P. Snyder and wife, Nelle, Dorothy Parker 's New York manufacturer uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth, among others.
Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.
The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 700 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 79,000 today).
On Wednesday 10 April 1912 Titanic 's maiden voyage began. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving from 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. In all, 923 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton, 179 First Class, 247 Second Class and 494 Third Class. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith on boarding. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. 922 passengers were recorded as having embarked Titanic at Southampton. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.
The maiden voyage began on time, at noon. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and what would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton, White Star 's Oceanic. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.
After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. 274 additional passengers were taken aboard, 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers who had booked passage only cross-channel from Southampton left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy.
At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown, 3 First Class, 7 Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee, who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic.
Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 59 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.
From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold.
The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. The fire was over on 14 April. There has been some speculation and discussion as to whether this fire and attempts to extinguish it may have made the ship more vulnerable to its fate.
Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. ''
At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper.
Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard.
At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Sudden immersion into freezing water typically causes death within minutes, either from cardiac arrest, uncontrollable breathing of water, or cold incapacitation (not, as commonly believed, from hypothermia), and almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people.
Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls.
About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley.
RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian.
Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town.
Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.
Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 82,000 today), divided among the crew members.
The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.
In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 91,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 680,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.
Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 41,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented.
The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner.
The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent.
Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.
Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''.
The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.
On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.
One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.
Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.
Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.
The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.
The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. While the use of Marconi wireless system did not achieve the result of bringing a rescue ship to the Titanic before it sank, the use of wireless did bring the Carpathia in time to rescue some of the survivors who otherwise would have perished due to exposure.
The water temperature in the area where Titanic sank, which was well below normal, also contributed to the rapid death of many passengers during the sinking. Water temperature readings taken around the time of the accident were reported to be 28 ° F. Typical water temperatures were normally in the mid-40 ° F range during mid-April. The coldness of the water was a critical factor, often causing death within minutes for many of those in the water.
Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women.
The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911.
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.
In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.
The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1,500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June, one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.
Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded.
The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.
Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.
The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there.
Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. It has been estimated that within the next 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic will eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.
Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.
On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.
After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.
Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships.
Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published.
The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.
The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic, the most prominent is in Belfast, the ship 's birthplace (see next section).
RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins.
In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.
Only recently has the significance of Titanic most notably been given by Northern Ireland where it was built by Harland and Wolff in the capital city, Belfast. While the rest of the world embraced the glory and tragedy of Titanic, in its birth city, Titanic remained a taboo subject throughout the 20th century. The sinking brought tremendous grief and was a blow to the city 's pride. But it 's shipyard was also a place many Catholics regarded as hostile. In the latter half of the century, during a 30 - year sectarian conflict Titanic was a reminder of the lack of civil rights that in part contributed towards The Troubles. While the fate of Titanic remained a well - known story within local households throughout the 20th century, commercial investment around Titanic 's legacy was modest because of these issues.
After The Troubles in 1998, the number of overseas tourists visiting Northern Ireland dramatically increased to 30 million (100 % rise by 2008). It was subsequently identified in the ' Northern Ireland Tourism Board 's Strategic Framework for Action 2004 - 2007 ' that the significance of and interest in Titanic globally (partly due to the 1997 film ' Titanic ') was not being fully exploded as a tourist attraction. Thus, Titanic Belfast ® was spearheaded, along with some smaller projects, such as a Titanic memorial.
In 2012 on the ship 's centenary, Titanic Belfast visitor attraction was opened on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. It was Northern Ireland 's second most visited tourist attraction with almost 700,000 visitors in 2016.
Despite over 1,600 ships being built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast Habour, Queen 's Island became renamed after its most famous ship; Titanic Quarter in 1995. In 2005 Titanic Quarter Ltd launched one of the world 's largest urban - waterfront regeneration projects. Today Titanic Quarter is Northern Ireland 's most esteemed site; a major hub of world - class education, employment, entertainment and tourist facilities. Once a sensitive story, Titanic is now considered one of Northern Ireland 's most iconic and uniting symbols.
There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.
A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism.
The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked.
Books:
Journals and news articles:
Investigations:
Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W / 41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W / 41.73250; - 49.94694
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outline 4 roles of traditional authorities in democratic society | Traditional authority - wikipedia
Traditional authority (also known as traditional domination) is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to tradition or custom. The main reason for the given state of affairs is that it ' has always been that way '.
In sociology, the concept of traditional authority (domination) comes from Max Weber 's tripartite classification of authority, the other two forms being charismatic authority and rational - legal authority. All of those three domination types represent an example of his ideal type concept. Weber noted that in history those ideal types of domination are always found in combinations.
In traditional authority, the legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition; in charismatic authority from the personality and leadership qualities of the individual; and in rational - legal authority from powers that are bureaucratically and legally attached to certain positions.
Weber derives the traditional domination from patriarchys and their households -- in other words, from the ancient tradition of family (the authority of a master over his household). The master is designated in accordance with the rules of inheritance. He has no administrative staff nor any machinery to enforce his will by force alone; he depends on the willingness of the group members to respect his authority. Those members stand in personal relations to him. They obey him based on the belief that this is their duty sanctioned by immemorial tradition and on feeling of filial piety for the person of the master.
Patrimonial government occurs when the ruler 's household expands with the household administration giving rise to governmental offices. All officials are personal dependents or favourites of the ruler, appointed by him. Their interactions with the ruler are based on paternal authority and filial dependence. The officials treat their work as a personal service to the ruler. The ruler has complete control over the officials; he empowers them from case to case, assigns specific tasks, promotes and demotes. They have no rights, rather they have privileges granted and withdrawn by the ruler. It is rare to discover any clear and stable hierarchy and responsibility in the deluge of official titles of most patrimonial administrations.
Military force is an important instrument of a patrimonial rule. Weber distinguished five types of military organisations. In all of those cases the military is a tool of the ruler, solely for his use -- but he is responsible for its upkeep (equipment, maintenance and wages).
With the growth of the territory organized and more independent administrative staff and military force became a necessity. This usually leads to decentralisation, and some individuals gain more independence in the form of certain rights (for example, the right to inheritance and marriage without the consent of the rulers, to be judged by independent courts instead of officials of the royal household, etc.).
One of the best examples of almost pure type of patrimonialism is ancient Egypt, where the population was entirely dependent upon the control of the waterways (Nile River). This facilitated the creation of centralised government. When the royal household required it, the individual had to perform the public duties, such as participate in labor - intensive project (rising of the pyramids). Thus the whole country was in fact the patriarchal household of the pharaoh.
When land is given to military or officials for the performance of their duties, their independence increases and the power of the ruler weakens (consider the Mameluks and their rebellions, or the difference between Chinese Confucian literati who were never able to overthrow the power of the emperor and European knights who evolved into powerful aristocracy in many cases vastly limiting the power of the kings (especially in the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth)).
Patrimonial dominance has often prevailed in the Orient, where land remained in the control of the ruler. However, in the Occident the ruler lost control of the lands given to the nobility, which according to Weber was a major reason for patrimonialism being replaced by feudalism.
Feudalism when compared to patrimonalism, has one major similarity and several important differences.
The similarity is that both are based on tradition and have powerful rulers who grant rights in return for military and administrative services.
The differences are important for the subtler distinction:
Most of the representatives of any dynasty ruling for more than one generation (kings, emperors, sultans, etc.) would fall into that category. Thus majority monarchies and some autocracies, oligarchies, and theocracies would be ruled by traditional leaders.
Often male head of a common family should be considered a traditional leader. This could also be the case in a family - owned business, if its director and other leader positions are chosen based on family ties and / or age.
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what types of digestion take place in the stomach | Digestion - wikipedia
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water - soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.
After some time (typically 1 -- 2 hours in humans, 4 -- 6 hours in dogs, 3 -- 4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95 % of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.
Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup ''. In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac - like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.
In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP). This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 -- 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.
A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host 's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.
The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.
The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram - negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.
The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth / anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.
In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.
A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.
To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.
Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird 's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.
The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.
The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.
The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it can not be chewed, so we stop trying.
The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals ' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.
A crop, or croup, is a thin - walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.
Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.
Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore - stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.
Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi - cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo - rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo - rumen are also digested in the small intestine.
Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.
Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).
Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours -- eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.
An earthworm 's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge '' on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.
The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.
In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.
Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40 % of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5 % hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1 - 3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono - and di - glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.
In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk - based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.
Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.
After the B - haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B - IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B - IF complexes in the blood.
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose - insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.
Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.
The stomach 's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.
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when did new zealand win the america's cup | Team New Zealand - wikipedia
Team New Zealand or TNZ is a sailing team based in Auckland, New Zealand representing the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron.
Team New Zealand became a household name in their home country following their consecutive wins in the America 's Cup in 1995 and 2000, under the leadership of Sir Peter Blake, when becoming the first team from a country outside the United States to win and successfully defend the America 's Cup. In 2017, skippered by Glenn Ashby, they went on to retake the America 's Cup.
Three challenges were launched before the founding of Team New Zealand, all of these backed by Michael Fay. New Zealand Challenge competed in the 1987 Louis Vuitton Cup, the 1988 America 's Cup and the 1992 Louis Vuitton Cup.
Following the 1992 competition, Michael Fay withdrew from backing the New Zealand challenges and a new effort under the leadership of Sir Peter Blake began putting together a team, raising funds and gaining support for the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron. Team New Zealand Limited was established as a registered company in 1993
In 1995, TNZ beat Team Dennis Conner 5 -- 0 in a major upset off San Diego, California after winning the right to challenge in the Louis Vuitton Cup. Their boats were fast, they had an experienced crew led by skipper Russell Coutts, and they were ably led by Sir Peter Blake. As NZL 32 approached the finish line on the last race, sailing commentator Pete Montgomery made the now famous line "The America 's Cup is now New Zealand 's cup! ''
The winning yacht, NZL 32, was shipped back to New Zealand and given to the Te Papa Museum, and is now housed in an extension to the northern end of the National Maritime Museum in Auckland as part of a permanent exhibition, Blue Water, Black Magic, about Sir Peter Blake.
TNZ (NZL 60) beat Italy 's Prada Challenge (Luna Rossa) 5 -- 0 in the 2000 match held on Auckland 's Hauraki Gulf. On crossing the finish line in the final race, commentator Peter Montgomery exclaimed "The America 's Cup is still New Zealand 's cup!! '' -- echoing his comment in 1995 America 's Cup. A notable feature was Russell Coutts handing over the helm to Dean Barker in the final race.
In 2003, Team New Zealand 's eight - year reign ended after they were defeated 5 -- 0 by Swiss - based challenger Alinghi. TNZ dubbed their campaign the "Loyal '' campaign, featuring a Silver fern flag with the word "Loyal '' and an existing song of the same name by New Zealand musician Dave Dobbyn. This was largely due to the Swiss boat featuring many of the afterguard members from TNZ 's previous campaigns (notably Russell Coutts and Brad Butterworth) which, along with a fast boat and a lack of reliability aboard TNZ 's NZL 82, contributed to the win.
In 2007, the re-branded Emirates Team New Zealand won the Louis Vuitton Cup and advanced to the 32nd America 's Cup against defenders Alinghi. Team New Zealand lost the series 2 -- 5 to Alinghi, the last by a single second.
In late 2003, TNZ announced their intention to challenge Alinghi at the 2007 Valencia America 's Cup, with Emirates on board as title sponsor, and Grant Dalton as Team Boss. Dean Barker skippered a more international team than ever before. TNZ were among the "big four '' syndicates leading up to the 2007 Cup. The big four consisted of TNZ, Alinghi, BMW Oracle Racing, and Luna Rossa.
In the Louis Vuitton Cup 2007 to select the challenger to face Alinghi, TNZ lost their first match to Mascalzone Latino - Capitalia Team, a team who they had beaten in each of their five encounters in the Louis Vuitton Acts. They then won their next 7 races, before losing the final two in round robin 1 to Luna Rossa and BMW Oracle Racing which put them in third place at the end of the first round robin. In Round Robin 2, Team New Zealand were undefeated throughout, taking first place from BMW Oracle Racing. They won their semi-final series 5 -- 2 against Desafío Español 2007 and qualified for the Louis Vuitton finals against Luna Rossa. In the finals, they defeated Luna Rossa with a whitewash victory of 5 -- 0, winning the Louis Vuitton Cup and the right to challenge Alinghi for the America 's Cup.
On 3 July 2007, Emirates Team New Zealand lost their final race to Alinghi bringing Alinghi 's race wins to 5, successfully defending the 32nd America 's cup.
Americas Cup...
Alinghi wins the America 's Cup, 5 -- 2.
Team New Zealand hosted the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series in January and February 2009 on the Waitematā Harbour in the Hauraki Gulf, Auckland. Team New Zealand defeated Alinghi by a margin of 3 races to 1 in the final. The final races were reduced to the best of five due to difficult weather conditions resulting in the loss of one day 's racing.
In March 2010, the Louis Vuitton Trophy regatta returned to Auckland after the first regatta of the series in Nice in November 2009 won by Italy 's Azzurra team. On Sunday 21 March 2010, Emirates Team New Zealand won the final of the Louis Vuitton Trophy Auckland regatta with a 56 sec win over Mascalzone Latino.
On 13 April 2010, along with Camper, the Spanish - based international footwear manufacturer, Emirates Team New Zealand announced that it would compete in the Volvo Ocean Race in 2011 -- 12.
The campaign was run by Emirates Team New Zealand and skippered by Olympic and round - the - world yachtsman Chris Nicholson. Racing was very close with results of each leg often coming down to minutes and seconds at the finish line after thousands of miles of ocean racing. Emirates Team New Zealand came in second.
On 21 April 2011, Grant Dalton and Emirates Team New Zealand announced their entry for the 2013 America 's Cup regatta to be held in San Francisco in 2013. New sponsor Nespresso came on board through parent company Nestlé. Grant Dalton expressed his gratitude to numerous corporate interests based around the world, namely Matteo De Nora and Stephen Tindall among others, in keeping the team afloat through the intervening years in what had been a difficult four years since the last multi-challenger event in Valencia 2007.
The team also received a NZ $36 m grant from the New Zealand government to compete in the 2013 America 's Cup and to promote and export New Zealand expertise in the field of yachting. This followed on from an economic impact assessment of the 2007 campaign in Valencia had shown a direct economic benefit to New Zealand of $74.4 m.
Because of the high cost associated with developing the new AC72 catamaran and the rule limitation of thirty sailing days of development, Team New Zealand entered into a technology sharing programme with the Italian team who had an identical boat and were also based in Auckland. Since Team New Zealand 's July 2012 launch, their first AC 72 boat proved fast and reliable, foil sailing for long periods of time at speeds over 35 knots (65 km / h; 40 mph) with no breakages.
In August 2013, Team New Zealand won the America 's Cup challenger series (Louis Vuitton Cup) by defeating the Prada Luna Rossa Syndicate 7 -- 1 and in September 2013 Team New Zealand challenged the Oracle syndicate for the America 's Cup.
The race series was very dramatic, with a number of incidents including Oracle Team USA being docked two points (meaning they started the competition on − 2 points) and having two main crew members banned -- one for the competition, the other for 4 of the races. In Race 8, Team New Zealand nearly capsized the boat due to a lack of hydraulic pressure which caused the boat to move, but the sail to stay in the same place.
By 19 September 2013, Team New Zealand lead Oracle Team USA 8 -- 1 needing just one more win to take the Cup. In Race 13 Team New Zealand were minutes away from winning the cup when the race time limits came into effect, causing the race to be cancelled. The race was then replayed and Oracle Team USA won -- and went on to win all last eight races to come from behind -- and take the Cup. It had been the longest - ever event by both number of days and races, and the first since the 25th America 's Cup to feature a winner - take - all final race.
Emirates Team New Zealand ruled out any post-racing legal challenge, with ETNZ syndicate head Grant Dalton stating that Oracle 's automated stabilisation system had been checked and approved by the official measurers before the start of racing, and that taking legal action would be "an incredibly bad thing to do. ''
In January 2014, Emirates Team New Zealand announced the signing of 2013 49er World and European Champions and 2012 Olympic Silver Medalists, Peter Burling and Blair Tuke. CEO Grant Dalton first said that the team would campaign two AC45 's in future America 's Cup World Series.
On 25 June 2014 Team New Zealand confirmed their intention to challenge, as they had gained sufficient private financial backing to need no further government assistance.
In the challenger series, Team New Zealand finished second in the round - robin stages behind America 's Cup holders Oracle Team USA -- the first time a Cup defender had participated in a challenger series. As the leading challenger, they chose to face Land Rover BAR in the first playoff round. Despite suffering a capsize in race 4, the outcome of the series was a 5 - 2 series victory for Team New Zealand. In the finals match against Artemis Racing, Team New Zealand secured a second 5 - 2 series win, and therefore progressed to the America 's Cup series against Oracle Team USA.
Having won the challenger series, Oracle Team USA was able to impose a penalty point on the eventual challenger for the 35th America 's Cup. Therefore, Team New Zealand started the 35th America 's Cup racing with minus one point and would need to win eight races in order to get the 7 points needed to win the America 's Cup. After five days of racing, which included nine races, Team New Zealand beat Oracle Team USA by eight races to one, or by 7 points to 1, and thereby won the Cup.
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the financial crisis of 2008 and 2009 was the first depression the u.s. has experienced in 75 years | Great recession - wikipedia
The Great Recession was a period of general economic decline observed in world markets during the late 2000s and early 2010s. The scale and timing of the recession varied from country to country. In terms of overall impact, the International Monetary Fund concluded that it was the worst global recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. The causes of the recession largely originated in the United States, particularly the real - estate market, though policies of other nations contributed as well. According to the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research (the official arbiter of U.S. recessions) the recession, as experienced in that country, began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009, thus extending over 19 months. The Great Recession was related to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 and U.S. subprime mortgage crisis of 2007 -- 09. The Great Recession resulted in the scarcity of valuable assets in the market economy and the collapse of the financial sector (banks) in the world economy. The banks were then bailed out by the U.S. government.
The recession was not felt evenly around the world. Whereas most of the world 's developed economies, particularly in North America and Europe, fell into a definitive recession, many of the newer developed economies suffered far less impact, particularly China and India whose economies grew substantially during this period.
Two senses of the word "(recession) '' exist: a less precise sense, referring broadly to "a period of reduced economic activity ''; and the academic sense used most often in economics, which is defined operationally, referring specifically to the contraction phase of a business cycle, with two or more consecutive quarters of GDP contraction. Under the academic definition, the recession ended in the United States in June or July 2009. In the broader, lay sense of the word however, many people use the term to refer to ongoing hardship (in the same way that the term "Great Depression '' is also popularly used).
The Great Recession met the IMF criteria for being a global recession only in the single calendar year 2009. That IMF definition requires a decline in annual real world GDP per ‐ capita. Despite the fact that quarterly data are being used as recession definition criteria by all G20 members, representing 85 % of the world GDP, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has decided -- in the absence of a complete data set -- not to declare / measure global recessions according to quarterly GDP data. The seasonally adjusted PPP ‐ weighted real GDP for the G20 ‐ zone, however, is a good indicator for the world GDP, and it was measured to have suffered a direct quarter on quarter decline during the three quarters from Q3 ‐ 2008 until Q1 ‐ 2009, which more accurately mark when the recession took place at the global level.
According to the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research (the official arbiter of U.S. recessions) the recession began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009, and thus extended over eighteen months.
The years leading up to the crisis were characterized by an exorbitant rise in asset prices and associated boom in economic demand. Further, the U.S. shadow banking system (i.e., non-depository financial institutions such as investment banks) had grown to rival the depository system yet was not subject to the same regulatory oversight, making it vulnerable to a bank run.
US mortgage - backed securities, which had risks that were hard to assess, were marketed around the world, as they offered higher yields than U.S. government bonds. Many of these securities were backed by subprime mortgages, which collapsed in value when the U.S. housing bubble burst during 2006 and homeowners began to default on their mortgage payments in large numbers starting in 2007.
The emergence of sub-prime loan losses in 2007 began the crisis and exposed other risky loans and over-inflated asset prices. With loan losses mounting and the fall of Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008, a major panic broke out on the inter-bank loan market. There was the equivalent of a bank run on the shadow banking system, resulting in many large and well established investment and commercial banks in the United States and Europe suffering huge losses and even facing bankruptcy, resulting in massive public financial assistance (government bailouts).
The global recession that followed resulted in a sharp drop in international trade, rising unemployment and slumping commodity prices. Several economists predicted that recovery might not appear until 2011 and that the recession would be the worst since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Economist Paul Krugman once commented on this as seemingly the beginning of "a second Great Depression. ''
Governments and central banks responded with fiscal and monetary policies to stimulate national economies and reduce financial system risks. The recession has renewed interest in Keynesian economic ideas on how to combat recessionary conditions. Economists advise that the stimulus should be withdrawn as soon as the economies recover enough to "chart a path to sustainable growth ''.
The distribution of household incomes in the United States has become more unequal during the post-2008 economic recovery. Income inequality in the United States has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than 2 out of 3 metropolitan areas. Median household wealth fell 35 % in the US, from $106,591 to $68,839 between 2005 and 2011.
The majority report provided by U.S. Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, composed of six Democratic and four Republican appointees, reported its findings in January 2011. It concluded that "the crisis was avoidable and was caused by:
There were two Republican dissenting FCIC reports. One of them, signed by three Republican appointees, concluded that there were multiple causes. In his separate dissent to the majority and minority opinions of the FCIC, Commissioner Peter J. Wallison of the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) primarily blamed U.S. housing policy, including the actions of Fannie & Freddie, for the crisis. He wrote: "When the bubble began to deflate in mid-2007, the low quality and high risk loans engendered by government policies failed in unprecedented numbers.
In its "Declaration of the Summit on Financial Markets and the World Economy, '' dated November 15, 2008, leaders of the Group of 20 cited the following causes:
During a period of strong global growth, growing capital flows, and prolonged stability earlier this decade, market participants sought higher yields without an adequate appreciation of the risks and failed to exercise proper due diligence. At the same time, weak underwriting standards, unsound risk management practices, increasingly complex and opaque financial products, and consequent excessive leverage combined to create vulnerabilities in the system. Policy - makers, regulators and supervisors, in some advanced countries, did not adequately appreciate and address the risks building up in financial markets, keep pace with financial innovation, or take into account the systemic ramifications of domestic regulatory actions.
There are several "narratives '' attempting to place the causes of the recession into context, with overlapping elements. Five such narratives include:
Underlying narratives # 1 - 3 is a hypothesis that growing income inequality and wage stagnation encouraged families to increase their household debt to maintain their desired living standard, fueling the bubble. Further, this greater share of income flowing to the top increased the political power of business interests, who used that power to deregulate or limit regulation of the shadow banking system.
Narrative # 5 challenges the popular claim that subprime borrowers with shoddy credit caused the crisis by buying homes they could n't afford. This narrative is supported by new research showing that the biggest growth of mortgage debt during the U.S. housing boom came from those with good credit scores in the middle and top of the credit score distribution -- and that these borrowers accounted for a disproportionate share of defaults.
The Economist wrote in July 2012 that the inflow of investment dollars required to fund the U.S. trade deficit was a major cause of the housing bubble and financial crisis: "The trade deficit, less than 1 % of GDP in the early 1990s, hit 6 % in 2006. That deficit was financed by inflows of foreign savings, in particular from East Asia and the Middle East. Much of that money went into dodgy mortgages to buy overvalued houses, and the financial crisis was the result. ''
In May 2008, NPR explained in their Peabody Award winning program "The Giant Pool of Money '' that a vast inflow of savings from developing nations flowed into the mortgage market, driving the U.S. housing bubble. This pool of fixed income savings increased from around $35 trillion in 2000 to about $70 trillion by 2008. NPR explained this money came from various sources, "(b) ut the main headline is that all sorts of poor countries became kind of rich, making things like TVs and selling us oil. China, India, Abu Dhabi, Saudi Arabia made a lot of money and banked it. ''
Describing the crisis in Europe, Paul Krugman wrote in February 2012 that: "What we 're basically looking at, then, is a balance of payments problem, in which capital flooded south after the creation of the euro, leading to overvaluation in southern Europe. ''
Another narrative about the origin has been focused on the respective parts played by the public monetary policy (in the US notably) and by the practices of private financial institutions. In the U.S., mortgage funding was unusually decentralised, opaque, and competitive, and it is believed that competition between lenders for revenue and market share contributed to declining underwriting standards and risky lending.
While Alan Greenspan 's role as Chairman of the Federal Reserve has been widely discussed (the main point of controversy remains the lowering of the Federal funds rate to 1 % for more than a year, which, according to Austrian theorists, injected huge amounts of "easy '' credit - based money into the financial system and created an unsustainable economic boom), there is also the argument that Greenspan 's actions in the years 2002 -- 2004 were actually motivated by the need to take the U.S. economy out of the early 2000s recession caused by the bursting of the dot - com bubble -- although by doing so he did not help avert the crisis, but only postpone it.
Another narrative focuses on high levels of private debt in the US economy. USA household debt as a percentage of annual disposable personal income was 127 % at the end of 2007, versus 77 % in 1990. Faced with increasing mortgage payments as their adjustable rate mortgage payments increased, households began to default in record numbers, rendering mortgage - backed securities worthless. High private debt levels also impact growth by making recessions deeper and the following recovery weaker. Robert Reich claims the amount of debt in the US economy can be traced to economic inequality, assuming that middle - class wages remained stagnant while wealth concentrated at the top, and households "pull equity from their homes and overload on debt to maintain living standards. ''
The IMF reported in April 2012: "Household debt soared in the years leading up to the downturn. In advanced economies, during the five years preceding 2007, the ratio of household debt to income rose by an average of 39 percentage points, to 138 percent. In Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway, debt peaked at more than 200 percent of household income. A surge in household debt to historic highs also occurred in emerging economies such as Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, and Lithuania. The concurrent boom in both house prices and the stock market meant that household debt relative to assets held broadly stable, which masked households ' growing exposure to a sharp fall in asset prices. When house prices declined, ushering in the global financial crisis, many households saw their wealth shrink relative to their debt, and, with less income and more unemployment, found it harder to meet mortgage payments. By the end of 2011, real house prices had fallen from their peak by about 41 % in Ireland, 29 % in Iceland, 23 % in Spain and the United States, and 21 % in Denmark. Household defaults, underwater mortgages (where the loan balance exceeds the house value), foreclosures, and fire sales are now endemic to a number of economies. Household deleveraging by paying off debts or defaulting on them has begun in some countries. It has been most pronounced in the United States, where about two - thirds of the debt reduction reflects defaults. ''
The onset of the economic crisis took most people by surprise. A 2009 paper identifies twelve economists and commentators who, between 2000 and 2006, predicted a recession based on the collapse of the then - booming housing market in the United States: Dean Baker, Wynne Godley, Fred Harrison, Michael Hudson, Eric Janszen, Med Jones Steve Keen, Jakob Brøchner Madsen, Jens Kjaer Sørensen, Kurt Richebächer, Nouriel Roubini, Peter Schiff, and Robert Shiller.
By 2007, real estate bubbles were still under way in many parts of the world, especially in the United States, France, United Kingdom, Spain, The Netherlands, Australia, United Arab Emirates, New Zealand, Ireland, Poland, South Africa, Greece, Bulgaria, Croatia, Norway, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, Finland, Argentina, Baltic states, India, Romania, Ukraine, and China. U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said in mid-2005 that "at a minimum, there 's a little ' froth ' (in the U.S. housing market)... it 's hard not to see that there are a lot of local bubbles ''.
The Economist newspaper, writing at the same time, went further, saying "the worldwide rise in house prices is the biggest bubble in history ''. Real estate bubbles are (by definition of the word "bubble '') followed by a price decrease (also known as a housing price crash) that can result in many owners holding negative equity (a mortgage debt higher than the current value of the property).
Increases in uncertainty can depress investment, or consumption. The 2007 -- 2009 recession represents the most striking episode of heightened uncertainty since 1960.
Several analysts, such as Peter Wallison and Edward Pinto of the American Enterprise Institute, have asserted that private lenders were encouraged to relax lending standards by government affordable housing policies. They cite The Housing and Community Development Act of 1992, which initially required that 30 percent or more of Fannie 's and Freddie 's loan purchases be related to affordable housing. The legislation gave HUD the power to set future requirements, and eventually (under the Bush Administration) a 56 percent minimum was established. To fulfil the requirements, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac established programs to purchase $5 trillion in affordable housing loans, and encouraged lenders to relax underwriting standards to produce those loans.
These critics also cite, as inappropriate regulation, "The National Homeownership Strategy: Partners in the American Dream ('' Strategy "), which was compiled in 1995 by Henry Cisneros, President Clinton 's HUD Secretary. In 2001, the independent research company, Graham Fisher & Company, stated: "While the underlying initiatives of the (Strategy) were broad in content, the main theme... was the relaxation of credit standards. ''
The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) is also identified as one of the causes of the recession, by some critics. They contend that lenders relaxed lending standards in an effort to meet CRA commitments, and they note that publicly announced CRA loan commitments were massive, totaling $4.5 trillion in the years between 1994 and 2007.
However, the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC) concluded that Fannie & Freddie "were not a primary cause '' of the crisis and that CRA was not a factor in the crisis. Further, since housing bubbles appeared in multiple countries in Europe as well, the FCIC Republican minority dissenting report also concluded that U.S. housing policies were not a robust explanation for a wider global housing bubble. The view that U.S. government housing policy was a primary cause of the crisis has been widely disputed, with Paul Krugman referring to it as "imaginary history. ''
Author Michael Lewis wrote that a type of derivative called a credit default swap (CDS) enabled speculators to stack bets on the same mortgage securities. This is analogous to allowing many persons to buy insurance on the same house. Speculators that bought CDS protection were betting that significant mortgage security defaults would occur, while the sellers (such as AIG) bet they would not. An unlimited amount could be wagered on the same housing - related securities, provided buyers and sellers of the CDS could be found. When massive defaults occurred on underlying mortgage securities, companies like AIG that were selling CDS were unable to perform their side of the obligation and defaulted; U.S. taxpayers paid over $100 billion to global financial institutions to honor AIG obligations, generating considerable outrage.
Derivatives such as CDS were unregulated or barely regulated. Several sources have noted the failure of the US government to supervise or even require transparency of the financial instruments known as derivatives. A 2008 investigative article in the Washington Post found that leading government officials at the time (Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan Greenspan, Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin, and SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt) vehemently opposed any regulation of derivatives. In 1998 Brooksley E. Born, head of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, put forth a policy paper asking for feedback from regulators, lobbyists, legislators on the question of whether derivatives should be reported, sold through a central facility, or whether capital requirements should be required of their buyers. Greenspan, Rubin, and Levitt pressured her to withdraw the paper and Greenspan persuaded Congress to pass a resolution preventing CFTC from regulating derivatives for another six months -- when Born 's term of office would expire. Ultimately, it was the collapse of a specific kind of derivative, the mortgage - backed security, that triggered the economic crisis of 2008.
Paul Krugman wrote in 2009 that the run on the shadow banking system was the "core of what happened '' to cause the crisis. "As the shadow banking system expanded to rival or even surpass conventional banking in importance, politicians and government officials should have realised that they were re-creating the kind of financial vulnerability that made the Great Depression possible -- and they should have responded by extending regulations and the financial safety net to cover these new institutions. Influential figures should have proclaimed a simple rule: anything that does what a bank does, anything that has to be rescued in crises the way banks are, should be regulated like a bank. '' He referred to this lack of controls as "malign neglect. ''
During 2008, three of the largest U.S. investment banks either went bankrupt (Lehman Brothers) or were sold at fire sale prices to other banks (Bear Stearns and Merrill Lynch). The investment banks were not subject to the more stringent regulations applied to depository banks. These failures exacerbated the instability in the global financial system. The remaining two investment banks, Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs, potentially facing failure, opted to become commercial banks, thereby subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation but receiving access to credit via the Federal Reserve. Further, American International Group (AIG) had insured mortgage - backed and other securities but was not required to maintain sufficient reserves to pay its obligations when debtors defaulted on these securities. AIG was contractually required to post additional collateral with many creditors and counter-parties, touching off controversy when over $100 billion of U.S. taxpayer money was paid out to major global financial institutions on behalf of AIG. While this money was legally owed to the banks by AIG (under agreements made via credit default swaps purchased from AIG by the institutions), a number of Congressmen and media members expressed outrage that taxpayer money was used to bail out banks.
Economist Gary Gorton wrote in May 2009: "Unlike the historical banking panics of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the current banking panic is a wholesale panic, not a retail panic. In the earlier episodes, depositors ran to their banks and demanded cash in exchange for their checking accounts. Unable to meet those demands, the banking system became insolvent. The current panic involved financial firms "running '' on other financial firms by not renewing sale and repurchase agreements (repo) or increasing the repo margin ("haircut ''), forcing massive deleveraging, and resulting in the banking system being insolvent. ''
The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission reported in January 2011: "In the early part of the 20th century, we erected a series of protections -- the Federal Reserve as a lender of last resort, federal deposit insurance, ample regulations -- to provide a bulwark against the panics that had regularly plagued America 's banking system in the 19th century. Yet, over the past 30 - plus years, we permitted the growth of a shadow banking system -- opaque and laden with short term debt -- that rivaled the size of the traditional banking system. Key components of the market -- for example, the multitrillion - dollar repo lending market, off - balance - sheet entities, and the use of over-the - counter derivatives -- were hidden from view, without the protections we had constructed to prevent financial meltdowns. We had a 21st - century financial system with 19th - century safeguards. ''
The financial crisis and the recession have been described as a symptom of another, deeper crisis by a number of economists. For example, Ravi Batra argues that growing inequality of financial capitalism produces speculative bubbles that burst and result in depression and major political changes. Feminist economists Ailsa McKay and Margunn Bjørnholt argue that the financial crisis and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession, and call for a reshaping of both the economy, economic theory and the economics profession. They argue that such a reshaping should include new advances within feminist economics and ecological economics that take as their starting point the socially responsible, sensible and accountable subject in creating an economy and economic theories that fully acknowledge care for each other as well as the planet.
The Great Recession had a significant economic and political impact on the United States. While the recession technically lasted from December 2007 - June 2009 (the nominal GDP trough), many important economic variables did not regain pre-recession (November or Q4 2007) levels until 2011 - 2016. For example, real GDP fell $650 billion (4.3 %) and did not recover its $15 trillion pre-recession level until Q3 2011. Household net worth, which reflects the value of both stock markets and housing prices, fell $11.5 trillion (17.3 %) and did not regain its pre-recession level of $66.4 trillion until Q3 2012. The number of persons with jobs (total non-farm payrolls) fell 8.6 million (6.2 %) and did not regain the pre-recession level of 138.3 million until May 2014. The unemployment rate peaked at 10.0 % in October 2009 and did not return to its pre-recession level of 4.7 % until May 2016.
A key dynamic slowing the recovery was that both individuals and businesses paid down debts for several years, as opposed to borrowing and spending or investing as had historically been the case. This shift to a private sector surplus drove a sizable government deficit. However, the federal government held spending at about $3.5 trillion from fiscal years 2009 - 2014 (thereby decreasing it as a percent of GDP), a form of austerity. Then - Fed Chair Ben Bernanke explained during November 2012 several of the economic headwinds that slowed the recovery:
On the political front, widespread anger at banking bailouts and stimulus measures (begun by President Bush 43 and continued or expanded by President Obama) with few consequences for banking leadership, were a factor in driving the country politically rightward starting in 2010. Examples include the rise of the Tea Party and the loss of Democratic majorities in subsequent elections. President Obama declared the bailout measures started under the Bush Administration and continued during his Administration as completed and mostly profitable as of December 2014. As of January 2018, bailout funds had been fully recovered by the government, when interest on loans is taken into consideration. A total of $626 B was invested, loaned, or granted due to various bailout measures, while $390 B had been returned to the Treasury. The Treasury had earned another $323 B in interest on bailout loans, resulting in an $87 B profit. Some have argued the Great Recession was also an important factor in the rise of populist sentiment that resulted in the election of President Trump in 2016, although his election also had important identity politics elements.
The crisis in Europe generally progressed from banking system crises to sovereign debt crises, as many countries elected to bail out their banking systems using taxpayer money. Greece was different in that it faced large public debts rather than problems within its banking system. Several countries received bailout packages from the troika (European Commission, European Central Bank, International Monetary Fund), which also implemented a series of emergency measures.
Many European countries embarked on austerity programs, reducing their budget deficits relative to GDP from 2010 to 2011. For example, according to the CIA World Factbook Greece improved its budget deficit from 10.4 % GDP in 2010 to 9.6 % in 2011. Iceland, Italy, Ireland, Portugal, France, and Spain also improved their budget deficits from 2010 to 2011 relative to GDP.
However, with the exception of Germany, each of these countries had public - debt - to - GDP ratios that increased (i.e., worsened) from 2010 to 2011, as indicated in the chart at right. Greece 's public - debt - to - GDP ratio increased from 143 % in 2010 to 165 % in 2011 to 185 % in 2014. This indicates that despite improving budget deficits, GDP growth was not sufficient to support a decline (improvement) in the debt - to - GDP ratio for these countries during this period. Eurostat reported that the debt to GDP ratio for the 17 Euro area countries together was 70.1 % in 2008, 79.9 % in 2009, 85.3 % in 2010, and 87.2 % in 2011.
According to the CIA World Factbook, from 2010 to 2011, the unemployment rates in Spain, Greece, Italy, Ireland, Portugal, and the UK increased. France had no significant changes, while in Germany and Iceland the unemployment rate declined. Eurostat reported that Eurozone unemployment reached record levels in September 2012 at 11.6 %, up from 10.3 % the prior year. Unemployment varied significantly by country.
Economist Martin Wolf analysed the relationship between cumulative GDP growth from 2008 - 2012 and total reduction in budget deficits due to austerity policies (see chart at right) in several European countries during April 2012. He concluded that: "In all, there is no evidence here that large fiscal contractions (budget deficit reductions) bring benefits to confidence and growth that offset the direct effects of the contractions. They bring exactly what one would expect: small contractions bring recessions and big contractions bring depressions. '' Changes in budget balances (deficits or surpluses) explained approximately 53 % of the change in GDP, according to the equation derived from the IMF data used in his analysis.
Economist Paul Krugman analysed the relationship between GDP and reduction in budget deficits for several European countries in April 2012 and concluded that austerity was slowing growth, similar to Martin Wolf. He also wrote: "... this also implies that 1 euro of austerity yields only about 0.4 euros of reduced deficit, even in the short run. No wonder, then, that the whole austerity enterprise is spiraling into disaster. ''
Britain 's decision to leave the European Union in 2016 has been partly attributed to the after - effects of the Great Recession on the country.
Poland and Slovakia are the only two members of the European Union to have avoided a GDP recession during the years affected by the Great Recession. As of December 2009, the Polish economy had not entered recession nor even contracted, while its IMF 2010 GDP growth forecast of 1.9 percent was expected to be upgraded. Analysts have identified several causes for the positive economic development in Poland: Extremely low levels of bank lending and a relatively very small mortgage market; the relatively recent dismantling of EU trade barriers and the resulting surge in demand for Polish goods since 2004; Poland being the recipient of direct EU funding since 2004; lack of over-dependence on a single export sector; a tradition of government fiscal responsibility; a relatively large internal market; the free - floating Polish zloty; low labour costs attracting continued foreign direct investment; economic difficulties at the start of the decade, which prompted austerity measures in advance of the world crisis.
While India, Uzbekistan, China, and Iran experienced slowing growth, they did not enter recessions.
South Korea narrowly avoided technical recession in the first quarter of 2009. The International Energy Agency stated in mid September that South Korea could be the only large OECD country to avoid recession for the whole of 2009. It was the only developed economy to expand in the first half of 2009.
Australia avoided a technical recession after experiencing only one quarter of negative growth in the fourth quarter of 2008, with GDP returning to positive in the first quarter of 2009.
The financial crisis did not affect developing countries to a great extent. Experts see several reasons: Africa was not affected because it is not fully integrated in the world market. Latin America and Asia seemed better prepared, since they have experienced crises before. In Latin America, for example, banking laws and regulations are very stringent. Bruno Wenn of the German DEG suggests that Western countries could learn from these countries when it comes to regulations of financial markets.
The table below displays all national recessions appearing in 2006 - 2013 (for the 71 countries with available data), according to the common recession definition, saying that a recession occurred whenever seasonally adjusted real GDP contracts quarter on quarter, through minimum two consecutive quarters. Only 11 out of the 71 listed countries with quarterly GDP data (Poland, Slovakia, Moldova, India, China, South Korea, Indonesia, Australia, Uruguay, Colombia and Bolivia) escaped a recession in this time period.
The few recessions appearing early in 2006 - 07 are commonly never associated to be part of the Great Recession, which is illustrated by the fact that only two countries (Iceland and Jamaica) were in recession in Q4 - 2007.
One year before the maximum, in Q1 - 2008, only six countries were in recession (Iceland, Sweden, Finland, Ireland, Portugal and New Zealand). The number of countries in recession was 25 in Q2 ‐ 2008, 39 in Q3 ‐ 2008 and 53 in Q4 ‐ 2008. At the steepest part of the Great Recession in Q1 ‐ 2009, a total of 59 out of 71 countries were simultaneously in recession. The number of countries in recession was 37 in Q2 ‐ 2009, 13 in Q3 ‐ 2009 and 11 in Q4 ‐ 2009. One year after the maximum, in Q1 ‐ 2010, only seven countries were in recession (Greece, Croatia, Romania, Iceland, Jamaica, Venezuela and Belize).
The recession data for the overall G20 - zone (representing 85 % of all GWP), depict that the Great Recession existed as a global recession throughout Q3 ‐ 2008 until Q1 ‐ 2009.
Subsequent follow - up recessions in 2010 ‐ 2013 were confined to Belize, El Salvador, Paraguay, Jamaica, Japan, Taiwan, New Zealand and 24 out of 50 European countries (including Greece). As of October 2014, only five out of the 71 countries with available quarterly data (Cyprus, Italy, Croatia, Belize and El Salvador), were still in ongoing recessions. The many follow - up recessions hitting the European countries, are commonly referred to as being direct repercussions of the European sovereign ‐ debt crisis.
Iceland fell into an economic depression in 2008 following the collapse of its banking system (see 2008 -- 2011 Icelandic financial crisis). By mid-2012 Iceland is regarded as one of Europe 's recovery success stories largely as a result of a currency devaluation that has effectively reduced wages by 50 % -- making exports more competitive.
The following countries had a recession already starting in the first quarter of 2008: Latvia, Ireland, New Zealand, and Sweden.
The following countries / territories had a recession starting in the second quarter of 2008: Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Italy, Turkey, Germany, United Kingdom, the Eurozone, the European Union, and OECD.
The following countries / territories had a recession starting in the third quarter of 2008: United States, Spain, and Taiwan.
The following countries / territories had a recession starting in the fourth quarter of 2008: Switzerland.
South Korea "miraculously '' avoided recession with GDP returning positive at a 0.1 % expansion in the first quarter of 2009.
Of the seven largest economies in the world by GDP, only China avoided a recession in 2008. In the year to the third quarter of 2008 China grew by 9 %. Until recently Chinese officials considered 8 % GDP growth to be required simply to create enough jobs for rural people moving to urban centres. This figure may more accurately be considered to be 5 -- 7 % now that the main growth in working population is receding.
Ukraine went into technical depression in January 2009 with a GDP growth of − 20 %, when comparing on a monthly basis with the GDP level in January 2008. Overall the Ukrainian real GDP fell 14.8 % when comparing the entire part of 2009 with 2008. When measured quarter - on - quarter by changes of seasonally adjusted real GDP, Ukraine was more precisely in recession / depression throughout the four quarters from Q2 - 2008 until Q1 - 2009 (with respective qoq - changes of: - 0.1 %, - 0.5 %, - 9.3 %, - 10.3 %), and the two quarters from Q3 - 2012 until Q4 - 2012 (with respective qoq - changes of: - 1.5 % and - 0.8 %).
Japan was in recovery in the middle of the decade 2000s but slipped back into recession and deflation in 2008. The recession in Japan intensified in the fourth quarter of 2008 with a GDP growth of − 12.7 %, and deepened further in the first quarter of 2009 with a GDP growth of − 15.2 %.
On February 26, 2009, an Economic Intelligence Briefing was added to the daily intelligence briefings prepared for the President of the United States. This addition reflects the assessment of U.S. intelligence agencies that the global financial crisis presents a serious threat to international stability.
Business Week stated in March 2009 that global political instability is rising fast because of the global financial crisis and is creating new challenges that need managing. The Associated Press reported in March 2009 that: United States "Director of National Intelligence Dennis Blair has said the economic weakness could lead to political instability in many developing nations. '' Even some developed countries are seeing political instability. NPR reports that David Gordon, a former intelligence officer who now leads research at the Eurasia Group, said: "Many, if not most, of the big countries out there have room to accommodate economic downturns without having large - scale political instability if we 're in a recession of normal length. If you 're in a much longer - run downturn, then all bets are off. ''
Political scientists have argued that the economic stasis triggered social churning that got expressed through protests on a variety of issues across the developing world. In Brazil, disaffected youth rallied against a minor bus - fare hike; in Turkey, they agitated against the conversion of a park to a mall and in Israel, they protested against high rents in Tel Aviv. In all these cases, the ostensible immediate cause of the protest was amplified by the underlying social suffering induced by the great recession.
In January 2009, the government leaders of Iceland were forced to call elections two years early after the people of Iceland staged mass protests and clashed with the police because of the government 's handling of the economy. Hundreds of thousands protested in France against President Sarkozy 's economic policies. Prompted by the financial crisis in Latvia, the opposition and trade unions there organised a rally against the cabinet of premier Ivars Godmanis. The rally gathered some 10 -- 20 thousand people. In the evening the rally turned into a Riot. The crowd moved to the building of the parliament and attempted to force their way into it, but were repelled by the state 's police. In late February many Greeks took part in a massive general strike because of the economic situation and they shut down schools, airports, and many other services in Greece. Police and protesters clashed in Lithuania where people protesting the economic conditions were shot with rubber bullets. Communists and others rallied in Moscow to protest the Russian government 's economic plans.
In addition to various levels of unrest in Europe, Asian countries have also seen various degrees of protest. Protests have also occurred in China as demands from the west for exports have been dramatically reduced and unemployment has increased. Beyond these initial protests, the protest movement has grown and continued in 2011. In late 2011, the Occupy Wall Street protest took place in the United States, spawning several offshoots that came to be known as the Occupy movement.
In 2012 the economic difficulties in Spain increased support for secession movements. In Catalonia, support for the secession movement exceeded. On September 11, a pro-independence march drew a crowd that police estimated at 1.5 million.
The financial phase of the crisis led to emergency interventions in many national financial systems. As the crisis developed into genuine recession in many major economies, economic stimulus meant to revive economic growth became the most common policy tool. After having implemented rescue plans for the banking system, major developed and emerging countries announced plans to relieve their economies. In particular, economic stimulus plans were announced in China, the United States, and the European Union. In the final quarter of 2008, the financial crisis saw the G - 20 group of major economies assume a new significance as a focus of economic and financial crisis management.
The Federal Reserve, Treasury, and Securities and Exchange Commission took several steps on September 19, 2008 to intervene in the crisis. To stop the potential run on money market mutual funds, the Treasury also announced on September 19, 2008 a new $50 billion program to insure the investments, similar to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) program. Part of the announcements included temporary exceptions to section 23A and 23B (Regulation W), allowing financial groups to more easily share funds within their group. The exceptions would expire on January 30, 2009, unless extended by the Federal Reserve Board.
The Securities and Exchange Commission announced termination of short - selling of 799 financial stocks, as well as action against naked short selling, as part of its reaction to the mortgage crisis. In May 2013 as the stock market was hitting record highs and the housing and employment markets were improving slightly the prospect of the Federal Reserve beginning to decrease its economic stimulus activities began to enter the projections of investment analysts and affected global markets.
On September 15, 2008, China cut its interest rate for the first time since 2002. Indonesia reduced its overnight rate, at which commercial banks can borrow overnight funds from the central bank, by two percentage points to 10.25 percent. The Reserve Bank of Australia injected nearly $1.5 billion into the banking system, nearly three times as much as the market 's estimated requirement. The Reserve Bank of India added almost $1.32 billion, through a refinance operation, its biggest in at least a month.
On November 9, 2008, the Chinese economic stimulus program, a RMB ¥ 4 trillion ($586 billion) stimulus package, was announced by the central government of the People 's Republic of China in its biggest move to stop the global financial crisis from hitting the world 's second largest economy. A statement on the government 's website said the State Council had approved a plan to invest 4 trillion yuan ($586 billion) in infrastructure and social welfare by the end of 2010. The stimulus package was invested in key areas such as housing, rural infrastructure, transportation, health and education, environment, industry, disaster rebuilding, income - building, tax cuts, and finance.
China 's export driven economy is starting to feel the impact of the economic slowdown in the United States and Europe, and the government has already cut key interest rates three times in less than two months in a bid to spur economic expansion. On November 28, 2008, the Ministry of Finance of the People 's Republic of China and the State Administration of Taxation jointly announced a rise in export tax rebate rates on some labour - intensive goods. These additional tax rebates will take place on December 1, 2008.
The stimulus package was welcomed by world leaders and analysts as larger than expected and a sign that by boosting its own economy, China is helping to stabilise the global economy. News of the announcement of the stimulus package sent markets up across the world. However, Marc Faber claimed that he thought China was still in recession on January 16.
In Taiwan, the central bank on September 16, 2008, said it would cut its required reserve ratios for the first time in eight years. The central bank added $3.59 billion into the foreign - currency interbank market the same day. Bank of Japan pumped $29.3 billion into the financial system on September 17, 2008, and the Reserve Bank of Australia added $3.45 billion the same day.
In developing and emerging economies, responses to the global crisis mainly consisted in low - rates monetary policy (Asia and the Middle East mainly) coupled with the depreciation of the currency against the dollar. There were also stimulus plans in some Asian countries, in the Middle East and in Argentina. In Asia, plans generally amounted to 1 to 3 % of GDP, with the notable exception of China, which announced a plan accounting for 16 % of GDP (6 % of GDP per year).
Until September 2008, European policy measures were limited to a small number of countries (Spain and Italy). In both countries, the measures were dedicated to households (tax rebates) reform of the taxation system to support specific sectors such as housing. The European Commission proposed a € 200 billion stimulus plan to be implemented at the European level by the countries. At the beginning of 2009, the UK and Spain completed their initial plans, while Germany announced a new plan.
On September 29, 2008, the Belgian, Luxembourg and Dutch authorities partially nationalised Fortis. The German government bailed out Hypo Real Estate.
On October 8, 2008, the British Government announced a bank rescue package of around £ 500 billion ($850 billion at the time). The plan comprises three parts. The first £ 200 billion would be made in regard to the banks in liquidity stack. The second part will consist of the state government increasing the capital market within the banks. Along with this, £ 50 billion will be made available if the banks needed it, finally the government will write off any eligible lending between the British banks with a limit to £ 250 billion.
In early December 2008, German Finance Minister Peer Steinbrück indicated a lack of belief in a "Great Rescue Plan '' and reluctance to spend more money addressing the crisis. In March 2009, The European Union Presidency confirmed that the EU was at the time strongly resisting the US pressure to increase European budget deficits.
From 2010, the United Kingdom began a fiscal consolidation program to reduce debt and deficit levels while at the same time stimulating economic recovery. Other European countries also began fiscal consolidation with similar aims.
Most political responses to the economic and financial crisis has been taken, as seen above, by individual nations. Some coordination took place at the European level, but the need to cooperate at the global level has led leaders to activate the G - 20 major economies entity. A first summit dedicated to the crisis took place, at the Heads of state level in November 2008 (2008 G - 20 Washington summit).
The G - 20 countries met in a summit held on November 2008 in Washington to address the economic crisis. Apart from proposals on international financial regulation, they pledged to take measures to support their economy and to coordinate them, and refused any resort to protectionism.
Another G - 20 summit was held in London on April 2009. Finance ministers and central banks leaders of the G - 20 met in Horsham, England, on March to prepare the summit, and pledged to restore global growth as soon as possible. They decided to coordinate their actions and to stimulate demand and employment. They also pledged to fight against all forms of protectionism and to maintain trade and foreign investments. These actions will cost $1.1 tn.
They also committed to maintain the supply of credit by providing more liquidity and recapitalising the banking system, and to implement rapidly the stimulus plans. As for central bankers, they pledged to maintain low - rates policies as long as necessary. Finally, the leaders decided to help emerging and developing countries, through a strengthening of the IMF.
The IMF stated in September 2010 that the financial crisis would not end without a major decrease in unemployment as hundreds of millions of people were unemployed worldwide. The IMF urged governments to expand social safety nets and to generate job creation even as they are under pressure to cut spending. The IMF also encouraged governments to invest in skills training for the unemployed and even governments of countries, similar to that of Greece, with major debt risk to first focus on long - term economic recovery by creating jobs.
The Bank of Israel was the first to raise interest rates after the global recession began. It increased rates in August 2009.
On October 6, 2009, Australia became the first G20 country to raise its main interest rate, with the Reserve Bank of Australia moving rates up from 3.00 % to 3.25 %.
The Norges Bank of Norway and the Reserve Bank of India raised interest rates in March 2010.
On November 2, 2017 the Bank of England raised interest rates for the first time since March 2009 from 0.25 % to 0.5 % in an attempt to curb inflation.
On April 17, 2009, the then head of the IMF Dominique Strauss - Kahn said that there was a chance that certain countries may not implement the proper policies to avoid feedback mechanisms that could eventually turn the recession into a depression. "The free - fall in the global economy may be starting to abate, with a recovery emerging in 2010, but this depends crucially on the right policies being adopted today. '' The IMF pointed out that unlike the Great Depression, this recession was synchronised by global integration of markets. Such synchronized recessions were explained to last longer than typical economic downturns and have slower recoveries.
Olivier Blanchard, IMF Chief Economist, stated that the percentage of workers laid off for long stints has been rising with each downturn for decades but the figures have surged this time. "Long - term unemployment is alarmingly high: in the United States, half the unemployed have been out of work for over six months, something we have not seen since the Great Depression. '' The IMF also stated that a link between rising inequality within Western economies and deflating demand may exist. The last time that the wealth gap reached such skewed extremes was in 1928 -- 1929.
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when does king robert died in game of thrones | Robert Baratheon - wikipedia
Robert Baratheon is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Robert Baratheon is the eldest son of Steffon Baratheon, from the kingdom of Westeros. After Robert won the rebellion which was named after him, he took the Iron Throne from his distant cousin Aerys II Targaryen, nicknamed "The Mad King '', crushing the Targaryen dynasty. Robert fought the war to win back his betrothed, Lyanna Stark, with the aid of her brother, his close friend, Eddard Stark. However, due to Lyanna 's death, Robert married Tywin Lannister 's daughter Cersei after the war ended to ensure political stability.
Robert is portrayed by Mark Addy in the HBO television adaptation.
Robert is in his mid-thirties when the events of the books begin. He is jovial and fun - loving, fond of battle, women and drink. As a young man Robert was a formidable warrior, noted for his chivalry, sense of honor and immense charisma. He won several loyal Targaryen bannermen to his cause through strength of personality alone. Very tall and incredibly muscular, Robert was considered one of the most attractive men in Westeros, desired by every maiden in the realm, being described in A Game of Thrones as "Muscled like a maiden 's fantasy. '' However, after becoming king, Robert let himself go somewhat, becoming fat, soft and indolent, though still capable of great generosity to his friends. Robert has also become more bitter following Lyanna 's death and his unhappy marriage to Cersei, despite their multiple children.
Robert Baratheon is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as Ned Stark.
Robert Baratheon is King of the Seven Kingdoms at the beginning of A Game of Thrones. He was the ward of Jon Arryn and was raised at the Eyrie alongside Eddard Stark. Fifteen years before the novels, Robert was betrothed to Ned 's sister Lyanna, and after Lyanna and Rhaegar Targaryen disappeared, Robert killed Rhaegar and seized the throne. He then married Cersei Lannister to ensure House Lannister 's support for his rule, but remained attached to the memory of Lyanna, which estranged Cersei.
At the beginning of A Game of Thrones Robert, then king, has just come to Winterfell to appoint Eddard Stark the Hand of The King. He was unaware that Cersei 's three children were therefore fathered by her brother Jaime. More interested in food, drink, and tourneys than in governance, Robert has squandered the royal treasury, leaving the crown heavily in debt. After he dies in a hunting accident orchestrated by Cersei, the kingdoms plunge into civil war. His death incites the war that encompasses the entirety of the following two books, the War of the Five Kings, in which his two brothers, Lords Renly and Stannis Baratheon, declare themselves the rightful kings. Robb Stark is also declared King in the North and King of the Trident, and Lord Balon Greyjoy declares himself King of the Iron Islands.
Robert Baratheon, formerly a fierce warrior, became King of the Seven Kingdoms after leading a rebellion against Aerys II Targaryen. He was betrothed to Ned Stark 's sister Lyanna and loved her deeply, but she loved Rhaegar Targaryen and married him in secret before they fled. Robert assumed Lyanna was abducted, beginning his revolt with Ned Stark after his father and brother were killed in King 's Landing while trying to reclaim Lyanna. The event, known as Robert 's Rebellion, resulted with the Targaryens mostly slaughtered or routed from the Kingdoms. Since Robert 's family had closer ties to the former Royal family, this put Robert on the Iron Throne.
Now, Robert has grown fat and miserable; he has no more wars to fight, is surrounded by plotters and sycophants, hates and is bored by the constant work needed to manage the Kingdoms properly, and trapped in a political marriage to the scheming Cersei Lannister, whom he has never loved. He is unaware that none of his three children are his, but instead Jaime Lannister 's. Under his reign, the realm has been bankrupted, and Robert is deeply in debt to his wife 's family. Killed while hunting under suspicious circumstances, he unknowingly leaves no rightful heir behind. Leading to Ned Stark 's beheading at the hands of his legal son Joffrey.
After his death, Roberts bastards are ordered dead by Joffrey, many of which are killed, and Gendry is subsequently forced to flee the capital.
In seasons six and seven, Bran Stark 's gift of vision as the Three - Eyed Raven revealed to him the truth of Rhaegar and Lyanna 's relationship and that Robert 's Rebellion was built on a lie.
Robert Baratheon is played by Mark Addy in the television adaption of the series of books. Addy 's audition for the role was according to showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss the best they saw, him being the easiest actor to cast for the show.
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what is the meaning of freaky friday song | Freaky Friday (song) - wikipedia
"Freaky Friday '' is a song recorded by American rapper Lil Dicky, featuring guest vocals from American singer Chris Brown and uncredited vocals from Ed Sheeran, DJ Khaled, and Kendall Jenner. Written by Dicky, Brown, Cashmere Cat, Lewis Hughes, Wilbart McCoy III, Ammo and its producers DJ Mustard, Benny Blanco and Twice as Nice, it was released by Dirty Burd on March 15, 2018, alongside its music video. The song topped the charts in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100. The song has also reached the top ten of the charts in Australia, Canada and Ireland.
"Freaky Friday '' is a hip hop and comedy hip hop song featuring a pop - rap production.
The music video parodies the 2003 film Freaky Friday and features cameos from Jimmy Tatro, Ed Sheeran, DJ Khaled and Kendall Jenner. As of October 2018, the video had over 410 million views on YouTube. The video shows Lil Dicky at a Chinese restaurant, similar to the 2003 film, Freaky Friday, where a character is at a Chinese restaurant and wishes she was somebody else. In the music video, Lil Dicky is approached by a fan, played by Jimmy Tatro, who mentions he is a fan of his work. He then explains to his girlfriend who he is accompanied by that he is a comedic rapper, who is not that impressive of a rapper. Lil Dicky then says to himself he wishes he was somebody who could dance, and who had credibility. The camera then pans to Chris Brown on TV, mentioning he wishes he was somebody else as well. The Chinese waiter takes note of it, and gives Lil Dicky a fortune cookie. The video then shows Lil Dicky, supposedly in the body of Chris Brown, and vice versa. The song illustrates the two in each others ' bodies. Towards the end, the two are about to fight, and they realize they should not kill each other, and instead love each other. They realize that this will set them back to their original form. The video then ends with cameos from Ed Sheeran, DJ Khaled and Kendall Jenner, where Lil Dicky is then in possession in all of their bodies.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how old is assemblies of god church nigeria | Assemblies of God - wikipedia
The Assemblies of God (AG), officially the World Assemblies of God Fellowship, is a group of over 140 autonomous but loosely associated national groupings of churches which together form the world 's largest Pentecostal denomination. With over 397,000 ministers and outstations in over 256 countries and territories serving approximately 69.1 million adherents worldwide, it is the fourth largest international Christian group of denominations and the largest Pentecostal denomination in the world.
As an international fellowship, the member denominations are entirely independent and autonomous; however, they are united by shared beliefs and history. The Assemblies originated from the Azusa Street Revival of the early 20th century. This revival led to the founding of the Assemblies of God in the United States in 1914. Through foreign missionary work and establishing relationships with other Pentecostal churches, the Assemblies of God expanded into a worldwide movement. It was not until 1988, however, that the world fellowship was formed. As a Pentecostal fellowship, the Assemblies of God believes in the Pentecostal distinctive of baptism with the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues.
The Assemblies of God should not be confused with the Assemblies of God International Fellowship, the International Assemblies of God Fellowship, and the Independent Assemblies of God International, all of which are Pentecostal denominations.
The World Assemblies of God Fellowship is structured as a loose alliance of independent national and regional Pentecostal denominations. For the particular beliefs, history and polity of individual national fellowships, refer to the links in the following list:
The doctrinal position of the Assemblies of God is framed in a classical Pentecostal and an evangelical context. The AG is Trinitarian and holds the Bible as divinely inspired and the infallible authoritative rule of faith and conduct. Baptism by immersion is practiced as an ordinance instituted by Christ for those who have been saved. Baptism is understood as an outward sign of an inward change, the change from being dead to sin to being alive in Christ. As an ordinance, Communion is also practiced. The AG believe that the elements that are partaken are symbols expressing the sharing the divine nature of Jesus of Nazareth; a memorial of His suffering and death; and a prophecy of His second coming. The Assemblies of God also places a strong emphasis on the fulfillment of the Great Commission and believes that this is the calling of the church.
As classical Pentecostals, the Assemblies of God believes all Christians are entitled to and should seek the baptism in the Holy Spirit. The AG teaches that this experience is distinct from and subsequent to the experience of salvation. The baptism in the Holy Spirit empowers the believer for Christian life and service. The initial evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit is speaking in tongues "as the Spirit gives utterance ''. In addition, it also believes in the present day use of other spiritual gifts and in divine healing.
While the World AG Fellowship has a statement of faith which outlines the basic beliefs which unify the various branches of the movement, each national AG denomination formulates its own doctrinal statements. The Assemblies of God USA, for example, adheres to the Statement of Fundamental Truths.
The Assemblies of God has its roots in the Pentecostal Azusa Street Revival of the early 20th century. The Pentecostal aspects of the revival were not generally welcomed by established churches, and participants in the movement soon found themselves forced outside existing religious bodies. These people sought out their own places of worship and founded hundreds of distinctly Pentecostal congregations. By 1914, many ministers and laymen alike began to realize just how far - reaching the spread of the revival and of Pentecostalism had become. Concerned leaders felt the desire to protect and preserve the results of the revival by uniting through cooperative fellowship.
In April 1914, after splitting from the Church of God in Christ due to the racial tensions of that time, about 300 preachers and laymen were invited from 20 states and several foreign countries for a general council in Hot Springs, Arkansas, United States, to discuss and take action on these and other pressing needs. A remaining fellowship emerged from the meeting and was incorporated under the name General Council of the Assemblies of God in the United States of America. In time, self - governing and self - supporting general councils broke off from the original fellowship or were formed independently in several nations throughout the world, originating either from indigenous Pentecostal movements or as a direct result of the indigenous missions strategy of the General Council. In 1919, Pentecostals in Canada united to form the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada which formally affiliated with the Assemblies of God USA the next year. The Assemblies of God in Great Britain was formed in 1924 and would have an early influence on the Assemblies of God in Australia, now known as Australian Christian Churches. The Australian Assemblies of God was formed in 1937 by a merger of the Pentecostal Church of Australia and the Assemblies of God Queensland. The Queensland AG had formed in 1929; though, it was never formally affiliated with the AG in America. The Assemblies of God of South Africa was founded in 1925 and like the AG Queensland, was also not initially aligned with the US fellowship.
Prior to 1967, the Assemblies of God, along with the majority of other Pentecostal denominations, officially opposed Christian participation in war and considered itself a peace church. The US Assemblies of God continues to give full doctrinal support to members who are led by religious conscience to pacifism.
In 1988, the various Assemblies of God national fellowships united to form the World Pentecostal Assemblies of God Fellowship at the initiative of Dr. J. Philip Hogan, then executive director of the Division of Foreign Missions of the Assemblies of God in the United States. The initial purpose was to coordinate evangelism, but soon developed into a more permanent organism of inter-relation.
Dr. Hogan was elected the first chairman of the Fellowship and served until 1992 when Rev. David Yonggi Cho was elected chairman. In 1993, the name of the Fellowship was changed to the World Assemblies of God Fellowship. In 2000, Thomas E. Trask was elected to succeed Cho. At the 2008 World Congress in Lisbon, Portugal, George O. Wood, General Superintendent of the Assemblies of God in the United States, was elected chairman. At the 2011 World AG Congress in Chennai, India, D. Mohan, General Superintendent of the All India Assemblies of God, was elected vice chairman.
The World Fellowship unites Assemblies of God national councils from around the world together for cooperation. Each national council is fully self - governing and independent and involvement with the World Fellowship does not limit this independence. The work of the World Fellowship is carried out by the Executive Council. Executive Council members represent different regions of the world and serve three - year terms. Africa, Asia Pacific, Latin America / Caribbean, and North America each have four representatives while Europe has three and the Middle East and Southern Asia each have one. They are elected by the General Assembly. Each World Fellowship member is entitled to send one or more delegates to the General Assembly with one vote. The General Assembly also elects the Chairman, Vice Chairman, and Secretary of the World Fellowship. The World Assemblies of God Relief Agency (WAGRA) directs its humanitarian work. At the national and lower levels, the Assemblies of God are generally structured around a form of presbyterian polity, combining the independence of the local church with oversight by district and national councils.
The Assemblies of God has missions programs that are designed to establish self - propagating, self - supporting, and self - governing national church bodies in every country. As of late 2006, the Assemblies of God World Missions Research Office reported constituencies in 212 countries and territories, with over 5,000 adherents added per day. As of 2005, the fellowship operated 859 Bible schools, 1,131 extension programs and 39 seminaries outside the United States.
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when was the last time the dodgers went to world series | Los Angeles Dodgers - wikipedia
The Los Angeles Dodgers are an American professional baseball team based in Los Angeles, California. The Dodgers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West division. Established in 1883 in Brooklyn, New York, the team moved to Los Angeles before the 1958 season. They played for four seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum before moving to their current home of Dodger Stadium in 1962.
The Dodgers as a franchise have won six World Series titles and 22 National League pennants. 11 NL MVP award winners have played for the Dodgers, winning a total of 13 MVP Awards, Eight Cy Young Award winners have pitched for the Dodgers, winning a total of twelve Cy Young Awards. The team has also produced 18 Rookie of the Year Award winners, twice as many as the next closest team, including four consecutive from 1979 to 1982 and five consecutive from 1992 to 1996.
In the early 20th century, the team, then known as the Robins, won league pennants in 1916 and 1920, losing the World Series both times, first to Boston and then Cleveland. In the 1930s, the team changed its name to the Dodgers, named after the Brooklyn pedestrians who dodged the streetcars in the city. In 1941, the Dodgers captured their third National League pennant, only to lose to the New York Yankees. This marked the onset of the Dodgers -- Yankees rivalry, as the Dodgers would face them in their next six World Series appearances. Led by Jackie Robinson, the first black Major League Baseball player of the modern era; and three - time National League Most Valuable Player Roy Campanella, also signed out of the Negro Leagues, the Dodgers captured their first World Series title in 1955 by defeating the Yankees for the first time, a story notably described in the 1972 book The Boys of Summer.
Following the 1957 season the team left Brooklyn. In just their second season in Los Angeles, the Dodgers won their second World Series title, beating the Chicago White Sox in six games in 1959. Spearheaded by the dominant pitching style of Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale, the Dodgers captured three pennants in the 1960s and won two more World Series titles, sweeping the Yankees in four games in 1963, and edging the Minnesota Twins in seven in 1965. The 1963 sweep was their second victory against the Yankees, and their first against them as a Los Angeles team. The Dodgers won four more pennants in 1966, 1974, 1977 and 1978, but lost in each World Series appearance. They went on to win the World Series again in 1981, thanks in part to pitching sensation Fernando Valenzuela. The early 1980s were affectionately dubbed "Fernandomania. '' In 1988, another pitching hero, Orel Hershiser, again led them to a World Series victory, aided by one of the most memorable home runs of all time, by their injured star outfielder Kirk Gibson coming off the bench to pinch hit with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning of game 1, in his only appearance of the series.
The Dodgers share a fierce rivalry with the San Francisco Giants, the oldest rivalry in baseball, dating back to when the two franchises played in New York City. Both teams moved west for the 1958 season. The Brooklyn Dodgers and Los Angeles Dodgers have collectively appeared in the World Series 19 times, while the New York Giants and San Francisco Giants have collectively appeared 20 times and have been invited 21 times. The Giants have won two more World Series (8); the Dodgers have won 22 National League pennants, while the Giants hold the record with 23. Although the two franchises have enjoyed near equal success, the city rivalries are rather lopsided and in both cases, a team 's championships have predated to the other 's first one in that particular location. When the two teams were based in New York, the Giants won five World Series championships, and the Dodgers one. After the move to California, the Dodgers have won five in Los Angeles, the Giants have won three in San Francisco.
The Dodgers were founded in 1883 as the Brooklyn Atlantics, taking the name of a defunct team that had played in Brooklyn before them. The team joined the American Association in 1884 and won the AA championship in 1889 before joining the National League in 1890. They promptly won the NL Championship their first year in the League. The team was known alternatively as the Bridegrooms, Grooms, Superbas, Robins, and Trolley Dodgers before officially becoming the Dodgers in the 1930s.
In Brooklyn, the Dodgers won the NL pennant several times (1890, 1899, 1900, 1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956) and the World Series in 1955. After moving to Los Angeles, the team won National League pennants in 1959, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1988, and 2017, with World Series championships in 1959, 1963, 1965, 1981 and 1988. In all, the Dodgers have appeared in 19 World Series: 9 in Brooklyn and 10 in Los Angeles.
For most of the first half of the 20th century, no Major League Baseball team employed an African American player. Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play for a Major League Baseball team when he played his first major league game on April 15, 1947, as a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers. This was mainly due to general manager Branch Rickey 's efforts. The deeply religious Rickey 's motivation appears to have been primarily moral, although business considerations were also a factor. Rickey was a member of The Methodist Church, the antecedent denomination to The United Methodist Church of today, which was a strong advocate for social justice and active later in the American Civil Rights Movement.
This event was the harbinger of the integration of professional sports in the United States, the concomitant demise of the Negro Leagues, and is regarded as a key moment in the history of the American Civil Rights movement. Robinson was an exceptional player, a speedy runner who sparked the team with his intensity. He was the inaugural recipient of the Rookie of the Year award, which is now named the Jackie Robinson Award in his honor. The Dodgers ' willingness to integrate, when most other teams refused to, was a key factor in their 1947 -- 1956 success. They won six pennants in those 10 years with the help of Robinson, three - time MVP Roy Campanella, Cy Young Award winner Don Newcombe, Jim Gilliam and Joe Black. Robinson would eventually go on to become the first African - American elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
Real estate businessman Walter O'Malley acquired majority ownership of the Dodgers in 1950, when he bought the 25 percent share of co-owner Branch Rickey and became allied with the widow of the another equal partner, Mrs. John L. Smith. Before long, he was working to buy new land in Brooklyn to build a more accessible and better arrayed ballpark than Ebbets Field. Beloved as it was, Ebbets Field was no longer well - served by its aging infrastructure and the Dodgers could no longer sell out the park even in the heat of a pennant race, despite largely dominating the National League from 1946 to 1957.
O'Malley wanted to build a new, state of the art stadium in Brooklyn. But City Planner Robert Moses and New York politicians refused to grant him the eminent domain authority required to build pursuant to O'Malley's plans. To put pressure on the city, during the 1955 season, O'Malley announced that the team would play seven regular season games and one exhibition game at Jersey City 's Roosevelt Stadium in 1956. Moses and the City considered this an empty threat, and did not believe O'Malley would go through with moving the team from New York City.
After teams began to travel to and from games by air instead of train, it became possible to include locations in the far west. Los Angeles officials attended the 1956 World Series looking to the Washington Senators to move to the West Coast. When O'Malley heard that LA was looking for a club, he sent word to the Los Angeles officials that he was interested in talking. LA offered him what New York would not: a chance to buy land suitable for building a ballpark, and own that ballpark, giving him complete control over all revenue streams. When the news came out, NYC Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. and Moses made an offer to build a ballpark on the World 's Fair Grounds in Queens that would be shared by the Giants and Dodgers. However, O'Malley was interested in his park only under his conditions, and the plans for a new stadium in Brooklyn seemed like a pipe dream. O'Malley decided to move the Dodgers to California, convincing Giants owner Horace Stoneham to move to San Francisco instead of Minneapolis to keep another team on the West Coast to ease approval of the moves. There was no turning back: the Dodgers were heading for Hollywood.
The Dodgers played their final game at Ebbets Field on September 24, 1957, which the Dodgers won 2 -- 0 over the Pittsburgh Pirates.
New York would remain a one - team town with the New York Yankees until 1962, when Joan Payson founded the New York Mets and brought National League baseball back to the city. The blue background used by the Dodgers, would be adopted by the Mets, honoring their New York NL forebears with a blend of Dodgers blue and Giants orange.
The Dodgers were the first Major League Baseball team to ever play in Los Angeles. On April 18, 1958, the Dodgers played their first LA game, defeating the former New York and now new San Francisco Giants, 6 -- 5, before 78,672 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Catcher Roy Campanella, left partially paralyzed in an off - season accident, was never able to play in Los Angeles.
Construction on Dodger Stadium was completed in time for Opening Day 1962. With its clean, simple lines and its picturesque setting amid hills and palm trees, the ballpark quickly became an icon of the Dodgers and their new California lifestyle. O'Malley was determined that there would not be a bad seat in the house, achieving this by cantilevered grandstands that have since been widely imitated. More importantly for the team, the stadium 's spacious dimensions, along with other factors, gave defense an advantage over offense and the Dodgers moved to take advantage of this by assembling a team that would excel with its pitching.
Since moving to Los Angeles, the Dodgers have won 10 more National League Championships and five World Series rings.
The Dodgers ' official history reports that the term "Trolley Dodgers '' was attached to the Brooklyn ballclub due to the complex maze of trolley cars that weaved its way through the borough of Brooklyn.
In 1892, the city of Brooklyn (Brooklyn was an independent city until annexed by New York City in 1898) began replacing its slow - moving, horse - drawn trolley lines with the faster, more powerful electric trolley lines. Within less than three years, by the end of 1895, electric trolley accidents in Brooklyn had resulted in more than 130 deaths and maimed well over 500 people. Brooklyn 's high - profile, the significant number of widely reported accidents, and a trolley strike in early 1895, combined to create a strong association in the public 's mind between Brooklyn and trolley dodging.
Sportswriters started using the name "trolley dodgers '' to refer to the Brooklyn team early in the 1895 season. The name was shortened to, on occasion, the "Brooklyn Dodgers '' as early as 1898.
Sportswriters in the early 20th century began referring to the Dodgers as the "Bums '', in reference to the team 's fans and possibly because of the "street character '' nature of Jack Dawkins, the "Artful Dodger '' in Charles Dickens ' Oliver Twist. Newspaper cartoonist Willard Mullin used a drawing of famous clown Emmett Kelly to depict "Dem Bums '': the team would later use "Weary Willie '' in promotional images, and Kelly himself was a club mascot during the 1950s.
Other team names used by the franchise were the Atlantics, Grays, Grooms, Bridegrooms, Superbas and Robins. All of these nicknames were used by fans and sportswriters to describe the team, but not in any official capacity. The team 's legal name was the Brooklyn Base Ball Club. However, the Trolley Dodger nickname was used throughout this period, simultaneously with these other nicknames, by fans and sportswriters of the day. The team did not use the name in any formal sense until 1932, when the word "Dodgers '' appeared on team jerseys. The "conclusive shift '' came in 1933, when both home and road jerseys for the team bore the name "Dodgers ''.
Examples of how the many popularized names of the team were used are available from newspaper articles before 1932. A New York Times article describing a game in 1916 starts out: "Jimmy Callahan, pilot of the Pirates, did his best to wreck the hopes the Dodgers have of gaining the National League pennant '', but then goes on to comment: "the only thing that saved the Superbas from being toppled from first place was that the Phillies lost one of the two games played ''. What is interesting about the use of these two nicknames is that most baseball statistics sites and baseball historians generally now refer to the pennant - winning 1916 Brooklyn team as the Robins. A 1918 New York Times article uses the nickname in its title: "Buccaneers Take Last From Robins '', but the subtitle of the article reads: "Subdue The Superbas By 11 To 4, Making Series An Even Break ''.
Another example of the use of the many nicknames is found on the program issued at Ebbets Field for the 1920 World Series, which identifies the matchup in the series as "Dodgers vs. Indians '' despite the fact that the Robins nickname had been in consistent use for around six years. The "Robins '' nickname was derived from the name of their Hall of Fame manager, Wilbert Robinson, who led the team from 1914 to 1931.
The Dodgers ' uniform has remained relatively unchanged since the 1930s. The home jersey is white with "Dodgers '' written in script across the chest in Dodger Blue. The road jersey is grey with "Los Angeles '' written in script across the chest in Dodger Blue. The word "Dodgers '' was first used on the front of the team 's home jersey in 1933; the uniform was then white with red pinstripes and a stylized "B '' on the left shoulder. The Dodgers also wore green outlined uniforms and green caps throughout the 1937 season but reverted to blue the following year.
The current design was created in 1939, and has remained the same ever since with only cosmetic changes. In 1952, the home uniform added a red uniform number under the "Dodgers '' script. The road jersey also has a red uniform number under the script. When the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles, the city name on the road jersey changed, and the stylized "B '' was replaced with the interlocking "LA '' on the caps in 1958. In 1970, the Dodgers removed the city name from the road jerseys and had "Dodgers '' on both the home and away uniforms. The city script returned to the road jerseys in 1999, and the tradition - rich Dodgers flirted with an alternate uniform for the first time since 1944 (when all - blue satin uniforms were introduced). These 1999 alternate jerseys had a royal blue top with the "Dodgers '' script in white across the chest, and the red number on the front. These were worn with white pants and a new cap with silver brim, top button and Dodger logo. These alternates proved unpopular and the team abandoned them after only one season. In 2014, the Dodgers introduced an alternate road jersey: a grey version with the "Dodgers '' script instead of the city name.
Current logo using "Dodgers '' Script
Los Angeles Dodgers Script on Dodger Blue
The Dodgers have been groundbreaking in their signing of players from Asia; mainly, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Former owner Peter O'Malley began reaching out in 1980 by starting clinics in China and South Korea, building baseball fields in two Chinese cities, and in 1998 becoming the first major league team to open an office in Asia. The Dodgers were the second team to start a Japanese player in recent history, pitcher Hideo Nomo, the first team to start a South Korean player, pitcher Chan Ho Park, and the first Taiwanese player, Chin - Feng Chen. In addition, they were the first team to send out three Asian pitchers, from different Asian countries, in one game: Park, Hong - Chih Kuo of Taiwan, and Takashi Saito of Japan. In the 2008 season, the Dodgers had the most Asian players on its roster of any major league team with five. They included Japanese pitchers Takashi Saito and Hiroki Kuroda; South Korean pitcher Chan Ho Park; and Taiwanese pitcher Hong - Chih Kuo and infielder Chin - Lung Hu. In 2005, the Dodgers ' Hee Seop Choi became the first Asian player to compete in the Home Run Derby. For the 2013 season, the Dodgers signed starting pitcher Hyun - Jin Ryu with a six - year, $36 million contract, after posting a bid of nearly $27 million to acquire him from the KBO 's Hanhwa Eagles. For the 2016 season, the Dodgers signed starting pitcher Kenta Maeda with an eight - year, $25 million contract, after posting a bid of $20 million to acquire him from the NPB 's Hiroshima Toyo Carp.
The Dodgers ' rivalry with the San Francisco Giants dates back to the 19th century, when the two teams were based in New York; the rivalry with the New York Yankees took place when the Dodgers were based in New York, but was revived with their East Coast / West Coast World Series battles in 1963, 1977, 1978, and 1981. The Dodgers rivalry with the Philadelphia Phillies also dates back to their days in New York, but was most fierce during the 1970s, 1980s, and 2000s. The Dodgers also had a heated rivalry with the Cincinnati Reds during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. The rivalry with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and the San Diego Padres dates back to the Angels ' and Padres ' respective inaugural seasons (Angels in 1961, Padres in 1969). Regional proximity is behind the rivalries with both the Angels and the Padres.
The Dodgers -- Giants rivalry is one of the longest - standing rivalries in American baseball.
The feud between the Dodgers and the San Francisco Giants began in the late 19th century when both clubs were based in New York City, with the Dodgers playing in Brooklyn and the Giants playing at the Polo Grounds in Manhattan. After the 1957 season, Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley moved the team to Los Angeles for financial and other reasons. Along the way, he managed to convince Giants owner Horace Stoneham -- who was considering moving his team to Minnesota -- to preserve the rivalry by bringing his team to California as well. New York baseball fans were stunned and heartbroken by the move. Given that the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco have been bitter rivals in economic, cultural, and political arenas for over a century and a half, the new venue in California became fertile ground for its transplantation.
Each team 's ability to endure for over a century while moving across an entire continent, as well as the rivalry 's leap from a cross-city to a cross-state engagement, have led to the rivalry being considered one of the greatest in sports history.
Unlike many other historic baseball match - ups in which one team remains dominant for most of their history, the Dodgers -- Giants rivalry has exhibited a persistent balance in the respective successes of the two teams. While the Giants have more wins in franchise history, and lead all NL teams with 23 National League pennants, the Dodgers are second, having won 21; the Giants have won eight World Series titles, while the Dodgers have won six. The 2010 World Series was the Giants ' first championship since moving to California, while the Dodgers had won five World Series titles since their move, their last title coming in the 1988 World Series.
This rivalry refers to a series of games played with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The Freeway Series takes its name from the massive freeway system in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, the home of both teams; one could travel from one team 's stadium to the other simply by traveling along Interstate 5. The term is akin to Subway Series which refers to meetings between New York City baseball teams. The term "Freeway Series '' also inspired the official name of the regions ' NHL rivalry: the Freeway Face - Off
The Dodgers -- Yankees rivalry is one of the most well - known rivalries in Major League Baseball. The two teams have met eleven times in the World Series, more times than any other pair from the American and National Leagues. The initial significance was embodied in the two teams ' proximity in New York City, when the Dodgers initially played in Brooklyn. After the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles in 1958, the rivalry retained its significance as the two teams represented the dominant cities on each coast of the United States, and since the 1980s, the two largest cities in the United States.
Although the rivalry 's significance arose from the two teams ' numerous World Series meetings, the Yankees and Dodgers have not met in the World Series since 1981. They would not play each other in a non-exhibition game until 2004, when they played a three - game interleague series. Their last meeting was in September 2016, when the Dodgers won two out of three games in New York.
The Dodgers have a loyal fanbase, evidenced by the fact that the Dodgers were the first MLB team to attract more than 3 million fans in a season (in 1978), and accomplished that feat six more times before any other franchise did it once. The Dodgers drew at least 3 million fans for 15 consecutive seasons from 1996 to 2010, the longest such streak in all of MLB. On July 3, 2007, Dodgers management announced that total franchise attendance, dating back to 1901, had reached 175 million, a record for all professional sports. In 2007, the Dodgers set a franchise record for single - season attendance, attracting over 3.8 million fans. In 2009, the Dodgers led MLB in total attendance. The Dodger baseball cap is consistently in the top three in sales. During the 2011 - 2012 season, Frank McCourt, the owner of the Dodgers at that time, was going through a rough divorce with his wife over who should be the owner of the Dodger team. Instead, Frank McCourt paid $131 million to his wife as part of the divorce settlement. As a result, the team payroll was financially low for a big - budget team crippling the Dodgers in the free - agent market. Collectively, the team performance waned due to the distracting drama in the front office resulting in low attendance numbers.
Given the team 's proximity to Hollywood, numerous celebrities can often be seen attending home games at Dodger Stadium. Celebrities such as co-owner Magic Johnson, Mary Hart, Larry King, Tiger Woods, Alyssa Milano and Shia LaBeouf are known to sit at field box seats behind home plate where they sign autographs for fellow Dodger fans. Actor Bryan Cranston is a lifelong Dodger fan.
The Dodgers set the world record for the largest attendance for a single baseball game during an exhibition game against the Boston Red Sox on March 28, 2008 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in honor of the Dodgers 50th anniversary, with 115,300 fans in attendance. All proceeds from the game benefited the official charity of the Dodgers, ThinkCure! which supports cancer research at Children 's Hospital Los Angeles and City of Hope. Primarily Dodgers fans are from their own location in southern California and also parts of southern Nevada; however there are also strong pockets of Dodger support in Mexico and throughout Asia, and their away games throughout the US will usually attract substantial numbers of expat and traveling fans.
Vin Scully had called Dodgers games from 1950 to 2016. His longtime partners were Jerry Doggett (1956 -- 1987) and Ross Porter (1977 -- 2004). In 1976, he was selected by Dodgers fans as the Most Memorable Personality (on the field or off) in the team 's history. He is also a recipient of the Baseball Hall of Fame 's Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasters (inducted in 1982). Unlike the modern style in which multiple sportscasters have an on - air conversation (usually with one functioning as play - by - play announcer and the other (s) as color commentator), Scully, Doggett and Porter generally called games solo, trading with each other inning - by - inning. In the 1980s and 1990s, Scully would call the entire radio broadcast except for the third and seventh inning, allowing the other Dodger commentators to broadcast an inning.
When Doggett retired after the 1987 season, he was replaced by Hall - of - Fame Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale, who previously broadcast games for the California Angels and Chicago White Sox. Drysdale died in his hotel room following a heart attack before a game in Montreal in 1993. This was a difficult broadcast for Scully and Porter who could not mention it on - air until Drysdale 's family had been notified and the official announcement made. He was replaced by former Dodgers outfielder Rick Monday. Porter 's tenure ended after the 2004 season, after which the format of play - by - play announcers and color commentators was installed, led by Monday and newcomer Charley Steiner. Scully, however, continued to announce solo.
Scully called roughly 100 games per season (all home games and road games in California and Arizona) for both flagship radio station KLAC and on television for SportsNet LA. Scully was simulcast for the first three innings of each of his appearances, then announced only for the TV audience. If Scully was calling the game, Steiner took over play - by - play on radio beginning with the fourth inning, with Monday as color commentator. If Scully was not calling the game, Steiner and Orel Hershiser called the entire game on television while Monday and Kevin Kennedy did the same on radio. In the event the Dodgers were in post-season play, Scully called the first three and last three innings of the radio broadcast alone and Steiner and Monday handled the middle innings. Vin Scully retired from calling games in 2016. His tenure with the Dodgers was the longest with any single sports team at 67 years.
The Dodgers also broadcast on radio in Spanish, and the play - by - play is voiced by another Frick Award winner, Jaime Jarrín, who has been with the Dodgers since 1959. The color analyst for some games is former Dodger pitcher Fernando Valenzuela, for whom Jarrin once translated post-game interviews. The Spanish - language radio flagship station is KTNQ.
Dave Bancroft Dan Brouthers Roy Campanella Max Carey Kiki Cuyler Leo Durocher Burleigh Grimes
Ned Hanlon Billy Herman Waite Hoyt Hughie Jennings Willie Keeler Joe Kelley George Kelly
Tony Lazzeri Freddie Lindstrom Ernie Lombardi Al López Heinie Manush Rabbit Maranville Rube Marquard Tommy McCarthy
Joe McGinnity Joe Medwick Pee Wee Reese Jackie Robinson Wilbert Robinson Duke Snider Casey Stengel
Dazzy Vance Arky Vaughan Lloyd Waner Paul Waner John Montgomery Ward Zack Wheat Hack Wilson
Walter Alston Jim Bunning Gary Carter
Don Drysdale Rickey Henderson Sandy Koufax Tommy Lasorda
Greg Maddux Juan Marichal Pedro Martínez
Eddie Murray Walter O'Malley Mike Piazza Frank Robinson
Don Sutton Joe Torre Hoyt Wilhelm
Red Barber
Ernie Harwell
Jaime Jarrín
Vin Scully
Koufax, Campanella, and Robinson were the first Dodgers to have their numbers retired, in a ceremony at Dodger Stadium on June 4, 1972. This was the year in which Koufax was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame; Robinson and Campanella were already Hall - of - Famers.
Alston 's number was retired in the year following his retirement as the Dodgers manager, six years before he was inducted into the Hall of Fame.
Gilliam died suddenly in 1978 after a 28 - year career with the Dodgers organization. The Dodgers retired his number two days after his death, prior to Game 1 of the 1978 World Series. He is the only non-Hall - of - Famer to have his number retired by the Dodgers.
Beginning in 1980, the Dodgers have retired the numbers of longtime Dodgers (Snider, Reese, Drysdale, Lasorda, and Sutton) during the seasons in which each was inducted into the Hall of Fame.
In 1997, 50 years after he broke the color barrier and 25 years after the Dodgers retired his number, Robinson 's No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball. Robinson is the only major league baseball player to have this honor bestowed upon him. Starting in the 2007 season, Jackie Robinson Day (April 15, commemorating Opening Day of Robinson 's rookie season of 1947) has featured many or all players and coaches wearing the number 42 as a tribute to Robinson.
The Dodgers have not issued the number 34 since the departure of Fernando Valenzuela in 1991, although it has not been officially retired.
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Pitchers
Manager
Coaches
37 active, 0 inactive, 1 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated December 16, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
Since 1884, the Dodgers have used a total of 31 Managers, the most current being Dave Roberts, who was appointed following the 2015 postseason, after the departure of Don Mattingly.
Over the nearly 43 years from 1954 to mid-1996, the Dodgers employed only two managers, Walter Alston and Tommy Lasorda, both of whom are in the Hall of Fame. During this entire time period of extraordinary stability, the Dodgers were family owned by Walter O'Malley and then his son Peter O'Malley. It was during this era that the Dodgers won 11 of their 21 pennants, and all six of their World Series championships.
The managers of the Los Angeles Dodgers (1958 -- present) are as follows:
From the Dodgers ' move to Los Angeles from Brooklyn in 1958, the Dodgers employed a handful of well - known public address announcers; the most famous of which was John Ramsey, who served as the PA voice of the Dodgers from 1958 until his retirement in 1982; as well as announcing at other venerable Los Angeles venues, including the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Sports Arena, and the Forum. Ramsey died in 1990.
From 1958 to 1982, Doug Moore, a local businessman; Philip Petty, an Orange County Superior Court Judge; and Dennis Packer; served as back - up voices for John Ramsey for the Dodgers, California Angels, Los Angeles Chargers, USC football and Los Angeles Rams. Packer was Ramsey 's primary backup for the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings until Ramsey 's retirement from the Forum in 1978. Thereafter, Packer became the public address announcer for the Lakers, Kings, indoor soccer and indoor tennis events at the Forum.
Nick Nickson, a radio broadcaster for the Los Angeles Kings, replaced John Ramsey as the Dodger Stadium public address announcer in 1983 and served in that capacity through the 1989 season to work with the Kings full - time.
Dennis Packer and Pete Arbogast were emulators of John Ramsey, using the same stentorian style of announcing Ramsey was famous for. Packer and Arbogast shared the stadium announcing chores for the 1994 FIFA World Cup matches at the Rose Bowl. Arbogast won the Dodgers job on the day that Ramsey died on January 25, 1990, by doing a verbatim imitation of Ramsey 's opening and closing remarks that were standard at each game. His replacement, in 1993 was Mike Carlucci, who remained as the Dodgers ' PA voice until 2003 to concentrate on his voiceover and acting career along with his Olympics announcing duties.
Through 2014, the Dodgers public address announcer was Eric Smith, who also announces for the Los Angeles Clippers and USC Trojans.
On April 3, 2015 the Dodgers announced that former radio broadcaster Todd Leitz would become their new public address announcer. Leitz was an anchor and news reporter in Los Angeles at KNX 1070 AM for 10 years, and a news reporter at KABC 790 for two years.
During their time in Brooklyn, stadium organist Gladys Gooding became so well - known that fans would joke that she was "the only Dodger who played every game without an error ''. Until 2015, Nancy Bea enjoyed a similar level of popularity behind the Dodger Stadium keyboard. Her replacement and current organist is Dieter Ruehle, who also plays at Staples Center for Los Angeles Kings and Los Angeles Lakers games.
Vin Scully is permanently honored in the Hall 's "Scribes & Mikemen '' exhibit as a result of winning the Ford C. Frick Award in 1982. As with all Frick Award recipients, he is not officially considered an inducted member of the Hall of Fame.
Sue Falsone, served as the first female physical therapist in Major League baseball, and from 2012 to 2013, was the first female head athletic trainer.
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when do stefan and elena get back together in season 5 | No Exit (the Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"No Exit '' is the 14th episode of the fifth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 103rd episode overall. "No Exit '' was originally aired on February 27, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Brian Young and directed by Michael Allowitz.
Enzo (Michael Malarkey) and Damon (Ian Somerhalder) turn people on vampires so that Damon can feed on since now, after Wes ' (Rick Cosnett) injection, he craves on vampire blood and not human. The two of them try to leave the last victim 's house when Wes appears with travelers who spell the house so vampires will not be able to get out. Wes informs them that he wants to make one last test; how long can Damon last before he attacks his friend to feed on.
Katherine (Nina Dobrev), still pretending to be Elena, tries to get closer to Stefan (Paul Wesley) so they can be back together. When Caroline (Candice Accola) arrives and tells them about Damon, Stefan wants to find him and Katherine offers to go with him. Caroline warns him that it is weird for him to be so close to "Elena '' after everything that happened but he reassures her that they are just friends. Before Stefan and Katherine go, Caroline gets a phone call from Tyler (Michael Trevino) who tells her that he worries about Matt (Zach Roerig), who is vanished for two days, and that Nadia (Olga Fonda) was compelling him. Katherine hears Caroline 's conversation with Tyler and she calls Nadia to ask if everything is fine. When Nadia tells her that Matt found out that she is not Elena, Katherine asks her to kill him. Caroline leaves to go to Tyler 's while Katherine and Stefan leave to find Damon.
Caroline gets to Tyler 's and they try to find out why Nadia would compel Matt and what does she want from him. The two of them feel awkward because of what happened between Caroline and Klaus (Joseph Morgan). At the same time, Matt tries to convince Nadia that she does not have to kill him and all he has to do is to convince his friends that he is fine. Matt returns home with Nadia and acts like everything is fine. He tells Tyler and Caroline that Nadia is not compelling him and that they just have fun together but Caroline is not really supportive of that. They both depart, leaving Matt and Nadia alone.
Katherine and Stefan are on the road in search of Damon and Katherine tries to seduce Stefan. She breaks the car so they can stay at a hotel she had seen till the car is ready. While being there, Enzo calls Stefan to inform him about the situation he and Damon are but Katherine answers who asks him to text her the address. Stefan goes to get the car and Katherine calls Nadia to tell her that she plans to lead Stefan on killing Damon to save her. Stefan gets back and before they leave the hotel, Katherine gets closer to him and kisses him. He kisses her back but he stops because "Elena '' has just broken up with Damon and it is not right.
Enzo chains Damon on a chair in an attempt to prevent him of attacking him. Wes shoots Enzo to make him bleed, so Damon will not be able to resist. Damon breaks the chains and attacks Enzo who tries to tell him to stop. Damon chokes at Enzo 's blood and Wes appears to tell him that it is because he had travelers to spell on it. He offers Enzo to go with him so he will not be killed by Damon since the spell will not last forever. Enzo does not want to go but Damon convinces him to do it because if he stays he will kill him. Enzo leaves with Wes and Damon stays alone, trapped in the house.
Nadia checks that finally vervain is out of Matt 's system so she can compel him again but before she makes him forget, Matt tries to warn Caroline about Katherine taking over Elena 's body. He kisses Nadia who kisses him back and while they are kissing, he tries to text Caroline. He manages to write "Help K '' and send it to Caroline before Nadia sees him and stops him. She is hurt by his behavior and trying to fool her, so she compels him and starts to exit the house. Caroline, who got the text, meets Nadia at the door and asks her what is she planning and they start fighting. Tyler gets there in time to stop Nadia from killing Caroline and he fights Nadia who runs away.
Katherine and Stefan arrive at the house where Damon is but Damon warns them to not get into the house because they will not be able to get out and he will attack them. They tell him that they do not afraid of him and they both enter the house. Katherine, to help Damon fight his urge, cuts her hand with a class and provokes him with her blood telling him that he can fight it. Damon starts feeding on her, Stefan tells him to stop and Katherine kicks a stake towards Stefan telling him that Damon is going to kill her. Stefan, instead of taking the stake, he takes a piece of class and cuts himself to distract Damon. Damon leaves Katherine and Stefan snaps his head.
Katherine and Stefan bring Damon back to Mystic Falls and Katherine arranges immediately to meet Nadia. Katherine is happy because, despite that her plan to kill Damon did not work, she had a moment with Stefan. She stops smiling when Nadia tells her that she was bitten by Tyler Lockwood.
Damon wakes up chained on the Salvatore house 's basement. Stefan is there and Damon tries to warn him that because of his cravings, one day he will kill him but Stefan tells him that they will find a solution. Damon points to Stefan that "Elena '' provoked him to feed on her and then she kicked a stake towards him so he will kill him. Stefan does not believe that Elena would want that, he locks Damon up and gets upstairs where Caroline is. The two of them discuss what happened between Stefan and "Elena '' and Caroline also tells him about Nadia and Matt and the text he sent to her. From Matt 's text, who used "K '' and not "E '', they put the pieces together and they realize that Katherine is in Elena 's body.
In the "No Exit '' episode we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "No Exit '' was watched by 2.03 million; down by 0.13 from the previous episode.
"No Exit '' received mixed to negative reviews with many hoping that now that Katherine 's secret was revealed, the show will "kick in ''.
Carrie Raisler from The A.V. Club gave a B rate to the episode saying that it was a filler episode: "this path to realization (finding out that Katherine is in Elena 's body) basically creates a filler episode, a way to move the story to the place it needs to be for the inevitable big confrontation in the future (...) Katherine taking over Elena 's life was an incredibly inspired storyline, and watching it unfold has been delightful, but sooner or later, someone had to figure out what was going on. To spend an episode almost solely focused on making that happen is a good thing. ''
Alyse Wax of Fearnet writes: "I miss the bad - assery this show used to have. Julie Plec took it all with her and stuffed it into The Originals. (...) All of the awesome, violent, supernatural drama has been replaced with standard who 's - sleeping - with - who nonsense, ever since the original vampires got their own show. I guess Klaus really took the bad - assery with him. Well, now everyone knows that "Elena '' is really Katherine, so hopefully the crazy shit will kick in. ''
Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave a negative review saying that season five of the show has been the worst by far. "(The show) stopped being a fast - paced, well - written vampire show and became a long - running soap that happened to have mythical creatures in it. That 's not what any of us signed up for but, with the Katherine storyline presumably on its way out now that Stefan and Caroline have figured out the deceit and Nadia has a dreaded werewolf bite to contend with, maybe the next half - arsed arc will be better? Let 's hope so because, since we all know how fantastically entertaining this show can be at its best, there is always a glimmer of hope that it can return to form. ''
Stephanie Hall from K Site TV said that overall the episode left her a feeling that this was an off week of the show. "'' No Exit '' was an uncharacteristically odd episode of The Vampire Diaries that primarily served to stall the impending solutions of this run of episodes ' two most pressing issues: Katherine and Damon. While it did bring our heroes a step closer to solving both of these problems, the ways in which it did so were not delivered with as much metaphoric bang as could be hoped. ''
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic rated the episode with only 1.3 / 5 saying that it was one boring hour of television and that the writers recycles scenes and stories from previous episodes / seasons. "We knew from the moment Katherine inhabited Elena 's body that she would eventually be found out. What other alternative possibly existed? So we 've been waiting and waiting and waiting for that moment for weeks and that 's exactly what tonight 's episode felt like. ''
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what is the full form of lbs unit | Pound (mass) - wikipedia
The pound or pound - mass is a unit of mass used in the imperial, United States customary and other systems of measurement. A number of different definitions have been used; the most common today is the international avoirdupois pound, which is legally defined as exactly 6999453592370000000 ♠ 0.453 592 37 kilograms, and which is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces. The international standard symbol for the avoirdupois pound is lb; an alternative symbol is lb (for most pound definitions), # (chiefly in the U.S.), and ℔ or '' ̶ (specifically for the apothecaries ' pound).
The unit is descended from the Roman libra (hence the abbreviation "lb ''). The English word pound is cognate with, among others, German Pfund, Dutch pond, and Swedish pund. All ultimately derive from a borrowing into Proto - Germanic of the Latin expression lībra pondō ("a pound by weight ''), in which the word pondō is the ablative case of the Latin noun pondus ("weight '').
Usage of the unqualified term pound reflects the historical conflation of mass and weight. This accounts for the modern distinguishing terms pound - mass and pound - force.
The United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations agreed upon common definitions for the pound and the yard. Since 1 July 1959, the international avoirdupois pound (symbol lb) has been defined as exactly 6999453592370000000 ♠ 0.453 592 37 kg.
In the United Kingdom, the use of the international pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963.
The yard or the metre shall be the unit of measurement of length and the pound or the kilogram shall be the unit of measurement of mass by reference to which any measurement involving a measurement of length or mass shall be made in the United Kingdom; and - (a) the yard shall be 0.9144 metre exactly; (b) the pound shall be 0.453 592 37 kilogram exactly.
An avoirdupois pound is equal to 16 avoirdupois ounces and to exactly 7,000 grains. The conversion factor between the kilogram and the international pound was therefore chosen to be divisible by 7, and an (international) grain is thus equal to exactly 7001647989100000000 ♠ 64.798 91 milligrams.
In the UK, the process of metrication and European units of measurement directives were expected to eliminate the use of the pound and ounce, but in 2007 the European Commission abandoned the requirement for metric - only labelling on packaged goods there, and allowed for dual metric -- imperial marking to continue indefinitely. When used as a measurement of body weight the UK practice remains to use the stone of 14 pounds as the primary measure e.g. "11 stone 4 pounds '', rather than "158 pounds '' (as done in the US), or "72 kilograms '' as used elsewhere.
The US has not adopted the metric system despite many efforts to do so, and the pound remains widely used as one of the key United States customary units.
Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the pound (or its translation) has referred to broadly similar but not identical standards of mass or force.
The libra (Latin for "scales / balance '') is an ancient Roman unit of mass that was equivalent to approximately 328.9 grams. It was divided into 12 unciae (singular: uncia), or ounces. The libra is the origin of the abbreviation for pound, "lb ''.
A number of different definitions of the pound have historically been used in Britain. Amongst these were the avoirdupois pound and the obsolete tower, merchant 's and London pounds. Troy pounds and ounces remain in use only for the weight of certain precious metals, especially in the trade; these are normally quoted just in ounces (e.g. "500 ounces '') and, when the type of ounce is not explicitly stated, the troy system is assumed.
Historically, the pound sterling was a tower pound of silver. In 1528, the standard was changed to the Troy pound.
The avoirdupois pound, also known as the wool pound, first came into general use c. 1300. It was initially equal to 6992 troy grains. The pound avoirdupois was divided into 16 ounces. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the avoirdupois pound was redefined as 7,000 troy grains. Since then, the grain has often been an integral part of the avoirdupois system. By 1758, two Elizabethan Exchequer standard weights for the avoirdupois pound existed, and when measured in troy grains they were found to be of 7,002 grains and 6,999 grains.
In the United Kingdom, weights and measures have been defined by a long series of Acts of Parliament, the intention of which has been to regulate the sale of commodities. Materials traded in the marketplace are quantified according to accepted units and standards in order to avoid fraud. The standards themselves are legally defined so as to facilitate the resolution of disputes brought to the courts; only legally defined measures will be recognised by the courts. Quantifying devices used by traders (weights, weighing machines, containers of volumes, measures of length) are subject to official inspection, and penalties apply if they are fraudulent.
The Weights and Measures Act of 1878 marked a major overhaul of the British system of weights and measures, and the definition of the pound given there remained in force until the 1960s. The pound was defined thus (Section 4) "The... platinum weight... deposited in the Standards department of the Board of Trade... shall continue to be the imperial standard of... weight... and the said platinum weight shall continue to be the Imperial Standard for determining the Imperial Standard Pound for the United Kingdom ''. Paragraph 13 states that the weight in vacuo of this standard shall be called the Imperial Standard Pound, and that all other weights mentioned in the act and permissible for commerce shall be ascertained from it alone. The First Schedule of the Act gave more details of the standard pound: it is a platinum cylinder nearly 1.35 inches (34 mm) high, and 1.15 inches (29 mm) diameter, and the edges are carefully rounded off. It has a groove about 0.34 inches (8.6 mm) from the top, to allow the cylinder to be lifted using an ivory fork. It was constructed following the destruction of the Houses of Parliament by fire in 1834, and is stamped P.S. 1844, 1 lb (P.S. stands for "Parliamentary Standard ''). This definition of the Imperial pound remains unchanged.
The 1878 Act said that contracts worded in terms of metric units would be deemed by the courts to be made according to the Imperial units defined in the Act, and a table of metric equivalents was supplied so that the Imperial equivalents could be legally calculated. This defined, in UK law, metric units in terms of Imperial ones. The equivalence for the pound was given as 1 lb = 6999453592650000000 ♠ 453.592 65 g or 0.45359 kg, which made the kilogram equivalent to about 6999999999400419481 ♠ 2.204 6213 lb. In 1883, it was determined jointly by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade and the Bureau International that 6999453592427700000 ♠ 0.453 592 4277 kg was a better approximation, and this figure, rounded to 6999453592430000000 ♠ 0.453 592 43 kg was given legal status by an Order in Council in May 1898.
However, in 1963, a new Weights and Measures Act reversed this relationship and the pound was defined for the first time as a mass equal to 6999453592370000000 ♠ 0.453 592 37 kg to match the definition of the international pound agreed in 1959.
A troy pound is equal to 12 troy ounces and to 5,760 grains, that is exactly 7002373241721600000 ♠ 373.241 7216 grams. Troy weights were used in England by jewellers. Apothecaries also used the troy pound and ounce, but added the drachms and scruples unit in the Apothecaries ' system of weights.
Troy weight may take its name from the French market town of Troyes in France where English merchants traded at least as early as the early 9th century.
The troy pound is no longer in general use or a legal unit for trade (it was abolished in the United Kingdom on 6 January 1879 by the Weights and Measures Act of 1878), but the troy ounce, ⁄ of a troy pound, is still used for measurements of gems such as opals, and precious metals such as silver, platinum and particularly gold.
The system called tower weight was the more general name for King Offa 's pound. This dates to 757 AD and was based on the silver penny. This in turn was struck over Arabic dirhams (2d). The pound was based on the weight of 120 Arabic silver dirhams, which have been found in Offa 's Dyke. The same coin weight was used throughout the Hanseatic League.
The Tower pound was also called the Moneyers ' Pound (referring to the Saxon moneyers before the Conquest), the easterling pound, which may refer to traders of eastern Germany, or to traders on the shore of the eastern Baltic sea, or dealers of Asiatic goods who settled at the Steelyard wharf; and the Rochelle Pound by French writers, because it was also in use at Rochelle. An almost identical weight was employed by the Germans for weighing gold and silver.
The mercantile pound (1304) of 6750 troy grains, or 9600 tower grains, derives from this pound, as 25 shilling - weights or 15 tower ounces, for general commercial use. Multiple pounds based on the same ounce were quite common. In much of Europe, the apothecaries ' and commercial pounds were different numbers of the same ounce.
The tower system was referenced to a standard prototype found in the Tower of London and ran concurrently with the avoirdupois and troy systems until the reign of Henry VIII, when a royal proclamation dated 1526 required that the troy pound to be used for mint purposes instead of the Tower pound. No standards of the Tower pound are known to have survived.
The tower pound was equivalent to about 350 grams.
The merchants ' pound (mercantile pound, libra mercantoria, or commercial pound) was considered to be composed of 25 rather than 20 Tower shillings of 12 pence. It was equal to 9,600 wheat grains (15 tower ounces or 6,750 grains) and was used in England until the 14th century for goods other than money and medicine ("electuaries '').
The London pound is that of the Hansa, as used in their various trading places. This is based on 16 tower ounces, each ounce divided as the tower ounce. It never became a legal standard in England; the use of this pound waxed and waned with the influence of the Hansa itself.
A London pound was equal to 7,200 troy grains (16 tower ounces or, equivalently, 15 troy ounces).
In the United States, the avoirdupois pound as a unit of mass has been officially defined in terms of the kilogram since the Mendenhall Order of 1893. That Order defined the pound to be 7000220461999999999 ♠ 2.204 62 pounds to a kilogram. The following year, this relationship was refined as 7000220462233999999 ♠ 2.204 622 34 pounds to a kilogram, following a determination of the British pound.
According to a 1959 NIST publication, the United States 1894 pound differed from the international pound by approximately one part in 10 million. The difference is so insignificant that it can be ignored for almost all practical purposes.
The Byzantines used a series of measurements known as pounds (Latin: libra, Greek: λίτρα, litra). The most common was the logarikē litra (λογαρική λίτρα, "pound of account ''), established by Constantine the Great in 309 / 310. It formed the basis of the Byzantine monetary system, with one litra of gold equivalent to 72 solidi. A hundred litrai were known as a kentēnarion (κεντηνάριον, "hundredweight ''). Its weight seems to have decreased gradually from the original 324 grams to 319. Due to its association with gold, it was also known as the chrysaphikē litra (χρυσαφική λίτρα, "gold pound '') or thalassia litra (θαλάσσια λίτρα, "maritime pound ''), but it could also be used as a measure of land, equalling a fortieth of the thalassios modios.
The soualia litra was specifically used for weighing olive oil or wood, and corresponded to 4 / 5 of the logarikē, i.e. 256 g. Some outlying regions, especially in later times, adopted various local measures, based on Italian, Arab or Turkish measures. The most important of these was the argyrikē litra (αργυρική λίτρα, "silver pound '') of 333 g, found in Trebizond and Cyprus, and probably of Arab origin.
Since the Middle Ages, various pounds (livre) have been used in France. Since the 19th century, a livre has referred to the metric pound, 500g.
The livre esterlin was equivalent to about 367.1 grams (5,665 gr) and was used between the late 9th century and the mid-14th century.
The livre poids de marc or livre de Paris was equivalent to about 489.5 grams (7,555 gr) and was used between the 1350s and the late 18th century. It was introduced by the government of John II.
The livre métrique was set equal to the kilogram by the decree of 13 Brumaire an IX between 1800 and 1812. This was a form of official metric pound.
The livre usuelle (customary unit) was defined as 500 grams by the decree of 28 March 1812. It was abolished as a unit of mass effective 1 January 1840 by a decree of 4 July 1837, but is still used informally.
Originally derived from the Roman libra, the definition varied throughout Germany in the Middle Ages and onward. The measures and weights of the Habsburg monarchy were reformed in 1761 by Empress Maria Theresia of Austria. The unusually heavy Habsburg (civil) pound of 16 ounces was later defined in terms of 560.012 grams. Bavarian reforms in 1809 and 1811 adopted essentially the same standard pound. In Prussia, a reform in 1816 defined a uniform civil pound in terms of the Prussian foot and distilled water, resulting in a Prussian pound of 467.711 grams.
Between 1803 and 1815, all German regions west of the River Rhine were French, organised in the departements: Roer, Sarre, Rhin - et - Moselle, and Mont - Tonnerre. As a result of the Congress of Vienna, these became part of various German states. However, many of these regions retained the metric system and adopted a metric pound of precisely 500 grams. In 1854, the pound of 500 grams also became the official mass standard of the German Customs Union, but local pounds continued to co-exist with the Zollverein pound for some time in some German states. Nowadays, the term Pfund is still in common use and universally refers to a pound of 500 grams.
The Russian pound (Фунт, funt) is an obsolete Russian unit of measurement of mass. It is equal to 409.51718 grams. In 1899, the Russian pound was the basic unit of weight and all other units of weight were formed from it.
The Skålpund was a Scandinavian measurement that varied in weight between regions. From the 17th century onward, it was equal to 425.076 grams in Sweden but was abandoned in 1889 when Sweden switched to the metric system.
In Norway, the same name was used for a weight of 498.1 grams. In Denmark, it equalled 471 grams.
In the 19th century, Denmark followed Germany 's lead and redefined the pound as 500 grams.
A Jersey pound is an obsolete unit of mass used on the island of Jersey from the 14th century to the 19th century. It was equivalent to about 7,561 grains (490 grams). It may have been derived from the French livre poids de marc.
The trone pound is one of a number of obsolete Scottish units of measurement. It was equivalent to between 21 and 28 avoirdupois ounces (about 600 - 800 grams).
In many countries, upon the introduction of a metric system, the pound (or its translation) became an informal term for 500 grams. In German, the term is Pfund, in French livre, in Dutch pond, in Spanish and Portuguese libra, in Italian libbra, and in Danish and Swedish pund.
Though not from the same linguistic origin, the Chinese jīn (斤, also known as "catty '') has a modern definition of exactly 500 grams, divided into 10 liǎng (两). Traditionally about 605 grams, the jin has been in use for more than two thousand years, serving the same purpose as "pound '' for the common - use measure of weight.
Hundreds of older pounds were replaced in this way. Examples of the older pounds are one of around 459 to 460 grams in Spain, Portugal, and Latin America; one of 498.1 grams in Norway; and several different ones in what is now Germany.
Although the use of the pound as an informal term persists in these countries to a varying degree, scales and measuring devices are denominated only in grams and kilograms. A pound of product must be determined by weighing the product in grams as the use of the pound is not sanctioned for trade within the European Union.
Smoothbore cannon and carronades are designated by the weight in imperial pounds of round solid iron shot of diameter to fit the barrel. A cannon that fires a six - pound ball, for example, is called a six - pounder. Standard sizes are 6, 12, 18, 24, 32 and 42 pounds; 68 - pounders also exist, and other nonstandard weapons use the same scheme. See carronade.
A similar definition, using lead balls, exists for determining the gauge of shotguns.
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who are our two state senators how long have they been in office | United States Congress - wikipedia
535 voting members
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members representing Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Washington, D.C. in addition to its 435 voting members. Although they can not vote, these members can sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation.
The members of the House of Representatives serve two - year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a "district ''. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators. Currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at - large in their state for a six - year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one - third of the Senate is up for election.
To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent.
The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not legally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.
Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process -- legislation can not be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue - raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two - thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.
The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3, 2017, and will end on January 3, 2019. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd - numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen.
Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom '' and insisted it was a "driving force in American government '' and a "remarkably resilient institution ''. Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy '', according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America 's historical imagination ''. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress:
Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government 's most representative body... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented, according to one view. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so - called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.
The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state 's at - large representation to the federal government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent.
The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.
The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, referring to the new nation as the "United States of America ''. The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty. and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.
Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two -- chamber or bicameral congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two - chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government -- executive, legislative, and judicial -- had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.
Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s -- 1820s), the partisan era (1830s -- 1900s), the committee era (1910s -- 1960s), and the contemporary era (1970s -- today).
Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced, surprising the Constitution 's Founding Fathers of the United States. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790 -- 91 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; it soon became the Democratic - Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Democrat Party and began the era of the First Party System. Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. John Marshall, 4th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation.
These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority, but weakened the power of states rights. The Gilded Age (1877 -- 1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men.
A system of seniority -- in which long - time Members of Congress gained more and more power -- encouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s.
Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution 's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.
The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress. The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed the Conservative Coalition. Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II. Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994.
Congress enacted Johnson 's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped '' relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman. Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education. Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 McCain - Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs '' instead "legitimized PACs '' since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates ''. From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special - interest PACs including ones for lawyers, electricians, and real estate brokers. From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash '' from PACs.
From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico 's Resident Commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam. 1978 saw an additional delegate for American Samoa, and another for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands began in 2009. These six Members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they can not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives.
In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress 's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ''. Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty - second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility ''. In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60 % of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress '' including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the US economy '' because of its brinksmanship, "down - to - the - wire budget and debt crises '' and "indiscriminate spending cuts '', resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5 % in October 2013.
Article I of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ''. There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress 's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress 's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm ''. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress 's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.
Congress has an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described the American response as a "police action ''. According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents (had) ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times. '' In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congress 's war power) began after World War II. '' Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history. ''
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of Congress 's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress 's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair, critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So - called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch, '' according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters. ''
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress 's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C., the federal district and national capital and the U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by Congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Each territory and Washington, D.C. elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout Congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. '' They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.
Washington, D.C. citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories.
Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government:
To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other -- balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights... No one part of government dominates the other.
The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill - suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two - thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. '' It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two - thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm - twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama 's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president 's nomination of a vice president.
In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison, holding, however, that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however, the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton, for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.
Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.
The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form ''.
Congress is split into two chambers -- House and Senate -- and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.
Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
At the start of each two - year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party 's leader. In the Senate, the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate 's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there 's a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In both the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber.
The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill, but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio - Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade, Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812, but the library 's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the Library 's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
The Congressional Research Service provides detailed, up - to - date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House 's think tank '' and has a staff of about 900 employees.
The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President 's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate 's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate 's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four - year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients ' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007 there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president 's State of the Union address. The constitutionally - mandated report, normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain 's Speech from the Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the Vice President (acting as the President of the Senate) presides.
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. It 's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience '' and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' While the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent '' for noncontroversial matters. House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law. Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek, a senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service, to learn about proper procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so - called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.
A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. '' Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits. If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails.
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However, the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls, debate often continues despite the lack of a majority.
Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye '' or "no '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote if demanded by one - fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll - call voting, in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when their name is announced. In the Senate, the vice president may cast the tie - breaking vote if present.
The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions -- yea indicated by green and nay by red. One member can not cast a proxy vote for another. Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with their objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing -- neither signing nor vetoing the bill -- and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund - raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters.
Nevertheless, incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. They raise more money because donors expect incumbents to win, they give their funds to them rather than challengers, and donations are vital for winning elections. One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering. After each ten - year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class. Academics such as Princeton 's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Both senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges called franking privileges.
In 1971, the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70,000 but costs have climbed. The biggest expense is television ads. Today 's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever - increasing hours raising money for their re-election. ''
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters. '' Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.
Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president 's coattails ''), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.
Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising, which smears an opponent 's character without focusing on the issues. Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick. '' However, these ads sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, and concentrating publicity efforts in the members ' home districts.
Prominent Founding Fathers writing in The Federalist Papers felt that elections were essential to liberty, and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured. '' In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63 % in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25 % with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize. '' Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution... its place in the political process is not threatened... it is rich in resources '' and that most members behave ethically. They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend '' and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics '' that further undermines Congress 's reputation with the public:
The rough - and - tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public 's confidence in government generally... the legislative process is easy to dislike -- it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self - serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public 's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution 's low ratings in opinion polls. -- Smith, Roberts & Wielen
An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9 % having "a great deal '' or "quite a lot '' of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress 's approval rating among Americans at 10 % or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5 % in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed ' nonessential government ' shut down.
When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming. Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states. '' However, others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, and contend that the result works well on balance.
A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents. Constituents request assistance with problems. Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections and can make a difference in close races. Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.
One way to categorize lawmakers, according to political scientist Richard Fenno, is by their general motivation:
Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege, including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term arrest has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, however, are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose.
The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. '' Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each branch has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation -- the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.
The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run - up to an election by those in close races. Indeed, some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members received an annual salary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, then a per diem salary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since then they have received an annual salary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000. In 1907, salaries were raised to $7,500 per year, the equivalent of $173,000 in 2010. In 2006, members of Congress received a yearly salary of $165,200. Congressional leaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212,100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate. Privileges include having an office and paid staff. In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annually. Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women. Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government. In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on lucrative careers as lobbyists after serving -- -- that Congress was a "Farm League for K Street '' -- -- instead of on public service.
Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants ' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees, members contribute one - third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two - thirds.
The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Members of Congress make fact - finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, the Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300 - per - night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington '' and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88972 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88972; - 77.00889
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when is the prince of england getting married | Wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle - wikipedia
The wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle was held on 19 May 2018 in St George 's Chapel at Windsor Castle in the United Kingdom. The groom, Prince Harry, is a member of the British royal family; the bride, Meghan Markle, is an American and former actress. On the morning of the wedding, Prince Harry 's grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II, conferred upon him the titles of Duke of Sussex, Earl of Dumbarton and Baron Kilkeel. On her marriage, Markle became Duchess of Sussex. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, officiated at the wedding using the standard Anglican church service for Holy Matrimony published in Common Worship, the liturgical text of the Church of England.
Prince Harry is the second son of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales. He and Meghan Markle, an American actress best known for her role in the Canadian - American legal - drama television series Suits, have been in a relationship since 2016, having first met in July 2016. The relationship was officially acknowledged on 8 November 2016, when a statement was released from the royal family 's communications secretary addressing the "wave of abuse and harassment '' directed toward Markle.
On 27 November 2017, Clarence House announced that Prince Harry would marry Markle in the spring of 2018. They were engaged earlier the same month in London, with the Prince giving Markle a bespoke engagement ring made by Cleave and Company, the court jewellers and medalists to the Queen, consisting of a large central diamond from Botswana, with two smaller diamonds from his mother 's jewellery collection. At the same time, it was announced that they would live at Nottingham Cottage in the grounds of Kensington Palace following their marriage.
The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh expressed their delight at the news, while congratulations came in from various political leaders, including the British Prime Minister, Theresa May, and the Leader of the Opposition, Jeremy Corbyn. After the announcement, the couple gave an exclusive interview to Mishal Husain of BBC News.
During the public announcement of the engagement at Kensington Palace 's Sunken Gardens, Markle wore a bottle knee - length emerald green dress with bow detailing at the cinched waist by Italian label P.A.R.O.S.H and a white trench coat by Canadian brand Line the Label. Hours after the announcement, the website of Line the Label crashed down due to the number of people who were trying to order the coat.
Markle is the second American and the first person of mixed race heritage to marry into the British royal family. The engagement announcement prompted much comment about the possible social significance of Markle becoming a proudly mixed - race royal.
Under the terms of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, the first six persons in the line of succession require the Sovereign 's consent in order to marry. Harry was fifth in line at the time of his engagement. The Queen 's consent was declared to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom on 14 March 2018.
Although Markle attended a private Catholic school in her early years, she is not Roman Catholic. On 6 March 2018, she was baptised and confirmed into the Church of England by the Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby at St. James 's Palace. Although Markle was divorced, the Anglican Church has permitted marriage to divorced persons with a living spouse since 2002. After the engagement, Markle began the years - long process of becoming a British citizen. She will retain her U.S. citizenship during the process, but Kensington Palace have indicated that the decision on whether she will retain dual nationality has not yet been made. Retaining U.S. citizenship is expected to create tax complications. The couple was invited to celebrate Christmas 2017 with the royal family at the Queen 's Sandringham estate. The official engagement photographs were taken by Alexi Lubomirski (a former assistant to Mario Testino) at Frogmore House, and were issued by Kensington Palace on 21 December 2017.
To mark the wedding of Harry and Meghan, the Royal Mint produced an official UK £ 5 coin, showing the couple in profile. In May, a set of commemorative postage stamps, featuring the couple 's official engagement photographs, was issued by Royal Mail.
Unlike the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, the wedding day of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle was not declared a bank holiday. The wedding was on the same date as the FA Cup Final, which Prince Harry 's brother William normally attends in his role as President of the Football Association. Holding the royal wedding on a weekend is a break with the royal tradition of having weddings on a weekday. On 12 February 2018, Kensington Palace announced that the ceremony would commence at 12: 00 Midday BST.
The wedding took place on Saturday, 19 May 2018, at St George 's Chapel, Windsor. The chapel had previously been the venue for the weddings of Prince Harry 's uncle, the Earl of Wessex, as well as that of his cousin, Peter Phillips, and for the blessing of the marriage of the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall, Harry 's stepmother.
The royal family announced that they would pay for the wedding. The costs for the cake, the florist, and the catering have been estimated to be £ 50,000, £ 110,000, and £ 286,000 respectively, and the overall cost is expected to be around £ 32 million. The security costs are expected to be lower than those of the 2011 wedding of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge. The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead has reportedly spent £ 2.6 million on cleaning the town and roads. It has been predicted that the wedding will trigger a tourism boom and boost the economy by up to £ 500 million.
The wedding invitations specified a dress code for men of "Dress Uniform, Morning Coat or Lounge Suit ''; for women, "Day Dress and Hat ''.
The wedding dress was designed by the British designer Clare Waight Keller under the aegis of the fashion house Givenchy. It was made of "double - bonded silk cady cushioned by an underskirt in triple silk organza '' and had a boat neckline, long sleeves and sweeping train. The silk veil was 16 feet (4.9 m) long and was embroidered with 55 flowers, representing the 53 countries of the Commonwealth, as well as Wintersweet, which grows in front of Nottingham Cottage, where she and Harry live, and the California Poppy, the state flower of California. It was secured by a diamond bandeau tiara, made in 1932 for Queen Mary and lent to Markle by Queen Elizabeth II. The centre brooch had been a wedding gift from the County of Lincoln in 1893. The tiara is a platinum band, made up of eleven sections, a detachable centre brooch with interlaced opals and diamonds. The shoes were also from Givenchy, and had a pointed couture design.
Other ensembles worn by the bride included white gold and diamond earrings and bracelet made by Cartier. Markle 's hair was rolled up with "face - framing fringe tucked behind her ears '', and was done by Serge Normant. Make - up artist Daniel Martin did Markle 's makeup for the occasion. The look was described as "a soft brown eyeshadow '' with minimal makeup on the face. Her nails were painted in a "neutral pink - y beige '' for the ceremony. The bride 's bouquet, designed by Philippa Craddock, contained "forget - me - nots, scented sweet peas, lily of the valley, astilbe, jasmine and astrantia, and sprigs of myrtle ''. The flowers were chosen by the groom who handpicked forget - me - nots in honour of his late mother Diana, Princess of Wales. After the wedding the bridal bouquet was placed on the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior at Westminster Abbey, following royal tradition that began with the Queen Mother. For the customary bridal themes of "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue '', Markle had her gown and veil (the "new ''), the Queen 's tiara (the "borrowed ''), sprigs of myrtle taken from "a plant grown from the myrtle used in the Queen 's wedding bouquet '' and a piece of fabric from Diana, Princess of Wales 's wedding gown (the "old ''), and Diana 's favourite flowers, forget - me - nots, in the bouquet (the "blue ''). The young bridesmaids also wore high - waisted silk dresses designed by Clare Waight Keller which had puff sleeves.
Prince Harry and the Duke of Cambridge wore the frock coat uniform of the Blues and Royals (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons) in which both were commissioned, and Prince Harry served for 10 years, including in combat in Afganistan. The uniforms were made by Dege & Skinner, gentleman 's tailors and uniform makers, of Savile Row, London. The groom asked for the Queen 's permission to keep his beard, as beards are only permitted under exceptional circumstances in the British Army. Prince Harry wore the rank of major with the star of the Royal Victorian Order, of which he is a Knight Commander, along with the ribbons of the Royal Victorian Order, Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan, Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal and Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal, and Army Air Corps wings. Prince William, also with the rank of major, had EIIR cyphers on his shoulder straps and gold aiguillettes on his right shoulder (indicating his position as an aide - de-camp to the Queen), and wore the star of the Order of the Garter, the ribbons of the two jubilee medals, and his RAF wings. The pageboys wore uniforms by Dege & Skinner that resembled the uniform of the Blues and Royals worn by the groom and best man. Each page boy had his initials on the shoulders in place of rank badges.
On 26 April 2018, Kensington Palace announced that Prince Harry had selected his older brother, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, as his best man. There was initially no confirmation as to whether Prince William would miss the FA Cup Final, which he would normally attend in his role as President of The Football Association, or if he would be able to attend both the wedding and the football. A statement from Kensington Palace that the timing of the wedding would not clash with the match was released in December 2017. However, it was confirmed in March that the Duke would not be attending the final that day.
There were suggestions that the bride 's friend Jessica Mulroney would be her maid of honour. In early May 2018, there was confirmation that there would be no maid of honour, and that the bridesmaids and page boys would all be children. A total of ten bridesmaids and page boys were chosen, with the bride and groom each selecting five: two of Markle 's godchildren, seven - year old Rylan Ritt and her six - year - old sister Remi, as well as Brian, John and Ivy Mulroney, the three children of her friend Jessica Mulroney, were chosen by the bride, while Prince Harry 's nephew and niece, Prince George and Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, as well as his godchildren Florence van Cutsem, Zalie Warren and Jasper Dyer, were selected by the groom.
On 18 May 2018, Kensington Palace announced Prince Charles would accompany Markle down the aisle, after she confirmed her father, Thomas Markle Sr., would not be attending the wedding due to his recent heart surgery. The bride spent the night before the wedding at Cliveden House along with her mother, while the groom stayed at Coworth Park Hotel with his brother. Markle made her way to the church accompanied by her mother.
Approximately 250 members of the British Armed Forces were involved in the wedding, the majority coming from units that have a connection with Prince Harry:
The wedding service was conducted according to the Christian liturgy for Holy Matrimony as set out in Common Worship of the Church of England, mother Church of the Anglican Communion.
From 8.00 am, the public started to arrive at the grounds of Windsor Castle. The main congregation and the guests all started to arrive at the chapel at 9.30 am, followed by members of the Royal Family. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh were the last members of the Royal Family to depart for the ceremony, as is tradition, arriving at the chapel at 11.52 am. Shortly after, Markle arrived with the party of junior attendants. She proceeded down the aisle followed by the attendants, where the Prince of Wales met her to escort her through the quire of the chapel. He accompanied her to the altar, where Prince Harry was standing.
Prince Harry 's maternal aunt, Baroness Fellowes, read a scripture lesson from The Song of Solomon in the Christian Bible. The Dean of Windsor, David Conner, conducted the service with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, performing the marriage ceremony. The sermon was delivered by The Most Reverend Michael Curry, presiding bishop and primate of the Episcopal Church (the American member church of the Anglican Communion). Curry 's 14 - minute address, which quoted Martin Luther King Jr., emphasised the redemptive property of love; its unexpected length caused the service to overrun by eight minutes. Chaplain to the Queen The Reverend Prebendary Rose Hudson - Wilkin and Coptic Orthodox Archbishop of London Anba Angaelos offered the prayers.
The marriage vows were those published in Common Worship, and included the promise to "to love and to cherish '' each other. This was sealed by the exchange of rings. The wedding rings were created by Cleave and Company, with Markle 's ring being fashioned out of Welsh gold and the Prince 's ring made of platinum. After the signing of the registers, Harry and Markle together with the guests sang the national anthem. The couple paused briefly to bow and curtsey to the Queen before walking down the aisle. They were followed in procession by other members of the bridal party, and their families. The couple shared a kiss on the steps outside the chapel.
Hymns sung at the wedding included Lord of All Hopefulness and Guide Me, O Thou Great Redeemer. Prince Harry was seen wiping away a tear during the congregational singing of the latter, which was a favourite of his mother, Diana, Princess of Wales, and was sung at her funeral in 1997; it was also the opening hymn to William 's wedding in 2011.
Two choirs, an orchestra, the chapel organ and fanfare trumpeters provided music for the service. The orchestra was made up of musicians from the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, the English Chamber Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra. In addition to the Choir of St George 's Chapel, the Kingdom Choir, a gospel group led by Karen Gibson, sang "Stand By Me '' in what was described as "an incredible and powerful moment ''. The State Trumpeters of the Household Cavalry, who played a fanfare, included Kate Sandford, the first female state trumpeter at a British royal wedding. The music was under the overall direction of James Vivian, the chapel 's Organist and Director of Music; and the orchestra was conducted by Christopher Warren - Green.
The bride walked down the aisle to "Eternal source of light divine '' (from the Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne) by Handel, sung by soprano Elin Manahan Thomas, with the trumpet obbligato performed by David Blackadder. Other music during the service included the motet "If Ye Love Me '' by Thomas Tallis; the song "Stand by Me '' by Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller and Ben E. King, arranged for choir by Mark Delisser; and "The Lord bless you and keep you '' by John Rutter. During the signing of the register, 19 - year - old cellist Sheku Kanneh - Mason and the orchestra played Sicilienne attributed to Maria Theresia von Paradis, Fauré 's Après un rêve, and an arrangement for cello and orchestra of Schubert 's Ave Maria. For the procession, the musicians performed the Allegro from the Symphony No. 1 in B - flat major by William Boyce and "This Little Light of Mine '' by Etta James, Jester Hairston and Harry Dixon Loes.
Following the ceremony, there was a carriage procession through Windsor. Two receptions were held; the first, for those attending the ceremony, was hosted by the Queen and took place in St George 's Hall after the carriage procession. Singer Elton John performed for the guests and the groom and the Prince of Wales each gave a speech. A second reception at Frogmore House, for family and close friends and hosted by the Prince of Wales, occurred later in the day. Harry drove his new wife to the reception at Frogmore in a silver blue Jaguar E-Type Concept Zero, with left - hand drive. For the evening reception, the Duchess of Sussex wore a halter - neck, open back dress by Stella McCartney and an emerald cut Aquamarine ring formerly belonging to Diana, Princess of Wales. George Northwood was her hairstylist for the private party. In a break with tradition, the bride made a speech at the event. The Duke of Cambridge also gave a best man 's speech. DJ Idris Elba and The Atlantic Soul Orchestra performed at the event. The event ended with small fireworks displayed above Frogmore House.
The wedding cake was a layered lemon and elderflower cake and decorated with peonies in shades of white and cream. The cake designer Claire Ptak, based in London, was chosen in March 2018.
Three official wedding photos were released. They were taken by photographer Alexi Lubomirski at Windsor Castle following the ceremony.
In April 2018, it was announced that an "official list '' of domestic and international political leaders was not required for the wedding and that Prime Minister Theresa May, Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn, and other leaders would not attend the ceremony. President of the United States Donald Trump and former President Barack Obama were also not invited. This was in contrast to the wedding of Prince Harry 's elder brother, which had a large number of such guests due to his position as a future monarch. The decision not to invite political leaders to the wedding was taken in part because of the limitations of the venue, and also took into account Prince Harry 's position as sixth in line to the throne. The only politician invited was the former Prime Minister Sir John Major as he previously was "a special guardian on legal matters to Princes William and Harry after the death of their mother ''.
With a smaller ceremony and reception at St George 's Hall, the guest list included approximately 600 people, most of whom have a "direct relationship '' with the couple. Also, 200 close friends of the couple were invited to attend the evening reception at Frogmore House. Approximately 1,200 members of the public were invited to greet the couple outside the chapel in the grounds of Windsor Castle. The invitees outside the chapel were "people from charities, Windsor Castle community members, people from the royal households and the Crown Estate, and local school children ''.
Sarah, Duchess of York, the former wife of Prince Andrew, was invited to the wedding even though she had not been invited to the weddings of Prince William and Catherine Middleton in 2011, Peter Phillips and Autumn Kelly in 2008, or Zara Phillips and Mike Tindall in 2011. However, she was not invited to the evening reception at Frogmore House hosted by Prince Charles and was reportedly "deeply upset '' by her omission.
Amongst the non-royal guests were Markle 's Suits co-stars Patrick J. Adams (with wife Troian Bellisario), Gabriel Macht (with wife Jacinda Barrett), Sarah Rafferty, Rick Hoffman, Gina Torres and Abigail Spencer, actors George Clooney (with wife Amal Clooney), Idris Elba and Tom Hardy, actresses Oprah Winfrey, Priyanka Chopra and Carey Mulligan (with husband Marcus Mumford), television host James Corden, tennis player Serena Williams (with husband Alexis Ohanian), David and Victoria Beckham, musicians Sir Elton John (with husband David Furnish), James Blunt, Joss Stone, and rugby players Jonny Wilkinson and James Haskell. Megan 's close friend, stylist Jessica Mulroney (with husband Ben Mulroney) and Harry 's ex-girlfriends Cressida Bonas and Chelsy Davy were also in attendance. Other guests were members of the Middleton family.
The only foreign royal guests at the wedding were Prince Harry 's friend Prince Seeiso of Lesotho, with whom he co-founded, after the death of both of their mothers, the Sentebale foundation to help AIDS - stricken orphans in Lesotho, and his wife Princess Mabereng.
The 2,640 members of the public invited to Windsor Castle for the wedding were gifted gift bags to commemorate the event. The bag had the initials of the couple, date and venue location printed on the exterior. Inside was an order of service booklet for the wedding, a gold chocolate coin, a bottle of water, a fridge magnet, a 20 % off voucher for the Windsor Castle gift shop and a tube of handbag shortbread.
In April 2018, the couple requested that, rather than sending wedding gifts, people should make a donation to one of seven charitable organisations, none of which they had a formal association with:
Peak viewing figures of 18 million were reported in the UK. About 29 million were reported to have watched in the United States, up from the 23 million Americans who watched the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton. The global audience was estimated to be in the hundreds of millions.
Coverage of the royal wedding in the UK was shown on BBC One, ITV, Sky News, CNN (International) and E! (Europe) The wedding was also streamed live online on YouTube via the British Monarchy 's official The Royal Channel. Huw Edwards hosted coverage for BBC TV with Desert Island Discs host Kirsty Young and BBC Radio 2 DJ Dermot O'Leary. The BBC Radio coverage was co-hosted by Chris Evans and Scarlett Moffatt. Phillip Schofield and Julie Etchingham hosted coverage for ITV. Kay Burley, Anna Botting and Alastair Bruce, among others, hosted coverage for Sky.
CBC broadcast the wedding in Canada with Adrienne Arsenault and retired broadcaster Peter Mansbridge presented live coverage that was simulcast on CBC Television, CBC Radio One and CBC News Network. TVNZ screened it in New Zealand along with SBS and Nine in Australia. The wedding received 4 million views in Australia.
In the United States coverage aired on CBS, NBC, ABC, E!, PBS, BBC America, TLC, FOX, and HBO. CBS 's coverage began at 4 a.m. EDT with CBS Presents "The Royal Wedding '' and Gayle King provided commentary during the broadcast. ABC began its coverage at 5 a.m. EDT with a special edition of Good Morning America. NBC aired the ceremony at 4: 30 a.m. EDT with a special edition of The Today Show. The pay subscription network HBO hosted a live broadcast titled "The Royal Wedding Live with Cord and Tish! '' starting at 7: 30 a.m. EDT. The parody hosts were Cord Hosenbeck and Tish Cattigan, the alter egos of former Saturday Night Live actors Will Ferrell and Molly Shannon. BBC America provided a live simulcast of BBC One 's coverage, albeit with limited commercial breaks.
The wedding was also aired on the Republic of Ireland 's national broadcaster RTÉ.
Comments in a "posh '' British accent by a self - claimed British expert on some media turned out to be by an American, Thomas Mace - Archer - Mills.
Traditionally, royal princes have been awarded peerages prior to their marriages; this occurred with both of Prince Harry 's uncles, the Duke of York and the Earl of Wessex, as well as his elder brother, the Duke of Cambridge. Hours before the wedding, Prince Harry was granted the titles Duke of Sussex, Earl of Dumbarton, and Baron Kilkeel, and Markle assumed the style "Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Sussex '' upon marriage.
The wedding was widely reported as being significant for its departure from tradition typically associated with the Royal Family and for its inclusion of African - American culture in the service. It was described as a "landmark for African Americans '', for Black British, black and mixed - race women, and for the Royal Family itself. Other reports cited more limited impact, including that "Markle being biracial as opposed to African American impeded black people embracing her as one of their own ''.
The wedding, particularly Markle 's choice of dress, as well as the cake and flowers, influenced the choices of other British brides for their weddings.
The couple did not leave for their honeymoon the day after their marriage, and were both scheduled to carry out public engagements in the week after the wedding. The location of the honeymoon had been kept secret, although the press speculated that they might be headed to locations such as Namibia, Rwanda, and Botswana.
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how long can an american president stay in office | Term of office - wikipedia
A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a defined limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a maximum number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office...
Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdom 's system of government are replicated in many other countries.
The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication.
In the United Kingdom Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, a general election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, though an individual 's term may be cut short by death or resignation. An MP elected in a by - election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election.
The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned; this maximum period was reduced to five years by the Parliament Act 1911. Prior to the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Minister 's request. Early dissolutions occurred when the make - up of Parliament made forming government impossible (as occurred in 1974), or, more commonly, when the incumbent government reasoned an early general election would improve their re-election chances (e.g. 2001). The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is still possible, but under much more limited circumstances.
Because the government and Prime Minister are effectively indirectly elected through the Commons, the terms of Parliaments and MPs do not directly apply to offices of government, though in practice these are affected by changes in Parliament. While, strictly speaking, a Prime Minister whose incumbency spans multiple Parliaments only serves one, unbroken, term of office, some writers may refer to the different Parliaments as separate terms.
Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, though members can resign or be expelled. Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric (e.g. George Carey, made Baron Carey of Clifton the day after he ceased being Archbishop of Canterbury).
The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster.
The office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit. This is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, which has not happened yet.
Offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years.
In the United States, the president of the United States is elected indirectly through the United States Electoral College to a four - year term, with a term limit of two terms (totaling eight years) or a maximum of ten years if the president acted as president for two years or less in a term where another was elected as president, imposed by the Twenty - second Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1951.
U.S. Representatives serve two - year terms. U.S. Senators serve six - years terms.
Federal judges have different terms in office. Article I judges; such as those that sit on the United States bankruptcy courts, United States Tax Court, and United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, and certain other federal courts and other forms of adjudicative bodies serve limited terms: The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces for 15 years, bankruptcy courts for 14. However, the majority of the federal judiciary; Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts; serve for life.
The terms of office for officials in state governments varies according to the provisions of state constitutions and state law.
The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire; the Vermont and New Hampshire governors serve for two years.
The National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures (1):
Among territories of the United States:
Members of Council of the District of Columbia serve a four - year term.
As a former British territory following the Westminster System, there are many similarities with the United Kingdom, although with some variations based on local customs, the federal system of government and the absentee monarch.
Being a Commonwealth realm, Canada shares a monarch with the United Kingdom and 14 other countries, who serves as head of state of all 16 realms until their death or abdication.
The Governor General is appointed by the monarch as his / her personal representative on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serves for an indefinite term, though the normal convention is 5 years. Similarly, the Lieutenant Governors, who represent the monarch at the provincial level, are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister (usually also with consultation of the relevant provincial premier), and generally also serve 5 year terms by convention. The territories have Commissioners, who are not representatives of the monarch, but are instead appointed by and represent the Governor - in - Council (i.e. the federal cabinet), and conventionally serve for about 5 years.
Similar to the United Kingdom, MPs serve for the duration of the Parliament. They may resign before the end of a Parliament or be elected in by - elections during the middle of a Parliament.
Under the Constitution Act, 1867, a Parliament may last for a maximum of 5 years from the most recent election before expiring, although all Parliaments to date have been dissolved before they could expire. Bill C - 16, introduced in the 39th Parliament, provided for fixed election dates every 4 years on the third Monday in October, beginning in 2009. However, the Prime Minister may still advise the Governor General to dissolve Parliament at any time.
As in the United Kingdom, the cabinet and head of government are indirectly elected based on the composition of the House of Commons, they are not technically affected by the terms of legislators or Parliaments. In practice however, the terms of government office holders are affected by changes in the House of Commons, and those who serve for multiple consecutive Parliaments are generally considered to have served a single term. The term of a government generally ends when it is defeated on a confidence matter or the governing party fails to gain enough seats in a general election.
Senators are appointed to the Canadian Senate to represent a province by the Governor General of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serve until the mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators appointed before the passage of the British North America Act, 1965 served for life. Senators may also resign from office or be expelled from the Senate.
Provincial legislatures and the legislature of the Yukon function very similarly to the federal House of Commons. MLAs (called MPPs in Ontario, MNAs in Quebec, and MHAs in Newfoundland and Labrador) serve for the duration of the legislature, though they may resign before the legislature is dissolved or be elected in by - elections between general elections. The legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut operate using a consensus model, but are similar otherwise. The premiers and their cabinets are selected in the same way as in the House of Commons, and like at the federal level, the term of a provincial government can be ended by defeat in a general election or the loss of the legislature 's confidence.
All provincial legislatures except that of Nova Scotia have fixed - term election legislation in place, as does the legislature of the Northwest Territories. Premiers may also advise Lieutenant Governors to dissolve legislatures at any time before the prescribed election date.
Numbers in years unless stated otherwise. Note that some countries where fixed - term elections are uncommon, the legislature is almost always dissolved earlier than its expiry date. "Until removed from office '' refers to offices that do n't have fixed terms; in these cases, the officeholder (s) may serve indefinitely until death, abdication, resignation, retirement, or forcible removal from office (such as impeachment).
In cases where the head of government is a different person from the head of state, its term of office is identical to the chamber that elected it (the legislature if it is unicameral, or most usually the lower house if it is bicameral), unless it does n't survive a vote of no confidence.
* Excludes senators for life.
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where can the lords prayer be found in the bible | Lord 's Prayer - wikipedia
The Lord 's Prayer (also called the Our Father, Pater Noster, or the Model Prayer) is a venerated Christian prayer which, according to the New Testament, Jesus taught as the way to pray:
Two versions of this prayer are recorded in the gospels: a longer form within the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew, and a shorter form in the Gospel of Luke when "one of his disciples said to him, ' Lord, teach us to pray, as John taught his disciples. ' '' Lutheran theologian Harold Buls suggested that both were original, the Matthaen version spoken by Jesus early in his ministry in Galilee, and the Lucan version one year later, "very likely in Judea ''.
The first three of the seven petitions in Matthew address God; the other four are related to human needs and concerns. The Matthew account alone includes the "Your will be done '' and the "Rescue us from the evil one '' (or "Deliver us from evil '') petitions. Both original Greek texts contain the adjective epiousios, which does not appear in any other classical or Koine Greek literature; while controversial, "daily '' has been the most common English - language translation of this word. Some Christians, particularly Protestants, conclude the prayer with a doxology, a later addendum appearing in some manuscripts of Matthew.
Matthew 6: 9 - 13 (RSV - 2CE)
Luke 11: 2 - 4 (RSV - 2CE)
Initial words on the topic from the Catechism of the Catholic Church teach that it "is truly the summary of the whole gospel ''. The prayer is used by most Christian churches in their worship; with few exceptions, the liturgical form is the Matthean. Although theological differences and various modes of worship divide Christians, according to Fuller Seminary professor Clayton Schmit, "there is a sense of solidarity in knowing that Christians around the globe are praying together... and these words always unite us. ''
In biblical criticism, the prayer 's absence in the Gospel of Mark together with its occurrence in Matthew and Luke has caused scholars who accept the two - source hypothesis (against other document hypotheses) to conclude that it is probably a logion original to Q.
Standard edition of Greek text
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφήκαμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ.
Patriarchal Edition 1904
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. ὅτι σοῦ ἐστιν ἡ βασιλεία καὶ ἡ δύναμις καὶ ἡ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας ἀμήν.
Roman Missal
There are several different English translations of the Lord 's Prayer from Greek or Latin, beginning around AD 650 with the Northumbrian translation. Of those in current liturgical use, the three best - known are:
The square brackets in three of the texts below indicate the doxology often added at the end of the prayer by Protestants and, in a slightly different form, by the Byzantine Rite ("For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory: of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and unto ages of ages. Amen. ''), among whom the prayer proper is usually recited by the cantors and congregation in unison, and the doxology by the priest as the conclusion of the prayer. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer adds it in some services but not in all. Older English translations of the Bible, based on late Byzantine Greek manuscripts, included it, but it is excluded in critical editions of the New Testament, such as that of the United Bible Societies. It is absent in the oldest manuscripts and is not considered to be part of the original text of Matthew 6: 9 -- 13. The Catholic Church has never attached it to the Lord 's Prayer, but has included it in the Roman Rite Mass as revised in 1969, not as part of the Our Father but separated from it by a prayer called the embolism spoken or sung by the priest (in the official ICEL English translation: "Deliver us, Lord, we pray, from every evil, graciously grant peace in our days, that, by the help of your mercy, we may be always free from sin and safe from all distress, as we await the blessed hope and the coming of our Saviour, Jesus Christ. '') that elaborates on the final petition, "Deliver us from evil. '' For more information on this doxology, see Doxology, below. When Reformers set out to translate the King James Bible, they assumed that a Greek manuscript they possessed was ancient and therefore adopted the phrase "For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory forever '' into the Lord 's Prayer. Later scholarship demonstrated that the manuscript was actually a late addition based on Eastern liturgical tradition.
Other English translations are also used.
Though Matthew 6: 12 uses the term debts, the older English versions of the Lord 's Prayer uses the term trespasses, while ecumenical versions often use the term sins. The latter choice may be due to Luke 11: 4, which uses the word sins, while the former may be due to Matthew 6: 14 (immediately after the text of the prayer), where Jesus speaks of trespasses. As early as the third century, Origen of Alexandria used the word trespasses (παραπτώματα) in the prayer. Although the Latin form that was traditionally used in Western Europe has debita (debts), most English - speaking Christians (except Scottish Presbyterians and some others of the Reformed tradition) use trespasses. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Established Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as the Congregational denomination follow the version found in Matthew 6 in the Authorized Version (known also as the King James Version), which in the prayer uses the words "debts '' and "debtors ''.
All these versions are based on the text in Matthew, rather than Luke, of the prayer given by Jesus:
Matthew 6: 9 -- 13 (ESV)
Luke 11: 2 -- 4 (ESV)
Subheadings use 1662 Book of Common Prayer (BCP) (see above)
"Our Father, which art in heaven ''
"Our '' indicates that the prayer is that of a group of people who consider themselves children of God and who call God their "Father ''. "In heaven '' indicates that the Father who is addressed is distinct from human fathers on earth.
Augustine interpreted "heaven '' (coelum, sky) in this context as meaning "in the hearts of the righteous, as it were in His holy temple ''.
"Hallowed be thy Name; ''
Former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams explains this phrase as a petition that people may look upon God 's name as holy, as something that inspires awe and reverence, and that they may not trivialize it by making God a tool for their purposes, to "put other people down, or as a sort of magic to make themselves feel safe ''. He sums up the meaning of the phrase by saying: "Understand what you 're talking about when you 're talking about God, this is serious, this is the most wonderful and frightening reality that we could imagine, more wonderful and frightening than we can imagine. ''
"Thy kingdom come; ''
"This petition has its parallel in the Jewish prayer, ' May he establish his Kingdom during your life and during your days. ' In the gospels Jesus speaks frequently of God 's kingdom, but never defines the concept: "He assumed this was a concept so familiar that it did not require definition. '' Concerning how Jesus ' audience in the gospels would have understood him, G.E. Ladd turns to the concept 's Hebrew Biblical background: "The Hebrew word malkuth (...) refers first to a reign, dominion, or rule and only secondarily to the realm over which a reign is exercised. (...) When malkuth is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. '' This petition looks to the perfect establishment of God 's rule in the world in the future, an act of God resulting in the eschatological order of the new age.
The request for God 's kingdom to come is commonly interpreted at the most literal level: as a reference to the belief, common at the time, that a Messiah figure would bring about a kingdom of God. Traditionally, the coming of God 's kingdom is seen as a divine gift to be prayed for, not a human achievement. This idea is frequently challenged by groups who believe that the Kingdom will come by the hands of those faithful who work for a better world. These believe that Jesus ' commands to feed the hungry and clothe the needy are the kingdom to which he was referring.
Hilda C. Graef notes that the operative Greek word, basileia, means both kingdom and kingship (i.e., reign, dominion, governing, etc.), but that the English word kingdom loses this double meaning. Kingship adds a psychological meaning to the petition: one is also praying for the condition of soul where one follows God 's will.
"Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven: ''
John Ortberg interprets this phrase as follows: "Many people think our job is to get my afterlife destination taken care of, then tread water till we all get ejected and God comes back and torches this place. But Jesus never told anybody -- neither his disciples nor us -- to pray, ' Get me out of here so I can go up there. ' His prayer was, ' Make up there come down here. ' Make things down here run the way they do up there. '' The request that "thy will be done '' is God 's invitation to "join him in making things down here the way they are up there. ''
"Give us this day our daily (epiousios) bread; ''
As mentioned earlier in this article, the original word ἐπιούσιος (epiousios), commonly characterized as daily, is unique to the Lord 's Prayer in all of ancient Greek literature. The word is almost a hapax legomenon, occurring only in Luke and Matthew 's versions of the Lord 's Prayer, and nowhere else in any other extant Greek texts. While epiousios is often substituted by the word "daily, '' all other New Testament translations from the Greek into "daily '' otherwise reference hemeran (ἡμέραν, "the day ''), which does not appear in this usage.
Via linguistic parsing, Jerome translated "ἐπιούσιον '' (epiousios) as "supersubstantialem '' in the Gospel of Matthew, but chose "cotidianum '' ("daily '') in the Gospel of Luke. This wide - ranging difference with respect to meaning of epiousios is discussed in detail in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church by way of an inclusive approach toward tradition as well as a literal one for meaning: "Taken in a temporal sense, this word is a pedagogical repetition of "this day, '' to confirm us in trust "without reservation. '' Taken in the qualitative sense, it signifies what is necessary for life, and more broadly every good thing sufficient for subsistence. Taken literally (epi - ousios: "super-essential ''), it refers directly to the Bread of Life, the Body of Christ, the "medicine of immortality, '' without which we have no life within us. ''
Epiousios is translated as supersubstantialem in the Vulgate (Matthew 6: 11) and accordingly as supersubstantial in the Douay - Rheims Bible (Matthew 6: 11).
Barclay M. Newman 's A Concise Greek - English Dictionary of the New Testament, published in a revised edition in 2010 by the United Bible Societies has the following entry:
"And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; ''
The Presbyterian and other Reformed churches tend to use the rendering "forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ''. Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Methodists are more likely to say "trespasses... those who trespass against us ''. The "debts '' form appears in the first English translation of the Bible, by John Wycliffe in 1395 (Wycliffe spelling "dettis ''). The "trespasses '' version appears in the 1526 translation by William Tyndale (Tyndale spelling "treaspases ''). In 1549 the first Book of Common Prayer in English used a version of the prayer with "trespasses ''. This became the "official '' version used in Anglican congregations.
After the request for bread, Matthew and Luke diverge slightly. Matthew continues with a request for debts to be forgiven in the same manner as people have forgiven those who have debts against them. Luke, on the other hand, makes a similar request about sins being forgiven in the manner of debts being forgiven between people. The word "debts '' (ὀφειλήματα) does not necessarily mean financial obligations, as shown by the use of the verbal form of the same word (ὀφείλετε) in passages such as Romans 13: 8. The Aramaic word ḥôbâ can mean "debt '' or "sin ''. This difference between Luke 's and Matthew 's wording could be explained by the original form of the prayer having been in Aramaic. The generally accepted interpretation is thus that the request is for forgiveness of sin, not of supposed loans granted by God. Asking for forgiveness from God was a staple of Jewish prayers. It was also considered proper for individuals to be forgiving of others, so the sentiment expressed in the prayer would have been a common one of the time.
Anthony C. Deane, Canon of Worcester Cathedral, suggested that the choice of the word "ὀφειλήματα '' (debts), rather than "ἁμαρτίας '' (sins), indicates a reference to failures to use opportunities of doing good. He linked this with the parable of the sheep and the goats (also in Matthew 's Gospel), in which the grounds for condemnation are not wrongdoing in the ordinary sense, but failure to do right, missing opportunities for showing love to others.
"As we forgive... ''. Divergence between Matthew 's "debts '' and Luke 's "sins '' is relatively trivial compared to the impact of the second half of this statement. The verses immediately following the Lord 's Prayer, show Jesus teaching that the forgiveness of our sin / debt (by God) is contingent on how we forgive others. Later, Matthew elaborates with Jesus ' Parable of the Unforgiving Servant. In this parable, forgiveness from the king (God) is conditional on the servant 's forgiveness of a small debt owed to him.
"And lead us not into temptation, ''
Interpretations of the penultimate petition of the prayer -- not to be led by God into peirasmos -- vary considerably. The range of meanings of the Greek word "πειρασμός '' (peirasmos) is illustrated in New Testament Greek lexicons. In different contexts it can mean temptation, testing, trial, experiment. Although the traditional English translation uses the word "temptation '' and Carl Jung saw God as actually leading people astray, Christians generally interpret the petition as not contradicting James 1: 13 -- 14: "Let no one say when he is tempted, ' I am being tempted by God ', for God can not be tempted with evil, and he himself tempts no one. But each person is tempted when he is lured and enticed by his own desire. '' Some see the petition as an eschatological appeal against unfavourable Last Judgment, a theory supported by the use of the word "peirasmos '' in this sense in Revelation 3: 10. Others see it as a plea against hard tests described elsewhere in scripture, such as those of Job. It is also read as: "Do not let us be led (by ourselves, by others, by Satan) into temptations ''. Since it follows shortly after a plea for daily bread (i.e., material sustenance), it is also seen as referring to not being caught up in the material pleasures given. A similar phrase appears in Matthew 26: 41 and Luke 22: 40 in connection with the prayer of Jesus in Gethsemane.
Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, in a translation of the Holy Bible which was not completed before his death, used this wording: "And suffer us not to be led into temptation ''.
In 2017, Pope Francis, speaking on the Italian TV channel TV2000, proposed that the wording be changed to "do not let us fall into temptation '', explaining that "I am the one who falls; it 's not him (ie God) pushing me into temptation to then see how I have fallen ''. The Anglican theologian Ian Paul has highlighted how such a proposal is "stepping into a theological debate about the nature of evil ''.
"But deliver us from evil: ''
Translations and scholars are divided over whether the final word here refers to "evil '' in general or "the evil one '' (the devil) in particular. In the original Greek, as well as in the Latin translation, the word could be either of neuter (evil in general) or masculine (the evil one) gender. Matthew 's version of the prayer appears in the Sermon on the Mount, in earlier parts of which the term is used to refer to general evil. Later parts of Matthew refer to the devil when discussing similar issues. However, the devil is never referred to as the evil one in any known Aramaic sources. While John Calvin accepted the vagueness of the term 's meaning, he considered that there is little real difference between the two interpretations, and that therefore the question is of no real consequence. Similar phrases are found in John 17: 15 and 2 Thessalonians 3: 3.
"For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, For ever and ever. Amen. ''
The doxology of the prayer is not contained in Luke 's version, nor is it present in the earliest manuscripts of Matthew, representative of the Alexandrian text, although it is present in the manuscripts representative of the later Byzantine text. Most scholars do not consider it part of the original text of Matthew. New translations generally omit it.
The first known use of the doxology, in a less lengthy form ("for yours is the power and the glory forever ''), as a conclusion for the Lord 's Prayer (in a version slightly different from that of Matthew) is in the Didache, 8: 2. It has similarities with 1 Chronicles -- "Yours, O LORD, is the greatness and the power and the glory and the victory and the majesty, for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is yours. Yours is the kingdom, O LORD, and you are exalted as head above all. '' In the Byzantine Rite, a similar doxology is sung within the context of the Divine Liturgy. Following the last line of the prayer, the priest sings "For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. ''
Latin Church Roman Catholics do not use the doxology when reciting the Lord 's Prayer, because it is not part of their received liturgical tradition and is not found in the Latin Vulgate of St. Jerome. Since 1970 it is included in the Roman Rite Mass as an independent item, not as part of the Lord 's Prayer. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer sometimes gives the Lord 's Prayer with the doxology, sometimes without. Most Protestants append it to the Lord 's Prayer.
In the course of Christianization, one of the first texts to be translated between many languages has historically been the Lord 's Prayer, long before the full Bible would be translated into the respective languages. Since the 16th century, collections of translations of the prayer have often been used for a quick comparison of languages.
The first such collection, with 22 versions, was Mithridates de differentis linguis by Conrad Gessner (1555; the title refers to Mithridates VI of Pontus who according to Pliny the Elder was an exceptional polyglot).
Gessner 's idea of collecting translations of the prayer was taken up by authors of the 17th century, including Hieronymus Megiserus (1603) and Georg Pistorius (1621). Thomas Lüdeken in 1680 published an enlarged collection of 83 versions of the prayer, of which three were in fictional philosophical languages. Lüdeken quotes as a Barnum Hagius as his source for the exotic scripts used, while their true (anonymous) author was Andreas Müller. In 1700, Lübeck 's collection was re-edited by B. Mottus as Oratio dominica plus centum linguis versionibus aut characteribus reddita et expressa. This edition was comparatively inferior, but a second, revised edition was published in 1715 by John Chamberlain. This 1715 edition was used by Gottfried Hensel in his Synopsis Universae Philologiae (1741) to compile "geographico - polyglot maps '' where the beginning of the prayer was shown in the geographical area where the respective languages were spoken. Johann Ulrich Kraus also published a collection with more than 100 entries.
These collections continued to be improved and expanded well into the 19th century; Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater in 1806 -- 1817 published the prayer in "well - nigh five hundred languages and dialects ''.
Samples of scripture, including the Lord 's Prayer, were published in 52 oriental languages, most of them not previously found in such collections, translated by the brethren of the Serampore Mission and printed at the mission press there in 1818.
There are similarities between the Lord 's Prayer and both biblical and post-biblical material in Jewish prayer especially Kiddushin 81a (Babylonian). "Our Father which art in heaven '' (אבינו שבשמים, Avinu shebashamayim) is the beginning of many Hebrew prayers. "Hallowed be thy name '' is reflected in the Kaddish. "Lead us not into sin '' is echoed in the "morning blessings '' of Jewish prayer. A blessing said by some Jewish communities after the evening Shema includes a phrase quite similar to the opening of the Lord 's Prayer: "Our God in heaven, hallow thy name, and establish thy kingdom forever, and rule over us for ever and ever. Amen. '' There are parallels also in 1 Chronicles 29: 10 -- 18.
Rabbi Aron Mendes Chumaceiro has said that nearly all the elements of the prayer have counterparts in the Jewish Bible and Deuterocanonical books: the first part in Isaiah 63: 15 -- 16 ("Look down from heaven and see, from your holy and beautiful habitation... For you are our Father... '') and Ezekiel 36: 23 ("I will vindicate the holiness of my great name... '') and Ezekiel 38: 23 ("I will show my greatness and my holiness and make myself known in the eyes of many nations... ''), the second part in Obadiah 1: 21 ("Saviours shall go up to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau, and the kingdom shall be the LORD 's '') and 1 Samuel 3: 18 ("... It is the LORD. Let him do what seems good to him ''), the third part in Proverbs 30: 8 ("... feed me with my apportioned bread ''), the fourth part in Sirach 28: 2 ("Forgive your neighbour the wrong he has done, and then your sins will be pardoned when you pray ''). "Deliver us from evil '' can be compared with Psalm 119: 133 ("... let no iniquity get dominion over me. ''). Chumaceiro says that, because the idea of God leading a human into temptation contradicts the righteousness and love of God, "Lead us not into temptation '' has no counterpart in the Jewish Bible / Christian Old Testament.
The word "πειρασμός '', which is translated as "temptation '', could also be translated as "test '' or "trial '', making evident the attitude of someone 's heart. Well - known examples in the Old Testament are God 's test of Abraham (Genesis 22: 1), his "moving '' (the Hebrew word means basically "to prick, as by weeds, thorns '') David to do (numbering Israel) what David later acknowledged as sin (2 Samuel 24: 1 -- 10; see also 1 Chronicles 21: 1 -- 7), and the Book of Job.
In modern times, various composers have incorporated The Lord 's Prayer into a musical setting for utilization during liturgical services for a variety of religious traditions as well as interfaith ceremonies. Included among them are:
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what is the difference between federal and commonwealth government in australia | Government of Australia - wikipedia
The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia (also referred to as the Australian Government, the Commonwealth Government, or the Federal Government) is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy.
The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self - governing British colonies, which became the six states. The terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. The Australian head of state is the Queen of Australia who is represented by the Governor - General of Australia, with executive powers delegated by constitutional convention to the Australian head of government, the Prime Minister of Australia.
The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is divided into the executive branch, composed of the Federal Executive Council presided by the Governor - General, which delegates powers to the Cabinet of Australia led by the Prime Minister, the legislative branch composed of the Parliament of Australia 's House of Representatives and Senate, and the judicial branch composed of the High Court of Australia and federal courts. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the three branches of government being set out in separate chapters (chs I to III). The Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a "Washminster mutation ''.
Section 1 of the Australian Constitution creates a democratic legislature, the bicameral Parliament of Australia which consists of the Queen of Australia, and two houses of parliament, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Government 's legislative powers and allocates certain powers and responsibilities (known as "heads of power '') to the Commonwealth government. All remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States (previously separate colonies). Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, none of which can encroach on the functions of any other. The High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions.
The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution. To become effective, the proposals must be put to a referendum of all Australians of voting age, and must receive a "double majority '': a majority of all votes, and a majority of votes in a majority of States.
The Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum (a vote on whether the proposed transfer of power from the States to the Commonwealth, or vice versa, should be implemented). More commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This "transfer '' legislation may have a "sunset clause '', a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period, at which point the original division of power is restored.
In addition, Australia has several "territories '', two of which are self - governing: the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). These territories ' legislatures, their Assemblies, exercise powers devolved to them by the Commonwealth; the Commonwealth Parliament remains able to override their legislation and to alter their powers. Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self - governing from 1979 until 2016, although it was never represented as such in the Commonwealth Parliament. The other territories that are regularly inhabited -- Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands -- have never been self - governing.
The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution. The House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five. But the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States: all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority and thus be able to amend or reject bills originating in the House of Representatives. The ACT and the NT each elect two Senators.
The third level of government after Commonwealth and State / Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns and cities. The Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives (known as either councillor or alderman, depending on the State), usually serving part - time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located.
Government at the Commonwealth level and the State / Territory level is undertaken by three inter-connected arms of government:
The Separation of powers is the principle whereby the three arms of government undertake their activities largely separately from each other:
Until the passage of the Australia Act 1986, and associated legislation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, some Australian cases could be referred to the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council for final appeal. With this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed.
The Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76 - member Senate and a 150 - member House of Representatives. Twelve Senators from each state are elected for six - year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote (known in Australia as "quota - preferential voting '': see Australian electoral system), with half elected every three years.
In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory (which for this purpose includes the Indian Ocean Territories, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory (which for this purpose includes the Jervis Bay Territory). Senators from the territories are also elected using preferential voting, but their term of office is not fixed; it starts on the day of a general election for the House of Representatives and ends on the day before the next such election.
The members of the House of Representatives are elected by majority - preferential voting using the non-proportional Instant - runoff voting system from single - member constituencies allocated among the states and territories. In ordinary legislation, the two chambers have co-ordinate powers, but all proposals for appropriating revenue or imposing taxes must be introduced in the House of Representatives. Under the prevailing Westminster system, the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the support of a majority of the members in the House of Representatives is invited to form a government and is named Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister and the Cabinet are responsible to the Parliament, of which they must, in most circumstances, be members. General elections are held at least once every three years. The Prime Minister has a discretion to advise the Governor - General to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the Constitution. The most recent general election was on 2 July 2016.
The Commonwealth Parliament and all the state and territory legislatures operate within the conventions of the Westminster system, with a recognised Leader of the Opposition, usually the leader of the largest party outside the government, and a Shadow Cabinet of Opposition members who "shadow '' each member of the Ministry, asking questions on matters within the Minister 's portfolio. Although the government, by virtue of commanding a majority of members in the lower house of the legislature, can usually pass its legislation and control the workings of the house, the Opposition can considerably delay the passage of legislation and obstruct government business if it chooses. The day - to - day business of the house is usually negotiated between a designated senior Minister, who holds the title Leader of the House, and an Opposition frontbencher known as the Manager of Opposition Business in the House. The current Leader of the Opposition in the Commonwealth parliament is Bill Shorten.
The Australian Constitution dates from 1901, when the Dominions of the British Empire were not sovereign states, and does not use the term "head of state ''. As Australia is a constitutional monarchy, government and academic sources describe the Queen as head of state. In practice, the role of head of state of Australia is divided between two people, the Queen of Australia and the Governor - General of Australia, who is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia. Though in many respects the Governor - General is the Queen 's representative, and exercises various constitutional powers in her name, they independently exercise many important powers in their own right. The governor - general represents Australia internationally, making and receiving state visits.
The Sovereign of Australia, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is also the Sovereign of fifteen other Commonwealth realms including the United Kingdom. Like the other Dominions, Australia gained legislative independence from the Parliament of the United Kingdom by virtue of the Statute of Westminster 1931, which was adopted in Australia in 1942 with retrospective effect from 3 September 1939. By the Royal Style and Titles Act 1953, the Australian Parliament gave the Queen the title Queen of Australia, and in 1973 titles with any reference to her status as Queen of the United Kingdom and Defender of the Faith as well were removed, making her Queen of Australia.
Section 61 of the Constitution provides that ' The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor ‐ General as the Queen 's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth '. Section 2 of the Australian Constitution provides that a Governor - General shall represent the Queen in Australia. In practice, the Governor - General carries out all the functions usually performed by a head of state, without reference to the Queen.
Under the conventions of the Westminster system the Governor - General 's powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or other ministers. The Governor - General retains reserve powers similar to those possessed by the Queen in the United Kingdom. These are rarely exercised, but during the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 Governor - General Sir John Kerr used them independently of the Queen and the Prime Minister.
Australia has periodically experienced movements seeking to end the monarchy. In a 1999 referendum, the Australian people voted on a proposal to change the Constitution. The proposal would have removed references to the Queen from the Constitution and replaced the Governor - General with a President nominated by the Prime Minister, but subject to the approval of a two - thirds majority of both Houses of the Parliament. The proposal was defeated. The Australian Republican Movement continues to campaign for an end to the monarchy in Australia, opposed by Australians for Constitutional Monarchy and Australian Monarchist League.
The Federal Executive Council is a formal body which exists and meets to give legal effect to decisions made by the Cabinet, and to carry out various other functions. All Ministers are members of the Executive Council and are entitled to be styled "The Honourable '', a title which they retain for life. The Governor - General usually presides at Council meetings, but in his or her absence another Minister nominated as the Vice-President of the Executive Council presides at the meeting of the Council. Since 19 September 2013, the Vice-President of the Federal Executive Council has been Senator George Brandis, who has also been Attorney - General in the Government.
There are times when the government acts in a "caretaker '' capacity, principally in the period prior to and immediately following a general election.
The Cabinet of Australia is the council of senior Ministers of the Crown, responsible to the Federal Parliament. The ministers are appointed by the Governor - General, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who serve at the former 's pleasure. Cabinet meetings are strictly private and occur once a week where vital issues are discussed and policy formulated. Outside the cabinet there is an outer ministry and also a number of junior ministers, called Parliamentary secretaries, responsible for a specific policy area and reporting directly to a senior Cabinet minister.
The Constitution of Australia does not recognise the Cabinet as a legal entity; it exists solely by convention. Its decisions do not in and of themselves have legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of the Federal Executive Council, which is Australia 's highest formal governmental body. In practice, the Federal Executive Council meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the Cabinet. All members of the Cabinet are members of the Executive Council. While the Governor - General is nominal presiding officer, he almost never attends Executive Council meetings. A senior member of the Cabinet holds the office of Vice-President of the Executive Council and acts as presiding officer of the Executive Council in the absence of the Governor - General.
Until 1956 all members of the ministry were members of the Cabinet. The growth of the ministry in the 1940s and 1950s made this increasingly impractical, and in 1956 Robert Menzies created a two - tier ministry, with only senior ministers holding Cabinet rank, also known within parliament as the front bench. This practice has been continued by all governments except the Whitlam Government.
When the non-Labor parties are in power, the Prime Minister makes all Cabinet and ministerial appointments at their own discretion, although in practice they consult with senior colleagues in making appointments. When the Liberal Party and its predecessors (the Nationalist Party and the United Australia Party) have been in coalition with the National Party or its predecessor the Country Party, the leader of the junior Coalition party has had the right to nominate their party 's members of the Coalition ministry, and to be consulted by the Prime Minister on the allocation of their portfolios.
When the Labor first held office under Chris Watson, Watson assumed the right to choose members of his Cabinet. In 1907, however, the party decided that future Labor Cabinets would be elected by the members of the Parliamentary Labor Party, the Caucus, and the Prime Minister would retain the right to allocate portfolios. This practice was followed until 2007. Between 1907 and 2007, Labor Prime Ministers exercised a predominant influence over who was elected to Labor ministries, although the leaders of the party factions also exercised considerable influence. Prior to the 2007 general election, the then Leader of the Opposition, Kevin Rudd, said that he and he alone would choose the ministry should he become Prime Minister. His party won the election and he chose the ministry, as he said he would.
The cabinet meets not only in Canberra but also in state capitals, most frequently Sydney and Melbourne. Kevin Rudd was in favour of the Cabinet meeting in other places, such as major regional cities. There are Commonwealth Parliament Offices in each State Capital, with those in Sydney located in Phillip Street.
There are 18 departments of the Australian Government.
As a federation, in Australia judicial power is exercised by both federal and state courts.
Federal judicial power is vested in the High Court of Australia and such other federal courts created by the Federal Parliament, including the Federal Court of Australia, the Family Court of Australia, and the Federal Circuit Court of Australia. Additionally, unlike in the United States, the federal legislature has the power to enact laws which vest federal jurisdiction in State courts. Since the Australian Constitution requires a separation of powers at the federal level, only courts may exercise federal judicial power; and conversely, non-judicial functions can not be vested in courts.
State judicial power is exercised by each State 's Supreme Court, and such other courts and tribunals created by the State Parliaments.
The High Court is the final court of appeal in Australia and has the jurisdiction to hear appeals on matters of both federal and state law. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, the power of judicial review over laws passed by federal and State parliaments, and has jurisdiction to interpret the Constitution of Australia. Unlike in the United States, there is only one common law of Australia, rather than separate common laws for each State.
The following corporations are prescribed by Acts of Parliament:
The following corporate Commonwealth entities are prescribed as Government Business Enterprises (GBEs) by section 5 (1) of the Public Governance, Performance and Accountability (PGPA) Rule:
The following Commonwealth companies are prescribed as GBEs by section 5 (2) of the PGPA Rule:
^ Prior to 1931, the junior status of dominions was shown in the fact that it was British ministers who advised the King, with dominion ministers, if they met the King at all, escorted by the constitutionally superior British minister. After 1931 all dominion ministers met the King as His ministers as of right, equal in Commonwealth status to Britain 's ministers, meaning that there was no longer either a requirement for, or an acceptance of, the presence of British ministers. The first state to exercise this both symbolic and real independence was the Irish Free State. Australia and other dominions soon followed.
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watergate does not bother me does your conscience bother you | Sweet Home Alabama - wikipedia
"Sweet Home Alabama '' is a song by Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd that first appeared in 1974 on their second album, Second Helping.
It reached number 8 on the US chart in 1974 and was the band 's second hit single. The song was written in reply to "Southern Man '' and "Alabama '' by Neil Young; Young is name - checked in the song 's lyrics.
"Sweet Home Alabama '' was a major chart hit for a band whose previous singles had "lazily sauntered out into release with no particular intent ''. The hit led to two TV rock show offers, which the band turned down. In addition to the original appearance on Second Helping, the song has appeared on numerous Lynyrd Skynyrd collections and live albums.
None of the three writers of the song were from Alabama. Ronnie Van Zant and Gary Rossington were both born in Jacksonville, Florida. Ed King was from Glendale, California.
"Sweet Home Alabama '' was written as an answer to two songs, "Southern Man '' and "Alabama '' by Neil Young, which dealt with themes of racism and slavery in the American South. "We thought Neil was shooting all the ducks in order to kill one or two, '' said Ronnie Van Zant at the time. The following excerpt shows the Neil Young mention in the song:
Well, I heard Mister Young sing about her Well, I heard ol ' Neil put her down Well, I hope Neil Young will remember A Southern man do n't need him around anyhow
In his 2012 autobiography Waging Heavy Peace, Young commented on his role in the song 's creation, writing "My own song ' Alabama ' richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record. I do n't like my words when I listen to it. They are accusatory and condescending, not fully thought out, and too easy to misconstrue ''.
Van Zant 's other response was also controversial, with references to the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace (a noted supporter of segregation) and the Watergate scandal:
In Birmingham, they love the governor (boo boo boo) Now we all did what we could do Now Watergate does not bother me Does your conscience bother you? Tell the truth... Sweet home Alabama, oh, sweet home baby Where the skies are so blue and the governor 's true
Music historians point out that the choice of Birmingham in connection with the governor (rather than the capital Montgomery) is significant for the controversy as "In 1963, the city was the site of massive civil rights activism, as thousands of demonstrators led by Martin Luther King, Jr. sought to desegregate downtown businesses... (and) was the scene of some of the most violent moments of the Civil Rights Movement. Segregationist police chief Bull Connor unleashed attack dogs and high - pressure water cannons against peaceful marchers, including women and children; just weeks later, Ku Klux Klansmen bombed a black church, killing four little girls. ''
In 1975, Van Zant said: "The lyrics about the governor of Alabama were misunderstood. The general public did n't notice the words ' Boo! Boo! Boo! ' after that particular line, and the media picked up only on the reference to the people loving the governor. '' "The line ' We all did what we could do ' is sort of ambiguous, '' Al Kooper notes. "' We tried to get Wallace out of there ' is how I always thought of it. '' Towards the end of the song, Van Zant adds "where the governor 's true '' to the chorus 's "where the skies are so blue, '' a line rendered ironic by the previous booing of the governor. Journalist Al Swenson argues that the song is more complex than it is sometimes given credit for, suggesting that it only looks like an endorsement of Wallace. "Wallace and I have very little in common, '' Van Zant himself said, "I do n't like what he says about colored people. ''
Music historians examining the juxtaposition of invoking Richard Nixon and Watergate after Wallace and Birmingham note that one reading of the lyrics is an "attack against the liberals who were so outraged at Nixon 's conduct '' while others interpret it regionally: "the band was speaking for the entire South, saying to northerners, we 're not judging you as ordinary citizens for the failures of your leaders in Watergate; do n't judge all of us as individuals for the racial problems of southern society ''.
One verse of the song includes the line, "Now Muscle Shoals has got the Swampers / And they 've been known to pick a song or two. '' This refers to the town of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, a popular location for recording popular music because of the "sound '' crafted by local recording studios and back - up musicians. "The Swampers '' referred to in the lyrics are the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. These musicians, who crafted the "Muscle Shoals Sound '', were inducted into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame in 1995 for a "Lifework Award for Non-Performing Achievement '' and into the Musician 's Hall Of Fame in 2008 (the performers inducted into the latter were the four founding Swampers -- Barry Beckett, Roger Hawkins, David Hood, Jimmy Johnson -- plus Pete Carr, Clayton Ivey, Randy McCormack, Will McFarlane, and Spooner Oldham). The nickname "The Swampers '' was given to the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section by producer Denny Cordell during a recording session by singer / songwriter Leon Russell, in reference to their ' swampy ' sound.
Part of the reference comes from the 1971 -- 1972 demo reels that Lynyrd Skynyrd had recorded in Muscle Shoals with Johnson as a producer / recording engineer. Johnson helped refine many of the songs first heard publicly on the Pronounced album, and it was Van Zant 's "tip of the hat '' to Johnson for helping out the band in the early years and essentially giving the band its first break.
Lynyrd Skynyrd remains connected to Muscle Shoals, having since recorded a number of works in the city and making it a regular stop on their concert tours.
The PBS show Independent Lens aired a documentary on Muscle Shoals and its place in music history in mid-April 2014.
Lynyrd Skynyrd
Additional personnel
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Kid Rock 's 2008 song "All Summer Long '' samples "Sweet Home Alabama '' on the chorus and uses the guitar solo and piano outro, as well as the "turn it up '' shout before the guitar solo; Billy Powell is featured on the track. "All Summer Long '' also samples Warren Zevon 's "Werewolves of London '', which has similar chord progression to "Sweet Home Alabama ''. Since Kid Rock 's release, the original song has charted in the UK charts at number 44.
The song is credited to Matthew Shafer, Waddy Wachtel, R.J. Ritchie, Leroy Marinell, Warren Zevon, Edward King, Gary Rossington and Ronnie Van Zant.
Zevon apparently hated "Sweet Home Alabama '' and referred to it as "that dead band 's song ''. He surmised that those who listen to it only do so because their own lives are miserable, and his views on the song are articulated in "Play It All Night Long '', which appears on his 1980 album Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School.
In the 1980s and 1990s, the song played during warmups of the University of Alabama in Huntsville Charger Hockey team during home games. This song can also be heard before, during, and after many University of Alabama sporting events. Majority of the Alabama fan base have mixed the words "Roll Tide Roll '' in the middle of the chorus to relate Alabama sports to the Great State of Alabama.
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actor who plays king george in the crown | Jared Harris - wikipedia
Jared Francis Harris (born 24 August 1961) is an English actor, best known for his roles as Lane Pryce in the television drama series Mad Men, David Robert Jones in the science fiction series Fringe, King George VI in the historical series The Crown, Anderson Dawes on the science fiction series The Expanse and captain Francis Crozier in the AMC series The Terror. He has also had significant supporting roles in films such as The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows (2011), Lincoln (2012), and Allied (2016).
Harris was born in Hammersmith, London, one of three sons of the Irish actor Richard Harris and his first wife, Welsh actress Elizabeth Rees - Williams. His younger brother is actor Jamie Harris, his older brother is director Damian Harris, and his maternal grandfather was politician David Rees - Williams, 1st Baron Ogmore.
Harris was educated at Ladycross, a former preparatory boarding independent school in the coastal town of Seaford in East Sussex, as were his brothers Jamie and Damian. He says, "They were famous for discipline, with cold showers every morning '', and that "You were never known by your first name there. You were either called by your number, or your last name. Since there were three of us, Damian was ' Harris Ma ' for major. I was ' Harris Mi ' for minor, and Jamie was ' Harris Minimus, ' being the youngest and the smallest ''. He then went to Downside School, a Catholic boarding independent school in the village of Stratton - on - the - Fosse (near the market town of Shepton Mallet) in Somerset, in South West England, followed by Duke University in the city of Durham, North Carolina, in the United States, where he earned a BFA degree in 1983.
Harris began his film career as director of named Darkmoor (1983), an unfinished feature - length film for Duke University 's Freewater Films. His first film appearance as an actor was in The Rachel Papers (1989). He played the role of the aged Will Robinson in the movie adaptation of the television series Lost in Space. Harris played Dr. Charles Ashford in Resident Evil: Apocalypse, Benmont Tench in Jim Jarmusch 's Dead Man, and Kenneth Branagh 's character 's doppelgänger in How to Kill Your Neighbor 's Dog.
Other notable roles include King Henry VIII in the 2003 film adaptation of the novel The Other Boleyn Girl. He also portrayed Andy Warhol in I Shot Andy Warhol and John Lennon in the television movie Two of Us (2000). He played Vladimir in the black comedy drama film Happiness (1998), written and directed by Todd Solondz. He played the gruff Captain Anderson in the BBC2 adaptation of To the Ends of the Earth; Mac McGrath in the movie Mr. Deeds; Eamon Quinn on the FX series The Riches; and David Robert Jones on Fringe. One of his more recent film roles was Ulysses S. Grant in the Steven Spielberg - directed Lincoln. He played Lane Pryce in Mad Men from 2009 until 2012 and returned to the series to direct the 11th episode of season 7, which aired in 2015. He also portrayed King George VI in the first season of The Crown.
Harris married Jacqueline Goldenberg in 1989; they divorced in the early 1990s. On 16 July 2005, Harris married actress Emilia Fox, daughter of actors Edward Fox and Joanna David, and filed for divorce in January 2009; the divorce was finalised in June 2010. Harris married Allegra Riggio, a lighting designer and TV host, on 9 November 2013.
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sherlock holmes jeremy brett complete collection in hindi | Sherlock Holmes (1984 TV series) - wikipedia
Sherlock Holmes is the name given to the TV series of Sherlock Holmes adaptations produced by British television company Granada Television between 1984 and 1994, with the first two series bearing the title The Adventures Of Sherlock Holmes on screen and being followed by subsequent sub-series bearing the titles of other short story collections by Arthur Conan Doyle. The series was broadcast on the ITV network in the UK and starred Jeremy Brett as the famous detective. His portrayal remains very popular and is accepted by some as the definitive on - screen version of Sherlock Holmes.
In addition, Holmes 's faithful friend and companion Dr. Watson is portrayed as the kind of thoroughly competent sidekick that Holmes would want. Initially, Watson was portrayed by David Burke (who had earlier played the villain in an adaptation of "The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet '' for the 1965 BBC series starring Douglas Wilmer and Nigel Stock). Burke appeared in the first year of the Adventures series before leaving to join the Royal Shakespeare Company. He was replaced by Edward Hardwicke, who played Watson for the remainder of the run.
Of the 60 Holmes stories written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, 42 were adapted in the series spanning 36 one - hour episodes and five feature - length specials. (The elements of two stories were combined in one episode, accounting for the different numbers.)
The series was initially produced by Michael Cox, with later episodes produced by June Wyndham Davies. It was developed for television by screenwriter John Hawkesworth, who also wrote many of the episodes (all based on individual Conan Doyle stories). Other writers to adapt Doyle 's stories in the series included Alexander Baron, Jeremy Paul, T.R. Bowen, and Alan Plater. A full - scale outdoor replica of Baker Street was constructed at Granada 's studios in Quay Street, Manchester, which later formed a central part of the Granada Studios Tour tourist attraction, before that venue 's closure in 1999.
In addition to Brett, Burke and Hardwicke, other regular cast members included Rosalie Williams as housekeeper Mrs. Hudson, and Colin Jeavons as Inspector Lestrade of Scotland Yard. Also appearing in several episodes was Charles Gray as Holmes ' brother Mycroft Holmes (who played the same character in the 1976 film The Seven - Per - Cent Solution), and Eric Porter who portrayed Holmes 's nemesis Professor Moriarty in the second series of Adventures. The role of the servant Joe Barnes who impersonates Lady Beatrice in the 1991 episode The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place was played by Jude Law, who later played Dr. Watson in the 2009 film Sherlock Holmes and its 2011 sequel Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows.
The series came to an end owing to the death of Brett at the age of 61 from heart failure in 1995. It has, however, been reported that by that stage he had already decided not to play the role of Holmes again -- he had been gravely ill during the making of the final run of the series, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, and even collapsed on set during the making of one episode.
The series presents the most faithful screen adaptations of many of the Holmes stories, although liberties were taken with some plotlines and characters, particularly later in the run during the 1990s episodes (for instance The Mazarin Stone, filmed in 1994, combined the plot elements of two separate Conan Doyle stories). A big change was Holmes quitting his cocaine habit in the episode "The Devil 's Foot, '' which was done with the approval of Conan Doyle 's daughter, when it was discovered that the series had a considerable child audience. Nonetheless, the series has been highly praised for the performance of Jeremy Brett, its adherence to Doyle 's original concept in the characterisation of Watson, its high production values, and its close attention to period detail.
As well as being broadcast by ITV in the UK, the series was also seen overseas, particularly in the United States, where the episodes initially ran on PBS stations in the Mystery! strand. Later series gained co-production funding from Boston PBS broadcaster WGBH. The shows have also been transmitted on two US cable television stations, Disney Channel and A&E Network, and on CBC in Canada. In the UK, the series has often been repeated: on Granada Plus; on ITV3; and on BBC Two, which ran the complete series on Saturday afternoons from 2003 to 2005. This makes it one of the very few programmes originally produced by an ITV company for broadcast on their own channel to have subsequently been shown on the BBC. In March 2006, the series returned to its original channel for the first time in over a decade, as part of the daytime television line - up on weekday afternoons.
The complete series has also been released on VHS and on DVD, twice on the latter medium, with the most recent 2005 release taking advantage of the digitally remastered film prints originally prepared for the BBC Two repeat run. In December 2012 the series was released on Blu - ray in Japan, in Spain in May 2013 in France in October 2013 and in the USA in September 2014.
The series ran for 41 episodes as The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1984 -- 1985), The Return of Sherlock Holmes (1986 -- 1988), The Case - Book of Sherlock Holmes (1991 -- 1993) and The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1994); 36 ran for 50 minutes, and 5 were feature - length specials.
MPI Home Video has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1, in various incarnations. MPI released The Adventures & The Return in single disc volumes as well as complete collections. The Casebook & The Memoirs were released as a single collection box sets. In addition, on 25 September 2007, a complete series set was released featuring all 41 episodes in one complete collection for the very first time.
ITV DVD has released the entire series in various collections as well as a complete series box set.
The Complete Collection mentioned above has English subtitles only. The complete series was released on Blu - ray in Spain in 2013. Though native to Spain, the Blu - rays are region - free and thus can be played in any region of the world.
During 1988 -- 89 Brett and Hardwicke appeared in a West End play, The Secret of Sherlock Holmes, a two - hander written specially for them by the television series screenwriter Jeremy Paul.
In 1992 Brett and Hardwicke appeared in a mini-episode (about ten minutes in length) as part of The Four Oaks Mystery, shown as part of the ITV network 's Telethon 92 charity telethon. This episode formed one of a four - part sequence of stories featuring the stars of four ITV detective shows of the time all separately working to solve the same mystery, broadcast at two episodes a night across one weekend. The other shows that produced mini-episodes for the special were Taggart, Van der Valk and Inspector Wexford.
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who sang the theme to greatest american hero | Theme from the Greatest American Hero (Believe It or Not) - wikipedia
"Theme from The Greatest American Hero (Believe It or Not) '' is a song composed by Mike Post with lyrics by Stephen Geyer, and sung by American singer Joey Scarbury. It serves as the theme song for the 1980s television series The Greatest American Hero. The track was later included on Scarbury 's 1981 debut album America 's Greatest Hero.
The theme song became a popular hit during the run of The Greatest American Hero. "Believe It or Not '' debuted in the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 on June 13, 1981, eventually peaking at number 2 during the weeks ending August 15 -- 22, 1981, kept off the top spot by "Endless Love '' by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie, and spending a total of 18 weeks in the Top 40. On the Adult Contemporary Chart, "Believe It or Not '' went to number 3. It also peaked at the number 1 position on the Record World chart.
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where is the set of general hospital located | General Hospital - wikipedia
General Hospital (commonly abbreviated GH) is an American daytime television medical drama. It is listed in Guinness World Records as the longest - running American soap opera in production and the second longest - running drama in television in American history after Guiding Light. Concurrently, it is the world 's second longest - running scripted drama series in production after British serials The Archers and Coronation Street, as well as the world 's second - longest - running televised soap opera still in production. General Hospital premiered on the ABC television network on April 1, 1963. Same - day broadcasts as well as classic episodes were aired on SOAPnet from January 20, 2000, to December 31, 2013, following Disney - ABC 's decision to discontinue the network. General Hospital is the longest - running serial produced in Hollywood, and the longest - running entertainment program in ABC television history. It holds the record for most Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Drama Series, with 13 wins.
The show was created by husband - and - wife soap writers Frank and Doris Hursley, who originally set it in a general hospital (hence the title), in an unnamed fictional city. In the 1970s, the city was named Port Charles, New York. From its beginning, General Hospital starred John Beradino and Emily McLaughlin, and both actors stayed with the show until their deaths in 1996 and 1991 respectively. They were joined a year later by Rachel Ames who remains to date the longest serving actress on an ABC soap opera, having been continuously on the show from 1964 to 2007. General Hospital was the second soap to air on ABC (after the short - lived Road to Reality, which aired for several months during the 1960 -- 61 season). In 1964, a sister soap was created for General Hospital, The Young Marrieds; it ran for two years, and was canceled because of low ratings. General Hospital also spawned a primetime spinoff with the same name in the United Kingdom from 1972 to 1979, as well as the daytime series Port Charles (1997 -- 2003) and the primetime spin - off General Hospital: Night Shift (2007 -- 2008) in the United States. Taped at The Prospect Studios, General Hospital aired for a half - hour until July 23, 1976. The series was expanded from 30 minutes to 45 minutes on July 26, 1976, and then to a full hour on January 16, 1978.
Ever since the late 1970s, most of the storylines have revolved around the Quartermaines and the Spencers. From 1979 to 1988, General Hospital had more viewers than any other daytime soap opera. It rose to the top of the ratings in the early 1980s in part thanks to the monumentally popular "supercouple '' Luke and Laura, whose 1981 wedding brought in 30 million viewers and remains the highest - rated hour in American soap opera history. The soap opera is also known for its high - profile celebrity guest stars who have included, among others, Roseanne Barr, James Franco and Elizabeth Taylor. In 2007, the program was listed as one of Time magazine 's "100 Best TV Shows of All - TIME. '' On April 23, 2009, General Hospital began broadcasting in high definition, making it the first ABC soap opera to make such a transition. The series aired its 13,000 th episode on February 24, 2014.
General Hospital became the oldest American soap opera on September 17, 2010, following the final broadcast of CBS ' As the World Turns. On April 14, 2011, ABC announced the cancellation of both All My Children and One Life to Live, leaving General Hospital as the last remaining soap opera airing on the network after January 13, 2012. The show celebrated its 50th anniversary on April 1, 2013.
General Hospital was created by Frank and Doris Hursley and premiered on April 1, 1963. The first stories were mainly set on the seventh floor of General Hospital, in an unnamed midsize Eastern city (the name of the city, Port Charles, would not be mentioned until the late 1970s). "They had this concept of the show that it was like a big wagon wheel -- the spokes would be the characters and the hub would be the hospital, '' John Beradino (Steve Hardy) later reflected to Entertainment Weekly in 1994.
Launched in 1963, the first stories were mainly set at General Hospital in an unnamed midsized Eastern city. The name of the city, Port Charles, would not be mentioned until 1976 by headwriters Eileen and Robert Mason Pollock. Storylines revolved around Dr. Steve Hardy (John Beradino) and his friend, Nurse Jessie Brewer (Emily McLaughlin). Jessie 's turbulent marriage to the much - younger Dr. Phil Brewer (originally portrayed by Roy Thinnes; lastly by Martin West) was the center of many early storylines. In 1964 Audrey March (Rachel Ames), a flight attendant and sister of Nurse Lucille (Lucille Wall), came to town, and was the woman who won Steve 's heart.
By the end of the 1970s, General Hospital was facing dire ratings when executive producer Gloria Monty was brought in to turn the show around. Monty is credited with creation of the first supercouple, Luke Spencer and Laura Webber, played by Anthony Geary and Genie Francis. The end of their hour wedding on November 17, 1981, was the most - watched event in daytime serial history. During the 1980s, the series featured several high - profile action, adventure, and some science fiction - based storylines. Location shooting at sites including Mount Rushmore in South Dakota; Niagara Falls; Grand Ole Opry in Nashville, Tennessee; Atlantic City, New Jersey; Big Bear and Avalon (Catalina Island), California; and San Antonio, Texas are some that propelled the story.
After Gloria Monty first left the series in 1987, General Hospital entered into a transitional phase that lasted until Wendy Riche took the position of executive producer in 1992. Under Riche, the show gained critical acclaim for its sensitive handling of social issues. In 1994, Riche started an annual Nurses ' Ball, a fundraiser and AIDS awareness event both on the show and in real life. Later that year, a heart transplant storyline involves the death of eight - year - old B.J. Jones (daughter of Dr. Tony Jones and R.N. Bobbie Spencer) in a bus crash and the subsequent donation of her heart to her dying cousin Maxie Jones. Shortly afterwards, Monica Quartermaine (Leslie Charleson) begins a long battle with breast cancer, which leads to her adopting Emily Quartermaine, the orphaned young daughter of Monica 's friend from treatment. General Hospital was also praised for the love story of teenagers Stone Cates (Michael Sutton) and Robin Scorpio (Kimberly McCullough). After a struggle that lasted throughout most of 1995, Stone dies from AIDS at the age of 19 and his death is followed by 17 - year - old Robin having to deal with being HIV - positive as a result of their relationship. Sutton received a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series and McCullough won an Outstanding Younger Actress award. ABC featured an Afterschool Special "Positive: A Journey Into AIDS '' revolving around the AIDS story as well as The New York Times best selling novel Robin 's Diary.
On Saturday, December 14, 1996, General Hospital aired its one of three primetime episodes, General Hospital: Twist of Fate, which picked up where that Friday 's episode had left off. The special centered on Laura 's supposed death at the hands of Stefan Cassadine. In 1997, the show 's long - rumored spin - off materialized into the half - hour serial, Port Charles. The series ' 11,000 th episode aired on February 20, 2006. On April 23, 2009, General Hospital became ABC 's first regular daytime drama to be taped and broadcast in high definition, though the 2008 season of its primetime spinoff General Hospital: Night Shift was in high definition. This is the second daytime drama to move to high definition after CBS 's The Young and the Restless. On February 23, 2010, the series aired its 12,000 th episode. On December 1, 2011, ABC confirmed that former One Life to Live executive producer Frank Valentini and head writer Ron Carlivati would replace longtime executive producer Jill Farren - Phelps and Garin Wolf respectively, though Wolf would remain on as a regular writer. The change took effect on January 9, 2012. The first episode under the direction of Valentini aired on February 1, 2012, and Carlivati 's material started airing on February 21, 2012. Several storylines reminiscent of iconic story arcs of the past were created and popular characters returned to the show in order to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the series in 2013. The series marked its 51st anniversary on April 1, 2014. Also in January 2014, ABC renewed Carlivati 's contract with the soap. The series marked its 52nd anniversary on April 1, 2015, with a special episode revolving around the Spencer family.
In July 2015, it was revealed that Carlivati was fired as Head Writer, with Shelly Altman and Jean Passanante rehired as replacements. On September 16, 2016, Daytime Confidential reported that Valentini, Passanante and Altman re-signed with the show. On June 6, 2017, Passanante announced her decision to retire from the serial. On July 29, 2017, it was revealed through Passanante that breakdown writer Chris Van Etten will be promoted to co-head writer along with Altman as her replacement.
General Hospital has aired on ABC Television and has been filmed in Hollywood since its inception. The show was filmed in the Sunset Gower Studios from 1963 to the mid-1980s. It relocated in the 1980s to The Prospect Studios, where it remains.
General Hospital has had a number of different distributors throughout the show 's history, From its beginning until 1968, it was a co-production of ABC - Paramount and Selmur Productions. ABC would later buy the series outright in 1968 and its owner passed from Selmur to American Broadcasting Companies, Inc., ABC 's old separate conglomerate. Ownership of the soap was then passed when the original ABC, Inc. merged with Capital Cities Communications in 1985 and it became Capital Cities / ABC, Inc. The show would change hands again when The Walt Disney Company bought Capital Cities / ABC in 1996 and Disney began to program the network and the soap in September 1997 where it remains to this day.
Though the series originally focused on solely the medical staff at Port Charles ' General Hospital, and starred John Beradino as Dr. Steve Hardy and Emily McLaughlin as Nurse Jessie Brewer, the series branched out and began to focus more on the people and families of the town of Port Charles rather than those solely in the hospital.
Port Charles is full of "dysfunctional family dynamics... and family drama remains the focal point of this town. '' The current families on the show include the quarreling and wealthy Quartermaine family, the mobster crime Corinthos family, the middle class Scorpio / Jones family, the aristocratic Cassadine family, and the adventurous Spencer family.
Former notable crew members: Gloria Monty, Jill Farren Phelps, Robert Guza, Jr., Charles Pratt Jr., John William Corrington, Lewis Arlt, Lynda Myles, Alan Pultz, Judith Pinsker, Joseph Behar, Stephanie Braxton, Norma Monty, Frank South, Ralph Ellis, Shelley Curtis, Hope Harmel Smith, Michael Conforti, Michele Val Jean and Ron Carlivati.
Since the series began in 1963, Port Charles, New York, has been the setting for the show. The town exists in the same fictional universe as other soap opera settings such as Llanview (One Life to Live), Pine Valley (All My Children), New York City (Ryan 's Hope), and Corinth (Loving). The same setting was also used for the show 's spinoff Port Charles.
General Hospital 's cast and crew have won many awards since 1974 when the Daytime Emmy Awards were created. In 2012, the Creative Arts Emmy Awards were created. General Hospital has won 13 Daytime Emmy 's for Outstanding Drama Series.
In June 2009, TV Guide ranked "Luke and Laura 's Wedding '' # 45 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes.
During the 1960s, General Hospital earned decent ratings against the likes of To Tell the Truth and The Secret Storm on CBS, but there was a decline as the 1970s came, especially when NBC 's Another World became highly popular. For two years, it also faced CBS ' The Price Is Right, already a major hit. After continued mediocrity in the Nielsen ratings, ABC was prepared to cancel General Hospital, but decided to give it a second chance in 1977 when it expanded the show to a full hour, from an experimental 45 minutes. However, the expansion came with an ultimatum to the producers that they had six months to improve the show 's ratings. Gloria Monty was hired as the new executive producer, and on her first day, she spent an extra $100,000 re-taping four episodes. A miracle occurred thanks to Monty and head writer Douglas Marland; the show became the most watched daytime drama by 1979, marking a rare instance of a daytime serial 's comeback from near - extinction. During the wedding of Luke and Laura Spencer on November 17, 1981, about 30 million people tuned in to watch them exchange vows and be cursed by Elizabeth Taylor 's Helena Cassadine (later played by Constance Towers).
From 1979 to 1988, General Hospital remained number one in the ratings, competing against two low - rated soaps on NBC -- Texas and Santa Barbara -- and Guiding Light on CBS (although Guiding Light experienced a renaissance for a brief period in the middle of 1984, and became the # 1 rated soap, briefly dethroning General Hospital from the top ratings spot). For the most part, however, General Hospital continued to triumph, even after the departure of popular actors Anthony Geary and Genie Francis in the mid-1980s. Although The Young and the Restless took General Hospital 's place as the highest - rated serial in 1989, General Hospital continued to maintain excellent ratings.
Even at its peak in the 1980s, General Hospital had been pre-empted in at least two markets in the United States. With the show still number one in the Nielsens, WDTN in Dayton, Ohio pre-empted the series upon joining ABC in January 1980 in favor of Woody Woodpecker and Super Friends cartoons. Later, the station would air such shows as Hour Magazine, Geraldo and Maury in the show 's time slot until September 2000, when the station 's new owners, Sunrise Broadcasting (which purchased the station from Hearst Broadcasting two years prior), pulled Maury from the station 's schedule, due to what it called "community standards '', and brought General Hospital back to Dayton. In Vermont and Plattsburgh, WVNY dropped General Hospital from the schedule in the 1980s and would only bring it back in 1995. During that hiatus, General Hospital still aired on Montreal 's CFCF - TV, whose signal was decently available in Vermont and Plattsburgh.
Ever since the 1991 - 1992 season of General Hospital, the show has had a steady decline in ratings. On and off, it would rank between third and fifth place in the Nielsen Ratings, with CBS 's The Young And The Restless and The Bold and the Beautiful coming in first and second place, respectively. General Hospital remained in between third and fifth place in the ratings during that time and from late 1991 to 1996 All My Children held the title of ABC 's highest rated soap. During the 1990s General Hospital was put up against competition such as CBS 's As the World Turns and NBC 's Days of our Lives although neither show aired at the same time as General Hospital.
After months of speculation and cancellation rumors, Deadline.com reported on April 11, 2012, that ABC quietly made the decision to keep General Hospital on the air and to cancel instead the lower - rated talk show The Revolution. On June 26, 2012, ABC officially announced that General Hospital would move to the 2 p.m. (ET) timeslot starting on September 10, 2012, once Katie Couric 's new syndicated talk show, Katie, would begin to air in the 3 p.m. (ET) timeslot on many of ABC 's local stations. This represents the first schedule shifting for a daytime soap opera in the United States since CBS relocated As the World Turns from 1: 30 p.m. (ET) to 2 p.m. (ET) in 1987.
Encore episodes were shown every weeknight on the former cable station SOAPnet, with a marathon on Saturday and classic episodes at 4 A.M. EST and 5 A.M. (3.AM, 4 A.M. CST).
ABC stations in the Mountain and Pacific time zones, and in Alaska and Hawaii follow a Central time zone schedule for daytime programming; thus, General Hospital is scheduled by the network to air at 1: 00 pm in these areas.
For historical ratings information, see List of U.S. daytime soap opera ratings
The popularity of General Hospital has gained it many parodies and references in other mainstream programs. For example:
General Hospital has many famous fans, including:
The success of the long - running soap opera has had one sister serial, one spinoff in the United States, and two primetime spinoffs in the United States and the United Kingdom.
The Young Marrieds was ABC 's first attempt at a sister serial for General Hospital. It ran for only two years, racking up a total of 380 episodes. Despite its moderate popularity, it was aired against CBS 's top - rated The Edge of Night, which it could not compete against. The series finale aired on March 25, 1966, with the show 's main protagonist contemplating suicide. It ended in a cliffhanger, leaving the audience wondering if the man had killed himself or not. The Young Marrieds was set in the fictional suburb of Queen 's Point, which was considered by the writers to be a suburb of Port Charles.
The UK series General Hospital did not feature any characters from the American show, but was modeled after its format. It started as a half - hour program broadcast in the afternoons, which was unusual for British serials that normally aired in prime time. In 1975, it was expanded to an hour - long format and moved to Friday evenings.
Port Charles was a daytime drama that initially featured interns in a competitive medical school program, and was known for having more action actually in the hospital than General Hospital itself. It also included the characters of Scotty Baldwin. Serena Baldwin, Lucy Coe, Kevin Collins, and Karen Wexler, all of whom originally appeared as characters on General Hospital. As the show evolved, it tended more towards gothic intrigue, including supernatural elements such as vampires and life after death. It also switched formats from an open - ended daytime serial to 13 - week story arcs known as "books '', similar to Spanish language telenovelas.
General Hospital: Night Shift is the second American prime time spinoff of a daytime drama (the first being Our Private World, a spinoff of As the World Turns). Its first season aired from July 12, 2007, to October 4, 2007, on SOAPnet, a cable channel owned by ABC. The series follows the nighttime adventures of familiar and new characters around the hospital. As of March 2008, the first season of the series was "SOAPnet 's most - watched series ever '', with ABC Daytime and SOAPnet President Brian Frons noting that Night Shift drew more than 1 million new viewers to the channel during its first season.
General Hospital: Twist of Fate was a primetime special that aired on Saturday, December 14, 1996. The episode picked up where that Friday 's show had left off. The special centered on Laura 's supposed death at the hands of Stefan Cassadine.
On April 2, 1998, General Hospital aired a primetime special in celebration of the program 's 35th anniversary. Hosted by Anthony Geary, the show focused and recapped on many popular storylines including Monica 's breast cancer, BJ 's death, and Stone 's battle with HIV. This was the first anniversary special that was broadcast in primetime and that did n't include any of the current storyline.
General Hospital: The Real Soap Dish was a special episode of ABC news program 20 / 20 aired on April 6, 2013, in honor of General Hospital 's 50th anniversary. It focused on the entire history of the soap, including interviews of stars and clips from the series.
On September 5, 2014, General Hospital Now was announced as a new Variety Show / Soap web series airing exclusively on ABC.com hosted by longtime cast member Nancy Lee Grahn featuring appearances by the rest of the General Hospital Cast as well as Special Guests beginning in January 2015.
On May 15 and 18, 2015, General Hospital aired two live episodes as part of its 52nd anniversary celebration, using the hashtag # GHLive to promote the broadcast on social media.
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kaun tujhe yun pyar karega song female version | Kaun Tujhe - wikipedia
"Kaun Tujhe '' (English: Who Would) is a Hindi song from the soundtrack of the 2016 Hindi Film, M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story. The song was penned by Manoj Muntashir, composed by Amaal Mallik, and sung by Palak Muchhal. The song is featured in the film in a scene involving Sushant Singh Rajput and Disha Patani..
The song was released on 14 August 2015.
Box Office Collection India wrote: "The song is beautiful and melodious. ''
Box Office Collection India rated the song 4.3 out of 5 stars. In its review, it wrote: "The lyrics and singing as excellent and the music as very good. ''
India Today in its review wrote: "Kaun Tujhe is the female version of the typical Arijit Singh romantic song - which are essentially paeans for the lover, who is exclusive, one in a million. Once again, the song is a winner because of the simplicity of its composition, singing, lyrics, and arrangement, which is not intrusive. Amaal Mallik lets his music breathe and take its time to come to its own in this film and that is a great quality. ''
Times of India, in its review, wrote: "' Kaun Tujhe ' tells the love story of MS Dhoni and his late girlfriend, Priyanka Jha. The song shows how the couple enjoyed simple joys of life such as a stroll in a market wherein Dhoni walked with a helmet on to avoid catching attention, highlighting the struggles of celebrities with the paparazzi. Dhoni 's ladylove passed away in a tragic accident in 2002 when the successful innings of Indian skipper had just begun. ''
indiatoday.in says: Kaun Tujhe is the female version of the typical ' Arijit Singh romantic song ' - which are essentially paeans for the lover, who is exclusive, one - in - a-million, etcetra, etcetra. Once again, the song is a winner because of the simplicity of its composition, singing, lyrics, and arrangement, which is not intrusive. Amaal Mallik lets his music breathe and take its time to come to its own in this film and that is a great quality.
Daily News and Analysis wrote: "The song ' Kaun Tujhe ' has been penned by Manoj Muntashir and composed by Amaal Mallik. Palak Muchhal has lent her soulful voice to make it even more melodious. The song has been picturised very beautifully, portraying Sushant and Disha 's light hearted romantic moments while the lyrics aptly form the backdrop of their love story. ''
Palak Muchhal was honoured with the "Best Female Singer '' award at the Star Screen Awards 2016.
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where is the cerebellum located in the brain | Cerebellum - wikipedia
The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain '') is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger. In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in motor control, and it may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement - related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine - tune motor activity. Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning in humans.
Anatomically, the human cerebellum has the appearance of a separate structure attached to the bottom of the brain, tucked underneath the cerebral hemispheres. Its cortical surface is covered with finely spaced parallel grooves, in striking contrast to the broad irregular convolutions of the cerebral cortex. These parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellar cortex is actually a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded in the style of an accordion. Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement, the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells. This complex neural organization gives rise to a massive signal - processing capability, but almost all of the output from the cerebellar cortex passes through a set of small deep nuclei lying in the white matter interior of the cerebellum.
In addition to its direct role in motor control, the cerebellum is necessary for several types of motor learning, most notably learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships. Several theoretical models have been developed to explain sensorimotor calibration in terms of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum. These models derive from those formulated by David Marr and James Albus, based on the observation that each cerebellar Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of input: one comprises thousands of weak inputs from the parallel fibers of the granule cells; the other is an extremely strong input from a single climbing fiber. The basic concept of the Marr -- Albus theory is that the climbing fiber serves as a "teaching signal '', which induces a long - lasting change in the strength of parallel fiber inputs. Observations of long - term depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided support for theories of this type, but their validity remains controversial.
At the level of gross anatomy, the cerebellum consists of a tightly folded layer of cortex, with white matter underneath and a fluid - filled ventricle at the base. Four deep cerebellar nuclei are embedded in the white matter. Each part of the cortex consists of the same small set of neuronal elements, laid out in a highly stereotyped geometry. At an intermediate level, the cerebellum and its auxiliary structures can be separated into several hundred or thousand independently functioning modules called "microzones '' or "microcompartments ''.
The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa. The fourth ventricle, pons and medulla are in front of the cerebellum. It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater, the tentorium cerebelli; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes the pons; the metencephalon is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or "hindbrain ''. Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres; it also contains a narrow midline zone (the vermis). A set of large folds is, by convention, used to divide the overall structure into 10 smaller "lobules ''. Because of its large number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the total from the rest of the brain, but takes up only 10 % of the total brain volume. The number of neurons in the cerebellum is related to the number of neurons in the neocortex. There are about 3.6 times as many neurons in the cerebellum as in the neocortex, a ratio that is conserved across many different mammalian species.
The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that most of its volume is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter: the cerebellar cortex. Each ridge or gyrus in this layer is called a folium. It is estimated that, if the human cerebellar cortex were completely unfolded, it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1 meter long and averaging 5 centimeters wide -- a total surface area of about 500 square cm, packed within a volume of dimensions 6 cm × 5 cm × 10 cm. Underneath the gray matter of the cortex lies white matter, made up largely of myelinated nerve fibers running to and from the cortex. Embedded within the white matter -- which is sometimes called the arbor vitae (tree of life) because of its branched, tree - like appearance in cross-section -- are four deep cerebellar nuclei, composed of gray matter.
Connecting the cerebellum to different parts of the nervous system are three paired cerebellar peduncles. These are the superior cerebellar peduncle, the middle cerebellar peduncle and the inferior cerebellar peduncle, named by their position relative to the vermis. The superior cerebellar peduncle is mainly an output to the cerebral cortex, carrying efferent fibers via thalamic nuclei to upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex. The fibers arise from the deep cerebellar nuclei. The middle cerebellar peduncle is connected to the pons and receives all of its input from the pons mainly from the pontine nuclei. The input to the pons is from the cerebral cortex and is relayed from the pontine nuclei via transverse pontine fibers to the cerebellum. The middle peduncle is the largest of the three and its afferent fibers are grouped into three separate fascicles taking their inputs to different parts of the cerebellum. The inferior cerebellar peduncle receives input from afferent fibers from the vestibular nuclei, spinal cord and the tegmentum. Output from the inferior peduncle is via efferent fibers to the vestibular nuclei and the reticular formation. The whole of the cerebellum receives modulatory input from the inferior olivary nucleus via the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
Based on the surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum: the anterior lobe (above the primary fissure), the posterior lobe (below the primary fissure), and the flocculonodular lobe (below the posterior fissure). These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal (in humans, top to bottom). In terms of function, however, there is a more important distinction along the medial - to - lateral dimension. Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe, which has distinct connections and functions, the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum. A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis. (Vermis is Latin for "worm ''.)
The smallest region, the flocculonodular lobe, is often called the vestibulocerebellum. It is the oldest part in evolutionary terms (archicerebellum) and participates mainly in balance and spatial orientation; its primary connections are with the vestibular nuclei, although it also receives visual and other sensory input. Damage to this region causes disturbances of balance and gait.
The medial zone of the anterior and posterior lobes constitutes the spinocerebellum, also known as paleocerebellum. This sector of the cerebellum functions mainly to fine - tune body and limb movements. It receives proprioceptive input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord (including the spinocerebellar tract) and from the cranial trigeminal nerve, as well as from visual and auditory systems. It sends fibers to deep cerebellar nuclei that, in turn, project to both the cerebral cortex and the brain stem, thus providing modulation of descending motor systems.
The lateral zone, which in humans is by far the largest part, constitutes the cerebrocerebellum, also known as neocerebellum. It receives input exclusively from the cerebral cortex (especially the parietal lobe) via the pontine nuclei (forming cortico - ponto - cerebellar pathways), and sends output mainly to the ventrolateral thalamus (in turn connected to motor areas of the premotor cortex and primary motor area of the cerebral cortex) and to the red nucleus. There is disagreement about the best way to describe the functions of the lateral cerebellum: It is thought to be involved in planning movement that is about to occur, in evaluating sensory information for action, and in a number of purely cognitive functions, such as determining the verb which best fits with a certain noun (as in "sit '' for "chair '').
Two types of neuron play dominant roles in the cerebellar circuit: Purkinje cells and granule cells. Three types of axons also play dominant roles: mossy fibers and climbing fibers (which enter the cerebellum from outside), and parallel fibers (which are the axons of granule cells). There are two main pathways through the cerebellar circuit, originating from mossy fibers and climbing fibers, both eventually terminating in the deep cerebellar nuclei.
Mossy fibers project directly to the deep nuclei, but also give rise to the following pathway: mossy fibers → granule cells → parallel fibers → Purkinje cells → deep nuclei. Climbing fibers project to Purkinje cells and also send collaterals directly to the deep nuclei. The mossy fiber and climbing fiber inputs each carry fiber - specific information; the cerebellum also receives dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and cholinergic inputs that presumably perform global modulation.
The cerebellar cortex is divided into three layers. At the bottom lies the thick granular layer, densely packed with granule cells, along with interneurons, mainly Golgi cells but also including Lugaro cells and unipolar brush cells. In the middle lies the Purkinje layer, a narrow zone that contains the cell bodies of Purkinje cells and Bergmann glial cells. At the top lies the molecular layer, which contains the flattened dendritic trees of Purkinje cells, along with the huge array of parallel fibers penetrating the Purkinje cell dendritic trees at right angles. This outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex also contains two types of inhibitory interneuron: stellate cells and basket cells. Both stellate and basket cells form GABAergic synapses onto Purkinje cell dendrites.
Purkinje cells are among the most distinctive neurons in the brain, and one of the earliest types to be recognized -- they were first described by the Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně in 1837. They are distinguished by the shape of their dendritic tree: The dendrites branch very profusely, but are severely flattened in a plane perpendicular to the cerebellar folds. Thus, the dendrites of a Purkinje cell form a dense planar net, through which parallel fibers pass at right angles. The dendrites are covered with dendritic spines, each of which receives synaptic input from a parallel fiber. Purkinje cells receive more synaptic inputs than any other type of cell in the brain -- estimates of the number of spines on a single human Purkinje cell run as high as 200,000. The large, spherical cell bodies of Purkinje cells are packed into a narrow layer (one cell thick) of the cerebellar cortex, called the Purkinje layer. After emitting collaterals that affect nearby parts of the cortex, their axons travel into the deep cerebellar nuclei, where they make on the order of 1,000 contacts each with several types of nuclear cells, all within a small domain. Purkinje cells use GABA as their neurotransmitter, and therefore exert inhibitory effects on their targets.
Purkinje cells form the heart of the cerebellar circuit, and their large size and distinctive activity patterns have made it relatively easy to study their response patterns in behaving animals using extracellular recording techniques. Purkinje cells normally emit action potentials at a high rate even in the absence of the synaptic input. In awake, behaving animals, mean rates averaging around 40 Hz are typical. The spike trains show a mixture of what are called simple and complex spikes. A simple spike is a single action potential followed by a refractory period of about 10 ms; a complex spike is a stereotyped sequence of action potentials with very short inter-spike intervals and declining amplitudes. Physiological studies have shown that complex spikes (which occur at baseline rates around 1 Hz and never at rates much higher than 10 Hz) are reliably associated with climbing fiber activation, while simple spikes are produced by a combination of baseline activity and parallel fiber input. Complex spikes are often followed by a pause of several hundred milliseconds during which simple spike activity is suppressed.
A specific, recognizable feature of Purkinje neurons is the expression of calbindin. Calbindin staining of rat brain after unilateral chronic sciatic nerve injury suggests that Purkinje neurons may be newly generated in the adult brain, initiating the organization of new cerebellar lobules.
Cerebellar granule cells, in contrast to Purkinje cells, are among the smallest neurons in the brain. They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain: In humans, estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that about 3 / 4 of the brain 's neurons are cerebellar granule cells. Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex. A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites, each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw. These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells.
The thin, un myelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper (molecular) layer of the cortex, where they split in two, with each branch traveling horizontally to form a parallel fiber; the splitting of the vertical branch into two horizontal branches gives rise to a distinctive "T '' shape. A human parallel fiber runs for an average of 3 mm in each direction from the split, for a total length of about 6 mm (about 1 / 10 of the total width of the cortical layer). As they run along, the parallel fibers pass through the dendritic trees of Purkinje cells, contacting one of every 3 -- 5 that they pass, making a total of 80 -- 100 synaptic connections with Purkinje cell dendritic spines. Granule cells use glutamate as their neurotransmitter, and therefore exert excitatory effects on their targets.
Granule cells receive all of their input from mossy fibers, but outnumber them by 200 to 1 (in humans). Thus, the information in the granule cell population activity state is the same as the information in the mossy fibers, but recoded in a much more expansive way. Because granule cells are so small and so densely packed, it is difficult to record their spike activity in behaving animals, so there is little data to use as a basis for theorizing. The most popular concept of their function was proposed in 1969 by David Marr, who suggested that they could encode combinations of mossy fiber inputs. The idea is that with each granule cell receiving input from only 4 -- 5 mossy fibers, a granule cell would not respond if only a single one of its inputs were active, but would respond if more than one were active. This combinatorial coding scheme would potentially allow the cerebellum to make much finer distinctions between input patterns than the mossy fibers alone would permit.
Mossy fibers enter the granular layer from their points of origin, many arising from the pontine nuclei, others from the spinal cord, vestibular nuclei etc. In the human cerebellum, the total number of mossy fibers has been estimated at about 200 million. These fibers form excitatory synapses with the granule cells and the cells of the deep cerebellar nuclei. Within the granular layer, a mossy fiber generates a series of enlargements called rosettes. The contacts between mossy fibers and granule cell dendrites take place within structures called glomeruli. Each glomerulus has a mossy fiber rosette at its center, and up to 20 granule cell dendritic claws contacting it. Terminals from Golgi cells infiltrate the structure and make inhibitory synapses onto the granule cell dendrites. The entire assemblage is surrounded by a sheath of glial cells. Each mossy fiber sends collateral branches to several cerebellar folia, generating a total of 20 -- 30 rosettes; thus a single mossy fiber makes contact with an estimated 400 -- 600 granule cells.
Purkinje cells also receive input from the inferior olivary nucleus on the contralateral side of the brainstem via climbing fibers. Although the inferior olive lies in the medulla oblongata and receives input from the spinal cord, brainstem and cerebral cortex, its output goes entirely to the cerebellum. A climbing fiber gives off collaterals to the deep cerebellar nuclei before entering the cerebellar cortex, where it splits into about 10 terminal branches, each of which gives input to a single Purkinje cell. In striking contrast to the 100,000 - plus inputs from parallel fibers, each Purkinje cell receives input from exactly one climbing fiber; but this single fiber "climbs '' the dendrites of the Purkinje cell, winding around them and making a total of up to 300 synapses as it goes. The net input is so strong that a single action potential from a climbing fiber is capable of producing an extended complex spike in the Purkinje cell: a burst of several spikes in a row, with diminishing amplitude, followed by a pause during which activity is suppressed. The climbing fiber synapses cover the cell body and proximal dendrites; this zone is devoid of parallel fiber inputs.
Climbing fibers fire at low rates, but a single climbing fiber action potential induces a burst of several action potentials in a target Purkinje cell (a complex spike). The contrast between parallel fiber and climbing fiber inputs to Purkinje cells (over 100,000 of one type versus exactly one of the other type) is perhaps the most provocative feature of cerebellar anatomy, and has motivated much of the theorizing. In fact, the function of climbing fibers is the most controversial topic concerning the cerebellum. There are two schools of thought, one following Marr and Albus in holding that climbing fiber input serves primarily as a teaching signal, the other holding that its function is to shape cerebellar output directly. Both views have been defended in great length in numerous publications. In the words of one review, "In trying to synthesize the various hypotheses on the function of the climbing fibers, one has the sense of looking at a drawing by Escher. Each point of view seems to account for a certain collection of findings, but when one attempts to put the different views together, a coherent picture of what the climbing fibers are doing does not appear. For the majority of researchers, the climbing fibers signal errors in motor performance, either in the usual manner of discharge frequency modulation or as a single announcement of an ' unexpected event '. For other investigators, the message lies in the degree of ensemble synchrony and rhythmicity among a population of climbing fibers. ''
The deep nuclei of the cerebellum are clusters of gray matter lying within the white matter at the core of the cerebellum. They are, with the minor exception of the nearby vestibular nuclei, the sole sources of output from the cerebellum. These nuclei receive collateral projections from mossy fibers and climbing fibers as well as inhibitory input from the Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex. The four nuclei (dentate, globose, emboliform, and fastigial) each communicate with different parts of the brain and cerebellar cortex. (The globose and the emboliform nuclei are also referred to as combined in the interposed nucleus). The fastigial and interposed nuclei belong to the spinocerebellum. The dentate nucleus, which in mammals is much larger than the others, is formed as a thin, convoluted layer of gray matter, and communicates exclusively with the lateral parts of the cerebellar cortex. The flocculonodular lobe is the only part of the cerebellar cortex that does not project to the deep nuclei -- its output goes to the vestibular nuclei instead.
The majority of neurons in the deep nuclei have large cell bodies and spherical dendritic trees with a radius of about 400 μm, and use glutamate as their neurotransmitter. These cells project to a variety of targets outside the cerebellum. Intermixed with them are a lesser number of small cells, which use GABA as a neurotransmitter and project exclusively to the inferior olivary nucleus, the source of climbing fibers. Thus, the nucleo - olivary projection provides an inhibitory feedback to match the excitatory projection of climbing fibers to the nuclei. There is evidence that each small cluster of nuclear cells projects to the same cluster of olivary cells that send climbing fibers to it; there is strong and matching topography in both directions.
When a Purkinje cell axon enters one of the deep nuclei, it branches to make contact with both large and small nuclear cells, but the total number of cells contacted is only about 35 (in cats). Conversely, a single deep nuclear cell receives input from approximately 860 Purkinje cells (again in cats).
From the viewpoint of gross anatomy, the cerebellar cortex appears to be a homogeneous sheet of tissue, and, from the viewpoint of microanatomy, all parts of this sheet appear to have the same internal structure. There are, however, a number of respects in which the structure of the cerebellum is compartmentalized. There are large compartments that are generally known as zones; these can be divided into smaller compartments known as microzones.
The first indications of compartmental structure came from studies of the receptive fields of cells in various parts of the cerebellar cortex. Each body part maps to specific points in the cerebellum, but there are numerous repetitions of the basic map, forming an arrangement that has been called "fractured somatotopy ''. A clearer indication of compartmentalization is obtained by immunostaining the cerebellum for certain types of protein. The best - known of these markers are called "zebrins '', because staining for them gives rise to a complex pattern reminiscent of the stripes on a zebra. The stripes generated by zebrins and other compartmentalization markers are oriented perpendicular to the cerebellar folds -- that is, they are narrow in the mediolateral direction, but much more extended in the longitudinal direction. Different markers generate different sets of stripes, the widths and lengths vary as a function of location, but they all have the same general shape.
Oscarsson in the late 1970s proposed that these cortical zones can be partitioned into smaller units called microzones. A microzone is defined as a group of Purkinje cells all having the same somatotopic receptive field. Microzones were found to contain on the order of 1000 Purkinje cells each, arranged in a long, narrow strip, oriented perpendicular to the cortical folds. Thus, as the adjoining diagram illustrates, Purkinje cell dendrites are flattened in the same direction as the microzones extend, while parallel fibers cross them at right angles.
It is not only receptive fields that define the microzone structure: The climbing fiber input from the inferior olivary nucleus is equally important. The branches of a climbing fiber (usually numbering about 10) usually activate Purkinje cells belonging to the same microzone. Moreover, olivary neurons that send climbing fibers to the same microzone tend to be coupled by gap junctions, which synchronize their activity, causing Purkinje cells within a microzone to show correlated complex spike activity on a millisecond time scale. Also, the Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone all send their axons to the same small cluster of output cells within the deep cerebellar nuclei. Finally, the axons of basket cells are much longer in the longitudinal direction than in the mediolateral direction, causing them to be confined largely to a single microzone. The consequence of all this structure is that cellular interactions within a microzone are much stronger than interactions between different microzones.
In 2005, Richard Apps and Martin Garwicz summarized evidence that microzones themselves form part of a larger entity they call a multizonal microcomplex. Such a microcomplex includes several spatially separated cortical microzones, all of which project to the same group of deep cerebellar neurons, plus a group of coupled olivary neurons that project to all of the included microzones as well as to the deep nuclear area.
The strongest clues to the function of the cerebellum have come from examining the consequences of damage to it. Animals and humans with cerebellar dysfunction show, above all, problems with motor control, on the same side of the body as the damaged part of the cerebellum. They continue to be able to generate motor activity, but it loses precision, producing erratic, uncoordinated, or incorrectly timed movements. A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the finger for a target at arm 's length: A healthy person will move the fingertip in a rapid straight trajectory, whereas a person with cerebellar damage will reach slowly and erratically, with many mid-course corrections. Deficits in non-motor functions are more difficult to detect. Thus, the general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the cerebellum is to calibrate the detailed form of a movement, not to initiate movements or to decide which movements to execute.
Prior to the 1990s the function of the cerebellum was almost universally believed to be purely motor - related, but newer findings have brought that view into question. Functional imaging studies have shown cerebellar activation in relation to language, attention, and mental imagery; correlation studies have shown interactions between the cerebellum and non-motor areas of the cerebral cortex; and a variety of non-motor symptoms have been recognized in people with damage that appears to be confined to the cerebellum. In particular, the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome or Schmahmann 's syndrome has been described in adults and children. Estimates based on functional mapping of the cerebellum using functional MRI suggest that more than half of the cerebellar cortex is interconnected with association zones of the cerebral cortex.
Kenji Doya has argued that the cerebellum 's function is best understood not in terms of the behaviours it affects, but the neural computations it performs; the cerebellum consists of a large number of more or less independent modules, all with the same geometrically regular internal structure, and therefore all, it is presumed, performing the same computation. If the input and output connections of a module are with motor areas (as many are), then the module will be involved in motor behavior; but, if the connections are with areas involved in non-motor cognition, the module will show other types of behavioral correlates. Thus the cerebellum has been implicated in the regulation of many differing functional traits such as affection. emotion and behavior. The cerebellum, Doya proposes, is best understood as predictive action selection based on "internal models '' of the environment or a device for supervised learning, in contrast to the basal ganglia, which perform reinforcement learning, and the cerebral cortex, which performs unsupervised learning.
The comparative simplicity and regularity of the cerebellar anatomy led to an early hope that it might imply a similar simplicity of computational function, as expressed in one of the first books on cerebellar electrophysiology, The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine by John C. Eccles, Masao Ito, and János Szentágothai. Although a full understanding of cerebellar function has remained elusive, at least four principles have been identified as important: (1) feedforward processing, (2) divergence and convergence, (3) modularity, and (4) plasticity.
There is considerable evidence that the cerebellum plays an essential role in some types of motor learning. The tasks where the cerebellum most clearly comes into play are those in which it is necessary to make fine adjustments to the way an action is performed. There has, however, been much dispute about whether learning takes place within the cerebellum itself, or whether it merely serves to provide signals that promote learning in other brain structures. Most theories that assign learning to the circuitry of the cerebellum are derived from the ideas of David Marr and James Albus, who postulated that climbing fibers provide a teaching signal that induces synaptic modification in parallel fiber -- Purkinje cell synapses. Marr assumed that climbing fiber input would cause synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs to be strengthened. Most subsequent cerebellar - learning models, however, have followed Albus in assuming that climbing fiber activity would be an error signal, and would cause synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs to be weakened. Some of these later models, such as the Adaptive Filter model of Fujita made attempts to understand cerebellar function in terms of optimal control theory.
The idea that climbing fiber activity functions as an error signal has been examined in many experimental studies, with some supporting it but others casting doubt. In a pioneering study by Gilbert and Thach from 1977, Purkinje cells from monkeys learning a reaching task showed increased complex spike activity -- which is known to reliably indicate activity of the cell 's climbing fiber input -- during periods when performance was poor. Several studies of motor learning in cats observed complex spike activity when there was a mismatch between an intended movement and the movement that was actually executed. Studies of the vestibulo -- ocular reflex (which stabilizes the visual image on the retina when the head turns) found that climbing fiber activity indicated "retinal slip '', although not in a very straightforward way.
One of the most extensively studied cerebellar learning tasks is the eyeblink conditioning paradigm, in which a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) such as a tone or a light is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), such as an air puff, that elicits a blink response. After such repeated presentations of the CS and US, the CS will eventually elicit a blink before the US, a conditioned response or CR. Experiments showed that lesions localized either to a specific part of the interposed nucleus (one of the deep cerebellar nuclei) or to a few specific points in the cerebellar cortex would abolish learning of a conditionally timed blink response. If cerebellar outputs are pharmacologically inactivated while leaving the inputs and intracellular circuits intact, learning takes place even while the animal fails to show any response, whereas, if intracerebellar circuits are disrupted, no learning takes place -- these facts taken together make a strong case that the learning, indeed, occurs inside the cerebellum.
The large base of knowledge about the anatomical structure and behavioral functions of the cerebellum have made it a fertile ground for theorizing -- there are perhaps more theories of the function of the cerebellum than of any other part of the brain. The most basic distinction among them is between "learning theories '' and "performance theories '' -- that is, theories that make use of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum to account for its role in learning, versus theories that account for aspects of ongoing behavior on the basis of cerebellar signal processing. Several theories of both types have been formulated as mathematical models and simulated using computers.
Perhaps the earliest "performance '' theory was the "delay line '' hypothesis of Valentino Braitenberg. The original theory put forth by Braitenberg and Roger Atwood in 1958 proposed that slow propagation of signals along parallel fibers imposes predictable delays that allow the cerebellum to detect time relationships within a certain window. Experimental data did not support the original form of the theory, but Braitenberg continued to argue for modified versions. The hypothesis that the cerebellum functions essentially as a timing system has also been advocated by Richard Ivry. Another influential "performance '' theory is the Tensor network theory of Pellionisz and Llinás, which provided an advanced mathematical formulation of the idea that the fundamental computation performed by the cerebellum is to transform sensory into motor coordinates.
Theories in the "learning '' category almost all derive from publications by Marr and Albus. Marr 's 1969 paper proposed that the cerebellum is a device for learning to associate elemental movements encoded by climbing fibers with mossy fiber inputs that encode the sensory context. Albus proposed in 1971 that a cerebellar Purkinje cell functions as a perceptron, a neurally inspired abstract learning device. The most basic difference between the Marr and Albus theories is that Marr assumed that climbing fiber activity would cause parallel fiber synapses to be strengthened, whereas Albus proposed that they would be weakened. Albus also formulated his version as a software algorithm he called a CMAC (Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller), which has been tested in a number of applications.
The cerebellum is provided with blood from three paired major arteries: the superior cerebellar artery (SCA), the anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA), and the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA). The SCA supplies the upper region of the cerebellum. It divides at the upper surface and branches into the pia mater where the branches anastomose with those of the anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries. The AICA supplies the front part of the undersurface of the cerebellum. The PICA arrives at the undersurface, where it divides into a medial branch and a lateral branch. The medial branch continues backward to the cerebellar notch between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum; while the lateral branch supplies the under surface of the cerebellum, as far as its lateral border, where it anastomoses with the AICA and the SCA.
Damage to the cerebellum often causes motor - related symptoms, the details of which depend on the part of the cerebellum involved and how it is damaged. Damage to the flocculonodular lobe may show up as a loss of equilibrium and in particular an altered, irregular walking gait, with a wide stance caused by difficulty in balancing. Damage to the lateral zone typically causes problems in skilled voluntary and planned movements which can cause errors in the force, direction, speed and amplitude of movements. Other manifestations include hypotonia (decreased muscle tone), dysarthria (problems with speech articulation), dysmetria (problems judging distances or ranges of movement), dysdiadochokinesia (inability to perform rapid alternating movements such as walking), impaired check reflex or rebound phenomenon, and intention tremor (involuntary movement caused by alternating contractions of opposing muscle groups). Damage to the midline portion may disrupt whole - body movements, whereas damage localized more laterally is more likely to disrupt fine movements of the hands or limbs. Damage to the upper part of the cerebellum tends to cause gait impairments and other problems with leg coordination; damage to the lower part is more likely to cause uncoordinated or poorly aimed movements of the arms and hands, as well as difficulties in speed. This complex of motor symptoms is called ataxia.
To identify cerebellar problems, neurological examination includes assessment of gait (a broad - based gait being indicative of ataxia), finger - pointing tests and assessment of posture. If cerebellar dysfunction is indicated, a magnetic resonance imaging scan can be used to obtain a detailed picture of any structural alterations that may exist.
The list of medical problems that can produce cerebellar damage is long, including stroke, hemorrhage, swelling of the brain (cerebral edema), tumors, alcoholism, physical trauma such as gunshot wounds or explosives, and chronic degenerative conditions such as olivopontocerebellar atrophy. Some forms of migraine headache may also produce temporary dysfunction of the cerebellum, of variable severity. Infection can result in cerebellar damage in such conditions as the prion diseases and Miller Fisher syndrome, a variant of Guillain -- Barré syndrome.
The human cerebellum changes with age. These changes may differ from those of other parts of the brain. The cerebellum is the youngest brain region (and body part) in centenarians according to an epigenetic biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock: it is about 15 years younger than expected in a centenarian. Further, gene expression patterns in the human cerebellum show less age - related alteration than that in the cerebral cortex. Some studies have reported reductions in numbers of cells or volume of tissue, but the amount of data relating to this question is not very large.
Congenital malformation, hereditary disorders, and acquired conditions can affect cerebellar structure and, consequently, cerebellar function. Unless the causative condition is reversible, the only possible treatment is to help people live with their problems. Visualization of the fetal cerebellum by ultrasound scan at 18 to 20 weeks of pregnancy can be used to screen for fetal neural tube defects with a sensitivity rate of up to 99 %.
In normal development, endogenous sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) in the external granule layer (EGL). Cerebellar development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period, with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development (postnatal day 7 in the mouse). As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellum granule cells (also called cerebellar granule neurons, CGNs), they migrate to the internal granule layer (IGL), forming the mature cerebellum (by post-natal day 20 in the mouse). Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum (medulloblastoma) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models.
Congenital malformation or underdevelopment (hypoplasia) of the cerebellar vermis is a characteristic of both Dandy -- Walker syndrome and Joubert syndrome. In very rare cases, the entire cerebellum may be absent. The inherited neurological disorders Machado -- Joseph disease, ataxia telangiectasia, and Friedreich 's ataxia cause progressive neurodegeneration linked to cerebellar loss. Congenital brain malformations outside the cerebellum can, in turn, cause herniation of cerebellar tissue, as seen in some forms of Arnold -- Chiari malformation.
Other conditions that are closely linked to cerebellar degeneration include the idiopathic progressive neurological disorders multiple system atrophy and Ramsay Hunt syndrome type I, and the autoimmune disorder paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, in which tumors elsewhere in the body elicit an autoimmune response that causes neuronal loss in the cerebellum. Cerebellar atrophy can result from an acute deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine) as seen in beriberi and in Wernicke -- Korsakoff syndrome, or from vitamin E deficiency.
Cerebellar atrophy has been observed in many other neurological disorders including Huntington 's disease, multiple sclerosis, essential tremor, progressive myoclonus epilepsy, and Niemann -- Pick disease. Cerebellar atrophy can also occur as a result of exposure to toxins including heavy metals or pharmaceutical or recreational drugs.
There is a general consensus that the cerebellum is involved in pain processing. The cerebellum receives pain input from both descending cortico - cerebellar pathways and ascending spino - cerebellar pathways, through the pontine nuclei and inferior olives. Some of this information is transferred to the motor system inducing a conscious motor avoidance of pain, graded according to pain intensity.
These direct pain inputs, as well as indirect inputs, are thought to induce long - term pain avoidance behavior that results in chronic posture changes and consequently, in functional and anatomical remodeling of vestibular and proprioceptive nuclei. As a result, chronic neuropathic pain can induce macroscopic anatomical remodeling of the hindbrain, including the cerebellum. The magnitude of this remodeling and the induction of neuron progenitor markers suggest the contribution of adult neurogenesis to these changes.
The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well - developed brains, such as octopuses. This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to all animal species with a brain.
There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. In amphibians, it is little developed, and in lampreys, and hagfish, the cerebellum is barely distinguishable from the brain - stem. Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups, the primary structures are small, paired - nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum. The cerebellum is a bit larger in reptiles, considerably larger in birds, and larger yet in mammals. The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals, but the cerebellum is, in general, a single median lobe in other groups, and is either smooth or only slightly grooved. In mammals, the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass, but, in other vertebrates, it is typically the spinocerebellum.
The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei. Instead, the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. In mormyrid fish (a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish), the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together. The largest part of it is a special structure called the valvula, which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system.
The hallmark of the mammalian cerebellum is an expansion of the lateral lobes, whose main interactions are with the neocortex. As monkeys evolved into great apes, the expansion of the lateral lobes continued, in tandem with the expansion of the frontal lobes of the neocortex. In ancestral hominids, and in Homo sapiens until the middle Pleistocene period, the cerebellum continued to expand, but the frontal lobes expanded more rapidly. The most recent period of human evolution, however, may actually have been associated with an increase in the relative size of the cerebellum, as the neocortex reduced its size somewhat while the cerebellum expanded. The size of the human cerebellum, compared to the rest of the brain, has been increasing in size while the cerebrum decreased in size With both the development and implementation of motor tasks, visual - spatial skills and learning taking place in the cerebellum, the growth of the cerebellum is thought to have some form of correlation to greater human cognitive abilities. The lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum are now 2.7 times greater in both humans and apes than they are in monkeys. These changes in the cerebellum size can not be explained by greater muscle mass. They show that either the development of the cerebellum is tightly linked to that of the rest of the brain or that neural activities taking place in the cerebellum were important during Hominidae evolution. Due to the cerebellum 's role in cognitive functions, the increase in its size may have played a role in cognitive expansion.
Most vertebrate species have a cerebellum and one or more cerebellum - like structures, brain areas that resemble the cerebellum in terms of cytoarchitecture and neurochemistry. The only cerebellum - like structure found in mammals is the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), one of the two primary sensory nuclei that receive input directly from the auditory nerve. The DCN is a layered structure, with the bottom layer containing granule cells similar to those of the cerebellum, giving rise to parallel fibers that rise to the superficial layer and travel across it horizontally. The superficial layer contains a set of GABAergic neurons called cartwheel cells that resemble Purkinje cells anatomically and chemically -- they receive parallel fiber input, but do not have any inputs that resemble climbing fibers. The output neurons of the DCN are pyramidal cells. They are glutamatergic, but also resemble Purkinje cells in some respects -- they have spiny, flattened superficial dendritic trees that receive parallel fiber input, but they also have basal dendrites that receive input from auditory nerve fibers, which travel across the DCN in a direction at right angles to the parallel fibers. The DCN is most highly developed in rodents and other small animals, and is considerably reduced in primates. Its function is not well understood; the most popular speculations relate it to spatial hearing in one way or another.
Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water. One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum - like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum - like structure. In ray - finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer -- the marginal layer -- that is cerebellum - like.
All of these cerebellum - like structures appear to be primarily sensory - related rather than motor - related. All of them have granule cells that give rise to parallel fibers that connect to Purkinje - like neurons with modifiable synapses, but none have climbing fibers comparable to those of the cerebellum -- instead they receive direct input from peripheral sensory organs. None has a demonstrated function, but the most influential speculation is that they serve to transform sensory inputs in some sophisticated way, perhaps to compensate for changes in body posture. In fact, James M. Bower and others have argued, partly on the basis of these structures and partly on the basis of cerebellar studies, that the cerebellum itself is fundamentally a sensory structure, and that it contributes to motor control by moving the body in a way that controls the resulting sensory signals. Despite Bower 's viewpoint, there is also strong evidence that the cerebellum directly influences motor output in mammals.
Even the earliest anatomists were able to recognize the cerebellum by its distinctive appearance. Aristotle and Herophilus (quoted in Galen) called it the parencephalis, as opposed to the encephalon or brain proper. Galen 's extensive description is the earliest that survives. He speculated that the cerebellum was the source of motor nerves.
Further significant developments did not come until the Renaissance. Vesalius discussed the cerebellum briefly, and the anatomy was described more thoroughly by Thomas Willis in 1664. More anatomical work was done during the 18th century, but it was not until early in the 19th century that the first insights into the function of the cerebellum were obtained. Luigi Rolando in 1809 established the key finding that damage to the cerebellum results in motor disturbances. Jean Pierre Flourens in the first half of the 19th century carried out detailed experimental work, which revealed that animals with cerebellar damage can still move, but with a loss of coordination (strange movements, awkward gait, and muscular weakness), and that recovery after the lesion can be nearly complete unless the lesion is very extensive. By the beginning of the 20th century, it was widely accepted that the primary function of the cerebellum relates to motor control; the first half of the 20th century produced several detailed descriptions of the clinical symptoms associated with cerebellar disease in humans.
The name cerebellum is a diminutive of cerebrum (brain); it can be translated literally as little brain. The Latin name is a direct translation of the Ancient Greek παρεγκεφαλίς (parencephalis), which was used in the works of Aristotle, the first known writer to describe the structure. No other name is used in the English - language literature, but historically a variety of Greek or Latin - derived names have been used, including cerebrum parvum, encephalion, encranion, cerebrum posterius, and parencephalis.
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where does the river nile start and end | Nile - wikipedia
The Nile River (Arabic: النيل , Egyptian Arabic en - Nīl, Standard Arabic an - Nīl; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲱ, P (h) iaro; Ancient Egyptian: Ḥ'pī and Jtrw; Biblical Hebrew: הַיְאוֹר , Ha - Ye'or or הַשִׁיחוֹר , Ha - Shiḥor) is a major north - flowing river in northeastern Africa, and is commonly regarded as the longest river in the world, though some sources cite the Amazon River as the longest. The Nile, which is 6,853 km (4,258 miles) long, is an "international '' river as its drainage basin covers eleven countries, namely, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Republic of the Sudan and Egypt. In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan.
The Nile River has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The White Nile is considered to be the headwaters and primary stream of the Nile itself. The Blue Nile, however, is the source of most of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source still undetermined but located in either Rwanda or Burundi. It flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile (Amharic: ዓባይ, ʿĀbay) begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet just north of the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.
The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Sudanese desert to Egypt, then ends in a large delta and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks.
In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥ'pī or Iteru (Hapy), meaning "river ''. In Coptic, the words piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic) meaning "the river '' (lit. p (h). iar - o "the. canal - great '') come from the same ancient name.
The English name Nile and the Arabic names en - Nîl and an - Nîl both derive from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος. Beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed. Hesiod at his Theogony refers that Nilus (Νεῖλος) was one of the Potamoi (river gods), son of Oceanus and Tethys. Another possible etymology derives it from a Semitic Nahal, meaning "river ''. The standard English names "White Nile '' and "Blue Nile '', to refer to the river 's source, derive from Arabic names formerly applied only to the Sudanese stretches which meet at Khartoum.
Above Khartoum, the Nile River is also known as the White Nile, a term also used in a limited sense to describe the section between Lake No and Khartoum. At Khartoum the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift.
The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometers (1,256,591 sq mi), about 10 % of the area of Africa. The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the mainstem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation and evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow.
The source of the Nile River is sometimes considered to be Lake Victoria, but the lake has feeder rivers of considerable size. The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria near the Tanzanian town of Bukoba, is the longest feeder, although sources do not agree on which is the longest tributary of the Kagera and hence the most distant source of the Nile River itself. It is either the Ruvyironza, which emerges in Bururi Province, Burundi, or the Nyabarongo, which flows from Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda. The two feeder rivers meet near Rusumo Falls on the Rwanda - Tanzania border.
In 2010, an exploration party went to a place described as the source of the Rukarara tributary, and by hacking a path up steep jungle - choked mountain slopes in the Nyungwe forest found (in the dry season) an appreciable incoming surface flow for many kilometres upstream, and found a new source, giving the Nile a length of 6,758 km (4,199 mi).
Gish Abay is reportedly the place where the "holy water '' of the first drops of the Blue Nile develop.
The Nile River leaves Lake Nyanza (Victoria) at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the Victoria Nile. It flows north for some 130 kilometers (81 mi), to Lake Kyoga. The last part of the approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) river section starts from the western shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of Masindi Port, where the river turns north, then makes a great half circle to the east and north until Karuma Falls. For the remaining part it flows merely westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the very northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta. The lake itself is on the border of DR Congo, but the Nile River is not a border river at this point. After leaving Lake Albert, the river continues north through Uganda and is known as the Albert Nile.
The Nile river flows into South Sudan just south of Nimule, where it is known as the Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain River ''). Just south of the town it has the confluence with the Achwa River. The Bahr al Ghazal, itself 716 kilometers (445 mi) long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called Lake No, after which the Nile becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the whitish clay suspended in its waters. When the Nile floods it leaves a rich silty deposit which fertilizes the soil. The Nile no longer floods in Egypt since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1970. An anabranch river, the Bahr el Zeraf, flows out of the Nile 's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile.
The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at Mongalla, South Sudan is almost constant throughout the year and averages 1,048 m / s (37,000 cu ft / s). After Mongalla, the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region of South Sudan. More than half of the Nile 's water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration. The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about 510 m / s (18,000 cu ft / s). From here it soon meets with the Sobat River at Malakal. On an annual basis, the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about fifteen percent of the total outflow of the Nile River.
The average flow of the White Nile at Lake Kawaki Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is 924 m / s (32,600 cu ft / s); the peak flow is approximately 1,218 m / s (43,000 cu ft / s) in October and minimum flow is about 609 m / s (21,500 cu ft / s) in April. This fluctuation is due to the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat, which has a minimum flow of about 99 m / s (3,500 cu ft / s) in March and a peak flow of over 680 m / s (24,000 cu ft / s) in October. During the dry season (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70 percent and 90 percent of the total discharge from the Nile.
Below Renk the White Nile enters Sudan, it flows north to Khartoum and meets the Blue Nile.
The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over six groups of cataracts, from the sixth at Sabaloka just north of Khartoum northward to Abu Hamed. Due to the tectonic uplift of the Nubian Swell, the river is then diverted to flow for over 300 km south - west following the structure of the Central African Shear Zone embracing the Bayuda Desert. At Al Dabbah it resumes its northward course towards the first Cataract at Aswan forming the ' S ' - shaped Great Bend of the Nile already mentioned by Eratosthenes.
In the north of Sudan the river enters Lake Nasser (known in Sudan as Lake Nubia), the larger part of which is in Egypt.
Below the Aswan High Dam, at the northern limit of Lake Nasser, the Nile resumes its historic course.
North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta.
Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the Atbara River, roughly halfway to the sea, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) long. The Atbara flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it typically dries up. It joins the Nile approximately 300 kilometers (200 mi) north of Khartoum.
The Blue Nile (Ge'ez ጥቁር ዓባይ Ṭiqūr ʿĀbbāy (Black Abay) to Ethiopians; Arabic: النيل الأزرق ; transliterated: an - Nīl al - Azraq) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the Nile. Ninety percent of the water and ninety - six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile originates in Ethiopia, with fifty - nine percent of the water from the Blue Nile (the rest being from the Tekezé, Atbarah, Sobat, and small tributaries). The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season in the summer, however, when rainfall is especially high on the Ethiopian Plateau; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, Tekezé, and Atbarah) have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts the blue Nile dries out completely.
The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the dry season the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as 113 m / s (4,000 cu ft / s), although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the wet season the peak flow of the Blue Nile often exceeds 5,663 m / s (200,000 cu ft / s) in late August (a difference of a factor of 50).
Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over 8,212 m / s (290,000 cu ft / s) occurred during late August and early September, and minimum flows of about 552 m / s (19,500 cu ft / s) occurred during late April and early May.
The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of discharge.
The Bahr al Ghazal 's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile 's sub-basins, measuring 520,000 square kilometers (200,000 sq mi) in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about 2 m / s (71 cu ft / s) annually, due to tremendous volumes of water being lost in the Sudd wetlands.
The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land, 225,000 km (86,900 sq mi), but contributes 412 cubic meters per second (14,500 cu ft / s) annually to the Nile. When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile 's color.
The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the Ouaddaï Highlands of eastern Chad to the Nile River Valley c. 8000 to c. 1000 BC. Its remains are known as the Wadi Howar. The wadi passes through Gharb Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend.
The Nile (iteru in Ancient Egyptian) has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in Libya and flow into the Gulf of Sidra. As sea level rose at the end of the most recent ice age, the stream which is now the northern Nile pirated the ancestral Nile near Asyut, this change in climate also led to the creation of the current Sahara desert, around 3400 BC.
The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highlands. Satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the Eonile that flowed during the later Miocene (23 -- 5.3 million years before present). The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean; several natural gas fields have been discovered within these sediments.
During the late - Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred metres below world ocean level at Aswan and 2,400 m (7,900 ft) below Cairo. This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment when the Mediterranean was recreated. At some point the sediments raised the riverbed sufficiently for the river to overflow westward into a depression to create Lake Moeris.
Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern Zambia.
There are two theories about the age of the integrated Nile. One is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age, and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Rushdi Said postulated that Egypt itself supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.
The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile and the Atbara and Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times.
Salama suggested that during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 million to 2.588 million years ago) a series of separate closed continental basins each occupied one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System: Mellut rift, White Nile rift, Blue Nile rift, Atbara rift and Sag El Naam rift. The Mellut Rift Basin is nearly 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamps which form the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift System, although shallower than the Bahr el Arab rift, is about 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5 -- 9 kilometers (3.1 -- 5.6 mi). These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill and connect them. The Egyptian Nile connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial headwaters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift Systems. The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The River Atbara overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods that occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile connected to the main Nile during the 70,000 -- 80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago.
The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that "Egypt was the gift of the Nile ''. An unending source of sustenance, it provided a crucial role in the development of Egyptians civilization. Silt deposits from the Nile made the surrounding land fertile because the river overflowed its banks annually. The Ancient Egyptians cultivated and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine - plagued Middle East. This trading system secured Egypt 's diplomatic relationships with other countries, and contributed to economic stability. Far - reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times.
Water buffalo were introduced from Asia, and Assyrians introduced camels in the 7th century BC. These animals were killed for meat, and were domesticated and used for ploughing -- or in the camels ' case, carriage. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods. The Nile was an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Hapy was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.
As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the 3 cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each, were called Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth. Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.
Owing to their failure to penetrate the sudd wetlands of South Sudan, the upper reaches of the Nile remained largely unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Various expeditions failed to determine the river 's source. Agatharcides records that in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian Highlands, but no European of antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana.
The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in 1154.
Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 15th and 16th centuries, when travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Although James Bruce claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters, modern writers give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez. Páez 's account of the source of the Nile is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. It was published in full only in the early 20th century, although it was featured in works of Páez 's contemporaries, including Baltazar Téllez, Athanasius Kircher and by Johann Michael Vansleb.
Europeans had been resident in Ethiopia since the late 15th century, and one of them may have visited the headwaters even earlier without leaving a written trace. The Portuguese João Bermudes published the first description of the Tis Issat Falls in his 1565 memoirs, compared them to the Nile Falls alluded to in Cicero 's De Republica. Jerónimo Lobo describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. Telles also used his account.
The White Nile was even less understood. The ancients mistakenly believed that the Niger River represented the upper reaches of the White Nile. For example, Pliny the Elder wrote that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower Mauretania '', flowed above ground for "many days '' distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the Masaesyli, then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days ' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians. '' A merchant named Diogenes reported that the Nile 's water attracted game such as buffalo.
Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when the British explorer John Hanning Speke reached its southern shore while traveling with Richard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the great lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water '' for the first time, Speke named the lake after the then Queen of the United Kingdom. Burton, recovering from illness and resting further south on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was outraged that Speke claimed to have proved his discovery to be the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A very public quarrel ensued, which sparked a great deal of intense debate within the scientific community and interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke 's discovery. British explorer and missionary David Livingstone pushed too far west and entered the Congo River system instead. It was ultimately Welsh - American explorer Henry Morton Stanley who confirmed Speke 's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at Ripon Falls on the Lake 's northern shore.
European involvement in Egypt goes back to the time of Napoleon. Laird Shipyard of Liverpool sent an iron steamer to the Nile in the 1830s. With the completion of the Suez Canal and the British takeover of Egypt in the 1870s, more British river steamers followed.
The Nile is the area 's natural navigation channel, giving access to Khartoum and Sudan by steamer. The Siege of Khartoum was broken with purpose - built sternwheelers shipped from England and steamed up the river to retake the city. After this came regular steam navigation of the river. With British Forces in Egypt in the First World War and the inter-war years, river steamers provided both security and sightseeing to the Pyramids and Thebes. Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as 1962. Sudan steamer traffic was a lifeline as few railways or roads were built in that country. Most paddle steamers have been retired to shorefront service, but modern diesel tourist boats remain on the river.
The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river, and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan High Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The rivers 's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile, which are sections of faster - flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, which form an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd wetlands in Sudan also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impede water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to canalize (the Jonglei Canal) to bypass the swamps.
Nile cities include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the Giza -- Cairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan, north of the Aswan Dam. This part of the river is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.
A computer simulation study to plan the economic development of the Nile was directed by H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, for the Ministry of Hydro - power of the Republic of the Sudan, during 1955 -- 1957 Morrice was their Hydrological Adviser, and Allan his predecessor. M.P. Barnett directed the software development and computer operations. The calculations were enabled by accurate monthly inflow data collected for 50 years. The underlying principle was the use of over-year storage, to conserve water from rainy years for use in dry years. Irrigation, navigation and other needs were considered. Each computer run postulated a set of reservoirs and operating equations for the release of water as a function of the month and the levels upstream. The behavior that would have resulted given the inflow data was modeled. Over 600 models were run. Recommendations were made to the Sudanese authorities. The calculations were run on an IBM 650 computer. Simulation studies to design water resources are discussed further in the article on hydrology transport models, that have been used since the 1980s to analyze water quality.
Despite the development of many reservoirs, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan, but Egypt was nourished by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Drought has proven to be a major cause of fatality in the Nile River basin. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group around 170 million people have been affected by droughts in the last century with half a million lives lost. From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.
The Nile 's water has affected the politics of East Africa and the Horn of Africa for many decades. Countries including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about Egyptian domination of its water resources. The Nile Basin Initiative promotes a peaceful cooperation among those states.
Several attempts have been made to establish agreements between the countries sharing the Nile waters. It is very difficult to have all these countries agree with each other given the self - interest of each country and their political, strategic, and social differences. On 14 May 2010 at Entebbe, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda signed a new agreement on sharing the Nile water even though this agreement raised strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan. Ideally, such international agreements should promote equitable and efficient usage of the Nile basin 's water resources. Without a better understanding about the availability of the future water resources of the Nile River, it is possible that conflicts could arise between these countries relying on the Nile for their water supply, economic and social developments.
In 1951, the American John Goddard together with two French explorers became the first to successfully navigate the entire Nile river from its source in Burundi at the potential headsprings of the Kagera River in Burundi to its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea, a journey of approximately 6800 kilometers. Their 9 - month journey is described in the book ' Kayaks down the Nile '.
The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendrik Coetzee, navigated the White Nile 's entire length of approximately 3,700 kilometres (2,300 mi). The expedition began at the White Nile 's beginning at Lake Victoria in Uganda, on 17 January 2004 and arrived safely at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, four and a half months later. On the 30th of April 2005 a team led by South Africans Peter Meredith and Hendrik Coetzee, following again in the footsteps of John Goddard, navigated the major remote source of the White Nile, the Akagera river that starts as the Ruvyironza in Bururi Province, Burundi, and ends at Lake Victoria, Uganda.
In April 2006, the Ascend the Nile Expedition including two explorers from Britain and one from New Zealand ascended the river from its mouth at Rosetta to one of its sources in Rwanda 's Nyungwe Forest. The Team including Cam McLeay, Neil McGrigor and Garth MacIntyre spent 70 days travelling to the Rwandese source of the Nile covering approximately 6800 kilometres. During the Expedition they were ambushed by the LRA (Lord 's Resistance Army) lead by the notorious Joseph Kony, however post-attack six months later they returned to complete the expedition. They measured the length of the river with the help of GPS and claimed to have found the furthest source. Due to the unscientific approach of their expedition, their reluctance to release the GPS data, and not having measured the other contender for the true source of the Nile in Burundi, controversy has ensued.
The Blue Nile Expedition, led by geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first people to descend the entire Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Their approximately 5,230 kilometres (3,250 mi) journey took 114 days: from 25 December 2003 to 28 April 2004. Though their expedition included others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to complete the entire journey. Although they descended whitewater manually the team used outboard motors for much of their journey.
On 29 January 2005 Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner completed the first human powered transit of Ethiopia 's Blue Nile. Their journey of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) took five months. They recount that they paddled through two war zones, regions notorious for bandits, and were arrested at gunpoint.
The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North:
The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman:
the following bridges cross from Omdurman: to Khartoum North:
The following bridges cross to Tuti from Khartoum states three cities
Other bridges
Riverboat on the Nile, Egypt 1900
Marsh along the Nile
A river boat crossing the Nile in Uganda
Murchison Falls in Uganda, between Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga
The Nile in Luxor
The river Nile flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.
The following is an annotated bibliography of key written documents for the Western exploration of the Nile.
17th century
18th century
1800 -- 1850
1850 -- 1900
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university of kentucky college of law notable alumni | University of Kentucky College of Law - wikipedia
The College of Law is a college of the University of Kentucky. Founded initially from a law program at Transylvania University in 1799, the law program at UK began operations in 1908; it was one of the nation 's first public law schools. In 1913, the college became the first in the nation to institute a trial practice program, and is host to the tenth - oldest student - run law review publication in the United States. The current dean of the College of Law is David Brennen.
According to the most recent publication of US News and World Report, the Law School is ranked # 58 among all public and private universities. Among the three law schools in the commonwealth, the University of Kentucky College of Law ranks the highest. Among public law schools, the program is tied at # 31.
The UK College of Law is home to two entirely student - run publications: the Kentucky Law Journal and the Kentucky Journal of Equine, Agriculture & Natural Resources Law. The Kentucky Law Journal is one of the oldest law reviews in the United States.
According to University of Kentucky 's 2013 ABA - required disclosures, 70.7 % of the Class of 2013 obtained full - time, long - term, JD - required employment nine months after graduation, excluding solo practitioners.
As noted, the UK College of Law began operations in 1908. It was housed in a structure now known as the Gillis Building from 1927 to 1936. In 1936, the college moved into the newly built Lafferty Hall. Lafferty Hall was named after William T. Lafferty, the first dean of the College of Law.
The College of Law again relocated to its current building located on South Limestone in 1965.
In 1913, the college began publication of the Kentucky Law Journal. The KLJ is the tenth - oldest student - run law journal in continuous publication in America. In 1925, the college was approved by the American Bar Association and was elected to the Order of the Coif in 1931.
Constructed in 1965, the University of Kentucky College of Law Building houses the Alvin E. Evans Library, classrooms, and faculty offices...
The Alvin E. Evans Library is the largest law library in the Commonwealth and contains approximately 470,000 volumes, along with a vast array of electronic materials. It also provides access to all "U.S. reported court decisions, statutes and administrative materials '' along with international materials.
A 2002 study suggested that if a new College of Law structure was to be constructed, it should relocate closer to downtown Lexington. The suggested site was a block or two north, on Scott Street near the College of Education. A plan for five structures and two courtyards was abandoned because of funding difficulties. Now the school will renovate and expand its current building, a $56 million project, with state bonds paying $35 million on the condition that tuition not go up as a result. The work is to be completed in 2019.
According to University of Kentucky 's official 2013 ABA - required disclosures, 70.7 % of the Class of 2013 obtained full - time, long - term, JD - required employment nine months after graduation, excluding solo practitioners. University of Kentucky 's Law School Transparency under - employment score is 11.3 %, indicating the percentage of the Class of 2013 unemployed, pursuing an additional degree, or working in a non-professional, short - term, or part - time job nine months after graduation.
The total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, fees, and living expenses) at University of Kentucky for the 2014 - 2015 academic year is $53,700. The Law School Transparency estimated debt - financed cost of attendance for three years is $204,646.
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who scored the most goal in the world | FIFA World Cup top goalscorers - wikipedia
Over 2,300 goals have been scored at the 20 editions of the FIFA World Cup final tournaments, excluding penalties converted during shoot - outs. Since the first goal scored by French player Lucien Laurent at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, over 1,200 footballers have scored goals at the World Cup, but only 90 of them have scored at least five goals.
The top goalscorer of the inaugural competition was Argentina 's Guillermo Stábile with eight goals. Since then, only 22 players have scored more goals at all the games played at the World Cup as Stábile did throughout the 1930 tournament. The first was Hungary 's Sándor Kocsis with eleven goals scored in 1954. At the next tournament, France 's Just Fontaine improved on this record with 13 goals in only six games. Gerd Müller scored 10 goals for West Germany in 1970, and broke the overall record when he scored his 14th goal at the World Cup during West Germany 's win at the 1974 final. His record stood for more than three decades until Brazil 's Ronaldo scored 15 goals between 1998 and 2006. Germany 's Miroslav Klose went on to score a record 16 goals across four consecutive tournaments between 2002 and 2014. Only two other players have also scored more than 10 goals at the World Cup: Pelé with 12 between 1958 and 1970, and Jürgen Klinsmann with 11 between 1990 and 1998.
Of the 90 players who have scored at least five goals, only 5 of them have scored, on average, at least two goals per game played: Kocsis, Fontaine, Stábile, Oleg Salenko, and Josef Hügi -- while Ernst Wilimowski scored four goals in his single World Cup game in 1938. These top 90 goalscorers represented 30 different nations, with 13 players scoring for Brazil, and another 14 for Germany or West Germany. In total, 60 footballers are from UEFA (Europe), 26 from CONMEBOL (South America), and only 4 players from elsewhere: Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, and the United States.
Fontaine holds the record for the most goals scored at a single tournament, with 13 goals in 1958. The players that came closest to this record were Kocsis in 1954, Müller in 1970 and Portugal 's Eusébio in 1966, with 11, 10 and 9 goals, respectively. The lowest scoring tournament 's top goalscorer was in 1962, when six players scored only four goals each. A total of 29 different footballers have been credited with the most goals at a World Cup during the 20 editions, and no one has achieved this feat twice. Nine of them scored at least seven goals in a tournament, while Jairzinho became in 1970 the only footballer to score seven goals without being the top goalscorer that year. These 29 top goalscorers played for 19 different nations, the most (five) for Brazil. Of these 29, 19 came from Europe and 10 from South America. Except for three in 2010, all the top goalscorers won the Golden Boot.
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do you have to show id when asked by police | Stop and identify statutes - wikipedia
"Stop and identify '' statutes are statutory laws in the United States that authorize police to legally obtain the identification of someone whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. If there is no reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, an individual is not required to provide identification, even in "Stop and ID '' states. In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer 's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated '' the unlawful stop - and - identify.
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968) established that it is constitutionally permissible for police to temporarily detain a person based on an articulable reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, and to conduct a search for weapons based on a reasonable belief that the person is armed. The question whether it is constitutionally permissible for the police to demand that a detainee provide his or her name was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004), which held that the name disclosure did not violate the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. The Hiibel Court also held that, because Hiibel had no reasonable belief that his name would be used to incriminate him, the name disclosure did not violate the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination; however, the Court left open the possibility that Fifth Amendment right might apply in situations where there was a reasonable belief that giving a name could be incriminating. The Court accepted the Nevada supreme court interpretation of the Nevada statute that a detained person could satisfy the Nevada law by simply stating his name. The Court did not rule on whether particular identification cards could be required, though it did mention one state law requiring "credible and reliable '' identification had been struck down for vagueness.
In the United States, interactions between police and citizens fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact '' or "conversation ''), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)), or arrest. "Stop and identify '' laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver 's license to police upon request.
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. The objective may simply be a friendly conversation; however, the police also may suspect involvement in a crime, but lack "specific and articulable facts '' that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify himself or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time. Police are not usually required to tell a person that he is free to decline to answer questions and go about his business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go? ''
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe he is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if they have reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk '') if they reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop, but in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify '' laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify himself to police, and in some cases, provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, it was unresolved whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose his name. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court held, in a 5 -- 4 decision, that a Nevada "stop and identify '' law did not violate the United States Constitution. The Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating his name. Some "stop and identify '' laws do not require that a detainee identify himself, but allow refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest. In some states, providing a false name is an offense.
As of February 2011, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than his name, however some states such as Arizona have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from their full name.
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, his or her belongings, and his or her immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. If a person is under arrest and police wish to question him, they are required to inform the person of his Fifth - Amendment right to remain silent by giving a Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify '' law could compel giving one 's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give his name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one 's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give his name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "Stop and ID '' laws which may or may not require someone to identify themselves during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand '' ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to, hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state (Henes v. Morrissey). Annotations for Wisconsin § 968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so '', citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. "The former without the latter is no crime... In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question "in the vicinity where the person was stopped. '' The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest. '' Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name is n't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying ones self is n't a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of his or her duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107 - 14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs the conduct of police officers. The fact remains that there is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 for a suspect to identify himself or herself.
By contrast, in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177, 181 (2004), a Nevada statute (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.123 (2003)) specifically required that a person subjected to a Terry stop "shall identify himself. '' The Supreme Court held that the statute was constitutional.
As of February 2011, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify himself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify '' laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
As of February 2011, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating his or her name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
In states whose "stop and identify laws '' do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer ''. For example, the Nevada "stop and identify '' law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibels refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing '' law. A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify '' and "obstructing '' laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
"Stop and identify '' laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify '' law, Penal Code § 647 (e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal. App. 3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable '' identification that carries a "reasonable assurance '' of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing '' laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing '' law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing '' law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) (PDF) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances '' that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing '' law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention ''; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law '', there is no obligation for a detainee to identify himself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify '' statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer 's demand for written identification from a detainee. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant 's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California can not be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987) have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006) strongly disagreed.
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify '' law:
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any. Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card named Cartão de Cidadão - Citizen Card is an electronic card which includes biometric information, id number, social security number, fiscal information, place of birth, etc. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
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atelier firis the alchemist and the mysterious journey romance | Atelier Firis: the Alchemist and the Mysterious Journey - Wikipedia
Atelier Firis: The Alchemist and the Mysterious Journey (Japanese: フィリス の アトリエ ~ 不思議 な 旅 の 錬金術 士 ~, Hepburn: Firisu no Atorie ~ Fushigi na Tabi no Renkinjutsushi ~) is a 2016 Japanese role - playing video game developed by Gust Co. Ltd. for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Microsoft Windows. It is the eighteenth main game in the Atelier series and the second game of the Mysterious storyline.
The time limit seen in previous games makes a partial return in this game. Players are expected to accomplish a goal within a year, then the rest of the game unlimited. Several actions, such as running, fighting, and synthesis, consume time. Furthermore, as time passes day and night will cycle. It is the first game in the Atelier series to feature an open world.
The item synthesis system allows the player to place items of different sizes into a square panel, which players place items of differing shapes into. These panels have lines that appear on them; covering all the lines grants bonuses. Catalysts are used to change the size of the panel and add new lines, and thus new bonuses. The usage of catalysts can result in greatly different versions of the same item. There is, additionally, mass synthesis, or the ability to create items that change the fields themselves.
Item synthesis is not bound to a single location. Instead, it can be performed at any campfire found in the land, using a portable atelier. This atelier can be decorated, and with some of the decorations offering special effects. Further, recipes for synthesis can be found from all kinds of activities, such as fighting, meeting characters, gathering materials, and the act of synthesis itself.
Items can be gathered through multiple methods. For instance, a rock can be broken with Firis 's staff, or it can be blown up with an item, which may result in different materials.
Four characters can be taken into battle. Item effects and monster actions and abilities may change by the weather and time of day. Depending on the character 's selected action, their wait time for their next turn may change. Through attacking enemies several times, they can be inflicted with "break '', which makes them unable to move. They can be left stunned until they recover, or they can then be attacked for greater damage. As the characters perform action, a gauge fills, allowing characters to use "chain burst '' activities when full. Any characters that move consecutively can use a combination attack together. Depending on the gauge and number of characters attacking together, chained skills can be used. Using these skills increases the "linkage '' rate, which allows the use of finishing attacks once it reaches a certain value. All characters are capable of using items, however, only alchemists can use all items.
Firis Mistlud is a young girl living in a secluded mine town who dreams of exploring the world outside. One day, Firis becomes friends with Sophie and Plachta, the main characters of the previous game, who teach her the basics of alchemy. After proving her talent for alchemy, Firis is allowed to leave the village, but under the condition that she must pass the alchemist certification exam in one year, or she will be forced to return home. Thus begins Firis ' journey to become a full fledged alchemist, and earn the right to keep exploring the world indefinitely.
The PlayStation Vita version of Atelier Firis: The Alchemist and the Mysterious Journey debuted at number five of the Japanese video game sales charts, with 16,153 copies sold and PC steam ver has sold in total 23,151 Digital copies based on information from the steamspy count.
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where did the early fighting in the french and indian war take place | French and Indian War - wikipedia
British victory
Great Britain
Iroquois Confederacy
France
Wabanaki Confederacy
The French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years ' War of 1756 -- 63. It pitted the colonies of British America against those of New France. Both sides were supported by military units from their parent countries of Great Britain and France, as well as by American Indian allies. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British North American colonies. The outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. The European nations declared war on one another in 1756 following months of localized conflict, escalating the war from a regional affair into an intercontinental conflict.
The name French and Indian War is used mainly in the United States. It refers to the two main enemies of the British colonists: the royal French forces and the various American Indian forces allied with them. The British colonists were supported at various times by the Iroquois, Catawba, and Cherokee, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy members Abenaki and Mi'kmaq, and Algonquin, Lenape, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot.
British and other European historians use the term the Seven Years ' War, as do English - speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête (the War of the Conquest) or (rarely) the Fourth Intercolonial War.
Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne within present - day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22 - year - old George Washington ambushed a French patrol.
In 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four - way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755 and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of Pennsylvania and New York during 1755 - 57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Indian warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755 -- 64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander - in - Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty. Indians likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England.
The British colonial government fell in the region of modern Nova Scotia after several disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry; this last was followed by Indians torturing and massacring their British victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theater of the war. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada (part of New France). They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759). The British later lost the Battle of Sainte - Foy west of Quebec (1760), but the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763).
The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo - French conflict. France ceded to Great Britain its territory east of the Mississippi. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (including New Orleans) to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain 's loss to Britain of Florida. (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba.) France 's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great Britain 's position as the dominant colonial power in eastern North America.
The conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William 's War or Queen Anne 's War. There had already been a King George 's War in the 1740s during King George 's reign, so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents and it became known as the French and Indian War. This traditional name continues as the standard in the United States, but it obscures the fact that Indians fought on both sides of the conflict and that this was part of the Seven Years ' War, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain. American historians generally use the traditional name or sometimes the Seven Years ' War. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire.
In Europe, the North American theater of the Seven Years ' War usually is not given a separate name. The entire international conflict is known as the Seven Years ' War. "Seven Years '' refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756 to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. These dates do not correspond with the fighting on mainland North America which was largely concluded in six years, from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760.
Canadians refer to both the European and North American conflicts as the Seven Years ' War (Guerre de Sept Ans). French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest '' (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which Canada was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire.
At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present - day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (present - day Cape Breton Island). Fewer lived in New Orleans, Biloxi, Mississippi, Mobile, Alabama, and small settlements in the Illinois Country, hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women. Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high - ranking unions.
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1.5 million ranged along the eastern coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland in the north to Georgia in the south. Many of the older colonies had land claims that extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, yet the settlements were growing into the interior. Nova Scotia had been captured from France in 1713, and it still had a significant French - speaking population. Britain also claimed Rupert 's Land where the Hudson 's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes.
In between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaqs and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre 's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada, as well as much of Maine. The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of Upstate New York and the Ohio Country, although Ohio also included Algonquian - speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee, as well as Iroquoian - speaking Mingos. These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements.
The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan - speaking Catawbas, Muskogee - speaking Creeks and Choctaw, and the Iroquoian - speaking Cherokee tribes. When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region, which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons, Mississaugs, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi. The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo - Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Pennsylvania government successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict.
By this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern North America; it controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years ' War. Florida 's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine and Pensacola.
At the start of the war, no French regular army troops were stationed in North America, and few British troops. New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine, companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience). The colonial government recruited militia support when needed. Most British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars.
The colonial governments were used to operating independently of one another and of the government in London, a situation that complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. After the war began, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations.
New France 's Governor - General Roland - Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan. In June 1747, he ordered Pierre - Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were:
Céloron 's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went up the St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario, crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie. At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York, the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh. There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur - traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave.
Céloron 's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French. He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, the home of the Miami chief known as "Old Briton ''. Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749.
Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, '' he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English. I do n't know in what way they could be brought back. '' Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present.
In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country. The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. But the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims. In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown. He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half - King '' Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build a strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. By the late 17th century, the Iroquois had pushed many tribes out of the Ohio Valley, and they laid claim to it as their hunting ground by right of conquest.
The War of the Austrian Succession (better known as King George 's War) formally ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland.
Governor - General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne, but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post. The continuing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French - Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe. His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron 's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading centre at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party.
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000 - man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King 's land in the Ohio Valley from the British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts. He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie 's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania, and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania), designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed.
The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things. '' He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia.
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York. Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the "Covenant Chain '' was broken, a long - standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown.
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. He ordered 21 year - old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753. Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf.
Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint - Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint - Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it. '' He told Washington that France 's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier.
Washington 's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south '', detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754. Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude - Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint - Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754. These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent 's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne.
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent 's retreat while he was en route. Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He then learned of a French scouting party in the area, so he combined Tanaghrisson 's force with his own and surprised the Canadians on May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen. They killed many of the Canadians, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people. They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships. One of Tanaghrisson 's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire.
Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley.
Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jummonville 's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors -- just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence.
News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations, the government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French. They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition. Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock 's departure for North America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755. The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them.
In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756.
An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with various Indians, since allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved of by the crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence.
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara, and Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at present - day Crown Point, New York. Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east, on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia.
Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides. The expedition was a disaster. It was attacked by French soldiers and Indian warriors ambushing them from up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by George Washington. Two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War played key roles in organizing the retreat: Washington and Thomas Gage.
The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley 's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, Shirley was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at present - day Rome, New York. Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara.
Johnson 's expedition was better organized than Shirley 's, which was noticed by New France 's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil. He had primarily been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley 's expected attack. Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River, but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau 's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry. The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson 's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after British capture in 1759).
Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French fortress at Louisbourg from land - based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia 's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French - speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton 's forces, including companies of Rogers ' Rangers, forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. More than any other factor, cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise. The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg, among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy, on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint - Jean.
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec. His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York 's Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained little support.
Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers whom France sent to North America. French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis - Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François - Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession. On May 18, 1756, England formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years ' War.
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In the Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action.
The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil 's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners ' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians.
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France 's capital of Quebec. He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg first by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia in early August. In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French coast, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet. Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.
French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification. In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole. When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm 's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves. The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward. Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists.
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory. His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates. A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758. The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle; yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine '' as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry.
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years. The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle 's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor.
Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning. He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun. He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757. Pitt 's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France. Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September -- October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley. The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege.
The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie 's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga. Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France 's western forts and furs destined for Europe. Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war. The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul, and he decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France and sent funds to Britain 's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart France and elude the British blockade of the French coast.
British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759: the British captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders, and a British victory at Fort Niagara cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south. The victory was made complete in 1760; the British did suffer a defeat outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte - Foy, but they prevented the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760. Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.
Most of the fighting ended in continental North America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain. The notable exception was the French seizure of St. John 's, Newfoundland. General Amherst heard of this surprise action and immediately dispatched troops under his nephew William Amherst, who regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762. Many troops from North America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Spain belatedly entered the conflict on the side of France, and a British expedition against French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton.
General Amherst also oversaw the transition of French forts to British control in the western lands. The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Indians and contributed to Pontiac 's Rebellion in 1763. This series of attacks on frontier forts and settlements required the continued deployment of British troops, and it was not resolved until 1766.
The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theater was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area. They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands ' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent. French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow. The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue; they also had ample places from which to obtain sugar. Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses. Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations.
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories. France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long - term consequences.
Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French - speaking Roman Catholic residents. The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south. The British resettled many Acadians throughout its North American provinces, but many went to France, and some went to New Orleans, which they had expected to remain French. Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, but these efforts were unsuccessful. Others migrated to places such as Saint - Domingue or fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution. The Louisiana population contributed to the founding of the modern Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien '' changed to "Cadien '' then to "Cajun ''.)
Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763 which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations. Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward - bound settlers. The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians. The Quebec Act addressed this and other issues in 1774, raising concerns in the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery. '' The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution.
The Seven Years ' War nearly doubled Great Britain 's national debt. The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies. These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown 's authority. These acts ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War.
France attached comparatively little value to its North American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar - producing Antilles islands which it retained. Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a good deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost "a few acres of snow ''. For France, however, the military defeat and the financial burden of the war weakened the monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789.
For some of the Indian tribes, the elimination of French power in North America meant the disappearance of a strong ally, although other tribes were not so affected. The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement, due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes. The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions. The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were now competing for land. The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, including the entire governmental records from St. Augustine, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico.
France returned to North America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco - American alliance against Great Britain in the American War of Independence. This time, France succeeded in prevailing over Great Britain in what historian Alfred A. Cave describes as "French... revenge for Montcalm 's death ''.
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does lily die in how i met your mother | Lily Aldrin - wikipedia
Lily Aldrin is a fictional character in the CBS television series How I Met Your Mother. Lily is portrayed by American actress Alyson Hannigan. She is the wife of Marshall Eriksen and the best friend of Ted Mosby, Robin Scherbatsky and Barney Stinson. Lily is a kindergarten teacher and an amateur painter. In the eighth season, she gets a job as an art consultant. Lily is also the only member of the original main cast of the series who has not appeared in every episode, due to Alyson Hannigan taking leave after giving birth to her first child.
Series creator Craig Thomas explained that he based Marshall and Lily on himself and his wife Rebecca. Rebecca had been upset after learning this, but (as she is a fan of Buffy the Vampire Slayer) was consoled when Alyson Hannigan was put in the role. Hannigan was looking to do more comedy work after having worked on the American Pie series and was available for the show.
Lily Aldrin, born March 22, 1978, grew up in Park Slope, Brooklyn, New York. She is the daughter of Janice Aldrin, whom Lily describes as a feminist and who worked two jobs to support the family. The creators stated in commentary that there is no evidence to the contrary that Lily 's grandfather is astronaut Buzz Aldrin -- and like Buzz Aldrin, her grandfather is said to have fought in the Korean War. Lily 's father, Mickey, is an unsuccessful board game creator living in his parents ' basement. Janice and Mickey divorced when Lily was a child. Lily is estranged from her father -- an absentee parent who she claims "broke my heart every day for 20 years '' -- until he promises to be there for her following the birth of her son.
During her high school and college years, she was a part of the goth subculture, dying her hair and wearing stereotypical "goth '' clothes. She dumped her high school boyfriend, Scooter, on prom night, admitting she only dated him because he looked like Kurt Cobain. He remains obsessed with her for years afterward. She met Marshall during her freshman year at Wesleyan University in 1996 and dated him throughout college.
As of 2010, Lily is 32 years old, meaning she was born circa 1978. According to her résumé, she is fluent in Italian, certified in teaching English as a Second Language, and proficient in Photoshop, Quark, and Java.
Lily frequently states her need for regular sex, saying that if she went without for too long she 'd be "out there selling it for a nickel ''. She has a more than passing sexual interest in other women, suggesting she may be bisexual. In particular, she has confessed several times, albeit in a seemingly joking fashion, that she finds Robin sexually attractive, and has been the subject of some sexually "confusing dreams ''. Robin at one point says that she wo n't go near Lily after she 's been drinking martinis, as she is prone to flirt quite strongly with her and even try to get the guys to dare them to make out. Well aware of Lily 's sexual attraction to her, Robin tends to alternate between ignoring, and being disturbed by them whenever they show themselves.
Lily is adept at manipulating people and situations to get what she wants; she is especially talented at engineering breakups between couples she knows are not right for each other. Barney calls her a "diabolical puppet master '' and "pure evil '', while Ted calls her a "psychopath ''.
Lily and Marshall get engaged in the fall of 2005, as portrayed in the series pilot. Towards the end of the first season, she reveals to Robin that she has been having second thoughts about getting married without having experienced much else of life before Marshall. Those doubts intensify, and she acts upon them, applying for a painting fellowship in San Francisco. She is accepted and, after arguing with Marshall on and off -- with several pause breaks in between for drinks, dinner at Red Lobster, and sex -- Lily finally says that she can not promise Marshall that she would return to him after the three - month fellowship. They break up, and she goes to San Francisco.
She returns to New York three months later, and confesses that leaving had been a mistake. She begs Marshall to take her back, but Marshall ca n't get over his wounded pride, and refuses. They eventually get back together, however, and resume their engagement. They finally get married at the end of the season.
In the third season, it is revealed that Lily is a shopaholic, and goes shopping whenever something bad happens. She keeps her multiple credit cards in a "box of shame ''. She and Marshall struggle with her credit card bills, especially when they were about to buy an apartment, which leaves Marshall no choice but to abandon his dreams of being an environmental lawyer and take a job at a big corporate firm. They eventually get the house, only to find out that the neighborhood is situated near a water sewage treatment plant and that the floor of their apartment is crooked.
Lily, along with Ted and Marshall, occasionally indulge in "sandwiches '' (Future Ted 's euphemism for marijuana) during college and at their 20th college reunion.
Out of all of the characters, she is the only one Barney chooses to confide in when he realizes that he is in love with Robin. In the fifth season, Lily forces Robin and Barney to confess to being a couple. She does this by detaching the doorknob of Robin 's room at the apartment and waits for them to have "the talk ''. Robin and Barney pass a few notes under the door with vague explanations, none of which satisfy her. To convince Lily to let them out, they lie about being boyfriend and girlfriend, but after they leave the apartment hand - in - hand, Lily tells Ted "they did n't realize they were n't lying. ''
Lily and Marshall are both ecstatic to have another couple to hang out with. They invite Robin and Barney for an evening together, which goes awry; Lily and Marshall become clingy and dependent, prompting Barney and Robin to "break up '' with them. Eventually, Barney and Robin realize they miss Lily and Marshall, and they all profess their desire to be a foursome. When Barney and Robin 's relationship starts to falter, Lily "coming out of retirement '' to break them up. She executes an elaborate plan to get them into a big argument; this fails, but they finally realize they do n't work as a couple.
The group discovers that Lily has a doppelgänger named Jasmine, a Russian stripper. Lily is especially excited about this, and is so enthralled by her stripper twin that she and Marshall get a private dance. At the end of the night, Lily switches place with Jasmine and dances with much difficulty on stage, eventually falling into the crowd, to Marshall 's horror.
Throughout the sixth season, Marshall and Lily try to get pregnant. Their first attempts are unsuccessful, however, and they worry that they will not be able to conceive. In the season finale, Lily finally gets pregnant. At the end of the seventh season, she gives birth to a son, Marvin.
In the eighth season, Lily takes a job as an art consultant to a millionaire called "The Captain '', who eventually offers to move her to Italy. She turns the promotion down, however, as it conflicts with Marshall 's job as an environmental lawyer. Marshall convinces her to take it, however, and the two prepare to move to Rome. In the season finale, Marshall accepts a judgeship without telling her, putting her plans in jeopardy.
During the final season, set during the weekend of Barney and Robin 's wedding, Lily learns of Marshall 's new job, and they get into a huge fight. She storms out, but returns and reconciles with Marshall upon learning that she is pregnant. Marshall turns the job down, and agrees to go to Italy with her. A flash forward scene reveals that Lily gives birth to a girl, Daisy.
On the day of the wedding, Lily and Marshall renew their vows to each other.
The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, a few years later, Lily gives birth to a third child, a baby girl whose name is unknown. Even as the group drifts apart over the years, Lily is there for all the important moments of their lives: Robin and Barney 's divorce, the birth of Barney 's daughter and that of Ted 's two children, and Ted 's wedding to The Mother (whose real name is Tracy McConnell). She remains happily married to Marshall, who eventually becomes a State Supreme Court judge.
Alyson Hannigan won the People 's Choice Award for Favorite TV Comedy Actress in 2010 and 2012 for this role.
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who won the battle of the 3 kingdoms | Timeline of the Three Kingdoms period - wikipedia
This is a timeline of the Three Kingdoms period (220 -- 280) of Chinese history. In a strict academic sense, the Three Kingdoms period refers to the interval between the founding of the state of Cao Wei (220 -- 266) in 220 and the conquest of the state of Eastern Wu (229 -- 280) by the Western Jin dynasty (265 -- 316) in 280. However, many Chinese historians and laymen extend the starting point of this period back to the Yellow Turban Rebellion that took place in 184 during the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -- 220).
Late Han dynasty provinces
Locations during the Three Kingdoms period
Warlords 194
Warlords 199
Warlords 208
Warlords 215
Cao Pi 's invasions of Eastern Wu (222 -- 225)
Zhuge Liang 's Southern Campaign in 225
Zhuge Liang 's first and second Northern Expeditions (228 -- 229)
Zhuge Liang 's third northern expedition in 229
Zhuge Liang 's fourth and fifth northern expeditions in 231 and 234
China in 262
The Three Kingdoms in 262 AD
China in 266
Conquest of Wu by Jin in 280
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where was the star spangled banner first published | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the then 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, known as the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward, she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said: "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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in its mechanism photophosphorylation is most similar to | Photophosphorylation - wikipedia
In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is called photophosphorylation. Only two sources of energy are available to living organisms: sunlight and reduction - oxidation (redox) reactions. All organisms produce ATP, which is the universal energy currency of life. Commonly in photosynthesis this involves photolysis of water and a continuous unidirectional flow of electrons from water to PS.
In photophosphorylation, light energy is used to create a high - energy electron donor and a lower - energy electron acceptor. Electrons then move spontaneously from donor to acceptor through an electron transport chain.
ATP is made by an enzyme called ATP synthase. Both the structure of this enzyme and its underlying gene are remarkably similar in all known forms of life.
ATP synthatase is powered by a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient, usually in the form of a proton gradient. The function of the electron transport chain is to produce this gradient. In all living organisms, a series of redox reactions is used to produce a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient, or a so - called proton motive force (pmf).
Redox reactions are chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free '') to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system will proceed spontaneously (given that the system is isobaric and also adiabatic), although the reaction may proceed slowly if it is kinetically inhibited.
The transfer of electrons from a high - energy molecule (the donor) to a lower - energy molecule (the acceptor) can be spatially separated into a series of intermediate redox reactions. This is an electron transport chain.
The fact that a reaction is thermodynamically possible does not mean that it will actually occur. A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas does not spontaneously ignite. It is necessary either to supply an activation energy or to lower the intrinsic activation energy of the system, in order to make most biochemical reactions proceed at a useful rate. Living systems use complex macromolecular structures to lower the activation energies of biochemical reactions.
It is possible to couple a thermodynamically favorable reaction (a transition from a high - energy state to a lower - energy state) to a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction (such as a separation of charges, or the creation of an osmotic gradient), in such a way that the overall free energy of the system decreases (making it thermodynamically possible), while useful work is done at the same time. The principle that biological macromolecules catalyze a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction if and only if a thermodynamically favorable reaction occurs simultaneously, underlies all known forms of life.
Electron transport chains (most known as ETC) produce energy in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient. This energy is used to do useful work. The gradient can be used to transport molecules across membranes. It can be used to do mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. It can be used to produce ATP and NADPH, high - energy molecules that are necessary for growth.
This form of photophosphorylation occurs on the thylakoid membrane. In cyclic photophosphorylation, the high energy electron released from P700 to ps1 flow down in a cyclic pathway. In cyclic electron flow, the electron begins in a pigment complex called photosystem I, passes from the primary acceptor to plastoquinone, then to cytochrome b f (a similar complex to that found in mitochondria), and then to plastocyanin before returning to chlorophyll. This transport chain produces a proton - motive force, pumping H ions across the membrane; this produces a concentration gradient that can be used to power ATP synthase during chemiosmosis. This pathway is known as cyclic photophosphorylation, and it produces neither O nor NADPH. Unlike non-cyclic photophosphorylation, NADP+ does not accept the electrons; they are instead sent back to phytochrome b6f complex.
In bacterial photosynthesis, a single photosystem is used, and therefore is involved in cyclic photophosphorylation. It is favored in anaerobic conditions and conditions of high irradiance and CO compensation points.
The other pathway, non-cyclic photophosphorylation, is a two - stage process involving two different chlorophyll photosystems. Being a light reaction, non-cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in the frets or stroma lamellae. First, a water molecule is broken down into 2H + 1 / 2 O + 2e by a process called photolysis (or light - splitting). The two electrons from the water molecule are kept in photosystem II, while the 2H and 1 / 2O are left out for further use. Then a photon is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments surrounding the reaction core center of the photosystem. The light excites the electrons of each pigment, causing a chain reaction that eventually transfers energy to the core of photosystem II, exciting the two electrons that are transferred to the primary electron acceptor, pheophytin. The deficit of electrons is replenished by taking electrons from another molecule of water. The electrons transfer from pheophytin to plastoquinone, which takes the 2e from Pheophytin, and two H atoms from the stroma and forms PQH, which later is broken into PQ, the 2e is released to Cytochrome b f complex and the two H ions are released into thylakoid lumen. The electrons then pass through the Cyt b and Cyt f. Then they are passed to plastocyanin, providing the energy for hydrogen ions (H) to be pumped into the thylakoid space. This creates a gradient, making H ions flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, providing the energy for the regeneration of ATP.
The photosystem II complex replaced its lost electrons from an external source; however, the two other electrons are not returned to photosystem II as they would in the analogous cyclic pathway. Instead, the still - excited electrons are transferred to a photosystem I complex, which boosts their energy level to a higher level using a second solar photon. The highly excited electrons are transferred to the acceptor molecule, but this time are passed on to an enzyme called Ferredoxin - NADP reductase which uses them to catalyse the reaction (as shown):
This consumes the H ions produced by the splitting of water, leading to a net production of 1 / 2O, ATP, and NADPH + H with the consumption of solar photons and water.
The concentration of NADPH in the chloroplast may help regulate which pathway electrons take through the light reactions. When the chloroplast runs low on ATP for the Calvin cycle, NADPH will accumulate and the plant may shift from noncyclic to cyclic electron flow.
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who sings bet on it in high school musical | High School Musical 2 - Wikipedia
High School Musical 2 is the second film in the High School Musical series. The World Premiere took place on August 14, 2007, at Disneyland, in Anaheim, California. The primary cast, including Zac Efron, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, and Corbin Bleu attended the event. The film debuted on television on August 17, 2007, on Disney Channel in the U.S., and on Family in Canada.
In the second installment of the Disney franchise, high school student Troy Bolton stresses over getting a job, with the price of college expenses looming on his mind, as well as trying to make sure he and Gabriella Montez are able to stay together all summer. This situation attracts the attention of Sharpay Evans, who attempts to steal Troy for herself by hiring him at her family 's country club.
The premiere was seen by a total of over 17.2 million viewers in the United States which is almost 10 million more than its predecessor, making it the highest - rated Disney Channel Movie of all time as well as the highest - rated basic cable telecast at the time.
The school year ends with everyone at East High School looking forward to summer vacation ("What Time Is It ''). Troy Bolton is still dating Gabriella Montez, who decides to stay in Albuquerque with her mother. Troy eventually decides to look for a summer job to gain money for college.
Sharpay and Ryan Evans plan to spend part of the summer at their family 's country club, Lava Springs ("Fabulous ''), but Sharpay 's summer plans also include pursuing Troy, whom she has arranged to be hired at the club. However, Troy convinces the club 's manager, Mr. Fulton, into hiring Gabriella and their close group of friends as well; including Taylor and Chad. Sharpay is enraged upon learning that Gabriella is working as one of the lifeguards, but is unable to get her fired. So she orders Fulton to give them difficult tasks so they would be best to quit. Fulton attempts to intimidate the group, but Troy rebuilds their confidence and convinces them that they can persevere ("Work This Out '').
Troy continues to worry about funding for college. Sharpay senses his need and arranges for Troy to be promoted, hoping that this will convince him to sing with her at the talent show. Meanwhile, Kelsi writes a ballad for Troy and Gabriella. Troy agrees to sing with his friends in the show ("You Are The Music In Me ''), not knowing that Sharpay is vying for his attention. (In the extended version, Sharpay and Ryan trap Troy as he prepares for a date with Gabriella, and perform their potential show - stopper ("Humuhumunukunukuapua'a '').)
Ryan realizes he does not mean much to Sharpay anymore, as she is ready to blow her brother aside for the opportunity to perform with Troy. This leads to tension between the twin siblings and Ryan angrily informs Sharpay that he will no longer obey her orders. Taylor and Gabriella invite Ryan to the baseball game, where he persuades the Wildcats to take part in the talent show ("I Do n't Dance '').
Troy and Gabriella 's relationship is strained when Troy sees Ryan with Gabriella, sparking jealousy. Owing to a "promise '' from Troy, he and Sharpay practice their song for the Midsummer Night 's Talent Show ("You Are The Music In Me (Sharpay Version) '').
When Sharpay discovers that Ryan and the Wildcats are putting together their own performance in the show, she orders Mr. Fulton to ban all junior staff members from performing. Gabriella angrily confronts Sharpay about her interference and quits her job at Lava Springs. Troy overhears the exchange and tries to persuade Gabriella to change her mind. Gabriella expresses her loss of trust with Troy ("Gotta Go My Own Way '') and leaves Lava Springs, and gives him the necklace back. It also seems that they broke up.
Troy returns to work the next day to find that his friends refuse to talk to him. Kelsi silently shows Troy the notice from Mr. Fulton, causing Troy to question his own motivations ("Bet On It ''). He begins to reconcile with Chad and his other friends. Then Troy confronts Sharpay, informing her that he will not sing with her. The Wildcats and Chad forgive Troy for his absence and convince him to sing in the talent show, which he does only under the condition that they are all allowed to perform as well.
At Sharpay 's supposed instruction, Ryan gives Troy a new song to learn moments before the show. As Troy goes onstage, he asks Sharpay why she switched the song, and Sharpay is shocked to find that her brother tricked her. Troy sings the song ("Everyday '') alone until Gabriella surprisingly joins him onstage. In the end, Sharpay proudly presents her brother, Ryan, with the award for the talent show. After the talent show, all the Wildcats go to the golf course to enjoy the fireworks.
Everyone celebrates the end of the summer with a pool party ("All for One '') which features a cameo appearance by Miley Cyrus.
The premiere of High School Musical 2 aired at 8 PM Eastern Time on August 17, 2007, and included a telecast hosted by Kenny Ortega and the movie 's cast. On Saturday, August 18, Disney Channel aired "High School Musical 2: Wildcat Chat '', in which the stars of the movie answered questions posed by fans. On August 19, Disney aired a sing - along version of the movie. On May 23, DirecTV announced that they would be hosting an exclusive high - definition airing of the movie a few days after the August 17 premiere on its network - only channel, The 101.
Disney Channel aired a weekly program called Road to High School Musical 2, beginning on June 8, 2007, and leading up to the premiere of High School Musical 2 in August. The show offered viewers a behind - the - scenes look into the production of the movie. The world premiere of the opening number "What Time Is It '' was on Radio Disney May 25, 2007, and similarly "You Are The Music In Me '' premiered on July 13, 2007.
On December 11, 2007, the movie was released on DVD and Blu - ray titled High School Musical 2: Extended Edition. On September 15, 2008, a 2 - disc special edition of the movie was released titled High School Musical 2: Deluxe Dance Edition.
The first broadcast of the film on August 17, 2007 broke records, receiving 17.2 million viewers. This number made it, at the time, the most - watched basic - cable telecast in history (the previous record was held by an edition of ESPN 's Monday Night Football between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys on October 23, 2006, which attracted 16 million viewers), the most - watched made - for - cable movie ever (the previous record was held by TNT 's January 21, 2001 airing of Crossfire Trail, which brought in 12.5 million viewers), and the largest audience of any program on broadcast or cable in the 2007 summer television season, along with Friday nights for the past five years. Ratings for the second showing of the movie fell to 8.4 million, and the third showing fell to 7.4 million, totaling the premiere weekend to 33.04 million viewers.
In Latin America, the premiere of High School Musical 2 was seen by 3.3 million viewers in the north region. The film was the most - watched in its schedule, among all cable channels, and produced the highest rating of the channel, surpassing all original films of Disney Channel. Among other records, the premiere in Argentina surpassed the debut of High School Musical the last year, in a 107 percent, while in Brazil the sequel reached 208 percent, and Mexico did so with 61 percent. In the United Kingdom, the movie became Disney Channel UK 's most viewed program ever, totaling 1.2 million viewers in its first showing.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, gaining a score of 57 % on Rotten Tomatoes while gaining a score of 72 / 100 at Metacritic. USA Today 's Robert Bianco awarded the film three stars out of four, saying High School Musical 2 was "sweet, smart, bursting with talent and energy, and awash in innocence ''. While critics enjoyed the film, they noted that the timing of the movie 's premiere seemed odd, premiering just when school was about to start up again, while the movie 's plot involved the gang going on summer vacation. High School Musical 2 won the "So Hot Right Now '' award at the Nickelodeon Australian Kids ' Choice Awards 2007, in which High School Musical castmate Zac Efron hosted with The Veronicas.
Like the original High School Musical, the sequel has been adapted into two different theatrical productions: a one - act, 70 - minute version and a two - act full - length production. This stage production includes the song "Hummuhummunukunukuapua'a '' that was left out of the original movie but included in the DVD. Through Music Theater International, Disney Theatrical began licensing the theatrical rights in October 2008. MTI had originally recruited 7 schools to serve as tests for the new full - length adaptation, but due to complications with multiple drafts of both the script and the score, all but two schools were forced to drop out of the pilot program.
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locate the end of the file in c | End - of - file - wikipedia
In computing, end - of - file (commonly abbreviated EOF) is a condition in a computer operating system where no more data can be read from a data source. The data source is usually called a file or stream.
In the C Standard Library, the character reading functions such as getchar return a value equal to the symbolic value (macro) EOF to indicate that an end - of - file condition has occurred. The actual value of EOF is implementation - dependent (but is commonly - 1, such as in glibc) and is distinct from all valid character codes. Block - reading functions return the number of bytes read, and if this is fewer than asked for, then the end of file was reached or an error occurred (checking of errno or dedicated function, such as ferror is often required to determine which).
Input from a terminal never really "ends '' (unless the device is disconnected), but it is useful to enter more than one "file '' into a terminal, so a key sequence is reserved to indicate end of input. In UNIX the translation of the keystroke to EOF is performed by the terminal driver, so a program does not need to distinguish terminals from other input files. By default, the driver converts a Control - D character at the start of a line into an end - of - file indicator. To insert an actual Control - D (ASCII 04) character into the input stream, the user precedes it with a "quote '' command character (usually Control - V). AmigaDOS is similar but uses Control - \ instead of Control - D.
In Microsoft 's DOS and Windows (and in CP / M and many DEC operating systems), reading from the terminal will never produce an EOF. Instead, programs recognize that the source is a terminal (or other "character device '') and interpret a given reserved character or sequence as an end - of - file indicator; most commonly this is an ASCII Control - Z, code 26. Some MS - DOS programs, including parts of the Microsoft MS - DOS shell (COMMAND.COM) and operating - system utility programs (such as EDLIN), treat a Control - Z in a text file as marking the end of meaningful data, and / or append a Control - Z to the end when writing a text file. This was done for two reasons:
In the ANSI X3. 27 - 1969 magnetic tape standard, the end of file was indicated by a tape mark, which consisted of a gap of approximately 3.5 inches of tape followed by a single byte containing the character 13 (hex) for nine - track tapes and 17 (octal) for seven - track tapes. The end - of - tape, commonly abbreviated as EOT, was indicated by two tape marks. This was the standard used, for example, on IBM 360. The reflective strip that was used to announce impending physical end of tape was also called an EOT marker.
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how many grams of sugar are in a packet of splenda | Splenda - wikipedia
Splenda / ˈsplɛndə / is the commercial name and registered trademark of a sucralose - based artificial sweetener owned by the American company Heartland Food Products Group and manufactured by the British company Tate & Lyle. It is available in both granular and dissolvable tablet forms.
Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, in 1976. Tate & Lyle subsequently developed sucralose - based Splenda products in partnership with Johnson & Johnson subsidiary McNeil Nutritionals, LLC. The Splenda brand was transferred to Heartland Food Products Group after their purchase of the line with investor Centerbridge Partners in 2015.
Since its approval by the United States government in 1998 and introduction there in 1999, sucralose has overtaken Equal in the $1.5 - billion artificial sweetener market, holding a 62 % market share. According to market research firm IRI, Splenda sales were $212 million in 2006 in the U.S. while Equal 's totaled $48.7 million. According to a 2012 article in The New Zealand Herald it is "the category leader in table - top sweetener in the US ''.
The energy content of a single - serving (1 g packet) of Splenda is 3.36 kcal, which is 31 % of a single - serving (2.8 g packet) of granulated sugar (10.8 kcal). In the United States, it is legally labelled "zero calories ''; U.S. FDA regulations allow this "if the food contains less than 5 Calories per reference amount customarily consumed and per labeled serving ''. Further, Splenda contains a relatively small amount of sucralose, little of which is metabolized; virtually all of Splenda 's caloric content derives from the dextrose or highly fluffed maltodextrin "bulking agents '' that give Splenda its volume. Like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have 3.75 kcal per gram.
Unlike other artificial sweeteners, sucralose is heat stable up to 450 ° F (232 ° C), so Splenda can be used as a replacement for table sugar in cooking and baking, and there are Splenda products packaged specifically for this purpose. In product testing by Cook 's Illustrated, the major drawback to cooking with Splenda was found to be that it does not produce the browning or caramelization the way table sugar does. However, Cook 's Illustrated also found that desserts baked with Splenda were "lacking the artificial flavors that just about every other sugar substitute brings with it ''.
Splenda usually contains 95 % dextrose (D - glucose) and maltodextrin (by volume) which the body readily metabolizes, combined with a small amount of mostly indigestible sucralose. Sucralose is made by replacing three select hydrogen - oxygen groups on sucrose (table sugar) molecules with three chlorine atoms. The tightly bound chlorine atoms create a molecular structure that is stable under intense conditions. Sucralose itself is recognized as safe to ingest as a diabetic sugar substitute, but the sugars or other carbohydrates used as bulking agents in Splenda products should be evaluated individually. The recommended amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a person 's lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 mg / kg BW / day, or about 0.6 g for a 70 kg (150 lb) person.
A repeated dose study of sucralose in human subjects concluded that "there is no indication that adverse effects on human health would occur from frequent or long - term exposure to sucralose at the maximum anticipated levels of intake ''. Conversely, a Duke University animal study funded by the Sugar Association found evidence that doses of Splenda between 100 and 1000 mg / kg BW / day, containing sucralose at 1.1 to 11 mg / kg BW / day, fed to rats reduced fecal microflora, increased the pH level in the intestines, contributed to increases in body weight, and increased levels of P - glycoprotein (P - gp). These effects have not been reported in humans. In response, McNeil Nutritionals, along with an expert panel that included scientists from Duke University, Rutgers University, New York Medical College, Harvard School of Public Health, and Columbia University reported in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology that the Duke study was "not scientifically rigorous and is deficient in several critical areas that preclude reliable interpretation of the study results ''. The other ingredients in Splenda -- dextrose and maltodextrin -- are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption.
Sucralose may not be completely biologically inert, and a study showed that cooking with sucralose at high temperatures could cause it to degrade into potentially toxic compounds. However, only a very small amount (approximately 2 -- 8 % of sucralose consumed) is metabolized by the body, on average, and the amount of sucralose present in Splenda is slight.
In 2006, Merisant, the maker of Equal, filed suit against McNeil Nutritionals in U.S. District Court, Philadelphia, alleging that Splenda 's tagline; "made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar '' is misleading. McNeil argued during the trial that it had never deceived consumers or set out to deceive them, since the product is in fact made from sugar. Merisant asked that McNeil be ordered to surrender profits and modify its advertising. The case ended with an agreement reached outside of court, with undisclosed settlement conditions. The lawsuit was the latest move in a long - simmering dispute. In 2004, Merisant filed a complaint with the Better Business Bureau regarding McNeil 's advertising. McNeil alleged that Merisant 's complaint was in retaliation for a ruling in federal court in Puerto Rico, which forced Merisant to stop packaging Equal in packages resembling Splenda 's. McNeil filed suit in Puerto Rico seeking a ruling which would declare its advertising to not be misleading. Following Merisant 's lawsuit in Philadelphia, McNeil agreed to a jury trial and to the dismissal of its lawsuit in Puerto Rico. However, on May 11, 2007, the parties reached a settlement on the case, the terms of which were not disclosed. Currently, Splenda is advertised with the slogan, "It starts with sugar. It tastes like sugar. but it 's not sugar. ''
In 2007, Merisant France prevailed in the Commercial Court of Paris against subsidiaries of McNeil Nutritionals LLC. The court awarded Merisant $54,000 in damages and ordered the defendants to cease advertising claims found to violate French consumer protection laws, including the slogans; "because it comes from sugar, sucralose tastes like sugar '' and "With sucralose: comes from sugar and tastes like sugar ''.
A Sugar Association complaint to the Federal Trade Commission stated that "Splenda is not a natural product. It is not cultivated or grown and it does not occur in nature. '' McNeil Nutritionals, the manufacturer of Splenda, has responded that its "advertising represents the products in an accurate and informative manner and complies with applicable advertising rules in the countries where Splenda brand products are marketed. '' The U.S. Sugar Association created a web site to criticise sucralose which cites an association - sponsored study.
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the woman in the flower dress agents of shield | Girl in the Flower Dress - wikipedia
"Girl in the Flower Dress '' is the fifth episode of the first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division), revolving around the character of Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they investigate the disappearance of a man with pyrokinetic abilities. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. The episode was written by Brent Fletcher, and directed by Jesse Bochco.
Clark Gregg reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, and is joined by series regulars Ming - Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. Louis Ozawa Changchien portrays the super-powered man, while Ruth Negga is introduced as Raina -- the titular "girl in the flower dress ''. In addition, to support the episode 's Hong Kong setting, actor Tzi Ma appears in a guest role as a Hong Kong agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., and Jeremy Zuckerman contributed performances on Chinese instruments for the musical score. The episode brings back elements from the series ' pilot, and features ties to the MCU films.
"Girl in the Flower Dress '' originally aired on ABC on October 22, 2013, and was watched by 11.16 million viewers within a week of its release according to Nielsen Media Research. The episode received a mixed critical response, with it praised as being more mature than previous episodes and for featuring a Marvel - like superhero, but also described as "perfunctory '' and "mellow '' by some critics.
In Hong Kong, street performer Chan Ho Yin is convinced by the mysterious Raina to reveal his secret pyrokinetic abilities. When his S.H.I.E.L.D. monitor, Agent Quan Chen, discovers him missing the next day, Agent Phil Coulson and his team of agents are tasked with finding him. Quan reveals that Chan 's location and abilities were leaked by the hacktivist group Rising Tide. Skye, a new civilian recruit and S.H.I.E.L.D. trainee, was once a member of the Rising Tide. She traces the hack that released the information back to Miles Lydon, her secret boyfriend and Rising Tide contact. The team goes to confront Lydon, but Skye reaches him first; the two are caught together by Agent Melinda May and are taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody.
Skye tries to defend them both, but when the team finds evidence that Lydon was paid substantially for the information, she turns on him and cooperates with the agents. The team tracks the buyer, Raina, to a Project Centipede facility in Hong Kong, where they are draining Chan 's fire - resistant platelets against his will, to use as stabilizers for the extremis serum within their super-soldiers. Chan, angry with this betrayal and with S.H.I.E.L.D. for constricting him, attacks both. He kills, among others, Quan and the Centipede head doctor Debbie. Realizing that Chan ca n't be reasoned with, Coulson and May inject him with a large dose of extremis, causing him to explode. Lydon, convinced that what he did is harming people, helps by using his hacking skills to direct the blast through the ventilation and out the top of the building, while the others escape to safety.
Coulson gives Lydon an irremovable S.H.I.E.L.D. bracelet that will prevent him from using technology for a time, and then releases him. Coulson then confronts Skye about her true motivation for joining S.H.I.E.L.D., and she explains that she is searching for information on her parents, who she believes are tied to S.H.I.E.L.D. in some way. Coulson agrees to let her stay on the team and to help her in her search, but makes her wear a bracelet like Lydon 's. In an end tag, Raina visits a member of Centipede in prison and asks him to contact the "Clairvoyant ''.
In October 2013, Marvel announced the fifth episode as "Girl in the Flower Dress '', written by Brent Fletcher and directed by Jesse Bochco. Main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming - Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge star as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Grant Ward, Skye, Leo Fitz, and Jemma Simmons, respectively. The guest cast of the episode was revealed to include Louis Changchien, Ruth Negga, Austin Nichols, Shannon Lucio, Tzi Ma, and Cullen Douglas as Renshu Tseng, Raina, Miles Lydon, Debbie, Agent Quan Chen, and Po, respectively. The name of Changchien 's character was later revealed to actually be Chan Ho Yin. Ma previously guest starred on another Joss Whedon - created series, Dollhouse. Lucio reprises her role from "Pilot '', appearing again as the Centipede doctor, Debbie.
Composer Bear McCreary found the Hong Kong setting of the episode to be "the perfect opportunity to introduce Chinese instrumentation into (the) score '', collaborating with composer Jeremy Zuckerman, who played the gu zheng throughout the episode. McCreary found "the nearly ten - minute long action scene '' at the climax of the episode to be "the real beast of this episode '' and "one of the most challenging pieces (he had) composed yet for the series '', calling it "pretty chaotic '' and noting the difficulty the orchestra had in recording it.
The episode also saw the return of several major themes, most notably the Centipede theme from "Pilot ''. McCreary "refrained from using the theme before we realize that Raina is working for Centipede '', but "once we realize that Chan is in the clutches of Centipede, I rely on the Centipede theme for the rest of the episode. Scenes with Debbie and Raina are underscored with deep, ominous low strings quoting the theme while the creepy bells state it more quickly above. '' He also noted that the Centipede theme was ' dramatically transformed ' when Chan kills Agent Quan; "the low brass blast out a huge statement of the Centipede Theme... The heavy, brassy orchestration offers a completely new take on the theme, which used to exist only in creepy bells. ''
The Extremis virus from Iron Man 3 and "Pilot '' reappears in this episode; Chan 's platelets stabilize it to prevent subjects injected with it from exploding, which is how Chan is killed after all of his platelets are removed. The explosive that Coulson uses during the episode to enter the Centipede facility is similar to the one he used in Iron Man, and he strikes a similar pose when using it.
"Girl in the Flower Dress '' was first aired in the United States on ABC on October 22, 2013. It was aired alongside the US broadcast in Canada on CTV, while it was first aired in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 on October 25, 2013. It premiered on the Seven Network in Australia on October 23, 2013.
The episode, along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. 's first season, was released on Blu - ray and DVD on September 9, 2014. Bonus features include behind - the - scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. On November 20, 2014, the episode became available for streaming on Netflix.
In the United States the episode received a 2.7 / 8 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 2.7 percent of all households, and 8 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 7.39 million viewers. The Canadian broadcast gained 1.76 million viewers, the third highest for that day and the ninth highest for the week. The United Kingdom premiere had 2.52 million viewers and in Australia, the premiere had 1.6 million viewers, including 0.7 million timeshifted viewers. Within a week of its release, the episode was watched by 11.16 million U.S. viewers, above the season average of 8.31.
Following the episode 's release, ScreenRant 's Andre Dyce reviewed the series ' ratings performance up to that point, noting that over 7 million viewers is "still a far cry from trouble on their own '', but as the show "continues to slip in both viewers and demographics, the trend could become problematic. '' He noted that the drop in viewers from the series premiere, which had "some of the highest ratings in recent history '' for ABC, to the second episode was to be expected, but "the fact that (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) ca n't seem to hold steady in its fifth week is a sign that it may be charting troubled waters... A rocky start is to be expected, but by this point in the season, most procedural dramas tend to have hit their pace both in structure and audience. '' He remembered that much of the MCU films ' large fanbase had been expected to watch the series and provide "a healthy viewership '', and how, if this was going to happen, "enthusiasm seems to be waning '' among those fans now.
Eric Goldman of IGN graded the episode 8.1 out of 10, calling it "pretty damn busy and quite fun '', highlighting Skye 's character development and the drama it caused, as well as the connections to "Pilot '', as high points of the episode. He praised the "dark, but also necessary '' deaths depicted, and concluded that the series "is beginning to build its story in an intriguing way. '' James Hunt at Den of Geek found the episode to be "mostly, quite good, '' praising Skye 's story, the idea that S.H.I.E.L.D. "might actually be as bad as the people they 're trying to fight '', and the character of Raina, who he called "the closest thing this series has yet had to an original, interesting idea ''. Hunt criticized the dialogue, and found the character of Chan Ho Yin to be unrealistic, stating "while I loved the fact that they kind of, sort of, dredged up an actual Marvel character to use in this episode... it was a shame that he too bore almost no resemblance to an actual person ''. The Guardian 's Graeme Virtue also criticized some of the dialogue, but enjoyed the character of Raina and the potential for her to return. He hoped that now Skye 's secret has been revealed, "perhaps some of the other agents will get their time in the spotlight. '' Marc Bernardin of The Hollywood Reporter decided that the "episode was n't as good as "Eye Spy '' -- by the time we got to the last two segments, I really did n't care what happened to "Scorch, '' -- but it was still better than the first three. It was all just so very... perfunctory. ''
David Sims of The A.V. Club graded the episode a ' B - ', stating "I 've defended this show against complaints that it 's terminally bland, but formulaic material like this really does expose its flaws. It 's definitely not an unwatchably bad show... In short: do n't be shy, Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. Show us what you can do. '' He did praise the visual effects in the episode though, saying, "This week 's episode had a couple of very nicely - staged set pieces and, especially for broadcast TV, some excellent special effects. Fire is hard to pull off, even in a blockbuster movie, but this episode revolved around a character... who can generate and manipulate fire, and everything he did looked pretty cool. '' Morgan Jeffrey at Digital Spy scored the episode 3 stars out of 5, calling it a "slow burn '', and concluding that "Skye 's arc is easily the weakest aspect of "Girl in the Flower Dress '' but there 's a decent villain and a strong climax to help compensate. '' Will Salmon of SFX also scored the episode 3 stars out of 5, stating "a shade more mature than the initial installments. It 's a welcome growth, and it does feel like Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. is getting itself together. They found the right levels of warmth and humanity last week, and humour and drama this time around. Now they just need to start going on some genuinely compelling missions against decent enemies. '' Jim Steranko, known for his work on Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., felt the series "has settled into a pragmatic, if sometimes predictable comfort zone '', and said that the episode "delivered enough premise, pace, and patter to get its audience through a mellow hour -- and set the bar higher for the rest of the season. ''
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that's what dreams are made of van halen | Dreams (Van Halen song) - wikipedia
"Dreams '' is a song by Van Halen released in 1986 from the album 5150. It was the second single from that album, and it reached number 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart that year. It was released in 7 '' and 12 '' single formats, the 7 '' single featuring the album version and the 12 '' single featuring a slightly extended version.
"Dreams '' was written during the Sammy Hagar era of the band. It was performed during most tours featuring Hagar, including the most recent Hagar reunion tour. Even the Gary Cherone - headed tour supporting Van Halen III featured the song in their set - list. The song was also used to close the 2004 Democratic National Convention, played after the acceptance speech of John Kerry. It was also used as the campaign 's theme song at rallies across the country in 2004. During an interview with Hagar for Rolling Stone featuring questions from fans, Hagar said that "Dreams, '' along with "Right Now '' were his favorite Van Halen songs, with "Dreams '' being his most favorite if you pushed him. The song has also been redone by Hagar by his solo band, becoming a slower, more contemplative song, performed acoustically instead of the original album 's faster paced rock arrangement.
Eddie Van Halen played guitar and keyboards on the studio version of this song. During the 5150 Tour, he played the keyboards and switched to the guitar during the first solo, while Hagar played the rhythm parts before then. On later tours, he would play guitar only, while the keyboard was either played offstage by a hired performer (such as Alan Fitzgerald of Night Ranger during the For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge Tour), or prerecorded material was used.
During live performances, on the chorus "We 'll get higher and higher, straight up we 'll climb. Higher and higher, leave it all behind '', bassist Michael Anthony usually sang the second "higher '' in both parts. On the studio version, Sammy Hagar sings them both. This became a standard part of the song 's live performances and Eddie Van Halen would also join in the singing.
Of the album version, producer Mick Jones said: "I was able to push Sammy to new heights -- literally. He was singing so high that he was hyperventilating. He almost passed out. ''
There were three music videos made for the song. The most well known version was shot in 1986 and featured the US Navy 's Blue Angels performing a variety of aerial stunts with the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. The other two videos were shot in March 1993 from a live performance at the Whisky a Go Go in West Hollywood, California, to celebrate the band 's return to the venue after 15 years for promotion of the Live: Right Here, Right Now release. One version of the video features newscasters and interviews with fans lining up outside the venue before the performance. This version is available on Van Halen: Video Hits, Vol. 1. A second version features far less commentary and more focus on the performance itself.
Nine years after its original release, "Dreams '' appeared in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie and on its soundtrack album.
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what is the biuret test used to test for in the medical field | Biuret test - wikipedia
The biuret test (Piotrowski 's test) is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds. In the presence of peptides, a copper (II) ion forms violet - colored coordination complexes in an alkaline solution. Several variants on the test have been developed, such as the BCA test and the Modified Lowry test.
The biuret reaction can be used to assess the concentration of proteins because peptide bonds occur with the same frequency per amino acid in the peptide. The intensity of the color, and hence the absorption at 540 nm, is directly proportional to the protein concentration, according to the Beer - Lambert law.
Despite its name, the reagent does not in fact contain biuret ((H N - CO -) NH). The test is named so because it also gives a positive reaction to the peptide - like bonds in the biuret molecule.
In this assay, the copper (II) binds with nitrogens present in the peptides of proteins. In a secondary reaction, the copper (II) is reduced to copper (I). Buffers, such as Tris and ammonia interfere with this assay, therefore rendering this assay inappropriate for protein samples purified from ammonium sulfate precipitation. Due to its insensitivity and little interference by free amino acids, this assay is most useful for whole tissue samples and other sources with high protein concentration.
An aqueous sample is treated with an equal volume of 1 % strong base (sodium or potassium hydroxide) followed by a few drops of aqueous copper (II) sulfate. If the solution turns purple, protein is present. 5 -- 160 mg / mL can be determined. Peptides with the chain length of at least 3 amino acids are necessary for a significant, measurable colour shift with these reagents.
The Biuret reagent is made of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrated copper (II) sulfate, together with potassium Chemical Reagents Potassium sodium tartrate is added to chelate and thus stabilize the cupric ions. The reaction of the cupric ions with the nitrogen atoms involved in peptide bonds leads to the displacement of the peptide hydrogen atoms under the alkaline conditions. A tri or tetra dentate chelation with the peptide nitrogen produces the "biuret '' color. This is found with dipeptides (Datta, S.P., Leberman, R., and Rabin, B.R., Trans. Farad. Soc. (1959), 55, 2141.)
The reagent is commonly used in the biuret protein assay, a colorimetric test used to determine protein concentration by UV / VIS spectroscopy at wavelength 550 nm.
Two major modifications of the biuret test are commonly applied in modern colorimetric analysis of peptides: the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay and the Lowry assay. In these tests, the Cu formed during the biuret reaction reacts further with other reagents, leading to a deeper color.
In the BCA test, Cu forms a deep purple complex with bicinchoninic acid (BCA), which absorbs around 562 nm, producing the signature violet color. The water - soluble BCA / copper complex absorbs much more strongly than the peptide / copper complex, increasing the sensitivity of the biuret test by a factor of around 100: the BCA assay allows to detect proteins in the range of 0.0005 to 2 mg / mL). Additionally, the BCA protein assay gives the important benefit of compatibility with substances such as up to 5 % surfactants in protein samples.
In the Lowry protein assay Cu is oxidized back to Cu by Mo in Folin - Ciocalteu 's reagent, which forms molybdenum blue (Mo). Tyrosine residues in the protein also form molybdenum blue under these circumstances. In this way, proteins can be detected in concentrations between 0.005 and 2 mg / mL. Molybdenum blue in turn can bind certain organic dyes such as malachite green and Auramine O, resulting in further amplification of the signal.
In Poland, the Biuret Test is more commonly called as the Piotrowski Test, in honor of the Polish toxological chemist, Jerzy Kazimierz Piotrowski (b. 1926) of Lodz.
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the women's dress for success book pdf | Dress for Success (book) - Wikipedia
Dress for Success is a 1975 book by John T. Molloy about the effect of clothing on a person 's success in business and personal life. It was a bestseller and was followed in 1977 by The Women 's Dress for Success Book. Together, the books popularized the concept of "power dressing ''.
Molloy 's advice was unusual because they ran actual tests by showing drawings to people and compiling their perceptions of the impact of the clothes. In The Women 's Dress for Success Book, he stated, "This is the most important book ever written about women 's clothes, because it is based on scientific research, not on (the author 's) opinion. ''
What was discovered is still included in "advice '' articles today: Dress like you already have the job. Respondents subconsciously judged the clothes to see that the wearer fit in with other employees. Molloy frankly stated that the attempt to "look like '' current employees posed a special challenge for women and minority applicants in the contemporary (1977) reality of a white, male - dominated workplace.
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who was included in the republican party of 1854 check all that apply | Progressive Party (United States, 1912) - wikipedia
The Progressive Party was a third party in the United States formed in 1912 by former President Theodore Roosevelt after he lost the presidential nomination of the Republican Party to his former protégé, incumbent President William Howard Taft. The new party was known for taking advanced positions on progressive reforms and attracting some leading reformers. After the party 's defeat in the 1912 presidential election, it went into rapid decline, disappearing by 1918. The Progressive Party was popularly nicknamed the "Bull Moose Party '' since Roosevelt often said that he felt "strong as a bull moose '' both before and after an assassination attempt on the campaign trail.
As a member of the Republican Party, Roosevelt had served as President from 1901 to 1909, becoming increasingly progressive in the later years of his presidency. In the 1908 presidential election, Roosevelt helped ensure that he would be succeeded by Secretary of War Taft. After Taft took office, he hewed closer to the conservative wing of the party and this and other actions alienated Roosevelt from his former friend. Progressive Republican leader Robert La Follette had already announced a challenge to Taft for the 1912 Republican nomination, but many of his supporters shifted to Roosevelt after the former President decided to seek a third presidential term, which was permissible under the Constitution prior to the ratification of the Twenty - second Amendment. At the 1912 Republican National Convention, Taft narrowly defeated Roosevelt for the party 's presidential nomination. After the convention, Roosevelt, Frank Munsey, George Walbridge Perkins and other progressive Republicans established the Progressive Party and nominated a ticket of Roosevelt and Hiram Johnson of California at the 1912 Progressive National Convention. The new party attracted several Republican officeholders, although nearly all of them remained loyal to the Republican Party -- in California, Johnson and the Progressives took control of the Republican Party.
The party 's platform built on Roosevelt 's Square Deal domestic program and called for several progressive reforms. The platform asserted that "to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day ''. Proposals on the platform included restrictions on campaign finance contributions, a reduction of the tariff and the establishment of a social insurance system, an eight - hour workday and women 's suffrage. The party was split on the regulation of large corporations, with some party members disappointed that the platform did not contain a stronger call for "trust - busting ''. Party members also had different outlooks on foreign policy, with pacifists like Jane Addams opposing Roosevelt 's call for a naval build - up.
In the 1912 election, Roosevelt won 27.4 % of the popular vote compared to Taft 's 23.2 %, making Roosevelt the only third party presidential nominee to finish with a higher share of the popular vote than a major party 's presidential nominee. Both Taft and Roosevelt finished behind Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson, who won 41.8 % of the popular vote and the vast majority of the electoral vote. The Progressives elected several Congressional and state legislative candidates, but the election was marked primarily by Democratic gains. The 1916 Progressive National Convention was held in conjunction with the 1916 Republican National Convention in hopes of reunifying the parties with Roosevelt as the presidential nominee of both parties. The Progressive Party collapsed after Roosevelt refused the Progressive nomination and insisted his supporters vote for Charles Evans Hughes, the moderately progressive Republican nominee. Most Progressives joined the Republican Party, but some converted to the Democratic Party and Progressives like Harold L. Ickes would play a role in President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's administration. In 1924, La Follette established another Progressive Party and a third Progressive Party would be established in 1948 under the leadership of Henry A. Wallace.
Roosevelt left office in 1909. He had selected Taft, his Secretary of War, to succeed him as presidential candidate and Taft easily won the 1908 presidential election. Roosevelt became disappointed by Taft 's increasingly conservative policies. Taft upset Roosevelt when he used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to sue U.S. Steel for an action that President Roosevelt had explicitly approved. They became openly hostile and Roosevelt decided to seek the presidency. Roosevelt entered the campaign late as Taft was already being challenged by progressive leader Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin. Most of La Follette 's supporters switched to Roosevelt, leaving the Wisconsin Senator embittered.
Nine of the states where progressive elements were strongest had set up preference primaries, which Roosevelt won, but Taft had worked far harder than Roosevelt to control the Republican Party 's organizational operations and the mechanism for choosing its presidential nominee, the 1912 Republican National Convention. For example, he bought up the votes of delegates from the southern states, copying the technique Roosevelt himself used in 1904. The Republican National Convention rejected Roosevelt 's protests. Roosevelt and his supporters walked out and the convention re-nominated Taft. The next day, Roosevelt supporters met to form a new political party of their own. California governor Hiram Johnson became its chairman and a new convention was scheduled for August. Most of the funding came from wealthy sponsors, magazine publisher Frank A. Munsey provided $135,000; and George W. Perkins, a director of U.S. Steel and chairman of the International Harvester Company, gave $130,000 and became its executive secretary. Roosevelt 's family gave $77,500 and others gave $164,000. The total was nearly $600,000, far less than the major parties.
The new party had serious structural defects. Since it insisted on running complete tickets against the regular Republican ticket in most states, few Republican politicians were willing to support it. The exception was California, where the progressive element took control of the Republican Party and Taft was not even on the November ballot. Only five of the 15 more progressive Republican Senators declared support for it. Republican Representatives, Governors, committeemen and the publishers and editors of Republican - leaning newspapers showed comparable reluctance. Many of Roosevelt 's closest political allies supported Taft, including his son - in - law, Nicholas Longworth (though Roosevelt 's daughter Alice stuck with her father, causing a permanent chill in her marriage). For men like Longworth, expecting a future of his own in Republican politics, bolting the party would have seemed tantamount to career suicide. However, many independent reformers still signed up.
Historian Jonathan Lurie notes that scholars usually identify Roosevelt as the leader most identified with progressive conservatism. Roosevelt said he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand ''. However, Taft and his supporters often hailed Taft as the model progressive conservative and Taft himself said he was "a believer in progressive conservatism ''. Four decades later Dwight D. Eisenhower declared himself an advocate of "progressive conservatism ''.
Despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women. In 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed women 's suffrage on the national level. The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a seconding speech for Roosevelt 's nomination, but Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South (whom he regarded as a corrupt and ineffective element). Yet he alienated white Southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel. Roosevelt was nominated by acclamation, with Johnson as his running mate.
The main work of the convention was the platform, which set forth the new party 's appeal to the voters. It included a broad range of social and political reforms long advocated by progressives. It spoke with near - religious fervor and the candidate himself promised: "Our cause is based on the eternal principle of righteousness; and even though we, who now lead may for the time fail, in the end the cause itself shall triumph ''.
The platform 's main theme was reversing the domination of politics by business interests, which allegedly controlled the Republican and Democratic parties, alike. The platform asserted:
To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.
To that end, the platform called for:
In the social sphere, the platform called for:
The political reforms proposed included:
The platform also urged states to adopt measures for "direct democracy '', including:
Besides these measures, the platform called for reductions in the tariff and limitations on naval armaments by international agreement.
The biggest controversy at the convention was over the platform section dealing with trusts and monopolies. The convention approved a strong "trust - busting '' plank, but Perkins had it replaced with language that spoke only of "strong National regulation '' and "permanent active (Federal) supervision '' of major corporations. This retreat shocked reformers like Pinchot, who blamed it on Perkins. The result was a deep split in the new party that was never resolved.
The platform in general expressed Roosevelt 's "New Nationalism '', an extension of his earlier philosophy of the Square Deal. He called for new restraints on the power of federal and state judges along with a strong executive to regulate industry, protect the working classes and carry on great national projects. This New Nationalism was paternalistic, in direct contrast to Wilson 's individualistic philosophy of "New Freedom ''. However, once elected, Wilson 's actual program resembled Roosevelt 's ideas, apart from the notion of reining in judges.
Roosevelt also favored a vigorous foreign policy, including strong military power. Though the platform called for limiting naval armaments, it also recommended the construction of two new battleships per year, much to the distress of outright pacifists such as Jane Addams.
Roosevelt ran a vigorous campaign, but the campaign was short of money as the business interests which had supported Roosevelt in 1904 either backed the other candidates or stayed neutral. Roosevelt was also handicapped because he had already served nearly two full terms as President and thus was challenging the unwritten "no third term '' rule.
In the end, Roosevelt fell far short of winning. He drew 4.1 million votes -- 27 %, well behind Wilson 's 42 %, but ahead of Taft 's 23 % (6 % went to Socialist Eugene Debs). He received 88 electoral votes, compared to 435 for Wilson and 8 for Taft. This was nonetheless the best showing by any third party since the modern two - party system was established in 1864. Roosevelt was the only third - party candidate to outpoll a candidate of an established party.
Many historians have concluded that the Republican split was essential to allow Wilson to win the presidency. Others argue that even without the split, Wilson would have won (as he did in 1916).
In addition to Roosevelt 's presidential campaign, hundreds of other candidates sought office as Progressives in 1912.
Twenty - one ran for governor. Over 200 ran for U.S. Representative (the exact number is not clear because there were many Republican - Progressive fusion candidacies and some candidates ran with the labels of ad hoc groups such as "Bull Moose Republicans '' or (in Pennsylvania) the "Washington Party ''.
On October 14, 1912, while Roosevelt was campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, a saloonkeeper from New York, John Flammang Schrank, shot him, but the bullet lodged in his chest only after penetrating both his steel eyeglass case and a 50 - page single - folded copy of the speech titled "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual '', he was to deliver, carried in his jacket pocket. Schrank was immediately disarmed, captured and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed. Roosevelt assured the crowd he was all right, then ordered police to take charge of Schrank and to make sure no violence was done to him. As an experienced hunter and anatomist, Roosevelt correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung and he declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately. Instead, he delivered his scheduled speech with blood seeping into his shirt. He spoke for 90 minutes before completing his speech and accepting medical attention. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were: "Ladies and gentlemen, I do n't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose ''. Afterwards, probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt 's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura. Doctors concluded that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life. In later years, when asked about the bullet inside him, Roosevelt would say: "I do not mind it any more than if it were in my waistcoat pocket ''.
Both Taft and Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson suspended their own campaigning until Roosevelt recovered and resumed his. When asked if the shooting would affect his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I 'm fit as a bull moose '', which inspired the party 's emblem. He spent two weeks recuperating before returning to the campaign trail. Despite his tenacity, Roosevelt ultimately lost his bid for reelection.
In California, the state Republican Party was controlled by Governor and Roosevelt ally Hiram Johnson, the vice presidential nominee, so Progressives there stayed with the Republican label (with one exception).
Most of the Progressive candidates were in New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Massachusetts. Only a few were in the South.
The lesser Progressive candidates generally got between 10 % and 30 % of the vote. Nine Progressives were elected to the House and none won governorships.
Some historians speculate that if the Progressive Party had run only the Roosevelt presidential ticket, it might have attracted many more Republicans willing to split their ballot, but the progressive movement was strongest at the state level and so the new party had fielded candidates for governor and state legislature. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the local Republican boss, at odds with state party leaders, joined Roosevelt 's cause. In spite of this, about 250 Progressives were elected to local offices. The Democrats gained many state legislature seats, which gave them 10 additional U.S. Senate seats -- they also gained 63 U.S. House seats.
Despite the failure of 1912, the Progressive Party did not disappear at once. One hundred thirty eight candidates, including women, ran for the U.S. House as Progressives in 1914 and 5 were elected. However, almost half the candidates failed to get more than 10 % of the vote.
Gifford Pinchot placed second in the Senate election in Pennsylvania, gathering 24 % of the vote.
Hiram Johnson was denied renomination for governor as a Republican -- he ran as a Progressive and was re-elected. Seven other Progressives ran for governor; none got more than 16 %. Some state parties remained fairly strong. In Washington, Progressives won a third of the seats in the Washington State Legislature.
Louisiana businessman John M. Parker ran for governor as a Progressive early in the year (the Republican Party was deeply unpopular in Louisiana). Parker got a respectable 37 % of the vote and was the only Progressive to run for governor that year.
Later that year, the party held its second national convention, in conjunction with the Republican National Convention as this was to facilitate a possible reconciliation. Five delegates from each convention met to negotiate and the Progressives wanted reunification with Roosevelt as nominee, which the Republicans adamantly opposed. Meanwhile, Charles Evans Hughes, a moderate Progressive, became the front - runner at the Republican convention. He had been on the Supreme Court in 1912 and thus was completely neutral on the bitter debates that year. The Progressives suggested Hughes as a compromise candidate, then Roosevelt sent a message proposing conservative Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. The shocked Progressives immediately nominated Roosevelt again, with Parker as the vice presidential nominee. Roosevelt refused to accept the nomination and endorsed Hughes, who was immediately approved by the Republican convention.
The remnants of the national Progressive party promptly disintegrated. Most Progressives reverted to the Republican Party, including Roosevelt, who stumped for Hughes; and Hiram Johnson, who was elected to the Senate as a Republican. Some leaders, such as Harold Ickes of Chicago, supported Wilson.
All the remaining Progressives in Congress rejoined the Republican Party, except Whitmell Martin, who became a Democrat. No candidates ran as Progressives for governor, senator or representative.
Robert M. La Follette, Sr. broke bitterly with Roosevelt in 1912 and ran for President on his own ticket, the 1924 Progressive Party, during the 1924 presidential election.
From 1916 to 1932, the Taft wing controlled the Republican Party and refused to nominate any prominent 1912 Progressives to the Republican national ticket. Finally, Frank Knox was nominated for Vice President in 1936.
The relative domination of the Republican Party by conservatives left many former Progressives with no real affiliation until the 1930s, when most joined the New Deal Democratic Party coalition of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
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what was the belt used for in the roman army | Ancient Roman military clothing - wikipedia
Military personnel of the Roman Republic and Empire wore loosely regulated dress and armour. The contemporary concept of uniforms was not part of Roman culture and there were considerable differences in detail. Armour was not standardized and even that produced in state factories varied according to the province of origin. Likewise the Romans had no concept of obsolescence. Provided it remained serviceable, soldiers were free to use armour handed down by family members, buy armour from soldiers who had completed their service or wear discontinued styles of armour if they preferred it to (or could not afford) the latest issue. Thus it was common for legions to wear a mix of various styles that could cover a considerable time period.
Fragments of surviving clothing and wall paintings indicate that the basic tunic of the Roman soldier was of red or undyed (off - white) wool. Senior commanders are known to have worn white cloaks and plumes. The centurions who made up the long serving backbone of the legions were distinguished by transverse crests on their helmets, chest ornaments corresponding to modern medals and the long cudgels that they carried.
Examples of items of Roman military personal armour included:
Other garments and equipment included:
Ordinary soldiers wore a sagum instead of a paludamentum
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when the second continental congress reviewed the declaration of independence it | Second Continental Congress - wikipedia
The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting in the spring of 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774. The Second Congress managed the Colonial war effort and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States by raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties such as the Olive Branch Petition.
The Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775, effectively reconvening the First Continental Congress. Many of the 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the same president (Peyton Randolph) and secretary (Charles Thomson). Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses; he was replaced in the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. Henry Middleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined. Hancock was elected president on May 24.
Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the Second Continental Congress convened. Georgia had not participated in the First Continental Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second. On May 13, 1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John 's in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself. On July 4, 1775, revolutionary Georgians held a Provincial Congress to decide how to respond to the American Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. They arrived on July 20.
The First Continental Congress had sent entreaties to King George III to stop the Coercive Acts; they had also created the Continental Association to establish a coordinated protest of those acts, putting a boycott on British goods. The Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775 to plan further responses if the British government had not repealed or modified the acts; however, the American Revolutionary War had already started by that time with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and the Congress was called upon to take charge of the war effort.
For the first few months of the war, the Patriots carried on their struggle in an ad - hoc and uncoordinated manner. They had seized arsenals, driven out royal officials, and besieged the British army in the city of Boston. On June 14, 1775, the Congress voted to create the Continental Army out of the militia units around Boston and appointed George Washington of Virginia as commanding general. On July 6, 1775 Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale and necessity for taking up arms in the Thirteen Colonies. '' On July 8, they extended the Olive Branch Petition to the British Crown as a final attempt at reconciliation; however, it was received too late to do any good. Silas Deane was sent to France as a minister (ambassador) of the Congress, and American ports were reopened in defiance of the British Navigation Acts.
The Continental Congress had no explicit legal authority to govern, but it assumed all the functions of a national government, such as appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, issuing paper money (called "Continentals ''), and disbursing funds. The Congress had no authority to levy taxes and was required to request money, supplies, and troops from the states to support the war effort. Individual states frequently ignored these requests.
Congress was moving towards declaring independence from the British Empire in 1776, but many delegates lacked the authority from their home governments to take such a drastic action. Advocates of independence moved to have reluctant colonial governments revise instructions to their delegations, or even replace those governments which would not authorize independence. On May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony with a government that was not inclined toward independence should form one that was. On May 15, they adopted a more radical preamble to this resolution, drafted by John Adams, which advised throwing off oaths of allegiance and suppressing the authority of the Crown in any colonial government that still derived its authority from the Crown. That same day, the Virginia Convention instructed its delegation in Philadelphia to propose a resolution that called for a declaration of independence, the formation of foreign alliances, and a confederation of the states. The resolution of independence was delayed for several weeks, as advocates of independence consolidated support in their home governments.
On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee offered a resolution before the Congress declaring the colonies independent. He also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances '' and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Lee argued that independence was the only way to ensure a foreign alliance, since no European monarchs would deal with America if they remained Britain 's colonies. American leaders had rejected the divine right of kings in the New World, but recognized the necessity of proving their credibility in the Old World. Congress formally adopted the resolution of independence, but only after creating three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation established "a firm league '' among the thirteen free and independent states. These three things together constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for conducting vital domestic and foreign affairs.
Congress finally approved the resolution of independence on July 2, 1776. They next turned their attention to a formal explanation of this decision, the United States Declaration of Independence which was approved on July 4 and published soon thereafter.
The Congress moved from Philadelphia to Baltimore in the winter of 1776 to avoid capture by British forces who were advancing on Philadelphia. Henry Fite 's tavern was the largest building in Baltimore Town at the time and provided a comfortable location of sufficient size for Congress to meet. Its site at the western edge of town was beyond easy reach of the British Royal Navy 's ships should they try to sail up the harbor and the Patapsco River to shell the town. Congress was again forced to flee Philadelphia at the end of September 1777, as British troops occupied the city; they moved to York, Pennsylvania and continued their work.
Congress passed the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, after more than a year of debate, and sent them to the states for ratification. Jefferson 's proposal for a Senate to represent the states and a House to represent the people was rejected, but a similar proposal was adopted later in the United States Constitution. One issue of debate was large states wanting a larger say, nullified by small states who feared tyranny. The small states won and each state had one vote. Congress urged the individual states to pass the Articles as quickly as possible, but it took three and a half years for all the states to ratify them. The State Legislature of Virginia was the first of the Thirteen States to ratify the Articles on December 16, 1777, and the State Legislature of Maryland was the last on February 2, 1781.
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who carried the us flag this year for the open ceremony's parade of nations | 2018 Winter Olympics opening ceremony - wikipedia
The opening ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium in Pyeongchang, South Korea on 9 February 2018. It began at 20: 00 KST and finished at approximately 22: 20 KST. The Games were officially opened by President of the Republic of Korea Moon Jae - in.
The site of the opening ceremony, Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium, was built specifically for the Games. The pentagonal stadium seats 35,000. The organizers for the event said the shape was chosen because it is a combination of different shapes, a circle, a square, and a triangle, which represent heaven, earth, and mankind. No Olympic or Paralympic events will be held at the stadium, which will only be used for the opening and closing ceremonies. The venue will be torn down afterwards.
The broadcast of the Opening Ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympic Games was available in more than 200 countries around the world.
The ceremony 's message centered on peace, passion, harmony, and convergence.
Five children from rural Gangwon province led the ceremony, which included one Inmyeonjo (a mythical creature with a body of a bird and a head of a man, a creature that only appears when the world is at peace), four mythical creatures, including a white tiger -- spirit animal protector of Korea and the mascot of these Games, natural floral and fauna, and a cast of 2,000. Five children were used to symbolize the five Olympic rings, and the five names were chosen to represent fire, water, wood, metal, and earth, the five elements that are believed to make up the Earth.
Augmented reality and 5G technology were also incorporated in the event. The largest drone show in history, featuring 1,218 Shooting Star drones, was planned for the ceremony but cancelled at the last minute; television audiences were shown a version that had been recorded the previous December.
During the opening ceremony the organizing committee was a victim of a cyber attack, but without major consequences.
The Parade of Nations was led, according to custom due to hosting the original ancient Olympics, by the Greek team, followed by other competing countries in alphabetical order based on their names in the Korean language, with the host country, South Korea, concluding the march.
The delegations from both the host nation South Korea and North Korea (Korea at the 2018 Winter Olympics) marched under the Korean unification flag. South Korean Won Yun - jong and North Korean Hwang Chung - gum both held the flagpole.
Even though the temperature in the stadium during the ceremony was very cold, Bermuda 's delegation wore shorts and Tongan Pita Taufatofua repeated his shirtless and oiled up Summer Olympic appearance.
Background music for the parade began with an instrumental version of "Hand in Hand '' by Koreana and included modern dance remixes of songs such as "단발 머리 '' by Cho Yong - pil and of traditional Korean music, as well as the following K - pop hits: "Gangnam Style '' by Psy, "Likey '' by Twice, "Fantastic Baby '' by Big Bang, "DNA '' by BTS, and "Red Flavor '' by Red Velvet. "Red Flavor '' was cut off just as the unified Korean team was introduced.
The Olympic flame was on a 101 - day relay across South Korea. The start of the ceremony takes place in Olympia of Greece. Apostles Angelis, 24 years old cross-country skier, is selected to be the first torchbearer. He said "It is a great honour for me to be chosen as the first torchbearer for the Olympic Winter Games of 2018. It is truly a unique moment that I am looking forward to. I feel very proud and with a unique sense of happiness. '' Park Ji - Sung, football player in Republic of Korea, was the second person to hold the torch. After the flame touring around Greece for a week, it reached the Acropolis on 30th of October. There were 36 ceremonies held in different cities over a week, then the flame arrived to the PyeongChang Panathenaic Stadium. More than 500 torchbearers participated to follow the rituals of Olympic cycle, and carried the message of peace. In the stadium, Opera soloist Sumi Hwang sang the Olympic anthem during the torch lighting ceremony. The final person to hold the torch was Inbee Park, the golfer from Republic of Korea. Chung Su - hyon from North Korea and Park Jong - ah from South Korea carried the torch and headed up stairs toward the cauldron. As the torch neared the cauldron, an ice skating rink with South Korean figure skater Yuna Kim was revealed. Yuna Kim is the well - known figure skater who won gold medal in 2010 and silver medal in 2014. The cauldron was designed to represent a full moon when it is not lit. Kim received the torch and lit the cauldron.
The final segment entitled "Wish Fire '' featured Korean dance group Just Jerk (who became known internationally for their participation in the twelfth season of America 's Got Talent) entered the stage dressed as Dokkaebi, and performers with sparklers on roller blades. This segment in total featured 2,000 fireworks within and out of the stadium, some reaching as high as 1,300 metres (4,300 ft).
More than 1,200 Intel Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or drones flying above Pyeong Chang to celebrate the opening of 2018 Winter Olympic Games. Intel ® drone team now holds the Guinness World Record of flying largest number of drones. The drones flew together to form custom animations illustrating snow boarding, skiing, other different sports, as well as the iconic Olympic rings. The Shooting Star drones carried on the symbol of unity and progress from lighting of the torch.
While there is no protocol requiring guests to stand for the host country 's arrival, United States Vice President Mike Pence was criticized for not standing, as North and South Korean athletes entered during the Parade of Athletes. Pence was accused of hypocrisy, with critics drawing parallels to national anthem protests by NFL athletes.
On 24 February, the Washington Post reported that U.S. intelligence uncovered Russian spies hacked computers during the Opening Ceremony, an act that was previously speculated to be the work of North Korea. Analysts believed the Russians instigated the February 9 attack as a way to retaliate for the International Olympic Committee 's decision to ban Russia from the 2018 Winter Olympics as punishment for doping violations.
On 9 February 2018, Kim Yo - jong -- sister of Kim Jong - un -- attended the ceremony in Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was a first time that a member of the ruling Kim dynasty had visited South Korea since the Korean War. Kim Yo - jong shook hands with South Korean president Moon Jae - in before sitting down to watch the ceremony together.
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hiw many episodes in season 3 of bloodline | List of Bloodline episodes - Wikipedia
Bloodline is an American Netflix original thriller -- drama television series created by Todd A. Kessler, Glenn Kessler, and Daniel Zelman. The series stars Kyle Chandler, Ben Mendelsohn, Linda Cardellini, Norbert Leo Butz, Sam Shepard, and Sissy Spacek among the main cast, and it focuses on the lives of the Rayburn family, which owns and runs an oceanfront hotel in the Florida Keys. The first 13 - episode season premiered on Netflix, on March 20, 2015. The second season, comprising 10 episodes, was released on May 27, 2016. On July 13, 2016, the series was renewed for a 10 - episode third season, later confirmed to be the final season. The third and final season was released on May 26, 2017.
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box office collection of avengers infinity war india | List of Box Office records set by Avengers: Infinity War - Wikipedia
Avengers: Infinity War is the third Avengers film and the nineteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), released six years after the first Avengers film and ten years after the first MCU film. Directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, the film features an ensemble cast of actors reprising their roles from previous entries in the MCU. Box office analysts identified positive word of mouth and anticipation built up over the course of the MCU as factors working in the film 's favour.
Infinity War was released in April 2018 and went on to break multiple box office records in various markets. Worldwide, it set the record for the highest opening weekend gross, was the fastest film ever to gross $1 billion and $1.5 billion, and became the highest - grossing film of 2018. In its domestic market of the United States and Canada, the film set records for the highest - grossing opening weekend, Saturday, and Sunday, as well as the fastest cumulative grosses to $150 million through $250 million. Elsewhere, it became the highest - grossing film of all time in more than ten markets including Brazil, Mexico, and the Philippines.
Many of the records set by the film are listed below. Data on the previous record and records that have since been surpassed are presented where available and applicable. All grosses are given in unadjusted US dollars, except where noted otherwise.
Avengers: Infinity War grossed $2,046,669,485 worldwide. The film set records for the highest - grossing opening weekend, was the fastest to gross $1 billion through $1.5 billion, and achieved the highest gross in the 4DX format.
Avengers: Infinity War grossed $678,815,482 in the United States and Canada. The film set records for the highest - grossing opening weekend and was the fastest to gross $150 million through $250 million. It also set several single - day records and had the widest PG - 13 opening and release to date.
Avengers: Infinity War grossed $1.367, 854,003 outside the United States and Canada market. The film became the highest - grossing of all time in more than ten markets across Latin America and Asia. It also set various opening records in over 20 markets across all continents except Oceania and Antarctica. Data on precise figures, previous record holders, and surpassed records is limited due to the absence of box office record trackers for these markets.
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discuss the economic changes in africa during the last 100years with particular reference to nigeria | Economic History of Africa - wikipedia
The earliest humans were hunter gatherers who were living in small, family groupings. Even then there was considerable trade that could cover long distances. Archaeologists have found that evidence of trade in luxury items like precious metals and shells across the entirety of the continent.
African economic history often focuses on explanations of poverty and obscures other aspects such as the achievements of African farmers, traders and states, including improvements in food security, and episodes of economic growth.
Africa has the longest and oldest economic history. Humanity originated in Africa, and as soon as human societies existed so did economic activity. Earliest humans were hunter gatherers living in small, family groups. Even then there was considerable trade that could cover long distances. Archaeologists have found that evidence of trade in luxury items like metals and shells across the entirety of the continent were the main trades of the Berber people, lived in dry areas and became nomadic herders, while in the savannah grasslands, cultivated crops and thus permanent settlement were possible. Agriculture supported large towns, and eventually large trade networks developed between the towns.
The first agriculture in Africa began in the heart of the Sahara Desert, which in 5200 BC was far more moist and densely populated than today. Several native species were domesticated, most importantly pearl millet, sorghum and cowpeas, which spread through West Africa and the Sahel. The Sahara at this time was like the Sahel today. Its wide open fields made cultivation easy, but the poor soil and limited rain made intensive farming impossible. The local crops were also not ideal and produced fewer calories than those of other regions. These factors limited surpluses and kept populations sparse and scattered.
North Africa took a very different route from the southern regions. Climatically it is linked to the Middle East and the Fertile Crescent, and the agricultural techniques of that region were adopted wholesale. This included a different set of crops, such as wheat, barley, and grapes. North Africa was also blessed by one of the richest agricultural regions in the world in the Nile River valley. With the arrival of agriculture, the Nile region became one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and Egypt home to one of the first civilizations.
The drying of the Sahara created a formidable barrier between the northern and southern portions of the continent. Two important exceptions were Nubian Sudan, which was linked to Egypt by the Nile and Ethiopia, which could trade with the northern regions over the Red Sea. Powerful states grew up in these regions such as Kush in Nubia (modern day Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt) and Aksum in Ethiopia. Especially from Nubia, ideas and technologies from the Middle East and Europe reached the rest of Africa.
Historians believe that iron working developed independently in Africa. Unlike other continents Africa did not have a period of copper and bronze working before their Iron Age. Copper is quite rare in Africa while iron is quite common. In Nubia and Ethiopia, iron, trade, and agricultural surpluses lead to the establishment of cities and civilizations.
Ordinarily, in the sparsely populated areas, this same period saw the expansion of the Bantu speaking peoples. The Bantu expansion began in Southern Cameroon around 4000 years ago. Bantu languages are spoken there today and there is archaeological evidence for incoming Neolithic farmers in Northern Gabon c. 3800 BC. It is known that Bantu expansion was extremely rapid and massive, but its exact engine remains controversial. This period predated iron, which appears in the archaeological record by 2500 BC.
One of the early expansions of Bantu was the migration of the Bubi to Fernando Po (Bioko). They were still using stone technology at first. The difficulties of cutting down the equatorial forest for farming have led to the suggestion that the primary expansion was along river valleys, a hypothesis supported by studies of fish names. Another factor may have been the arrival of southeast - Asian food crops, notably the AAB plantain, the cocoyam and the water - yam. Linguistic reconstructions suggest that the only livestock possessed by the proto - Bantu was the goat. Over the centuries the entire southern half of Africa was covered with the group, excluding only the Kalahari desert. Their expansion only ended relatively recently. In the year 1000, Arab traders described that the Bantu had not reached as far as Mozambique, and European settlers observed the Bantu expansion into South Africa under the Zulu and others.
The importation Bantu pastoralism reshaped the continent 's economy. Sometime in the first millennium, an equally important change began as crops began to arrive from Southeast Asia. The Indian Ocean has always been far more open to trade than the turbulent Atlantic and Pacific. Traders could ride the monsoon winds west early in the year and return east on them later. It is guessed that these crops first arrived in Madagascar, which also adopted Southeast Asian languages, sometime between AD 300 and 800. From the island, the crops crossed to African Great Lakes region. They included many crops, the most important being the banana.
The banana and other crops allowed for more intensive cultivation in the tropical regions of Africa, this was most notable in the Great Lakes region, and area with excellent soil, that saw many cities and states form, their populations being fed largely
While some level of trade had been ongoing, the rise of cities and empires made it far more central to the African economy. North Africa was central to the trade of the entire Mediterranean region. Outside of Egypt, this trade was mostly controlled by the Phoenicians who came to dominate North Africa, with Carthage becoming their most important city. The Greeks controlled much of the eastern trade, including along the Red Sea with Ethiopia. In this region a number of Greek trading cities that were established acted as a conduit for their civilization and learning.
The Egyptian (and later, Roman) city of Alexandria (founded by Alexander the Great in 334 BC), was one of the hubs for Mediterranean trade for many centuries. Well into the 19th century Egypt remained one of the most developed parts of the world.
Nubia in Sudan likewise traded with interior African countries such as Chad and Libya, as well as with Egypt, China, India and the Arabian peninsula.
For most of the 1st millennium AD, the Axumite Kingdom in Ethiopia and Eritrea had a powerful navy and trading links reaching as far as the Byzantine Empire and India. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, the Ajuran Sultanate centered in modern - day Somalia practiced hydraulic engineering and developed new systems for agriculture and taxation, which continued to be used in parts of the Horn of Africa as late as the 19th century.
On the east coast of the continent Swahili traders linked the region into an Indian Ocean trading network, bringing imports of Chinese pottery and Indian fabrics in exchange for gold, ivory, and slaves. Swahili Kingdoms created a prosperous trade empire, where occupied the territory of modern - day Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Swahili cities were important trading ports for trade with the Middle East and Far East.
In the interior of Africa, trade was far more limited. Low population densities made profitable commerce difficult. The massive barrier of the Congo rainforests were more imposing than the Sahara, blocking trade through the center of the continent.
It was the arrival of the Islamic armies that transformed the economies of much of Africa. Though Islam had comparatively little impact on North Africa where large cities, literacy, and centralized states had been the norm, Muslims were far more effective at penetrating the Sahara than Christians had been. This was largely due to the camel, which had carried the Arab expansion and would soon after carry large amounts of trade across the desert.
A series of states developed in the Sahel on the southern edge of the Sahara which made immense profits from trading across the Sahara. The first of these was the Kingdom of Ghana, reaching it peak in the 12th century. Soon, others such as the Mali Empire and Kanem - Bornu, also arose in the region. The main trade of these states was gold, which was plentiful in Guinea. Also important was the trans - Saharan slave trade that shipped large numbers of slaves to North Africa.
Many wealthy empires grew around coastal areas or large rivers that served as part of important trade routes. The kingdoms of Mali and Songhai Empire grew along the Niger River between 1200 and 1590. Berber traders from the Sahel -- a region south of the Sahara Desert -- traded dates, copper, horses, weapons and cloth that they brought from north Africa in Camel trains. Trade with the Berber people, and other groups, drove the growth of the Ghana empire, which traded its gold, kola nuts, and slaves. West Africans created a demand for salt, which was collected at desert oases, and which they used to preserve food as well as for seasoning it.
In 1324, Mansa Musa, the king of Mali, made a historically famous Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca. There was an enormous group organized to undertake the Hajj with the king. It included "60,000 men, including 1200 servants '' and records show that Mansa Musa gave out so much gold in Egypt, that its economy became depressed.
Between 1000 and 1500, the forests of West Africa also became part of trade networks, particularly under the reigns of the Yoruba kings. Ifé was a vital trade town, along the route from the tropical forests to Djenné, a major trade centre in Sudan, near other large trade cities such as Timbuktu and Gao. Ifé 's location also placed it near Benin and the Atlantic Ocean. Yoruba civilization was supported by cities surrounded by farmed land, but extensive trade development made it wealthy.
By 1000, the Bantu language - speaking people of Zimbabwe and Southern Africa developed extensive overseas trade with lands as far away as China and India, from which they received porcelain, beads, and Persian and Arab pots. They traded domesticated beef (rather than meat from game animals), iron, and ivory and gold. The city of Great Zimbabwe, founded around 1100, was the centre of the Shona kingdom until around 1400.
Much trade in the forest kingdoms was done at the local level, typically by ordinary Yoruba people at local markets. In some towns these were held every 3 or 4 days. Cloth, vegetables, meat, and other goods were traded, and paid for using small seashells called cowries which were imported from East Africa. Bars of copper and iron, called manilas, were produced in standard shapes to be used as currency. Other items used in trade as a form of currency included salt, cloth, and bars of gold.
Trade with the Middle East had begun as early as ancient Egypt. Islam was introduced to the Horn region early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila 's two - mihrab Masjid al - Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century. The spread of Islam brought Arab traders as far as Morocco. The Adal Sultanate in the Horn region also maintained bilateral relations with the Ottoman Empire. The institutional framework for long - distance trade across political and cultural boundaries had long been strengthened by the adoption of Islam as a cultural and moral foundation for trust among and with traders. On the Swahili Coast to the southeast, the Sultan of Malindi sent envoys to the Chinese imperial palace in Nanjing Yongle bearing a giraffe and other exotic gifts.
The earliest European colonists settled in North Africa in ancient times. These colonists included Phoenicians and Greeks. Settlers from ancient Athens and other parts of Greece established themselves along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa. They were later followed by colonists of the Roman Empire. Rome 's colonies "served as a prototype '' for later European colonial movement into the continent.
Portugal was the first European empire to penetrate deep into Sub-Saharan Africa to establish colonies. Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator advanced Portuguese exploration of Africa, driven by two desires: to spread Christianity, and to establish Africa as a bastion of Christianity against the Ottoman Empire, which was making many African converts to Islam. Africa was exploited for commercial purposes because of another Portuguese goal: to find a route to India, which would open the entire Indian Ocean region to direct trade with Portugal. Conquest of territory in Africa also meant that the Portuguese could use African gold to finance travel along this new trade route.
The Portuguese began significant trading with West Africa in the 15th century. This trade was primarily for the same commodities the Arabs had bought -- gold, ivory, and slaves. The Portuguese sold the Africans Indian cloth and European manufactured goods but refused to sell them guns. Soon, however, other European powers such as France, Denmark, the Netherlands and Britain were developing their own trade with Africa, and they had fewer restrictions. The major European imperial powers in Africa were Portugal, Great Britain, France, and to a lesser extent Germany, Belgium, Spain and Italy. Portugal 's presence in Africa as an imperial power lasted until the 1970s, when the last of its former colonies declared independence after years of war.
The Atlantic Ocean had long been all but impenetrable to the galleys that plied the Mediterranean. That any ship needed to pass thousands of kilometers of waterless desert before reaching any populated regions also made trade impossible. These barriers were overcome by the development of the caravel in Europe. Previously, trade with Sub-Saharan Africa could only be conducted through North African middlemen. Now Europeans could trade directly with the Africans themselves.
This valuable trade lead to rapid change in West Africa. The region had long been agriculturally productive and, especially in western Nigeria, densely populated. The massive profits from trade and the arrival of guns lead to significant centralization and a number of states formed in the region such as the Ashanti Confederacy and Kingdom of Benin. These states became some of the wealthiest and most advanced in Africa. Wealthy merchants began to send their children to European universities and their well armed standing armies could challenge European forces.
Many West - African natives, such as Seedies and Kroomen, served on European ships, and received regular pay, which greatly enhanced their status back home.
Clearly, the slave trade enriched the segments of African society that traded in slaves. However, the modern historiography of slavery has swung between two poles on the question of its demographic and economic effects on Africa as a whole. Early historical accounts of the Atlantic slave trade were largely written for a popular audience by abolitionists and former slaves like Olaudah Equiano who emphasized its profoundly negative effects on African peoples. As the 19th century progressed, accounts of the negative impact of slavery were increasingly used to argue for European colonization of the continent. Conversely, there were those, like the British explorer and geographer William Winwood Reade, who drew on the accounts of slave traders to argue that the effects of slavery were positive.
By the early 20th century, the view of slavery as a negative influence on Africa prevailed among professional academic historians in Europe and the United States. During the decolonization period following World War II, an influential group of scholars, led by J.D. Fage, argued that the negative effects of slavery had been exaggerated, and that the export of slaves had been offset by population growth. Walter Rodney, a specialist on the Upper Guinea Coast, countered that European demand for slaves had vastly increased the economic importance of the slave trade in West Africa, with catastrophic effects. Rodney, who was active in Pan-African independence movements, accused Fage of whitewashing the role of Europeans in Africa; Fage responded by accusing Rodney of nationalist romanticism.
Debates on the economic impacts of the Atlantic trade were further stimulated by the publication of Philip Curtin 's The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (1969), which argued that 9.566 million slaves were exported from Africa through the Atlantic trade. In the 1970s, the debate on the economic impacts of the Atlantic trade increasingly turned on demographic estimates of slave exports in relation to continental birth rates. Most scholars now believe that Curtin was too conservative in his calculation, with most estimates ranging between 11.5 million to 15.4 million. More recently, John K. Thornton has presented an argument closer to that of Fage, while Joseph Inikori, Patrick Manning and Nathan Nunn have argued that the slave trade had a long - term debilitating impact on African economic development.
Manning, for example, arrived at the following conclusion, after accounting for regional variations in slave exports and assuming an annual African population growth rate of 0.5. %: the population of Africa would have been 100 million rather than 50 million in 1850, if not for the combined effects of the external and internal slave trades. Nunn, in a recent econometric analysis of slave - exporting regions in all parts of Africa, found "a robust negative relationship between the number of slaves taken from a country and its subsequent economic development. '' Nunn argues, moreover, that this can not be explained by poverty prior to the slave trade, because more densely populated and economically developed parts of Africa regressed behind previously less developed, non-slave exporting areas during the course of the Atlantic, trans - Saharan, Red Sea and Indian Ocean slave trades.
The Berlin Conference (German: Kongokonferenz or "Congo Conference '') of 1884 -- 85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany 's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, while simultaneously eliminating most existing forms of African autonomy and self - governance. During this colonial time, the economy of Africa was re-arranged to serve Europe and Europeans, and the European industrial chain began in Africa and ended in European industrial warehouses.
All of Africa would ultimately fall under European colonial rule by 1914, with the exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia. The partitioning of African territory among European regimes often violated existing boundaries recognized by local Africans. Some of the independent African states affected by the partitioning of the continent included:
Under colonial rule, the plantation system of farming was widely introduced in order to grow large quantities of cash crops, and employing cheap (often forced) African labor for export to European countries. Mining for gems and precious metals such as gold was developed in a similar way by wealthy European entrepreneurs such as Cecil Rhodes. The implementation and effects of these colonial policies could be brutal. One extreme example of exploitation of Africans during this period is the Congo Free State, administered under a form of "company rule ''. The Belgians, under Leopold II of Belgium, allowed businesses to use forced labour as they saw fit. The brutal conditions, famine and disease ended in the deaths of an estimated 10 million Congolese between 1885 and 1908.
Belgian government commissions in the 1920s found that the population of Belgian Congo had fallen by as much as 50 % under Congo Free State rule as a result of forced labor (largely for the purposes of rubber cultivation), massacre by colonial troops, famine and disease. In white settler colonies like Algeria, Kenya, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), South Africa and Southwest Africa (now Namibia), the most fertile lands were forcibly expropriated from the indigenous populations for use by white settlers. In these countries African farmers were pushed onto "native reserves, '' usually located on arid, marginal lands. Slavery was also widely abolished by colonial powers.
To some colonizers, such as the British, the ideal colony was based on an open economy, actively engaged in world trade through the export of raw materials and the import of finished goods. The British practiced a policy of light administration, enforcing relatively little regulation on their colonies, especially in non-economic matters. As long as British interests were achieved, native populations were given greater individual freedoms. However, other colonizers, such as the French, took a more active approach to governance, encouraging or even requiring their subjects to more fully assimilate into French culture.
Colonizers were under heavy political pressure to make their colonies immediately and continuously profitable. In almost all cases, this constraint led to a shortage of long - term investment from the mother countries into the economic development in their colonies. While these countries did finance some major infrastructure projects designed to facilitate trade, this was primarily to aid in the immediate extraction of valuable resources, and there was little to no investment into growing local business. Another reason colonial governments allowed local economies to lag behind was that competitive local industries would have reduced the colonies ' trade dependence on the central economies in Europe.
For the colonies to be integrated into the world economy and imperial trade network, the colonial governments needed the local citizens to engage in market activity, rather than simply subsistence agriculture. One method that colonial powers used to urge the native populations into participating in the larger economy was the requirement that taxes be paid in official currency. This made subsistence farming less feasible, as the producers then needed to sell at least some surplus in the market to obtain the currency needed for the payment of taxes.
Many times colonial powers collected these taxes through the assistance of local African chiefs, who were politically and financially supported by the colonial governments in exchange for their assistance in enforcing these governments ' policies, especially for policies that could be unpopular. Thus, the colonizers themselves avoided some degree of animosity from their subjects by using these established chiefs as proxies to enforce many of their coercive policies.
Today, many African economies are affected by the legacy of colonialism. In agriculture, the plantation systems that they introduced were highly unsustainable and caused severe environmental degradation. For example, cotton severely lowers soil fertility wherever it is grown, and areas of West Africa that are dominated by cotton plantations are now unable to switch to more profitable crops or even to produce food because of the depleted soil. Recently, more countries have initiated programs to change to traditional, sustainable forms of agriculture such as shifting cultivation and bush fallow in order to grow enough food to support the population while maintaining soil fertility which allows agriculture to continue in future generations. (Gyasi)
Ivory trade in the African Great Lakes region, 1880s.
Arab slave traders and their captives near the Ruvuma (Rovuma) river in today 's Tanzania and Mozambique, then under Portuguese rule (1866).
Children in Cameroon weaving, 1919.
Essaouira in 1809.
Port of Zeila, 19th century.
Bridge over the Magech River near Gondar, 1883.
After World War II, European attitudes towards Africa began to change. In the aftermath of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War, ' Western ' powers were averse to the idea of using outright conquest to annex territory. At the same time, agitation against colonial rule was becoming persistent in Africa. Between 1945 and 1948 there was a series of strikes and protests, in Senegal, Tanzania, on the French West African railway system, and along West Africa 's Gold Coast.
African countries gradually won their independence (with colonial - era boundaries intact), in most cases without prolonged violent conflict (exceptions include the Cameroon, Madagascar and Kenya). As the Cold War continued, African governments could count on support from either Western governments or Communist patrons, depending upon their ideology.
The early years of independence went relatively smoothly for most African countries. This economic resilience eroded for the most part over the next several decades. Many arguments have been made to identify factors to explain the economic decline of many African countries. The tendency towards single - party rule, outlawing political opposition, had the result of keeping dictators in power for many years, perpetuating failed policies. Loans from foreign governments became crippling burdens to some countries that had difficulty even paying the interest on the loans. The UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) estimates that between 1970 and 2002 "sub-Saharan Africa received $294 billion in loans, paid out $268 billion in debt service, and yet still owes $300 billion ''.
At various points during the late 20th century, the following debts were incurred by African governments (amounts are in billions of US dollars):
By the 1980s, political conflict had erupted into civil war in some countries, and the political instability kept some economies mired for many years. Some African governments faced practical problems in implementing industrial change as they attempted rapid modernization of their economies; costing and mismanagement problems in agricultural, manufacturing, and other sectors meant the failure of many projects. One result was African countries becoming increasingly dependent upon foreign food imports.
A heavy blow to the economies of many African countries came from the 1973 OPEC oil embargo. Arab OPEC member countries opposed Israel during the Yom Kippur War of October 1973. OPEC embargoed oil exports to many Western governments as retaliation for their having supported Israel in the War. 40 African countries were dependent upon oil imports from OPEC, and when the price of oil rose rapidly from the embargo, African exports became too expensive for many foreign markets.
A major question in the economic history of Africa is focusing on explanations for the relative poverty of the continent. Economists today use different ways to explain this phenomenon usually either an external or internal approach.
External approaches usually focus on institutional patterns within economies. They try to explain Africa 's economic development as subject to European institutional decisions of the past. European colonial governments had no incentive to create institutions fostering economic development in African colonies, but rather economic extraction of given resources. Even today, African institutions still depend on these early decisions. For example, in Africa, property rights are not established or enforced in a way promoting economic activity.
Here two distinct ways have to be differentiated: The first one, similar to the external approach, focuses on property right distributions in Africa. These usually emerge from the setup of the society, being more collective than individualist with tribes or families playing an important role in Africa. Thereby the distribution of property rights is an obstacle to economic development. Also, there are few incentives to change this setup into an economically more advantageous setting. For rulers it is often the rational choice to stick to this property rights setup, thereby being able to extract more from their dominion than by fostering economic development. The second internal approach focuses directly on resource endowments within the specific regions. Labor scarcity until the 20th century combined with a relatively low quality of soils lead to an extensive way of farming, largely relying on vast amounts of land rather than on intensive use of labor on the land. Combined with bad institutions from precolonial or colonial times this economic setup hinders the extensive use of technology and thereby slowing down or even preventing economic development.
Most African economies, especially sub-Saharan Africa stagnated during this time and the period ended with many of Africa 's national economies in ruins partly due to lop - sided trade with the rest of the world. Some have argued that economic decline has been caused by the meddling in the internal affairs of African states by the IMF and World Bank. Africa also experienced major governance deficiencies, mismanagement and corruption, and this accelerated poverty further.
The wealthy elite in Africa in the late 20th century was characterized by civil servants functioning as "gatekeepers '', holding positions with authority to approve foreign aid, humanitarian assistance, and private investment (typically foreign). Bribery and corruption became entrenched in some countries. Environmental and political catastrophe combined in several famines during the 1970s and 1980s in Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania and Mozambique. The impact of drought and desertification of a large part of the continent came to widespread public attention by the early 21st century.
Africa 's economy only began to take off in the early 2000 's as the political situation improved, national governments began to crack down on corruption and patronage, macroeconomic growth plans aimed at improving living conditions began to be implemented, and millions of Africans continued to flock to the cities in search of jobs and other amenities.
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what does the w stand for on radio stations | Call signs in North America - wikipedia
Call signs are frequently still used by North American broadcast stations, in addition to amateur radio and other international radio stations that continue to identify by call signs around the world. Each country has a different set of patterns for its own call signs. Call signs are allocated to ham radio stations in Barbados, Canada, Mexico and across the United States.
Many countries have specific conventions for classifying call signs by transmitter characteristics and location. The call sign format for radio and television call signs follows a number of conventions. All call signs begin with a prefix assigned by the International Telecommunications Union. For example, the United States has been assigned the following prefixes: "AAA '' -- "ALZ '', "K '', "N '', "W ''. For a complete list, see international call sign allocations.
Pertaining to their status as former or current colonies, all of the British West Indies islands shared the VS, ZB -- ZJ, ZN -- ZO, and ZQ prefixes. The current, largely post-independence, allocation list is as follows:
Cuba uses the prefixes "CL '' -- "CM '', "CO '', and "T4 '', with district numbers from 0 to 9 to amateur operations.
The Dominican Republic uses the prefixes "HI '' -- "HJ ''.
All of the French possessions share the prefix "F ''. Further divisions that are used by amateur stations are:
Haiti has been assigned the callsign prefixes "HH '' and "4V ''.
The Kingdom of the Netherlands use the "PA '' -- "PI '' prefixes, while the Netherlands Antilles use the "PJ '' prefix. Aruba has been assigned "P4 '' by the ITU.
The island nation of Trinidad and Tobago use the "9Y '' -- "9Z '' prefixes.
Canadian broadcast stations are assigned a three -, four -, or five - letter base call sign (not including the "- FM '', "- TV '' or "- DT '' suffix) beginning with "CB '', "CF '', "CH '', "CI '', "CJ '', "CK '', "VA '' -- "VG '', "VO '', "VX '', "VY '', or "XJ '' -- "XO ''. The "CB '' series calls are assigned to Chile by the ITU, but Canada makes de facto use of this series anyway for stations belonging to, but not exclusively broadcasting programs from, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).
Several other prefixes, including "CG '', "CY '', "CZ '' and the "XJ '' to "XO '' range, are available. Conventional radio and television stations almost exclusively use "C '' call signs; with a few exceptions noted below, the "V '' codes are restricted to specialized uses such as amateur radio.
Mexican broadcast stations are assigned a three -, four -, five -, or six - letter call signs beginning with "XE '' (for mediumwave and shortwave stations) or "XH '' (for FM radio and television stations). Some FM and television stations (like XETV - TDT) are grandfathered with "XE '' call signs and an "-- FM '', "- TDT '' or "-- TV '' suffix. Mexican stations are required to identify twice an hour and to play the Mexican national anthem every day at 6 a.m. and midnight local time. Television rebroadcasters are assigned the callsigns of the station they are licensed to retransmit; for instance, XEZ - TV, located on Cerro El Zamorano in Querétaro, has a repeater on Cerro Culiacán serving Celaya, Guanajuato, which is also XEZ - TV.
Amateur radio stations in Mexico use "XE1 '' for the central region, "XE2 '' for the northern region, and "XE3 '' for the southern region. "XF '' prefixes indicate islands. "XF4 '' is usually used for the Revillagigedo Islands and nearby islets. Special call signs for contests or celebrations are occasionally issued, often in the 4A and 6D series, although these will follow the usual district numbering system (4A3 for the south, etc.).
The earliest identification, used in the 1910s and into the early 1920s, was arbitrary. The U.S. government began requiring stations to use three - letter call signs around 1912, but they could be chosen at random. This system was replaced by the basic form of the current system in the early 1920s. Examples of pre-1920 stations include 8XK in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which became KDKA in November 1920, and Charles Herrold 's series of identifiers from 1909 in San Jose, California: first "This is the Herrold Station '' or "San Jose calling '', then the call signs FN, SJN, 6XF, and 6XE, then, with the advent of modern call signs, KQW in December 1921, and eventually KCBS from 1949 onward.
All broadcast call signs in the United States begin with either "K '' or "W '', with "K '' usually west of the Mississippi River and "W '' usually east of it. Initial letters "AA '' through "AL '', as well as "N '', are internationally allocated to the United States but are not used for broadcast stations.
In the United States, broadcast stations have call signs of three to seven characters in length, including suffixes for certain types of service, but the minimum length for new stations is four characters, and seven - character call signs result only from rare combinations of suffixes.
Call signs are also used in other parts of the world, particularly those which have had significant U.S. influence at some point. This includes the Philippines (which is assigned "DZ '', "DY '', "DX '' or "DW '' followed by two letters), Japan (which is assigned "JO '' followed by two letters), South Korea (which is assigned "HL '' followed by two letters), Argentina (which uses "AY '', "L2 '', and "LO '' to "LZ '') and formerly Australia. Another well - known call sign outside the region is HCJB in Ecuador, and several radio time sources used to set radio clocks or for audible listening, such as CHU in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
The rules governing call signs for stations in the United States are set out in the FCC rules, 47 C.F.R. chapter I. Specific rules for each particular service are set out in the part of the rules dealing with that service. A general overview of call sign formats is found at 47 C.F.R. 2.302. Rules for broadcast stations ' call sign are principally defined in 47 C.F.R. 73.3550.
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how did the great lakes get their name | Great Lakes - wikipedia
The Great Lakes (French: les Grands - Lacs), also called the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located primarily in the upper mid-east region of North America, on the Canada -- United States border, which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River. They consist of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron (or Michigan -- Huron), Erie, and Ontario.
The Great Lakes are the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area, and second largest by total volume, containing 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles (244,106 km), and the total volume (measured at the low water datum) is 5,439 cubic miles (22,671 km), slightly less than the volume of Lake Baikal (23,615 km3, 22 -- 23 % of the world 's surface fresh water). Due to their sea - like characteristics (rolling waves, sustained winds, strong currents, great depths, and distant horizons) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas. Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and the largest freshwater lake by area. Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country.
The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago, as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land which then filled with meltwater. The lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration, and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the region 's biodiversity.
The surrounding region is called the Great Lakes region, which includes the Great Lakes Megalopolis.
Though the five lakes lie in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. They form a chain connecting the east - central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, and finally northward to Lake Ontario. The lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several thousand smaller lakes, often called "inland lakes, '' within the basin. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the surface area of the entire basin (the lakes and the land they drain) is about the size of the UK and France combined. Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States; the others form a water boundary between the United States and Canada. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes: Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, and Michigan does not border Lake Ontario. New York and Wisconsin 's jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and each of the remaining states into one of the lakes.
As the surfaces of Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, and Erie are all approximately the same elevation above sea level, while Lake Ontario is significantly lower, and because the Niagara Escarpment precludes all natural navigation, the four upper lakes are commonly called the "upper great lakes ''. This designation, however, is not universal. Those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as "the lower lakes '', because they are farther south. Sailors of bulk freighters transferring cargoes from Lake Superior and northern Lake Michigan and Lake Huron to ports on Lake Erie or Ontario commonly refer to the latter as the lower lakes and Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior as the upper lakes. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as "down south '' and the others as "up north ''. Vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered "upbound '' even though they are sailing toward its effluent current.
Lakes Huron and Michigan are sometimes considered a single lake, called Lake Michigan -- Huron, because they are one hydrological body of water connected by the Straits of Mackinac. The straits are 5 miles (8 km) wide and 120 feet (37 m) deep; the water levels -- currently at 577 feet (176 m) -- rise and fall together, and the flow between Michigan and Huron frequently reverses direction.
Dispersed throughout the Great Lakes are approximately 35,000 islands. The largest among them is Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water in the world. The second - largest island is Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Both of these islands are large enough to contain multiple lakes themselves -- for instance, Manitoulin Island 's Lake Manitou is the world 's largest lake located on a freshwater island. Some of these lakes even have their own islands, like Treasure Island in Lake Mindemoya in Manitoulin Island
The Great Lakes also have several peninsulas between them, including the Door Peninsula the Peninsulas of Michigan and the Ontario Peninsula. Some of these peninsulas even contain smaller peninsulas, like the Keweenaw Peninsula, the Thumb Peninsula, the Bruce Peninsula, and the Niagara Peninsula. Population centers on the peninsulas include Grand Rapids, Michigan, Detroit, Michigan, London, Ontario, Hamilton, Ontario, and Toronto, Ontario.
The Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway make the Great Lakes accessible to ocean - going vessels. However, shifts in shipping to wider ocean - going container ships -- which do not fit through the locks on these routes -- have limited container shipping on the lakes. Most Great Lakes trade is of bulk material, and bulk freighters of Seawaymax - size or less can move throughout the entire lakes and out to the Atlantic. Larger ships are confined to working in the lakes themselves. Only barges can access the Illinois Waterway system providing access to the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, interrupting most shipping from January to March. Some icebreakers ply the lakes, keeping the shipping lanes open through other periods of ice on the lakes.
The Great Lakes are also connected by canal to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois River (from the Chicago River) and the Mississippi River. An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, up the Ohio, and then through the Tennessee -- Tombigbee Waterway (a combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf. Commercial tug - and - barge traffic on these waterways is heavy.
Pleasure boats can also enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York. The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, New York) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, New York).
In 2009, the lakes contained 84 % of the surface freshwater of North America; if the water were evenly distributed over the entire continent 's land area, it would reach a depth of 1.5 meters (5 feet). The source of water levels in the lakes is tied to what was left by melting glaciers when the lakes took their present form. Annually, only about 1 % is "new '' water originating from rivers, precipitation, and groundwater springs that drain into the lakes. Historically, evaporation has been balanced by drainage, making the level of the lakes constant. While the lake levels have been preserved, intensive human population growth only began in the region in the 20th century and continues today. At least two human water use activities have been identified as having the potential to affect the lakes ' levels: diversion (the transfer of water to other watersheds) and consumption (substantially done today by the use of lake water to power and cool electric generation plants, resulting in evaporation).
The water level of Lake Michigan -- Huron had remained fairly constant over the 20th century, but has nevertheless dropped more than 6 feet from the record high in 1986 to the low of 2013. One newspaper reported that the long - term average level has gone down about 20 inches because of dredging and subsequent erosion in the St. Clair River. Lake Michigan -- Huron hit all - time record low levels in 2013; according to the US Army Corps of Engineers, the previous record low had been set in 1964. By April 2015 the water level had recovered to 7 inches (17.5 cm) more than the "long term monthly average ''.
The Great Lakes contained 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water around the year 2000: 5,472 cubic miles (22,810 km), or 6.0 × 10 U.S. gallons (2.3 × 10 liters). This is enough water to cover the 48 contiguous U.S. states to a uniform depth of 9.5 feet (2.9 m). Although the lakes contain a large percentage of the world 's fresh water, the Great Lakes supply only a small portion of U.S. drinking water on a national basis.
The total surface area of the lakes is approximately 94,250 square miles (244,100 km) -- nearly the same size as the United Kingdom, and larger than the U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire combined.
The Great Lakes coast measures approximately 10,500 miles (16,900 km); however, the length of a coastline is impossible to measure exactly and is not a well - defined measure (see Coastline paradox). Of the total 10,500 miles (16,900 km) of shoreline, Canada borders approximately 5,200 miles (8,400 km), while the remaining 5,300 miles (8,500 km) are bordered by the United States. Michigan has the longest shoreline of the United States, bordering roughly 3,288 miles (5,292 km) of shoreline, followed by Wisconsin (820 miles (1,320 km)), New York (473 miles (761 km)), and Ohio (312 miles (502 km)). Traversing the shoreline of all the lakes would cover a distance roughly equivalent to travelling half - way around the world at the equator.
It has been estimated that the foundational geology that created the conditions shaping the present day upper Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago, when two previously fused tectonic plates split apart and created the Midcontinent Rift, which crossed the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone. A valley was formed providing a basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior. When a second fault line, the Saint Lawrence rift, formed approximately 570 million years ago, the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie were created, along with what would become the Saint Lawrence River.
The Great Lakes are estimated to have been formed at the end of the last glacial period (the Wisconsin glaciation ended 10,000 to 12,000 years ago), when the Laurentide Ice Sheet receded. The retreat of the ice sheet left behind a large amount of meltwater (see Lake Algonquin, Lake Chicago, Glacial Lake Iroquois, and Champlain Sea) that filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier erosion, some higher hills became Great Lakes islands. The Niagara Escarpment follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin. Land below the glaciers "rebounded '' as it was uncovered. Since the glaciers covered some areas longer than others, this glacial rebound occurred at different rates.
A notable modern phenomenon is the formation of ice volcanoes over the lakes during wintertime. Storm - generated waves carve the lakes ' ice sheet and create conical mounds through the eruption of water and slush. The process is only well - documented in the Great Lakes, and has been credited with sparing the southern shorelines from worse rocky erosion.
The Great Lakes have a humid continental climate, Köppen climate classification Dfa (in southern areas) and Dfb (in northern parts) with varying influences from air masses from other regions including dry, cold Arctic systems, mild Pacific air masses from the West, and warm, wet tropical systems from the south and the Gulf of Mexico. The lakes themselves also have a moderating effect on the climate; they can also increase precipitation totals and produce lake effect snowfall.
The most well - known winter effect of the Great Lakes on regional weather is the lake effect in snowfall, which is sometimes very localized. Even late in winter, the lakes often have no icepack in the middle. The prevailing winds from the west pick up the air and moisture from the lake surface, which is slightly warmer in relation to the cold surface winds above. As the slightly warmer, moist air passes over the colder land surface, the moisture often produces concentrated, heavy snowfall that sets up in bands or "streamers ''. This is similar to the effect of warmer air dropping snow as it passes over mountain ranges. During freezing weather with high winds, the "snow belts '' receive regular snow fall from this localized weather pattern, especially along the eastern shores of the lakes. Snow belts are found in Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, United States; and Ontario, Canada.
The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures to some degree, but not with as large an influence as do large oceans; they absorb heat and cool the air in summer, then slowly radiate that heat in autumn. They protect against frost during transitional weather, and keep the summertime temperatures cooler than further inland. This effect can be very localized and overridden by offshore wind patterns. This temperature buffering produces areas known as "fruit belts '', where fruit can be produced that is typically grown much farther south. For instance, Western Michigan has apple and cherry orchards, and vineyards cultivated adjacent to the lake shore as far north as the Grand Traverse Bay and Nottawasaga Bay in central Ontario. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie have many successful wineries because of the moderating effect, as does the Niagara Peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. A similar phenomenon allows wineries to flourish in the Finger Lakes region of New York, as well as in Prince Edward County, Ontario on Lake Ontario 's northeast shore. Related to the lake effect is the regular occurrence of fog over medium - sized areas, particularly along the shorelines of the lakes. This is most noticeable along Lake Superior 's shores.
The Great Lakes have been observed to help intensify storms, such as Hurricane Hazel in 1954, and the 2011 Goderich, Ontario tornado, which moved onshore as a tornadic waterspout. In 1996 a rare tropical or subtropical storm was observed forming in Lake Huron, dubbed the 1996 Lake Huron cyclone. Rather large severe thunderstorms covering wide areas are well known in the Great Lakes during mid-summer; these Mesoscale convective complexs or MCCs can cause damage to wide swaths of forest and shatter glass in city buildings. These storms mainly occur during the night, and the systems sometimes have small embedded tornadoes, but more often straight - line winds accompanied by intense lightning.
Historically, the Great Lakes, in addition to their lake ecology, were surrounded by various forest ecoregions (except in a relatively small area of southeast Lake Michigan where savanna or prairie occasionally intruded). Logging, urbanization, and agriculture uses have changed that relationship. In the early 21st century, Lake Superior 's shores are 91 % forested, Lake Huron 68 %, Lake Ontario 49 %, Lake Michigan 41 %, and Lake Erie, where logging and urbanization has been most extensive, 21 %. Some of these forests are second or third growth (i.e. they have been logged before, changing their composition). At least 13 wildlife species are documented as becoming extinct since the arrival of Europeans, and many more are threatened or endangered. Meanwhile, exotic and invasive species have also been introduced.
The organisms living on the bottom of shallow waters are similar to those found in smaller lakes. The deep waters, however, contain organisms found only in deep, cold lakes of the northern latitudes. These include the delicate opossum shrimp (order mysida), the deepwater scud (a crustacean of the order amphipoda), two types of copepods, and the deepwater sculpin (a spiny, large - headed fish).
The Great Lakes are an important source of fishing. Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish; there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes. Throughout history, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments. According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book: "The largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes (66,000 long tons; 74,000 short tons) (147 million pounds). ''
By 1801, the New York Legislature found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels. In the early 19th century, the government of Upper Canada found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario 's tributaries. Other protective legislation was passed, as well, but enforcement remained difficult.
On both sides of the Canada -- United States border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments have multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts. Concerns by the mid-19th century included obstructions in the rivers which prevented salmon and lake sturgeon from reaching their spawning grounds. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 % in general fish harvests by 1875. The states have removed dams from rivers where necessary.
Overfishing has been cited as a possible reason for a decrease in population of various whitefish, important because of their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg). By 1900, commercial fishermen on Lake Michigan were hauling in an average of 41 million pounds of fish annually. By 1938, Wisconsin 's commercial fishing operations were motorized and mechanized, generating jobs for more than 2,000 workers, and hauling 14 million pounds per year. The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes entrepreneurs. Since 2000, the invasive quagga mussel has smothered the bottom of Lake Michigan almost from shore to shore, and their numbers are estimated at 900 trillion.
The influx of parasitic lamprey populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later Welland Canal led to the two federal governments of the US and Canada working on joint proposals to control it. By the mid-1950s, the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame. This led to the launch of the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission.
The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book (1972) noted: "Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery. '' But, water quality improvements realized during the 1970s and 1980s, combined with successful salmonid stocking programs, have enabled the growth of a large recreational fishery. The last commercial fisherman left Milwaukee in 2011 because of overfishing and anthropogenic changes to the biosphere.
Since the 19th century an estimated 160 new species have found their way into the Great Lakes ecosystem; many have become invasive; the overseas ship ballast and ship hull parasitism are causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, on average a new species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.
Introductions into the Great Lakes include the zebra mussel, which was first discovered in 1988, and quagga mussel in 1989. The mollusks are efficient filter feeders, competing with native mussels and reducing available food and spawning grounds for fish. In addition, the mussels may be a nuisance to industries by clogging pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel could be about $5 billion over the next decade.
The alewife first entered the system west of Lake Ontario via 19th - century canals. By the 1960s, the small silver fish had become a familiar nuisance to beach goers across Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie. Periodic mass dieoffs result in vast numbers of the fish washing up on shore; estimates by various governments have placed the percentage of Lake Michigan 's biomass, which was made up of alewives in the early 1960s, as high as 90 %. In the late 1960s, the various state and federal governments began stocking several species of salmonids, including the native lake trout as well as non-native chinook and coho salmon; by the 1980s, alewife populations had dropped drastically. The ruffe, a small percid fish from Eurasia, became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior 's Saint Louis River within five years of its detection in 1986. Its range, which has expanded to Lake Huron, poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery. Five years after first being observed in the St. Clair River, the round goby can now be found in all of the Great Lakes. The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons: it preys upon bottom - feeding fish, overruns optimal habitat, spawns multiple times a season, and can survive poor water quality conditions.
Several species of exotic water fleas have accidentally been introduced into the Great Lakes, such as the spiny waterflea, Bythotrephes longimanus, and the fishhook waterflea, Cercopagis pengoi, potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population. Several species of crayfish have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations. More recently an electric fence has been set up across the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in order to keep several species of invasive Asian carp out of the area. These fast - growing planktivorous fish have heavily colonized the Mississippi and Illinois river systems. The sea lamprey, which has been particularly damaging to the native lake trout population, is another example of a marine invasive species in the Great Lakes. Invasive species, particularly zebra and quagga mussels, may be at least partially responsible for the collapse of the deepwater demersal fish community in Lake Huron, as well as drastic unprecedented changes in the zooplankton community of the lake.
Native habitats and ecoregions in the Great Lakes region include:
Plant lists include:
Logging
Logging of the extensive forests in the Great Lakes region removed riparian and adjacent tree cover over rivers and streams, which provide shade, moderating water temperatures in fish spawning grounds. Removal of trees also destabilized the soil, with greater volumes washed into stream beds causing siltation of gravel beds, and more frequent flooding.
Running cut logs down the tributary rivers into the Great Lakes also dislocated sediments. In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) had impacted fish populations.
The first U.S. Clean Water Act, passed by a Congressional override after being vetoed by US President Richard Nixon in 1972, was a key piece of legislation, along with the bi-national Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed by Canada and the U.S. A variety of steps taken to process industrial and municipal pollution discharges into the system greatly improved water quality by the 1980s, and Lake Erie in particular is significantly cleaner. Discharge of toxic substances has been sharply reduced. Federal and state regulations control substances like PCBs. The first of 43 "Great Lakes Areas of Concern '' to be formally "de-listed '' due to successful cleanup was Ontario 's Collingwood Harbour in 1994; Ontario 's Severn Sound followed in 2003. Presque Isle Bay in Pennsylvania is formally listed as in recovery, as is Ontario 's Spanish Harbour. Dozens of other Areas of Concern have received partial cleanups such as the Rouge River (Michigan) and Waukegan Harbor (Illinois).
Until 1970, mercury was not listed as a harmful chemical, according to the United States Federal Water Quality Administration. Within the past ten years mercury has become more apparent in water tests. Mercury compounds have been used in paper mills to prevent slime from forming during their production, and chemical companies have used mercury to separate chlorine from brine solutions. Studies conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency have shown that when the mercury comes in contact with many of the bacteria and compounds in the fresh water, it forms the compound methyl mercury, which has a much greater impact on human health than elemental mercury due to a higher propensity for absorption. This form of mercury is not detrimental to a majority of fish types, but is very detrimental to people and other wildlife animals who consume the fish. Mercury has been known for health related problems such as birth defects in humans and animals, and the near extinction of eagles in the Great Lakes region.
The amount of raw sewage dumped into the waters was the primary focus of both the first Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and federal laws passed in both countries during the 1970s. Implementation of secondary treatment of municipal sewage by major cities greatly reduced the routine discharge of untreated sewage during the 1970s and 1980s. The International Joint Commission in 2009 summarized the change: "Since the early 1970s, the level of treatment to reduce pollution from waste water discharges to the Great Lakes has improved considerably. This is a result of significant expenditures to date on both infrastructure and technology, and robust regulatory systems that have proven to be, on the whole, quite effective. '' The commission reported that all urban sewage treatment systems on the U.S. side of the lakes had implemented secondary treatment, as had all on the Canadian side except for five small systems.
However contrary to federal laws in both countries, those treatment system upgrades have not yet eliminated Combined sewer Overflow events. This describes when older sewerage systems, which combine storm water with sewage into single sewers heading to the treatment plant, are temporarily overwhelmed by heavy rainstorms. Local sewage treatment authorities then must release untreated effluent, a mix of rainwater and sewage, into local water bodies. While enormous public investments such as the Deep Tunnel projects in Chicago and Milwaukee have greatly reduced the frequency and volume of these events, they have not been eliminated. The number of such overflow events in Ontario, for example, is flat according to the International Joint Commission. Reports about this issue on the U.S. side highlight five large municipal systems (those of Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Milwaukee and Gary) as being the largest current periodic sources of untreated discharges into the Great Lakes.
Phosphate detergents were historically a major source of nutrient to the Great Lakes algae blooms in particular in the warmer and shallower portions of the system such as Lake Erie, Saginaw Bay, Green Bay, and the southernmost portion of Lake Michigan. By the mid-1980s, most jurisdictions bordering the Great Lakes had controlled phosphate detergents, resulting in sharp reductions in the frequency and extent of the blooms.
In 2013, news of a garbage patch of plastic pollution in the lakes was reported.
Several Native American tribes inhabited the region since at least 1000 BC, after the end of the Wisconsin glaciation. The peoples of the Great Lakes traded with the Hopewell culture from around 1000 AD, as copper nuggets have been extracted from the region, and fashioned into ornaments and weapons in the mounds of Southern Ohio. The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was built at Cayuga Creek, near the southern end of the Niagara River, and became the first known sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7, 1679.
The Rush -- Bagot Treaty signed in 1818, after the War of 1812 and the later Treaty of Washington eventually led to a complete disarmament of naval vessels in the Great Lakes. Nonetheless, both nations maintain coast guard vessels in the Great Lakes.
During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. Barges from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the Welland canal opened in 1824 and the later Erie Canal opened in 1825. By 1848, with the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Chicago, direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes. With these two canals an all - inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans.
The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 19th century was transporting immigrants. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed, the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and, except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, has now vanished. The immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, such as Dutch, German, Polish, Finnish, and many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent.
Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks, domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as iron ore, coal and limestone for the steel industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes.
In the 19th century and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on (downbound ships), and supplies, food, and coal were shipped north (upbound). Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the general northeast track of the Appalachian Mountains, railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as Erie, Pennsylvania and Ashtabula, Ohio.
Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has some distinctive vocabulary. Ships, no matter the size, are called boats. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called steamboats -- the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design (see Lake freighter). Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as lakers. Foreign boats are known as salties. One of the more common sights on the lakes has been since about 1950 the 1,000 ‐ by ‐ 105 - foot (305 - by - 32 - meter), 78,850 - long - ton (80,120 - metric - ton) self - unloader. This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side. Today, the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight, and a few larger ships replacing many small ones.
During World War II, the risk of submarine attacks against coastal training facilities motivated the United States Navy to operate two aircraft carriers on the Great Lakes, USS Sable (IX - 81) and USS Wolverine (IX - 64). Both served as training ships to qualify naval aviators in carrier landing and takeoff. Lake Champlain briefly became the sixth Great Lake of the United States on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources. Following a small uproar, the Senate voted to revoke the designation on March 24 (although New York and Vermont universities would continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake).
In the early years of the 21st century, water levels in the Great Lakes were a concern. Researchers at the Mowat Centre said that low levels could cost $19 bn by 2050.
Except when the water is frozen during winter, more than 100 lake freighters operate continuously on the Great Lakes, which remain a major water transport corridor for bulk goods. The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic oceans. Some lake freighters are too large to use the Seaway, and only operate on the Waterway and lakes.
In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships can not pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide.
Only four bridges are on the Great Lakes other than Lake Ontario because of the cost of building structures high enough for ships to pass under. The Blue Water Bridge is, for example, more than 150 feet high and more than a mile long.
The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes, who have agreed to the Great Lakes Compact to regulate water supply and use.
Tourism and recreation are major industries on the Great Lakes. A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of sailing ships. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a U.S. $4 billion a year industry with salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout, bass and walleye being major catches. Many other water sports are practiced on the lakes such as yachting, sea kayaking, diving, kitesurfing, powerboating, and lake surfing.
The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.
From 1844 through 1857, palace steamers carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes. In the first half of the 20th century large luxurious passenger steamers sailed the lakes in opulence. The Detroit and Cleveland Navigation Company had several vessels at the time and hired workers from all walks of life to help operate these vessels. Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including Isle Royale, Drummond Island, Pelee Island, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, Bois Blanc Island (Ontario), Bois Blanc Island (Michigan), Kelleys Island, South Bass Island, North Manitou Island, South Manitou Island, Harsens Island, Manitoulin Island, and the Toronto Islands. As of 2007, four car ferry services cross the Great Lakes, two on Lake Michigan: a steamer from Ludington, Michigan, to Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon, Michigan, one on Lake Erie: a boat from Kingsville, Ontario, or Leamington, Ontario, to Pelee Island, Ontario, then onto Sandusky, Ohio, and one on Lake Huron: the M.S. Chi - Cheemaun runs between Tobermory and South Baymouth, Manitoulin Island, operated by the Owen Sound Transportation Company. An international ferry across Lake Ontario Rochester, New York, to Toronto ran during 2004 and 2005, but is no longer in operation.
The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel; storms and reefs are common threats. The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms, in particular in the autumn, from late October until early December. Hundreds of ships have met their end on the lakes. The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near Thunder Bay (Michigan), beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge.
The Lake Superior shipwreck coast from Grand Marais, Michigan, to Whitefish Point became known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes ''. More vessels have been lost in the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior. The Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve serves as an underwater museum to protect the many shipwrecks in this area.
The first ship to sink in Lake Michigan was Le Griffon, also the first ship to sail the Great Lakes. Caught in a 1679 storm while trading furs between Green Bay and Michilimacinac, she was lost with all hands aboard. Its wreck may have been found in 2004, but a wreck subsequently discovered in a different location was also claimed in 2014 to be Le Griffon.
The largest and last major freighter wrecked on the lakes was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, which sank on November 10, 1975, just over 17 miles (30 km) offshore from Whitefish Point on Lake Superior. The largest loss of life in a shipwreck out on the lakes may have been that of Lady Elgin, wrecked in 1860 with the loss of around 400 lives on Lake Michigan. In an incident at a Chicago dock in 1915, the SS Eastland rolled over while loading passengers, killing 841.
In August 2007, the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society announced that it had found the wreckage of Cyprus, a 420 - foot (130 m) long, century - old ore carrier. Cyprus sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11, 1907, during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. The entire crew of 23 drowned, except one, Charles Pitz, who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours.
In June 2008, deep sea divers in Lake Ontario found the wreck of the 1780 Royal Navy warship HMS Ontario in what has been described as an "archaeological miracle ''. There are no plans to raise her as the site is being treated as a war grave.
In June 2010, L.R. Doty was found in Lake Michigan by an exploration diving team led by dive boat Captain Jitka Hanakova from her boat the Molly V. The ship sank in October 1898, probably attempting to rescue a small schooner, Olive Jeanette, during a terrible storm.
Still missing are the two last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, the French minesweepers, Inkerman and Cerisoles, which vanished in Lake Superior during a blizzard in 1918. 78 lives were lost making it the largest loss of life in Lake Superior and the greatest unexplained loss of life in the Great Lakes.
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In 1872, a treaty gave access to the St. Lawrence River to the United States, and access to Lake Michigan to the Dominion of Canada. The International Joint Commission was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the Chicago River to operate the Illinois Waterway but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. "Water Resources Development Act '', diversion of water from the Great Lakes Basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors through the Great Lakes Commission, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions.
In 1998, the Canadian company Nova Group won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw 158,000,000 U.S. gallons (600,000 m) of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began. Since that time, the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes - Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement and the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long - distance ones. The agreements strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin. On December 13, 2005, the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements, the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions. It is somewhat more detailed and protective, though its legal strength has not yet been tested in court. The second, the Great Lakes Compact, has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes as well as the U.S. Congress, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 3, 2008.
The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, described as "the largest investment in the Great Lakes in two decades, '' was funded at $475 million in the U.S. federal government 's Fiscal Year 2011 budget, and $300 million in the Fiscal Year 2012 budget. Through the program a coalition of federal agencies is making grants to local and state entities for toxics cleanups, wetlands and coastline restoration projects, and invasive species - related projects.
In 2006, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) proposed a plan to designate 34 areas in the Great Lakes, at least 5 mi (8 km) offshore, as permanent safety zones for live fire machine gun practice. In August 2006, the plan was published in the Federal Register. The USCG reserved the right to hold target practice whenever the weather allowed with a two - hour notice. These firing ranges would be open to the public when not in use. In response to requests from the public, the Coast Guard held a series of public meetings in nine U.S. cities to solicit comment. During these meetings many people voiced concerns about the plan and its impact on the environment. On December 18, 2006, the Coast Guard announced its decision to withdraw the entire proposal. Officials said they would look into alternative ammunition, modifying the proposed zones and have more public dialogue before proposing a new plan.
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Coordinates: 45 ° 45 ′ N 84 ° 0 ′ W / 45.750 ° N 84.000 ° W / 45.750; - 84.000
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