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who was chelsea married to on ravens home | Raven 's Home - wikipedia
Raven 's Home is an American comedy and family television series developed by Jed Elinoff and Scott Thomas that premiered on Disney Channel on July 21, 2017. Based on the characters created by Michael Poryes and Susan Sherman, the series is a spinoff and sequel to That 's So Raven, the second spinoff from that series after Cory in the House. The series stars Raven - Symoné, Issac Ryan Brown, Navia Robinson, Jason Maybaum, Sky Katz, and Anneliese van der Pol.
The series centers around Raven Baxter, a divorced mother of pre-teen twins Booker Baxter - Carter and Nia Baxter - Carter living with Chelsea Daniels, her childhood best friend, and her son Levi Grayson in Chicago, Illinois.
Best friends Raven and Chelsea, both divorced single mothers, are now raising their children in an apartment together in Chicago. Their house is turned upside down when they realize one of Raven 's children, Booker, has inherited the same psychic abilities as his mother.
Eight years after That 's So Raven ended, there was speculation and rumors that the series would get a second spinoff or revamp. On August 14, 2015, a reunion with Raven - Symoné and her former co-stars happened on The View, where they discussed all things about the series and past times. T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh and Rondell Sheridan were not present, but got a special mention from Raven - Symoné herself.
The series was announced on October 27, 2016, where Raven - Symoné also announced that she was departing as co-host of The View later in 2016 in order to work on the series full time, and was officially greenlit to series with the title of Raven 's Home on April 4, 2017. On November 14, 2016, it was announced that Anneliese van der Pol will reprise her role of Chelsea Daniels in the series as a divorced mother who is raising a son, Levi, and moves in with Raven. Executive producers Jed Elinoff and Scott Thomas serve as showrunners and head writers, with Raven - Symoné also on the writing team as an executive producer. The series premiered on Disney Channel on July 21, 2017, and is filmed at Hollywood Center Studios.
Now living in Chicago, Raven and Chelsea have moved in together with their children after their divorces. Raven has twins Nia and Booker and Chelsea has a son named Levi. One day, Raven has a vision of Nia complaining about Booker always getting the attention from their mother. Raven sets out to fix this issue by spending more time with her. Meanwhile, Booker has his first vision at school and decides not to tell his psychic mother, who coincidentally also did not tell her children.
After Chelsea and Levi moved in, Nia moved to the couch. She begins to feel she lacks privacy and space for herself and avoids telling Raven about her issues. When Raven tells Nia that she loves having Chelsea and her son at the house, Nia begins to feel guilty and turns to her father, Devon, who reveals he is moving to Texas for a job. Meanwhile, Booker, after hearing about Levi 's old room, tries to make Levi more at home by buying a trampoline.
After both Chelsea and Booker break something in the house, Raven demands that no one call the landlord since she has n't told them that Chelsea and Levi have moved in the apartment. When Nia and Booker get frustrated cleaning the dishes, they call the landlord Mr. Jablonski against their mother 's wishes. When Mr. Jablonski finds out about Chelsea and her son, he raises the rent or else everyone will have to move out by the end of the month. Meanwhile, Nia and Booker hold a yard sale to help their mother and Levi makes friends with their neighbor who turns out to be the apartment 's proprietor and Mr. Jablonski 's mother.
Raven and the twins plan a surprise goodbye party for Devon, who is moving away to Texas to become a weatherman. When Raven has a vision of her children being upset about Devon 's departure, she plans a weekend with activities Devon would do with the children. Not all goes as planned. Meanwhile, Chelsea accidentally destroys the twins ' stuffed bear given to them by their dad, so she and Levi set out to try and fix it.
Guest stars: Jonathan McDaniel as Devon Carter, Jordan Black as Carnie
Raven catches Nia wearing makeup and makes her take it off, saying that she is too young. One morning before school, Nia steals Raven 's makeup and wears it to school. She gains popularity and accidentally hosts a party on the rooftop. Meanwhile, Booker tries to help Levi when he does n't want to go to school and Raven tries to salvage her job when her boss wants to meet Raven 's fake dogs named after her children.
Raven and Chelsea decide to go out at a club called The Vault. When they are unable to find a babysitter for the night, they decide to trust their kids and Tess to stay home alone. While they are out, the children spill drinks on a chair and attempt to fix it. Elsewhere, Raven and Chelsea run into problems with a partygoer. Also, Booker has a vision of Raven getting locked into the vault of the club. They go out and try to save her.
The children 's school is holding a dance with Booker and Tess helping organize it. When they make it seem that the dance circle is important, Nia begins to feel pressured to learn how to dance. Later, Booker has a vision that the party will be a disaster. He and Tess clash on the dance 's theme. Meanwhile, Raven feels insecure about her involvement in the twins ' lives when the school principal makes a comment about Chelsea always helping out.
When the snack machine at school is out of order, the children decide to sell snacks at school in order to purchase items they want. The school gym teacher finds out about it and attempts to find the culprits responsible. Also, Raven attempts to help Chelsea when she defends her ex-husband in prison. Meanwhile, Chelsea tries to defend Levi 's father but later realizes that she was n't helping him.
Booker has a vision of Tess playing basketball with a boy named Jordan, who she likes. Then Booker has another vision of Jordan rejecting Tess when she reveals her feelings to him. Booker tries to help her, but she demands that he stay out of her personal life. Him and Levi try to stall Jordan from meeting Tess in order to prevent him from breaking Tess ' heart. Meanwhile, Raven and Chelsea argue about their parenting styles.
Guest stars: Philip Solomon as Jordan, Cleo Berry as Lawrence
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who won season 10 dancing with the stars | Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 10) - wikipedia
Season ten of Dancing with the Stars premiered on March 22, 2010. There was not an elimination the first week of competition. The first elimination took place on March 30. Singer Nicole Scherzinger won the competition.
Samantha Harris did not return as co-host for this season, due to her expanded correspondent duties on The Insider and Entertainment Tonight. On March 8, 2010, Tom Bergeron announced on Good Morning America that his new co-host is season seven champion Brooke Burke. Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli, and Carrie Ann Inaba continued as the judges this season.
Season ten had 11 contestants. Damian Whitewood, from the Broadway dance revue Burn the Floor, joined the list of professionals this season. Ashly DelGrosso Costa, whose last season as a pro was season three, returned, and Edyta Śliwińska continued as the longest tenured professional on the show, having appeared on the first ten seasons. This is the second season since season 5 that none of the couples scored a perfect 30 in the first night of the finals, and so far the first and only season where none of the couples got a 10 in the freestyle dances.
This season, the Results Show was moved to 8 pm on Tuesdays instead of the usual 9 pm slot. This season also features other changes such as the "red room '' being inside of the ballroom, enclosed by glass walls (affectionately referred to as "The Celebriquarium '' by Bergeron), a balcony with a railing where the cast can stand and watch the performances live rather than on a monitor, and theme nights. Pussycat Dolls lead singer Nicole Scherzinger won the competition over Olympic Gold Medalist Evan Lysacek and ESPN Sportscaster Erin Andrews, who took second and third, respectively.
The 11 celebrities and professional dancers who competed were:
This table only counts for dances scored on a traditional 30 - points scale (the scores for the Swing Marathon from week 6 are not included). The scoring from week four counts as two dances.
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' 30 - point scale are as follows:
Pamela Anderson & Shannen Doherty are the only stars not to land on this list.
According to the traditional 30 - point scale (team dances not included):
Unless indicated otherwise, individual judges scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli.
In addition to recapping the week 's earlier performances by the competitors, each results show features one or more guest musical performers / acts who perform at least one song. During each song, the Dancing with the Stars dance troupe or guest dancers perform a choreographed dance. Unless otherwise noted, the Dancing with the Stars dance troupe performed during the musical number.
The Beach Boys featuring John Stamos performed "California Girls '', "Kokomo '', and "Fun, Fun, Fun '', accompanied by dancers Cheryl Burke, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Ashly Costa, Anna Trebunskaya, Louis van Amstel and Damian Whitewood.
The Macy 's Stars of Dance segment featured Emmanuel Pierre - Antoine with Haitian dancers.
Reba McEntire performed "I Want a Cowboy '' (featuring Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Valentin Chmerkovskiy, Snejana Petrova and Edyta Śliwińska) and "Consider Me Gone '' (with Dmitry Chaplin and Lacey Schwimmer dancing). Mark Ballas performed "Malagueña '' while Chelsie Hightower and Derek Hough danced.
Sade sang "Babyfather '' while Chelsie Hightower and Damian Whitewood danced, and also sang "The Sweetest Taboo '' (featuring her own dancers).
The Macy 's Stars of Dance segment featured Nuttin ' But Stringz and Tiler Peck with other dancers.
Maxwell performed "Fistful of Tears '' while Teddy Forance and Tyne Stecklein danced. Debi Nova performed "Drummer Boy '', featuring dancing by Dmitry Chaplin, Tony Dovolani, Derek Hough and Damian Whitewood.
The Macy 's Stars of Dance segment featured Iconic Movies dance by Marguerite Derricks with Debbie Allen.
Melissa Etheridge performed two songs: "Fearless Love '' (with Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Tony Dovolani, Chelsie Hightower and Anna Trebunskaya dancing) and "Come to My Window '' (featuring a dance by Alec Mazo and Edyta Śliwińska). Benise performed "Salsa Salsa '' featuring his own dancers.
Train performed "Hey, Soul Sister '' while Mark Ballas, Cheryl Burke, Dmitry Chaplin, Tony Dovolani, Chelsie Hightower and Lacey Schwimmer danced, and also performed "Drops of Jupiter '', which featured dancing by Karina Smirnoff and Louis van Amstel.
The Macy 's Stars of Dance segment featured Viva Elvis by Las Vegas Cirque du Soleil.
Gipsy Kings performed two songs: "You 've Got A Friend In Me '' (featuring dancing by Cheryl Burke, Dmitry Chaplin, Tony Dovolani and Kym Johnson), and "Bamboleo '', which featured DJ Guthrie, Tyne Stecklein and two other guest professional dancers.
Sarah McLachlan sang both "Angel '' (with Jonathan Roberts and Anna Trebunskaya dancing) and "Loving You is Easy '' (featuring dancing by Dmitry Chaplin, Kym Johnson, Lacey Schwimmer, and Damian Whitewood). Miley Cyrus performed "Ca n't Be Tamed '' featuring her own dancers.
For the May 18th "Design a Dance '' performance, viewers had voted in the weeks beforehand about what former female celebrity they wanted to do the dance (Melissa Rycroft), what former male celebrity they wanted to do the dance (Joey Fatone), and what song they wanted the couple 's Tango to be to ("Rock and Roll All Nite '' by Kiss). Also, Dancing with the Stars held an online contest where viewers could submit their drawings for outfits for the performance. The viewers then also voted for a set of costumes picked by the show 's designers. The winner was Emilio Oh. His designs were turned into the costumes for Fatone and Rycroft, and he won a trip to the show.
Four colleges were featured in a tournament - style competition. Three individual episodes featured two colleges competing against each other in a one - dance showdown. The judges provided individual scores following each performance.
On May 11, 2010, UC San Diego (dancing the Samba) competed against Purdue (dancing the Mambo). Purdue advanced to the finals, with viewer votes offsetting their 24 to 22 deficit in judges ' scores. The May 18 episode featured Rutgers and Utah Valley. Both teams danced the Cha - cha - cha, and Utah Valley won the dance - off with their score of 29 over Rutgers ' 21. In the finals (on May 25), Utah Valley (dancing the Samba) topped Purdue (who danced the Cha - cha - cha) for the championship.
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when did the fourth of july become a paid federal holiday | Independence Day (United States) - wikipedia
Independence Day, also referred to as the Fourth of July or July Fourth, is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. The Congress actually voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2.
Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, and political speeches and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States.
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the Thirteen Colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain rule. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:
The second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more.
Adams 's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much - publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.
Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.
Coincidentally, both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the only signers of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as Presidents of the United States, died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration. Although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. President to have been born on Independence Day.
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer - themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation 's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.
Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get - togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.
The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall, to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts (on Gallows Hill, the famous site of the execution of 13 women and 6 men for witchcraft in 1692 during the Salem witch trials), where the tradition of celebratory bonfires had persisted, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, and is still practiced in some New England towns.
Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem "The Star - Spangled Banner '', "God Bless America '', "America the Beautiful, '' "My Country, ' Tis of Thee, '' "This Land Is Your Land, '' "Stars and Stripes Forever, '' and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle '' in northeastern states and "Dixie '' in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812.
Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken.
A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union, '' is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.
In 2009, New York City had the largest fireworks display in the country, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Chicago on Lake Michigan; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in St. Louis on the Mississippi River; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.
During the annual Windsor - Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the world 's largest fireworks displays, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario 's celebration of Canada Day.
The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three - day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.
In addition to a fireworks show, Miami, Florida lights one of its tallest buildings with the patriotic red, white and blue color scheme on Independence Day
New York City 's fireworks display, shown above over the East Village, is sponsored by Macy 's and is the largest in the country
Patriotic trailer shown in theaters celebrating July 4, 1940
A festively decorated Independence day cake.
Lakes are a popular destination for Fourth of July celebrations in the midwest.
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence. July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. In Rwanda, July 4 is an official holiday known as Liberation Day, commemorating the end of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which the U.S. government also played a role. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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when does american assassin come out in uk | American Assassin - wikipedia
American Assassin is a 2017 American action thriller film directed by Michael Cuesta and written by Stephen Schiff, Michael Finch, Edward Zwick and Marshall Herskovitz, based on Vince Flynn 's 2010 novel of the same name. The film stars Dylan O'Brien, Michael Keaton, Sanaa Lathan, Shiva Negar and Taylor Kitsch, and follows young CIA black ops recruit Mitch Rapp, who helps a Cold War veteran try to stop the detonation of a rogue nuclear weapon.
The film was released in the United States on September 15, 2017, and has grossed over $66 million worldwide. It received mixed reviews from critics, who described the plot as mundane, clichéd, and without thrills, but praised the cast 's performances.
Mitch Rapp and his girlfriend are on vacation in Ibiza, Spain. Moments after proposing, a jihadist cell lands on the beach and begins to attack the civilians with assault rifles. Amid the carnage, Rapp frantically attempts to find his fiancée, but is unable to prevent her death at the hands of the terrorists.
Eighteen months later, Rapp, now consumed by his desire for vengeance, frequents an internet message board where the terrorist responsible for his girlfriend 's murder quizzes Rapp on aspects of Islam and jihad. Having secured an invitation to meet him face to face, Rapp prepares to take his vengeance on the man responsible for his girlfriend 's death, but before he can kill the terrorist, the cell is suddenly ambushed by U.S. Special Forces. Upset over the perception that he has been denied his vengeance, Rapp repeatedly stabs the terrorist he was after, who is already dead from the ambush, before being dragged out by the U.S. forces. In a CIA safe house Rapp undergoes 30 days of debriefing before being offered a chance by CIA Deputy Director Irene Kennedy to join a black operations unit codenamed Orion. Its head, Stan Hurley, is a former U.S. Navy SEAL and a Cold War veteran who trains Rapp and the other potential recruits in asymmetric warfare.
Elsewhere, word comes down through intelligence channels that weapons grade nuclear material has gone missing from a decommissioned Russian nuclear facility. The material in question appears to be heading to Iranian hardliners, who are upset with the Iranian government 's nuclear deal with the U.S. While verifying the sale of the nuclear material in Poland the plutonium is intercepted by a third party, who eliminates the sellers before vanishing into the crowd. In Virginia, Hurley sees news reports about the incident in Poland and tentatively identifies the perpetrator as a former Navy SEAL and Orion operative believed to have been killed in action and now going by the codename "Ghost ''. Hurley 's team is sent into Turkey to intercept the buyer "Ghost '' is working for.
In Istanbul, Hurley 's team is identified, and the attempted intercept of the trigger device fails. Rapp pursues the buyer to his apartment, and after killing the man, retrieves his laptop. The information leads the team to Rome, where Orion operatives identify a nuclear physicist needed to craft the nuclear material into a functional nuclear weapon. While in Rome, Rapp uncovers a co-worker, Annika, as a foreign agent for Iran. She explains that she is working for the mainstream Iranian faction which is attempting to stop the hardliners from acquiring nuclear material. During a meeting between Hurley and an Iranian contact, Ghost ambushes them and kills the contact and captures Hurley.
At the CIA safe house in Rome, Annika is being moved under guard by two Mossad agents when Rapp intercepts the car and frees her. Working together, both locate the subterranean headquarters "Ghost '' is using to build the nuclear device. After infiltrating the tunnels, Rapp locates and frees a badly injured Hurley, however Annika is captured by "Ghost '' and she kills herself with "Ghost 's '' gun before "Ghost '' escapes onto a boat with the nuke. Based on an earlier conversation, Hurley deduces that "Ghost '' intends to make a kamikaze attack against the U.S. Navy 's Sixth Fleet. Rapp chases after "Ghost 's '' boat, while the Sixth Fleet, alerted to the impending nuclear attack through CIA channels, prepares for the attack.
Aboard "Ghost 's '' boat, Rapp kills "Ghost '' and attempts to divert the boat away from the Sixth Fleet to shield the ships from the blast, before throwing the nuclear weapon into the sea and escaping aboard a U.S. Navy helicopter. Seconds later the device detonates, creating a massive sink hole and subsequent tsunami that inundates the Sixth Fleet vessels, but the fleet survives the blast.
In the aftermath of the blast, Hurley is recovering from his injuries and notes that Rapp is on vacation in Dubai, while watching news reports indicating that the Iranian faction which tried to obtain the nuclear weapon will win the presidential election. In Dubai, the faction candidate and his escorts enter an elevator in which Rapp is already present, smiling.
CBS Films acquired the rights to Flynn 's book series in 2008. The New York Times bestseller Consent to Kill was intended to be the first film in a proposed series. Consent to Kill was scheduled to be produced by Lorenzo di Bonaventura and Nick Wechsler; the screenplay was written by Jonathan Lemkin. The studio 's last few films had performed poorly, causing them to delay the film 's production. Antoine Fuqua was originally attached to direct, with names being rumored to play Mitch Rapp including Gerard Butler, Colin Farrell and Matthew Fox. However, being a prequel novel, American Assassin provided the opportunity to start at the very beginning of the character Rapp 's career instead.
Jeffrey Nachmanoff replaced Ed Zwick as director on February 12, 2012. At the time, Zwick was also writing the script with Marshall Herskovtiz, but another draft was written by Mike Finch in October 2012. A further director and screenwriter change took place with Michael Cuesta and Stephen Schiff, respectively, on board as of March 2016.
Production needed to start by April 30, 2016, or the rights to the film would have reverted to the Vince Flynn Estate.
On October 10, 2012, Chris Hemsworth was believed to have been offered $10 million to play the lead, Mitch Rapp. However, a month later, it was revealed Hemsworth had turned down the role due to scheduling issues. On May 10, 2016, after being "courted for months '', Dylan O'Brien was cast in the lead role with the "idea that O'Brien's Mitch Rapp is college aged, and the hope is the actor grows as the series progresses. ''
Bruce Willis was in talks to star as Stan Hurley in September 2012, but Michael Keaton was cast as Rapp 's mentor on March 9, 2016. Taylor Kitsch joined the cast on August 18, 2016, as the "villainous operative. ''
On September 7, 2016, Shiva Negar and Sanaa Lathan joined the cast, Negar in a key role as an agent who teams up with Rapp and Hurley, and Lathan as CIA Deputy Director Irene Kennedy, who is to the Flynn novels what M is to James Bond. In the books, Kennedy is white, but "Lathan shone above a large number of actresses who tested for the job as an actress who could grow in the role as her character rises from running strike teams to the heights of power. ''
Principal photography took place between September and December 2016 in London, Rome, and Phuket, with additional filming in Valletta and Birmingham.
On March 20, 2017, the film was scheduled for a September 15, 2017, release date.
A first picture of Dylan O'Brien as Mitch Rapp was released on September 12, 2016. On November 2, 2016, production stills of the cast were published.
A first trailer was shown to exhibitors at the Lionsgate panel in CinemaCon in March 2017. The first poster and teaser trailer were released online in April 2017. On June 20, the red band trailer was released.
As of December 10, 2017, American Assassin has grossed $36.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $30 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $66.2 million, against a production budget of $33 million.
In North America, the film was released alongside Mother!, and was projected to gross $12 -- 14 million from 3,154 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $915,000 from Thursday night previews at 2,400 theaters and $5.8 million on its opening day. It went on to debut to $14.8 million, finishing second at the box office, behind holdover It. In its second weekend, the film made $6.3 million, dropping to 4th.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 34 % based on 146 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "American Assassin hits a few easy targets, but without enough style or wit to truly bring its characters to life -- or stand out in a crowded field of more compelling spy thrillers. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score 45 out of 100, based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film two - and - a-half out of four stars, mainly criticizing the film 's confused disposition towards revenge: "(American Assassin) keeps telling you that revenge poisons the soul and is generally a bad idea while serving up awesome scenes of Mitch and colleagues killing terrorists... It does n't take long to figure out where the film 's heart lies, and it would 've been more honest if it had embraced that impulse from the start. '' In addition, other negative reviews came from those such as Ed Potton of The Times, who said "It 's just about conceivable that somebody who has never seen a spy thriller might find some enjoyment in American Assassin '', and Soren Anderson of the Seattle Times, who wrote, "O'Brien is grimly focused as Rapp, but there is n't a lot of electricity in his performance. He gets the job done, but he 's no Matt Damon or Daniel Craig. Their spy - guy shoes remain unfilled. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote "' American Assassin ' is a serviceable, workman - like thriller that makes the familiar as involving as its going to get. It demonstrates that even Jason Bourne lite is better than no Bourne at all, if you 're in the mood. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone commended the film, saying "Gorgeously shot by Enrique Chediak, American Assassin may be too slick for its own good, but O'Brien cuts deep enough to make you root for a Rapp franchise. '' Seitz especially praised Michael Keaton 's performance as a Cold War veteran, stating that he was the only actor to have built "an emotionally cohesive, memorable character '' despite "material that too often mistakes exposition for psychology. '' Jamie Righetti of Indiewire concluded that while the film presents a "predictable '' script and the "bare minimum of fast action and ass - kicking mandated by (its) formula, '' paired with "O'Brien's charm and an unquestionably tantalizing ending, it 's possible that audiences have n't seen the last of Mitch Rapp. ''
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big bang theory season 4 list of episodes | The Big Bang Theory (season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth season of the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory, began airing on CBS on September 23, 2010. Season four started four months after the end of season 3.
Melissa Rauch and Mayim Bialik were upgraded to the main cast during the fourth season as Dr. Bernadette Rostenkowski and Dr. Amy Farrah Fowler. Johnny Galecki submitted the episode "The Benefactor Factor '' for consideration due to his nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards. Jim Parsons won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for the episode "The Agreement Dissection ''.
Penny dates a couple of guys including the dense Zack who likes the "science dudes '', Sheldon begins a platonic relationship with Amy, Howard reconnects with Bernadette eventually asking her to marry him, Leonard begins to date Raj 's sister Priya, Penny becomes friends with Amy and expresses regret at breaking up with Leonard.
During the season, actress Kaley Cuoco was absent from two episodes after she fell off a horse and the horse accidentally crushed her leg. When she returned to the series, she was shown working as a bartender instead of waitressing at her usual workplace, The Cheesecake Factory, to hide her injury. In January 2011, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years; extending it through the 2013 / 14 season, for a fifth, sixth, and seventh season.
Howard demonstrates a robotic arm, which he "borrowed '' from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, by unpacking dinner. Back at home, using the arm as a massager, he thinks he could use it to masturbate, but things go wrong and he calls Leonard and Raj for help. They take him to the hospital, along with the arm and Howard 's laptop that controls it, where the nurse immediately turns off the laptop, solving the problem. Later, Leonard gets another call from Howard, saying it "happened again ''. Meanwhile, Penny comes to know of Sheldon 's new friend Amy and is shocked when Sheldon announces his plan to conceive a child with Amy via in - vitro fertilization. Penny suggests that he should first go out on a date with Amy, but, since Sheldon can not drive, Penny ends up giving him a ride and eating with them. Penny tries to get Sheldon and Amy having a proper conversation, but this becomes all about Penny 's dating history and sexual partners. After Sheldon and Penny return home, Penny, who is still upset, threatens to tell his mother about his procreation plans, causing him to drop them.
Sheldon 's estimate for his life expectancy leads him to the conclusion that he will miss by only a few years "the singularity, when man will be able to transfer his consciousness into machines and achieve immortality ''. He therefore changes his diet by eating cruciferous vegetables instead of pizza on Thursdays and decides to go jogging with Penny in the mornings in hopes of extending his life expectancy. Due to the diet of cruciferous vegetables he has a bad case of flatulence and he tumbles down the stairs while going down for his jog, Sheldon builds a robotic replication of himself which he calls a "Mobile Virtual Presence Device '' (the telepresence robot by Willow Garage) that would go through all the hazards of life that Sheldon would otherwise have to endure, while he stays behind in a "secure, undisclosed location '' (his bedroom). The guys dismiss the MVPD as a stunt (Penny calls it Shel - Bot). Leonard then goes over to Sheldon 's room to convince him to drop the idea, but Sheldon refuses to listen to him and proceeds to cite Section 74C of the Roommate Agreement requiring Leonard to assist him (by providing him transportation) "in the event one of the roommates becomes a robot ''. Leonard reluctantly takes the MVPD to work, completely regretting it after the MVPD continuously irritates him during the drive. Later Leonard takes the MVPD to the Cheesecake Factory for dinner. Sheldon, from his bedroom, spots Steve Wozniak having dinner there and sends the MVPD over to his table, telling him that he has a 1977 Apple II. Wozniak says that if Sheldon had the Apple II there he would sign it. Sheldon then takes the Apple II and rushes out of his apartment, but trips and falls down the stairs, breaking the Apple II and his ankle. The episode ends with a now bedridden Sheldon using the MVPD to force Penny to sing "Soft Kitty '' to him.
Sheldon and Amy are very compatible with each other, as evidenced by how well they can play "counter-factuals '', a game they invented requiring them to know what the other is thinking when answering a question about "an alternate world that differs from ours in one key aspect ''. Leonard fails miserably when he attempts to play the game. However, Amy 's presence does not go down well with the other guys, who already find it difficult to handle Sheldon himself, and they start hanging out at Penny 's apartment to escape "ShAmy '' (the name the guys and Penny gave for the couple). But one day at lunch, Amy belittles Sheldon 's occupation as a theoretical physicist relative to, in her opinion, her superior occupation of neurobiology, prompting Sheldon to terminate their friendship. Following the breakup (or according to Sheldon, "our friendship outlived its utility ''), Sheldon adopts 25 cats as a substitute for Amy. A worried Leonard calls Sheldon 's mother, who rushes over to the apartment. She calls over Amy and, using reverse psychology, she makes Sheldon offer to reconcile with Amy, which she agrees to after a negotiation on the amount of responsibility Sheldon has to accept for the breakup. The episode ends with Sheldon and Amy giving away $20 to anybody willing to adopt a cat.
The guys run into Howard 's ex-girlfriend Bernadette while having dinner at the Cheesecake Factory. Though Howard hides under the table when he sees Bernadette, the incident nonetheless reignites his feelings for her. He seeks help from Penny, who agrees on the condition that he reveal the reason behind his breakup. He confesses that Bernadette caught him engaging in cybersex with a fellow World of Warcraft player, who is later revealed to be one of Howard 's male colleagues at Caltech. Howard and Bernadette later meet at the Cheesecake Factory and after Howard reveals the reason he indulged in cybersex (he thought that Bernadette was not interested in having sex with him), they make amends and decide to give their relationship another try. They go out on a date, following which they make out in Bernadette 's car. Meanwhile, Sheldon and Raj argue over the latter wanting a desk in their office, with Sheldon citing budgetary reasons (saving money for a drawer full of Red Vines, a marshmallow shooting rifle, and a super executive ant farm with glow - in - the - dark sand) for not providing a desk. Raj offers to buy his own desk, to which he reluctantly agrees. When he enters his office later, he sees Raj sitting on a huge and ornate desk which takes up half the office space. After Raj refuses to obey Sheldon 's subsequent order that he remove the desk, a series of annoying confrontations (Sheldon calls it "tit - for - tat '' exchanges) ensues between the two. Eventually, Sheldon makes a stink bomb in order to drive Raj out of their office, which Raj tries to counter by lighting his cinnamon - apple - scented aromatherapy candles. However, this makes the stink bomb vapors ignite, causing an explosion.
When Amy decides to introduce Sheldon to her mother, he becomes worried as being introduced to Amy 's mother would indicate that Amy wants to be his girlfriend. So he begins to avoid Amy, removing all possible contact with her and even disguising himself so that she would not recognize him. However Amy catches Sheldon outside the apartment building and then tells him that she only wants to introduce him to her mother so that she would be convinced that Amy is in a relationship and leave her alone. Later when talking to Amy 's mother on webcam, a now relieved Sheldon and Amy lie to Amy 's mother that they are in a "sexual relationship '', which does not go too well with her. Meanwhile, as Howard now has a girlfriend, Leonard decides to invoke the "Girlfriend Pact '' (from the Season 3 episode The Creepy Candy Coating Corollary) with Howard. Howard and Bernadette set up a double date with Leonard and one of Bernadette 's friends, Joy. Joy behaves in an obnoxious and inappropriate manner during the date, which disgusts Leonard. However he later accepts another date with Joy due to understanding that sex is a strong possibility.
Raj 's younger sister Priya, a lawyer by profession, visits Pasadena en route to Toronto. Though unknown to the others including Raj, Priya had been involved in a sexual encounter with Leonard five years earlier, despite Leonard 's assurance to Howard that he would never hit on Priya in deference to Raj. That night, Priya sneaks into Leonard and Sheldon 's apartment unknown to Sheldon and has sex with Leonard. Sheldon finds out the following morning that Leonard and Priya had "coitus '' and frames an elaborate, flawless lie to cover it up, which involves Leonard having had sex with an imaginary Irish bartender named Maggie McGeary. But Leonard decides not to hide the truth and confesses to Raj that he slept with Priya. Raj is initially upset, but reconciles with Leonard after he says that Priya broke his heart. The guys then unleash confessions of all of the deceptions they have perpetrated on each other, including Howard dropping Raj 's iPhone into a urinal, Sheldon 's experiment feeding moth parts to Leonard mixed in his food and Raj using Sheldon 's toothbrush. Sheldon becomes upset at Raj for using his toothbrush and terminates his friendship with him, but immediately forgives him after Raj reveals that he gave him a talking Thomas the Tank Engine with real puffing smoke for Thanksgiving.
Howard needs top - level security clearance to work on a government surveillance satellite, so the FBI sends Agent Angela Paige (Eliza Dushku) to interview Leonard, Sheldon and Raj in order to do a background check on him. The interviews do not go well, especially when Sheldon unwittingly reveals that Howard crashed the Mars Rover (from the Season 2 episode The Lizard Spock Expansion). As a result, Howard is denied clearance. Sheldon feels guilty that he caused Howard 's career to be set back and sets out to put things right. He apologizes to Howard, but Howard refuses to accept it. Later, Penny inspires Sheldon to use neurolinguistic programming to modify Howard 's thoughts so that he will accept his apology. When that does not work, Sheldon offers Howard his spot on the couch, and Howard is so touched by this gesture he forgives Sheldon. But, that evening, Sheldon takes back his spot after only 94 seconds, and Penny wins her bet with Leonard.
The guys decide to go to a special midnight screening of Raiders of the Lost Ark which has 21 seconds of unseen footage. However when they arrive at the theater, they are made to wait in a long queue, making Sheldon whine about how Leonard, Howard and Raj wasted time by having dinner. Later Wil Wheaton arrives and is immediately allowed entry without having to stand in a queue due to his celebrity status, which angers an already - impatient Sheldon. Eventually the guys are barred from watching the movie as the theatre is fully occupied. Just as the four are about to leave, Sheldon discovers a side door and enters it. Leonard, Howard and Raj follow Sheldon and find him holding some film cans, having stolen the reels of the movie in retribution for being denied from watching the movie. Wheaton too finds Sheldon holding the movie reels, leading to a mob of angry Raiders (and Wheaton) chasing the four from the theater, mimicking the opening scene of Raiders of the Lost Ark. Meanwhile, Amy decides to spend the evening with Penny and Bernadette, who are planning a "girls ' night '', despite her initially planning to go with the guys to Raiders of the Lost Ark. As Amy had never been to a girls ' night before, she grosses out Penny and Bernadette with descriptions about her female parts as she thinks that is what girls talk about and looks up Wikipedia to determine sleepover customs, which Penny and Bernadette reluctantly go along with. During Truth or Dare, Amy and Bernadette get on Penny 's case about Leonard. Annoyed, Penny storms off to her bedroom. Later Amy finds out that girls engage in lesbianism during sleepovers and enters Penny 's bedroom. The episode ends with a horrified reaction from Penny, indicating that Amy may possibly be trying to indulge in lesbian sex with her.
Penny informs Leonard that her father Wyatt has come on a visit and asks him to pretend that they are back together as he is the only boyfriend she had that her father ever approved of. He is initially wary of the idea, but gleefully plays along to get her to confess (he also calls her out on her hypocrisy at being mad at him for going along with her stupid, flawed plan), which she does when he is Wii fishing with her father. Penny 's father confronts her about the hoax and admonishes her for always being dishonest to him. After Penny goes to her room, her father pleads with Leonard to get back together with her because he does not want her to go back to dating boyfriends whose personalities he does not approve of and wants grandchildren who do not grow up in a mobile home. Leonard then plays along as Wyatt pretends to angrily throw him out of Penny 's apartment. Meanwhile, Howard and Raj decide to spend the night in a control room while Raj uses a ground - based telescope located in Hawaii in an attempt to find an exoplanet orbiting Epsilon Eridani. Raj becomes angry when Howard invites Bernadette until he discovers that Bernadette brought wine. A drunk Raj complains that no girl wants to kiss him, to which Bernadette shows sympathy for him. At this, Raj attempts to kiss her, but ends up kissing Howard when he attempts to stop Raj from kissing his girlfriend. The next day, Howard and Raj act awkward around each other and lash out at Leonard and Sheldon when they enquire about what they had seen on the telescope. Elsewhere, Sheldon thinks that Leonard and Penny have got back together (he is unaware they are faking it). So he modifies the Roommate Agreement to include a Penny - specific section which addresses some of Penny 's annoying habits, which if she does while at their apartment, would cause Leonard to pay a fine to Sheldon. When Leonard tells him later that he and Penny "broke up '' again, a frustrated Sheldon throws the agreement papers into the air and yells whether Leonard even thinks of other people.
While on a girls ' night out with Penny and Bernadette, Amy meets Penny 's ex-boyfriend Zack and immediately becomes attracted to him. She later discusses her symptoms with Sheldon (elevated heart rate, moist palms, dry mouth, vascular throbbing in the ears and genitalia and saying an involuntary "hoo '' in Zack 's presence) and comes to the reluctant conclusion that she is sexually aroused by Zack. It is also pointed out that Sheldon might be jealous. Sheldon prefers to assume that Amy has contracted an alien parasite. Later when Sheldon discusses about Amy and Zack with Penny, Penny tells him that there is "something '' he could do about Amy 's "urges '', but as usual he misunderstands what Penny is trying to say to him (Penny meant that Sheldon should show romantic feelings to Amy) and instead tries to bring Amy and Zack together. He manages to contact the right Zack Johnson and sets him up on a date with Amy at a bar. This proves to be a failure, as Amy finds out that Zack is extremely stupid. Later while walking home with Sheldon, Amy does something she never did before - she holds Sheldon 's hand. When Sheldon asks why Amy is holding his hand, Amy says it is just an experiment, but then lets go and says, "Nope. Nothing. Never mind. '', indicating that she is not attracted by Sheldon 's appearance, yet chose Sheldon 's intellect over Zack 's looks. Meanwhile, after one of the scientists at the biology lab is bitten by a radioactive rat, Howard and Raj argue about who would be the better superhero (with Raj expressing his desire to be "Rat - Man ''). Knowing that Raj is afraid of spiders, Howard proposes a contest where the first person who dares to put his hand into a jar with a huge spider in it and keeps it there for the longest time gets to be the superhero. This however backfires, as the spider crawls onto Howard 's arm, freaking him out. The duo decide to settle their argument once and for all by having a wrestling match, but this too fails as instead of wrestling each other, they only end up circling and insulting each other.
Penny gets back together with Zack. The guys insult Zack 's low intelligence which upsets him; however he reconciles with the four after Sheldon offers him Milk Duds and he accompanies them to the comic book store, where Stuart announces the New Year 's Eve costume party. The guys decide to come as the Justice League of America and also decide to include Penny as Wonder Woman (who initially refuses, but later agrees) and Zack as Superman (because according to Howard, "he is the only person we know with actual muscles ''). Leonard dresses up as Green Lantern, Sheldon as The Flash, Howard as Batman and a reluctant Raj as Aquaman. Sheldon forces Penny to wear a black wig, as Wonder Woman has black hair, but Penny refuses to wear the wig and decides not to come to the costume party. Sheldon, Howard and even Zack are unable to convince Penny to change her mind. Later when Leonard talks to her in an attempt to convince her to come to the party, Penny reveals that she got back together with Zack only because she did not want to spend New Year 's Eve alone. Leonard questions why not with him, prompting Penny to suddenly remember the fun times she used to have with him, convincing her to change her mind and put on the wig. At the comic book store, the group win the award for the Best Group Costume, although it is hinted that they only won because they showed up with a girl. The episode concludes with the six witnessing an ongoing car theft and then scurrying off despite wearing Justice League costumes.
Leonard gets an idea to develop a smartphone app that will allow users to solve differential equations just by taking a picture of them. However, Sheldon catches the heat from Leonard when he tries to put himself in charge despite the app being Leonard 's idea (Sheldon had named himself as the chief executive, financial, and operating officers among other high - rank positions while listing Leonard as only the founder). Despite eventually acknowledging Leonard as the leader of the project, Sheldon continually criticizes Leonard 's leadership in the development of the app. After Sheldon suggests names for the app that have his name in it (the "Surprisingly Helpful Equation - Linked Differential Optimized Numerator '', which has "Sheldon '' as its acronym, and "Project NodlehS '', which has "Sheldon '' spelled backwards), Leonard tells him to stop. Sheldon abruptly calls for a vote to change the team 's leadership, resulting in Leonard kicking Sheldon off the team. After unsuccessfully trying to bribe Howard and Raj to dump Leonard and join his "rival company '', Sheldon resorts to sabotaging Leonard 's project by playing a theremin while they work, and Leonard kicks him out of the apartment in retaliation. When Penny sees Sheldon moping on the stairs, she sympathetically invites him to her apartment for a cup of cocoa, but quickly regrets her decision. She asks the guys to take Sheldon back, promising that he will apologize. Sheldon initially refuses to apologize, so Penny tells him to use sarcasm to disguise his lack of sincerity, an idea to which Sheldon immediately takes a liking. The guys agree to put him back on the team, but Sheldon quickly goes back to criticizing their work, demanding that they completely start over. The episode ends with Sheldon, having been kicked off the team again, reluctantly working with Penny on an app she mentioned to him while sitting on the stairs - the app identifies shoes and finds out where to buy them.
Amy asks Penny to join her, Bernadette and the other guys on a trip to a science conference in Big Sur, California, as she believes them to be her best friends. At first she rejects the offer, but then accepts after learning about the free spa treatment. Before they leave, Sheldon ("travel supervisor '') explains the timetable and seating arrangements. Amy convinces Sheldon to let Penny ride in the lead car with themselves and Leonard because her "Nebraska backwoods skills '' could help them if their car breaks down. During the trip, Penny gets sent to the second car with Howard, Raj and Bernadette after she attempts to stand up to Sheldon. At the hotel, Bernadette spots Glenn, her professor at college and ex-boyfriend, a tall handsome guy who intimidates Howard. When Howard confronts Bernadette over Glenn, she gets mad at him and decides to stay with Amy and Penny. Since there are only two beds and Penny can not sleep because of Amy 's nightmares (which cause her to bite), Penny moves out of her room and asks Leonard if she can stay with him and Sheldon. Leonard accepts, but after Penny tells him that they are n't going to have sex, Sheldon wakes up, asking them if they are not going to have "coitus ''. As he receives different answers (Penny says "yes '', Leonard says "no ''), Sheldon leaves and seeks shelter in Raj 's room, where Raj is about to watch Bridget Jones 's Diary. Sheldon eventually kicks out Raj, who then goes to Leonard and Penny 's room, just when they are about to have sex. He crawls into the bed vacated by Sheldon, stopping Leonard and Penny from having sex. The next morning as Sheldon, Leonard, Howard, Raj, Bernadette and Amy sit on a panel, with Penny in the audience, they all exchange (initially thinly veiled) criticisms at one another stemming from the previous night 's events. An irritated Penny then accepts a ride back to Pasadena with Glenn, much to Leonard 's horror. Later while returning home, Leonard gets pursued by the police for speeding as he is distracted by the thought of Penny being with Glenn.
Sheldon guest lectures at a university, but his teaching style is considered boring and intolerable, and results in negative online feedback from his students. On Amy 's advice, he decides to take acting lessons from Penny for $40 to learn how to more easily communicate with his students, though his attitude during the lessons frustrates Penny. Finally, they act out a Star Trek fanfiction script which Sheldon wrote in his childhood, in which Mr. Spock takes a young Sheldon to the 23rd century to bring hope and peace to the galaxy. Penny plays the role of Spock as she feels that Sheldon needs to come out of his comfort zone, while Sheldon plays the dual role of himself and his mother. However while acting out the script, Sheldon immerses himself so deeply in the part that he is brought to tears, because he does not want to be taken away from his mother by Spock. Penny then calls his mother and gives the phone to Sheldon so that his mother can console him. Meanwhile, Raj develops a crush on Bernadette after she comforts him over not having female company. He starts daydreaming various scenarios involving him and Bernadette; the first one is Howard asking him to satisfy Bernadette 's sexual needs while he is away on a fellowship in Israel; the second one is a dying Howard, who has met with a fatal accident, asking him to take care of Bernadette and satisfy her sexually after his death; the third and final one has him and Bernadette dancing Bollywood - style.
President Siebert invites the guys to a fundraiser for Caltech that Saturday. While Leonard, Howard and Raj are willing to attend, Sheldon refuses to go and stays back in the apartment; however, he changes his mind after a video chat with Amy, who tells him that if he is not at the fundraiser, the task of raising funds for the physics department would fall to Leonard and Raj, whom, according to her, would probably fail in raising funds, as a result of which the funds would go to departments like geology and liberal arts; but during the fundraiser, he insults many donors by refusing to shake hands with them due to his mysophobia as a result of which the physics department loses potential donors. At the fundraiser, the guys are introduced to Mrs. Latham, an elderly philanthropist whose condescending attitude terrifies them, but she later tells Leonard that she likes making smart people nervous. She then invites Leonard to dinner the following night to talk more about his research, despite none of the guys (including Leonard) feeling like they did anything right at the fundraiser. During dinner, she reveals that she is willing to donate money to the physics department on one condition - Leonard must have sex with her. Leonard is not comfortable with this and is unwilling to prostitute himself, despite Sheldon 's plea that he do it for the physics department. The next night, Leonard again has dinner with Mrs. Latham, during which she tells Leonard that whether he has sex with her or not, she will donate to the physics department. After this, she flirts with him, eventually causing him to give in and have sex with her. The next morning, Penny and Sheldon catch him as he arrives home after his "walk of shame '' and tease him slightly. Later at work, he is applauded by everyone at Caltech, including Howard, Raj and President Siebert for his "gigolo work '' which brought funds to the physics department.
Bernadette is upset because Howard always goes home after sex so that he can help his mother in the morning. She insists that Howard moves in with her, which Howard is not interested in until he has a big fight with his mother after reaching home regarding his sexual activity with Bernadette. After spending the rest of the night in Leonard and Sheldon 's apartment, Howard moves out of his house to Bernadette 's apartment. Both are happy initially, but later Bernadette realises that Howard is too dependent on his mother and insists that he should not expect the same treatment from her. As a result, Howard returns home, where his mother (who did not know that Howard had moved out) grounds him for "running away ''. Meanwhile, after Howard offhandedly mentions that Raj 's younger sister Priya has come to Pasadena and is staying at Raj 's apartment, Leonard rushes over there to talk to her. Leonard and Priya then decide to pursue a long - term relationship much to Raj 's indignance, who even quotes from the Manusmriti to dissaude Priya from dating Leonard, only for Priya to remind him that he eats beef which is also forbidden in the Manusmriti. Amy, who considers Penny her BFF, rushes over to Penny 's apartment to console her when she hears the news, but Penny insists that she is not upset that Leonard and Priya are dating. Later while having dinner, Penny finds out that Priya, being a lawyer, is much more successful than her and also sees that Leonard (and even Amy) is crazy about Priya 's achievements. After returning to her apartment following dinner, Penny breaks down crying, which confirms that she still has feelings for Leonard. Amy, who is also in Penny 's apartment, comforts her before using electrodes to determine which brain regions are active during crying, as she plans to make a rhesus monkey cry by stimulating the analogous areas of its brain. During the weekend, with Leonard and Priya having gone to Santa Catalina Island, Howard grounded by his mother and Raj at home in strong disapproval of Leonard and Priya dating, Penny spends her time with Sheldon and Amy (via webcam), who tells her that thanks to her contribution, she was successfully able to make a rhesus monkey cry.
Now Leonard and Priya are dating and since she lives with Raj, Leonard and Howard decide to have dinner there instead of the normal venue which disturbs Sheldon who prefers their place. Sheldon leaves and stops by the Cheesecake Factory where Penny tells him he has to accept that the gang will be hanging out at Raj 's place more often. Amy tells him that Leonard is the nucleus of their social group and not Sheldon. As a result, he sets up a new group consisting of Kripke, Stuart, Zack and LeVar Burton (whom he tweeted) with him as the nucleus. Sheldon 's plans are dismissed by the others in favor of Zack 's dating stories and getting drunk and singing karaoke. Naturally, Sheldon does not like that very much, so he decides to go back to his old friends, who, in the meantime, realized that they actually missed Sheldon. In the end, LeVar Burton finally does show up at Sheldon 's place, but when he sees Kripke, Stuart and Zack singing karaoke together, he leaves immediately, stating "I am so done with Twitter ''. Meanwhile, Bernadette and Amy want to take Penny out dancing to get her mind off of Leonard and Priya. As she changes clothes, she tells the girls that it is the first time in her life she is satisfied with being single and does not want to have sex with a random guy to make up for it, however when Amy finds the snowflake that Leonard gave to her after his expedition to the North Pole (see The Electric Can Opener Fluctuation), she changes her mind as her feelings for Leonard come back to the surface again.
Priya has begun to dominate in her relationship with Leonard, buying him new clothes and forcing him to wear contact lenses (which Leonard is not comfortable with). She also feels threatened by Leonard continuing to hang out with Penny, even though they have broken up, so during sex, she tells him to break all contact with Penny. Leonard initially hesitates, but still tries to tell Penny to stay away from him, albeit indirectly, with an obscure anecdote about Charles Darwin 's finches. Penny does not get the right message, but Leonard takes comfort in the fact that he tried. Later Penny interrupts Leonard 's date with Priya and is completely oblivious to what is going on. Leonard once again indirectly tries to tell Penny to stay away from him, but this time Penny gets the message and realizing that Priya was behind this, decides to break all contact with Leonard. Leonard immediately attempts to go after his ex-girlfriend, only to crash into the doorframe due to his uncomfortable new contact lenses. Meanwhile, Howard shows Sheldon, Raj and Penny a card trick in which a volunteer picks a card and after shuffling the deck, Howard tells the volunteer his / her card. Raj and Penny both try out the trick and are amazed by it. Though at first his attitude is dismissive, Sheldon eventually becomes obsessed with discovering the trick 's secret, as even Penny could figure it out. He goes to the extent of using a barcode reader and even hacking the Oak Ridge National Laboratory 's Cray supercomputer, attempting to procure Uranium 235 on Craigslist in order to recreate the trick. It is then revealed (to the audience) that the card trick is just a prank played by Howard, Raj and Penny on Sheldon. Raj and Penny willingly pretended that Howard was successful, knowing fully well that Sheldon would go nuts trying to figure out the trick 's secret. When Sheldon wants Howard to perform the trick on him in the end, Raj manages to get a peek on Sheldon 's card and uses hand signals to tell Howard the right answer. Sheldon is puzzled once more, still not knowing that he had been pranked all along, while Howard and Raj both laugh gleefully.
Sheldon 's World of Warcraft account has been hacked and all of his WoW stuff have been stolen. He enlists the help of the other guys in finding the hacker. Howard manages to trace the hacker and reveals that his name is Todd Zarnecki and lives in Carlsbad. The guys then drive to Carlsbad to get back Sheldon 's WoW stuff. At Todd 's home however, not only does Todd refuse to return Sheldon 's stuff, but he also takes away Sheldon 's Klingon Bat'leth. Defeated, the guys decide to return home, but their car breaks down midway, prompting Leonard to call Penny to fetch them. When Penny hears their story, she drives them back to Todd 's house where she delivers a kick to Todd 's groin and forces him to return Sheldon 's stuff. Meanwhile, Amy, Bernadette and Penny criticise Priya and her arrogant, dominating behavior, with Amy going to the extent of asking Bernadette and Penny to "throw their waste '' at Priya. Penny takes Amy 's comments lightly, but after an encounter with Priya in the apartment lobby, she agrees with Amy.
Penny spreads a rumor that Bernadette is thinking of breaking up with Howard. Amy tells Sheldon, who tells Leonard, who tells Priya, who later tells Raj. Priya informs Leonard that Raj has a crush on Bernadette and even writes poems about her. When Raj hears the rumor from Priya, he gets excited, as he could finally have his own shot with Bernadette. Howard is completely unaware of the rumor and plans to ask Bernadette to marry him. The others try to stop him from asking, as they believe that Bernadette will reject him and he will become blindsided, except Raj, who selfishly encourages Howard to go through with his plan in the hope that Bernadette will reject him. When having dinner one night, Howard pulls out the proposal ring, as he can not imagine a better time to ask her than with all of his friends around. Despite the protest of the others, he gets on his knees and starts to talk. At that moment, Bernadette cuts him off in what appears to be a rejection, however she actually accepts his marriage proposal, devastating Raj. The rumor about Bernadette breaking up with Howard motivates Amy and Sheldon to conduct an experiment in which they concurrently spread two false rumors: a "tantalizing '' one (Sheldon and Amy had sex) and a "non-tantalizing '' one (Amy decided to start a herb garden) to see which rumor gets back to them first. Amy starts both rumors by informing Penny and, as expected, the rumor about the two having sex reaches the entire group in under 24 hours while the other one is not mentioned again. When Howard 's proposal distracts the group from the rumor, they decide to start over with their experiment. Amy visits Penny (who just got a text from Bernadette informing her about the proposal) again and tells her that she is getting orthotics and that she is pregnant with Sheldon 's baby. Moments later Leonard meets Amy in the hall after he receives a text message from Penny, informing him about the false pregnancy. He confronts Amy, who, in return, just wonders "is there anything on there about orthotics? ''.
When Leonard takes a shower with Priya while Sheldon experiences an event of force majeure, he gets charged with two violations of the roommate agreement (Leonard denied access to the bathroom when Sheldon had to urinate and Leonard was not the only person in the shower). However, before he can get too far, Priya uses her skills as a lawyer to nullify the charges, due to the agreement 's vague wording, much to Sheldon 's dismay. When the guys take advantage of Priya 's skills in order to eat Greek food (which Sheldon does not like at all) on pizza night, Sheldon seeks shelter at Penny 's, who invites him to join her on a girls ' night out with Amy and Bernadette. After the girls have some cocktails and Sheldon mentions he had learned to dance at cotillion balls as a child, they decide to take Sheldon dancing. After dancing, Sheldon takes an intoxicated Amy back to her apartment. Amy tells Sheldon not to give in to Priya 's law skills, just like a monkey would defend his territory. She then proceeds to kiss him and then rushes to her bathroom to vomit. The next day, Sheldon presents an overhauled version of the roommate agreement to Leonard and asks him to sign it. When Leonard shows his reluctance, Sheldon activates a "self - destruct sequence '' on his laptop; If Leonard does not sign the agreement within a minute, an e-mail will be sent to Priya 's parents informing them of their relationship. Leonard accuses Sheldon of bluffing and blackmailing and does not see any harm in Priya 's parents knowing. Priya, however, knowing that her parents do not approve her dating an American, tells Leonard their relationship is over if he does not sign the new agreement. After a failed attempt to cut the power supply from Sheldon 's laptop, Leonard gives in and Sheldon aborts the program. Later that day, Sheldon speaks with a hungover Amy via webcam and thanks her for the advice that she gave him the night before. They agree to treat their relationship like a "crashed computer '' and "restore '' it to the last point it worked for both, thus deciding to forget about the entire evening 's events. Meanwhile, Leonard, not knowing how strict Priya 's parents are, argues with her about whether or not she is ashamed of him.
While shoe - shopping with Penny and Amy, Bernadette reveals that Howard and her have been invited to a double date by Priya. Amy suspects that Priya is trying to win over the weakest member of their social group, just as a cheetah attacks the weakest specimen in a herd of wildebeests. Therefore, she proposes to use Bernadette to spy on Priya and spread disinformation about Penny and Leonard. Bernadette is uncomfortable with lying, as she went to a catholic school, but nonetheless goes along with the plan. When the four meet for dinner, Priya makes a snide remark about Penny 's acting career. Penny and Amy order Bernadette to tell Priya and the others that Penny is on her way to Prague for a movie part and that she is dating an architect (although this is AutoCorrected to astronaut). Priya, Leonard and Howard begin to ask questions about this news (being very interested in details about where Penny met the astronaut), to which Bernadette has to improvise answers, increasingly unnerving and frustrating her. Bernadette excuses herself to the bathroom and calls Amy to tell her that the lie (as well as her calm) is unraveling. She also reveals that Priya and Leonard are planning a trip to India to meet the Koothrapallis. Consequently, Penny wants her to find out if the two are getting engaged. Bernadette finally snaps and storms out, leaving Priya and Leonard befuddled. Meanwhile, Raj, who is still very lonely and does not want to be the "fifth wheel '' during the double date, visits Sheldon in his apartment. He tries to get advice about whether or not he should try to cure his social anxiety using an experimental drug, however Sheldon is preoccupied with his "three - player chess '' project, as he does not only adapt the popular game for 3 players with a new board design, but also adds new chess pieces. Sheldon finally advises Raj to do so and accompanies him to a coffee shop to observe the drug 's effectiveness. It ends up working very well, as Raj starts to talk to a woman named Angela, who also seems to like him. However, an adverse effect begins to manifest itself, causing Raj to lose all his inhibitions and strip completely naked, thus scaring off Angela. In the end, Sheldon, Leonard and Howard play a test game of Sheldon 's chess version, to which he added a multitude of new chess pieces and rules while a still - nude Raj is watching them.
While dining at the Cheesecake Factory, Bernadette and Howard reveal that their parents have not been informed about their engagement yet. Howard arranges a lunch for his fiancé and his mother and they end up getting along well. After Howard hears the good news while talking to his mother, who is in the bathroom, he decides to make the move and tell her about the engagement. To his horror, she collapses from an apparent heart attack. Howard takes her to the hospital as fast as he can. When the others hear about this, they rush to the hospital. Sheldon, being extremely mysophobic, is initially reluctant to visit the hospital and only agrees to come after Penny pressures him to go. When Bernadette finds out that Howard was telling his mother about his engagement before she collapsed, she is very upset, as she believes that she is the reason all this happened. When Mrs. Wolowitz finally wakes up, the doctor informs them that it had not been a heart attack and that she wants to see Bernadette before anyone else. It is revealed that she actually had food poisoning from the restaurant she and Bernadette ate at and was worried about Bernadette 's well - being, whom she actually likes a lot. Bernadette ends up being very mad at Howard, as he led her to believe that it was all her fault. While in the hospital, Priya and Penny start searching for the cafeteria and bond in the process. They mainly discuss Leonard 's skills in the bedroom. Sheldon has other things to worry about, as he tries to avoid contact with anything in the hospital and, when he has to go to the restroom, is trapped in there, waiting for someone to open the door for him. When he tries to avoid a coughing patient on the way back, he seeks shelter in a random room. Much to his horror, it turns out to be a bio-hazard room, where he is exposed to a deadly disease. Sheldon is eventually forced to stay in the hospital under a 2 - week quarantine after the exposure, with his friends keeping him company in hazmat suits.
Bernadette announces that her dissertation has been accepted, earning her a Ph. D. and a well - paid job. Later Bernadette decides to buy Howard an expensive watch as a present and tells him to "let her worry about the money '', a comment that disturbs Howard. Meanwhile, Leonard 's and Priya 's noisy sexual encounters sends Raj to spend the night at Sheldon 's apartment. When Leonard finds him in his bed, he proposes that Raj moves in with Sheldon until Priya finds her own place. Raj likes the idea, signs Sheldon 's roommate paperwork and moves in with him. He then prepares a fancy dinner for them which delights Sheldon who decides Raj is a much better roommate than Leonard. Penny stops by, stays for dinner and the both of them get drunk from the wine Raj served. Penny confesses to Raj that she "screwed up '', as she should not have broken up with Leonard, and that she would be "on '' him (Raj) if they were not friends. Priya receives a video call, Leonard overhears that she is moving back to India and storms out revealing their relationship to her parents. At the end of the episode, Sheldon discovers Leonard sleeping on their couch, just before Howard shows up and announces that he had a fight with Bernadette over the watch. Penny wakes up and is horrified when she notices Raj in Leonard 's bed beside her. She tells him that last night never happened and tries to sneak out of the apartment; however, they are busted by the others. Penny just states that "it 's not what it looks like '' and leaves. Sheldon then asks "What does it look like? ''
The fourth season received particular praise for character developments. Alan Sepinwall of Uproxx praised the additions of Bernadette and Amy to the cast, writing that "With Amy Farrah Fowler and Bernadette promoted to semi-permanent status, the show is now able to spend large chunks of each episode focusing only on the women, and in the process has made Penny a much more well - rounded character rather than just a foil for the nerds ''. Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that "Jim Parsons and Kaley Cuoco 's interplay remains the show 's secret weapon '', and Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic wrote: "Really though, everything about the main story worked amazing. Mayim fits in perfectly in The Big Bang Theory cast and played off of Kaley Cuoco just as well as Emmy Award - winning Parsons ''.
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what purpose do villi serve in the small intestine | Intestinal villus - wikipedia
Intestinal villi (singular: villus) are small, finger - like projections that extend into the lumen of the small intestine. Each villus is approximately 0.5 -- 1.6 mm in length (in humans), and has many microvilli projecting from the enterocytes of its epithelium which collectively form the striated or brush border. Each of these microvilli are much smaller than a single villus. The intestinal villi are much smaller than any of the circular folds in the intestine.
Villi increase the internal surface area of the intestinal walls making available a greater surface area for absorption. An increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including monosaccharide and amino acids) pass into the semipermeable villi through diffusion, which is effective only at short distances. In other words, increased surface area (in contact with the fluid in the lumen) decreases the average distance travelled by nutrient molecules, so effectiveness of diffusion increases. The villi are connected to the blood vessels so the circulating blood then carries these nutrients away.
Vertical section of a villus from the dog 's small intestine. X 80. (Simple columnar epithelium labeled at right, third from top.)
Enterocytes, along with goblet cells, represent the principal cell types of the epithelium of the villi in the small intestine.
There, the villi and the microvilli increase intestinal absorptive surface area approximately 30-fold and 600-fold, respectively, providing exceptionally efficient absorption of nutrients in the lumen.
There are also enzymes (enterocyte digestive enzyme) on the surface for digestion. Villus capillaries collect amino acids and simple sugars taken up by the villi into the blood stream. Villus lacteals (lymph capillary) collect absorbed chylomicrons, which are lipoproteins composed of triglycerides, cholesterol and amphipathic proteins, and are taken to the rest of the body through the lymph fluid.
Villi are specialised for absorption in the small intestine as they have a thin wall, one cell thick, which enables a shorter diffusion path. They have a large surface area so there will be more efficient absorption of fatty acids and glycerol into the blood stream. They have a rich blood supply to keep a concentration gradient.
Different stages of coeliac disease
Structure of a villus (see reference quoted in text)
Microvilli (shaggy hair) show electron dense plaques (open arrow) at their apices.
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who has the most assists of all time in soccer | Football records in Spain - wikipedia
This page details football records in Spain. Unless otherwise stated, records are taken from Primera División or La Liga. This page also include records from the Spanish domestic cup competition or Copa del Rey.
Records in this section refer to La Liga from its founding in 1929 through to the present.
Players in Bold are still active.
Three or more goals in a single match. For the complete list of hat - tricks see List of La Liga hat - tricks.
Players in bold are still active
Players with at least 10 hat - tricks are shown in this table.
Source: BDFútbol
Bold player name denotes current season.
Bold player name denotes current season.
Top 5 longest goalkeeping runs without conceding a goal, all - time (Primera División only)
Top 10 most appearances, all - time (Primera División)
Players in bold are still active
Top 5 most appearances, still active (Primera División)
Coaches with most matches managed
Coaches in bold are still active in Primera Division
Records in this section refers to Copa del Rey from its founding in 1902 through to the present.
The following table includes official Spanish, European and worldwide competitions organized respectively by RFEF, UEFA and FIFA since 1903.
(Sorted by overall titles. Use sorting button to change criteria.)
The figures in bold represent the most times this competition has been won by a Spanish team.
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when do paige and phoebe find out about chris | Charmed (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of Charmed, an American supernatural drama television series, began airing on September 28, 2003 on The WB. Airing on Sundays at 8: 00 pm, the season consisted of 23 episodes and concluded its airing on May 16, 2004. Paramount Home Entertainment released the complete sixth season in a six - disc box set on October 17, 2006.
In 2016, Gavin Hetherington of SpoilerTV ran a series of Charmed articles in the run - up to the 10th anniversary of the series finale. The sixth was a complete season review of season six, in which Gavin comments that the season is his "least favourite ''. Critical of the season as a whole, Gavin did note the importance of the inclusion of Chris, who called him an "exceptional addition to the cast '', and he "helped make a sucky season a lot better ''.
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do you have to go to school to take the bar exam | Admission to the bar in the United states - wikipedia
Admission to the bar in the United States is the granting of permission by a particular court system to a lawyer to practice law in that system. Each U.S state and similar jurisdiction (e.g., territories under federal control) has its own court system and sets its own rules for bar admission (or privilege to practice law), which can lead to different admission standards among states. In most cases, a person who is "admitted '' to the bar is thereby a "member '' of the particular bar.
In the canonical case, lawyers seeking admission must earn a Juris Doctor degree from a law school approved by the jurisdiction, and then pass a bar exam administered by it. Typically, there is also a character and fitness evaluation, which includes a background check. However, there are exceptions to each of these requirements. A lawyer who is admitted in one state is not automatically allowed to practice in any other. Some states have reciprocal agreements that allow attorneys from other states to practice without sitting for another full bar exam; such agreements differ significantly among the states.
The use of the term "bar '' to mean "the whole body of lawyers, the legal profession '' comes ultimately from English custom. In the early 16th century, a railing divided the hall in the Inns of Court, with students occupying the body of the hall and readers or Benchers on the other side. Students who officially became lawyers were "called to the bar '', crossing the symbolic physical barrier and thus "admitted to the bar ''. Later, this was popularly assumed to mean the wooden railing marking off the area around the judge 's seat in a courtroom, where prisoners stood for arraignment and where a barrister stood to plead. In modern courtrooms, a railing may still be in place to enclose the space which is occupied by legal counsel as well as the criminal defendants and civil litigants who have business pending before the court.
The first bar exam in what is now the United States was instituted by Delaware Colony in 1763, as an oral examination before a judge. The other American colonies soon followed suit. By the late 19th century, the examinations were administered by committees of attorneys, and they eventually changed from an oral examination to a written one.
Today, each state has its own rules which are the ultimate authority concerning admission to its bar. Generally, admission to a bar requires that the candidate do the following:
Alabama, California, Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, West Virginia and Tennessee allow individuals to take the bar exam upon graduation from law schools approved by state bodies but not accredited by the American Bar Association. The state of New York makes special provision for persons educated to degree - level in common law from overseas, with most LLB degree holders being qualified to take the bar exam and, upon passing, be admitted to the bar. But in certain states (e.g., Arizona), one may not be allowed to actually take the bar exam unless one 's law school is accredited by the ABA, and this requirement has withstood constitutional attack: thus, graduates of a law school without ABA accreditation may not sit for the Arizona bar, although they may take the bar in other states.
In California, certain law schools are registered with the Committee of Bar Examiners of The State Bar of California. Such schools, though not accredited by either the ABA or the Committee on Bar Examiners, are authorized to grant the Juris Doctor (J.D.) law degree. Students at these schools must take and pass the First - Year Law Students ' Examination (commonly referred to as the "Baby Bar '') administered by the CBE. Upon successful passing of the "Baby Bar, '' those students may continue with their law studies to obtain their J.D. degree. Students at law schools accredited by either the ABA or CBE are exempt from having to take and pass the Baby Bar.
In California, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming an applicant who has not attended law school may take the bar exam after study under a judge or practicing attorney for an extended period of time. This method is known as "reading law '' or "reading the law ''.
New York requires that applicants who are reading the law have at least one year of law school study (Rule 520.4 for the Admission of Attorneys).
Maine allows students with two years of law school to serve an apprenticeship in lieu of completing their third year.
Most attorneys seek and obtain admission only to the bar of one state, and then rely upon pro hac vice admissions for the occasional out - of - state matter. However, many new attorneys do seek admission in multiple states, either by taking multiple bar exams or applying for reciprocity. This is common for those living and working in metro areas which sprawl into multiple states, such as Washington, D.C. and New York City. Attorneys based in predominantly rural states or rural areas near state borders frequently seek admission in multiple states in order to enlarge their client base.
Note that in states that allow reciprocity, admission on motion may have conditions that do not apply to those admitted by examination. For example, attorneys admitted on motion in Virginia are required to show evidence of the intent to practice full - time in Virginia and are prohibited from maintaining an office in any other jurisdiction. Also, their licenses automatically expire when they no longer maintain an office in Virginia.
Admission to a state 's bar is not necessarily the same as membership in that state 's bar association. There are two kinds of state bar associations:
Thirty - two states and the District of Columbia require membership in the state 's bar association to practice law there. These states have what is called having a mandatory, unified, or integrated bar.
For example, the State Bar of Texas is an agency of the judiciary and is under the administrative control of the Texas Supreme Court, and is composed of those persons licensed to practice law in Texas; each such person is required by law to join the State Bar by registering with the clerk of the Texas Supreme Court.
The State Bar of California is another example of an integrated bar.
A voluntary bar association is a private organization of lawyers. Each may have social, educational, and lobbying functions, but does not regulate the practice of law or admit lawyers to practice or discipline lawyers. An example of this is the New York State Bar Association.
There is a statewide voluntary bar association in each of the eighteen states that have no mandatory or integrated bar association. There are also many voluntary bar associations organized by geographic area (e.g., Chicago Bar Association), interest group or practice area (e.g., Federal Communications Bar Association), or ethnic or identity community (e.g., Hispanic National Bar Association).
The American Bar Association (ABA) is a nationwide voluntary bar association with the largest membership in the United States. The National Bar Association was formed in 1925 to focus on the interests of African - American lawyers after they were denied membership by the ABA.
Admission to a state bar does not automatically entitle an individual to practice in federal courts, such as the United States district courts or United States court of appeals. In general, an attorney is admitted to the bar of these federal courts upon payment of a fee and taking an oath of admission. An attorney must apply to each district separately. For instance, a Texas attorney who practices in federal courts throughout the state would have to be admitted separately to the Northern District of Texas, the Eastern District, the Southern District, and the Western District. To handle a federal appeal, the attorney would also be required to be admitted separately to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals for general appeals and to the Federal Circuit for appeals that fall within that court 's jurisdiction. As the bankruptcy courts are divisions of the district courts, admission to a particular district court usually includes automatic admission to the corresponding bankruptcy court. The bankruptcy courts require that attorneys attend training sessions on electronic filing before they may file motions.
Some federal district courts have extra admission requirements. For instance, the Southern District of Texas requires attorneys seeking admission to attend a class on that District 's practice and procedures. For some time, the Southern District of Florida administered an entrance exam, but that requirement was eliminated by Court order in February 2012. The District of Rhode Island requires candidates to attend classes and to pass an examination.
An attorney wishing to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States must apply to do so, must be admitted to the bar of the highest court of a state for three years, must be sponsored by two attorneys already admitted to the Supreme Court bar, must pay a fee and must take either a spoken or written oath.
Various specialized courts with subject - matter jurisdiction, including the United States Tax Court, have separate admission requirements. The Tax Court is unusual in that a non-attorney may be admitted to practice. However, the non-attorney must take and pass an examination administered by the Court to be admitted, while attorneys are not required to take the exam. Most members of the Tax Court bar are attorneys.
Admission to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit is open to any attorney admitted to practice and in good standing with the U.S. Supreme Court, any of the other federal courts of appeal, any federal district court, the highest court of any state, the Court of International Trade, the Court of Federal Claims, the Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, or the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. An oath and fee are required.
Some federal courts also have voluntary bar associations associated with them. For example, the Bar Association of the Fifth Federal Circuit, the Bar Association of the Third Federal Circuit, or the Association of the Bar of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit all serve attorneys admitted to practice before specific federal courts of appeals.
56 districts (around 60 % of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40 % of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar. This requirement is not necessarily consistent within a state. For example, in Ohio, the Southern District generally requires membership in the Ohio state bar for full admission, while full admission to the Northern District is open to all attorneys in good standing with any U.S. jurisdiction. The District of Vermont requires membership in the Vermont State Bar or membership in the Bar of a federal district court in the First and Second Circuits. The District of Connecticut, within the Second Circuit, will admit any member of the Connecticut bar or of the bar of any United States District Court.
Persons wishing to "prosecute '' patent applications (i.e., represent clients in the process of obtaining a patent) must first pass the USPTO registration examination, frequently referred to as the "patent bar. '' Detailed information about applying for the registration examination is available in the USPTO 's General Requirements Bulletin. Although only registered patent attorneys or patent agents can prosecute patent applications in the USPTO, passing the patent bar is not necessary to advise clients on patent infringement, to litigate patent issues in court, or to prosecute trademark applications.
A J.D. degree is not required to sit for the patent bar. Lawyers who pass the patent bar exam may refer to themselves as a patent attorney (rules of legal ethics prohibit lawyers from using the title "patent attorney '' unless they are admitted to practice before the USPTO). While patent lawyers have a relevant four - year degree and many have graduate technical degrees, patent litigation attorneys do not have to be patent attorneys, although some are. On the other hand, non-lawyers who pass the patent bar are referred to as "patent agents. '' Patent agents may not hold themselves out as licensed attorneys.
Applicants must have U.S. citizenship, permanent residency (a Green Card), or a valid work visa for a patent - related job. An applicant on a work visa, upon passing the exam, is only given "limited recognition '' to perform work for the employer listed on the work visa. Only U.S. citizens can maintain their registration in the patent bar while they are working outside the United States. Additionally, the USPTO requires that applicants to the patent bar have earned a bachelor 's degree. Applicants are categorized as having earned an accredited "bachelor 's degree in a recognized technical subject '' (category A), having earned a "bachelor 's degree in another subject '' with sufficient credits to qualify for the exam (category B), or having "practical engineering or scientific experience '' (category C).
Applicants in "category A '' must have an engineering or "hard science '' degree in a field listed in the General Requirements Bulletin. Note that the degree field as shown on the diploma must be exactly as it appears on the list; for example, "aerospace engineering '' does not qualify under category A, while "aeronautical engineering '' does. A computer science degree is accepted under "category A '' as long as it is received from an Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) - accredited or CSAB - accredited program.
Applicants in "category B '' must have earned a bachelor 's degree, and must have sufficient credits in science and engineering courses to meet the USPTO 's requirements; the number of credits depends on the specific discipline. The coursework must include a minimum of eight credit - hours of acceptable classes in either chemistry or physics. Each course being relied upon by the applicant for credit is evaluated by the USPTO 's Office of Enrollment and Discipline for suitability; see the General Requirements Bulletin for the details. Engineering and Computer Science majors whose degree programs do not meet "category A '' requirements (typically due to the named field of the degree or, especially in computer science, lack of program accreditation) can apply under "category B. ''
Applicants in "category C '' may present evidence of passing the Fundamentals of Engineering exam as proof of technical education. They must also have a bachelor 's degree. Although the admission requirements allow applicants to substitute proof of technical experience for technical education, this is rarely done in practice.
Service as a member of a military service 's Judge Advocate General 's Corps requires graduation from an ABA - accredited law school, a license to practice law in any state or territory of the United States, and training at the specialized law school of one of the three military services (The Judge Advocate General 's Legal Center and School for the Army, the Naval Justice School for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, and the Air Force Judge Advocate General School for the Air Force).
In a court - martial, the accused is always provided JAG Corps defense counsel at no expense to the accused, but is also entitled to retain private civilian counsel at his or her own expense. Civilian counsel must either be a member of both a federal bar and a state bar, or must be otherwise authorized to practice law by a recognized licensing authority and certified by the military judge as having sufficient familiarity with criminal law as applicable in courts - martial.
The American legal system is unusual in that, with few exceptions, it has no formal apprenticeship or clinical training requirements between the period of academic legal training and the bar exam, or even after the bar exam. Two exceptions are Delaware and Vermont, which require that candidates for admission serve a full - time clerkship of at least five months (Delaware) or three months (Vermont) in the office of a lawyer previously admitted in that state before being eligible to take the oath of admission. New Jersey has a similar requirement, with the addition of training and instruction.
On October 12, 2005, the Washington State Supreme Court adopted amendments to Admission to Practice Rule 5 and 18, mandating that, prior to admission, Bar applicants must complete a minimum of four hours of approved pre-admission education.
Some law schools have tried to rectify this lack of experience by requiring supervised "Public Service Requirements '' of all graduates. States that encourage law students to undergo clinical training or perform public service in the form of pro bono representation may allow students to appear and practice in limited court settings under the supervision of an admitted attorney. For example, in New York 's Third Appellate Department, "Any officer or agency of the state... or any legal aid organization... may make application to the presiding justice of this court for an order authorizing the employment or utilization of law students who have completed at least two semesters of law school and eligible law school graduates as law interns to render and perform legal services... which the officer, agency or organization making the application is authorized to perform. '' Similarly, New York 's state Department of Labor allows law students to practice in unemployment benefits hearings before the agency.
In addition to the educational and bar examination requirements, most states also require an applicant to demonstrate good moral character. Character Committees look to an applicant 's history to determine whether the person will be fit to practice law in the future. This history may include prior criminal arrests or convictions, academic honor code violations, prior bankruptcies or evidence of financial irresponsibility, addictions or psychiatric disorders, sexual misconduct, prior civil lawsuits or driving history. In recent years, such investigations have increasingly focused on the extent of an applicant 's financial debt, as increased student loans have prompted concern for whether a new lawyer will honor legal or financial obligations. For example, in early 2009, a person who had passed the New York bar and had over $400,000 in unpaid student loans was denied admission by the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division due to excessive indebtedness, despite being recommended for admission by the state 's character and fitness committee. He moved to void the denial, but the court upheld its original decision in November 2009, by which time his debt had accumulated to nearly $500,000. More recently, the Court of Appeals of Maryland rejected the application of a candidate who displayed a pattern of financial irresponsibility, applied for a car loan with false information, and failed to disclose a recent bankruptcy.
When applying to take a state 's bar examination, applicants are required to complete extensive questionnaires seeking the disclosure of significant personal, financial and professional information. For example, in Virginia, each applicant must complete a 24 - page questionnaire and may appear before a committee for an interview if the committee initially rejects their application. The same is true in the State of Maryland, and in many other jurisdictions, where the state 's supreme court has the ultimate authority to determine whether an applicant will be admitted to the bar. In completing the bar application, and at all stages of this process, honesty is paramount. An applicant who fails to disclose material facts, no matter how embarrassing or problematic, will greatly jeopardize the applicant 's chance of practicing law.
Once all prerequisites have been satisfied, an attorney must actually be admitted. The mechanics of this vary widely. For example, in California, the admittee simply takes an oath before any state judge or notary public, who then co-signs the admission form. Upon receiving the signed form, the State Bar of California adds the new admittee to a list of applicants recommended for admission to the bar which is automatically ratified by the Supreme Court of California at its next regular weekly conference; then everyone on the list is added to the official roll of attorneys. The State Bar also holds large - scale formal admission ceremonies in conjunction with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and the federal district courts, usually in the same convention centers where new admittees took the bar examination, but these are optional.
In other jurisdictions, such as the District of Columbia, new admittees must attend a special session of court in person to take the oath of admission in open court; they can not take the oath before any available judge or notary public.
A successful applicant is permitted to practice law after being sworn in as an officer of the Court; in most states, that means they may begin filing pleadings and appearing as counsel of record in any trial or appellate court in the state. Upon admission, a new lawyer is issued a certificate of admission, usually from the state 's highest court, and a membership card attesting to admission.
Two states are exceptions to the general rule of admission by the state 's highest court:
In most states, lawyers are also issued a unique bar identification number. In states like California where unauthorized practice of law is a major problem, the state bar number must appear on all documents submitted by a lawyer.
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the functional unit of skeletal muscle that is located between the z-discs is called a | Sarcomere - wikipedia
A sarcomere (Greek sarx "flesh '', meros "part '') is the basic unit of striated muscle tissue. It is the repeating unit between two Z lines. Skeletal muscles are composed of tubular muscle cells (myocytes called muscle fibers or myofibers) which are formed in a process known as myogenesis. Muscle fibers contain numerous tubular myofibrils. Myofibrils are composed of repeating sections of sarcomeres, which appear under the microscope as alternating dark and light bands. Sarcomeres are composed of long, fibrous proteins as filaments that slide past each other when a muscle contracts or relaxes.
Two of the important proteins are myosin, which forms the thick filament, and actin, which forms the thin filament. Myosin has a long, fibrous tail and a globular head, which binds to actin. The myosin head also binds to ATP, which is the source of energy for muscle movement. Myosin can only bind to actin when the binding sites on actin are exposed by calcium ions.
Actin molecules are bound to the Z line, which forms the borders of the sarcomere. Other bands appear when the sarcomere is relaxed.
A muscle fiber from a biceps muscle may contain 100,000 sarcomeres. The myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged into sarcomeres.
The sarcomeres are what give skeletal and cardiac muscles their striated appearance, which was first described by Leeuwenhoek.
The relationship between the proteins and the regions of the sarcomere are as follows:
Upon muscle contraction, the A-bands do not change their length (1.85 micrometer in mammalian skeletal muscle), whereas the I - bands and the H - zone shorten. This causes the Z lines to come closer together.
The protein tropomyosin covers the myosin binding sites of the actin molecules in the muscle cell. To allow the muscle cell to contract, tropomyosin must be moved to uncover the binding sites on the actin. Calcium ions bind with troponin - C molecules (which are dispersed throughout the tropomyosin protein) and alter the structure of the tropomyosin, forcing it to reveal the cross-bridge binding site on the actin.
The concentration of calcium within muscle cells is controlled by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a unique form of endoplasmic reticulum in the sarcoplasm. Muscle contraction ends when calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, allowing the contractile apparatus and, thus, muscle cell to relax.
During stimulation of the muscle cell, the motor neuron releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which travels across the neuromuscular junction (the synapse between the terminal bouton of the neuron and the muscle cell). Acetylcholine binds to a post-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. A change in the receptor conformation allows an influx of sodium ions and initiation of a post-synaptic action potential. The action potential then travels along T (transverse) tubules until it reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Here, the depolarized membrane activates voltage - gated L - type calcium channels, present in the plasma membrane. The L - type calcium channels are in close association with ryanodine receptors present on the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The inward flow of calcium from the L - type calcium channels activate ryanodine receptors to release calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This mechanism is called calcium - induced calcium release (CICR). It is not understood whether the physical opening of the L - type calcium channels or the presence of calcium causes the ryanodine receptors to open. The outflow of calcium allows the myosin heads access to the actin cross-bridge binding sites, permitting muscle contraction.
At rest, the myosin head is bound to an ATP molecule in a low - energy configuration and is unable to access the cross-bridge binding sites on the actin. However, the myosin head can hydrolyze ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate ion. A portion of the energy released in this reaction changes the shape of the myosin head and promotes it to a high - energy configuration. Through the process of binding to the actin, the myosin head releases ADP and an inorganic phosphate ion, changing its configuration back to one of low energy. The myosin remains attached to actin in a state known as rigor, until a new ATP binds the myosin head. This binding of ATP to myosin releases the actin by cross-bridge dissociation. The ATP - associated myosin is ready for another cycle, beginning with hydrolysis of the ATP.
The A-band is visible as dark transverse lines across myofibers; the I - band is visible as lightly staining transverse lines, and the Z - line is visible as dark lines separating sarcomeres at the light - microscope level.
Most muscle cells store enough ATP for only a small number of muscle contractions. While muscle cells also store glycogen, most of the energy required for contraction is derived from phosphagens. One such phosphagen creatine phosphate, is used to provide ADP with a phosphate group for ATP synthesis in vertebrates.
The structure of the sarcomere affects its function in several ways. The overlap of actin and myosin gives rise to the length - tension curve, which shows how sarcomere force output decreases if the muscle is stretched so that fewer cross-bridges can form or compressed until actin filaments interfere with each other. Length of the actin and myosin filaments (taken together as sarcomere length) affects force and velocity -- longer sarcomeres have more cross-bridges and thus more force, but have a reduced range of shortening. Vertebrates display a very limited range of sarcomere lengths, with roughly the same optimal length (length at peak length - tension) in all muscles of an individual as well as between species. Arthropods, however, show tremendous variation (over seven-fold) in sarcomere length, both between species and between muscles in a single individual. The reasons for the lack of substantial sarcomere variability in vertebrates is not fully known.
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when did you last see your father painting value | William Frederick Yeames - wikipedia
William Frederick Yeames RA (18 December 1835 -- 3 May 1918) was a British painter best known for his oil - on - canvas problem picture "And When Did You Last See Your Father? '', which depicts the son of a Royalist being questioned by Parliamentarians during the English Civil War.
Yeames was born in Taganrog, Russia, the son of a British consul based in Russia. After the death of his father in 1842, Yeames was sent to school in Dresden where he began studying painting.
After a change in the fortunes of his family, they moved to London in 1848. Yeames learnt anatomy and composition from George Scharf and took art lessons from F.A. Westmacott. In 1852 he journeyed to Florence where he studied with Enrico Pollastrini and Raphael Buonajuti. During his time there he painted at the Life School at the Grand Ducal Academy, drawing from frescoes by Andrea del Sarto, Ghirlandaio and Gozzoli. Continuing on to Rome, he painted landscape studies and copied Old Masters, including the frescoes of Raphael in the Vatican.
Returning to London in 1859, he set up a studio in Park Place and, with Philip Hermogenes Calderon, Frederick Goodall and George Adolphus Storey, formed the loose association of artists known as the St John 's Wood Clique. The group concentrated on subjects of a historical nature and narrative paintings in which the story was revealed by close study of the actions and expressions of the subjects. In Yeames 's work this technique evolved into the genre known as the problem picture, in which the narrative of the image creates an unresolved dilemma or paradox for the viewer.
In 1905 he painted a mural for the Royal Exchange, London The Foundation of St Paul 's School, 1509.
Yeames married on 18 August 1865 Anne Winfield, daughter of Major James Stainbank Winfield of the East India Company.
While their work was popular with the public, the St John 's Wood Clique found it difficult to get their work displayed at prestigious galleries and the Royal Academy, because it never received critical acclaim. Yeames managed to overcome this problem and from 1859 exhibited at the Royal Academy and was made an Associate (ARA) in 1866.
Unlike other artist circles of the time, the St John 's Wood Clique did not lead a bohemian lifestyle; Yeames took holidays at Hever Castle and lived comfortably in London. He and Goodall specialized in Tudor and Stuart subjects, but did not always portray the events they depicted with historical accuracy - instead using them as inspiration.
He died in Teignmouth, Devon on 3 May 1918.
In 2000, a blue plaque commemorating Yeames was installed at his former home, 8 Campbell Road, Hanwell, London, where he lived from 1894 until 1912.
The oil - on - canvas picture, painted in 1878, depicts a scene in an imaginary Royalist household during the English Civil War. The Parliamentarians have taken over the house and question the son about his Royalist father (the man lounging on a chair in the centre of the scene is identifiable as a Roundhead officer by his military attire and his orange sash).
Yeames was inspired to paint the picture to show the crises that could arise from the natural frankness of young children. Here, if the boy tells the truth he will endanger his father, but if he lies he will go against the ideal of honesty undoubtedly instilled in him by his parents.
The boy in the pictures is based on Thomas Gainsborough 's painting The Blue Boy. It was modelled by Yeames 's nephew, James Lambe Yeames. Behind the boy, there is a girl, probably the daughter, waiting her turn to be questioned. The girl was based on Yeames 's niece, Mary Yeames. At the back of the hall the mother and elder daughter wait anxiously on the boy 's reply.
The scene is neutral: while the innocence of the boy is emphasized by his blond hair, open expression and blue suit, the questioners are also treated sympathetically; the main interrogator has a friendly expression and the sergeant with the little girl has his arm on her shoulder as if comforting her.
The painting is at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, having been bought in 1878, just a year after the gallery opened in 1877. Madame Tussauds in London has a life - size waxwork tableau of the scene, faithfully reproduced from the painting.
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where is the location of the sermon on the mount | Mount of Beatitudes - wikipedia
The Mount of Beatitudes (Hebrew: Har HaOsher הר האושר) is a hill in northern Israel where Jesus is believed to have delivered the Sermon on the Mount.
The traditional location for the Mount of Beatitudes is on the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee, between Capernaum and Gennesaret (Ginosar). Its highest point is 58 metres (190 ft) below sea level, which is approximately 155 metres (509 ft) above the surface of the lake. The actual location of the Sermon on the Mount is not certain, but the present site (also known as Mount Eremos) has been commemorated for more than 1600 years. The site is very near Tabgha. Other suggested locations have included the nearby Mount Arbel, or even the Horns of Hattin.
A Byzantine church was erected lower down the slope from the current site in the 4th century, and it was used until the 7th century. Remains of a cistern and a monastery are still visible. The current Roman Catholic Franciscan chapel was built in 1937 - 38 following plans by Italian architect Antonio Barluzzi.
Pope John Paul II celebrated a Mass at this site in March 2000. The Jesus Trail pilgrimage route connects the Mount to other sites from the life of Jesus.
Coordinates: 32 ° 52 ′ 56.04 '' N 35 ° 33 ′ 18.61 '' E / 32.8822333 ° N 35.5551694 ° E / 32.8822333; 35.5551694
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can two players have the same legendary creature | Legend (Magic: the Gathering) - wikipedia
In the Magic: The Gathering trading card game, a Legendary card or Legend is a card that represents a unique individual or thing with a specific name, rather than the generic, unnamed things that most cards represent. For example, while the card Raging Goblin could be any goblin, the card Squee, Goblin Nabob is a specific goblin with a personality and a history.
Printed legendary cards are indicated by the word "Legendary '' before their card type (e.g. "Legendary Artifact '') to replace the original "Creature -- Legend '' or "Summon Legend '', a change made in Champions of Kamigawa.
The associated Magic: The Gathering novels often deal with the characters represented by legendary cards in the game.
Only one copy of a given legendary card may be in control by a same player at the same time. If multiple copies of a legend are under control by a same player, the player choose one of them, and all of the rest are put into the graveyard (discard pile). (This has not always been the case; see History below.)
The cards must have exactly the same name in order to trigger the legend rule. Some characters are represented on multiple cards: for example, the character Kamahl appears as both Kamahl, Pit Fighter and Kamahl, Fist of Krosa, and the character Akroma appears as both Akroma, Angel of Wrath and Akroma, Angel of Fury. Because the cards are different, one of each card can be in play without counting as the same legend, even though they represent the same character.
Most legendary cards are creatures; legendary artifacts, lands and enchantments also exist.
Planeswalker cards ' uniqueness rule was heavily influenced by Legend Rule. The only difference is they refer to the type of the card. This basically eliminated any possibility of having two same Planeswalker under a player 's control as each different Planeswalker is assigned with a one unique Type for all cards refer to the same person. The only exception, however, is if a Planeswalker is also represented by a legendary creature as two rules are operated independent to each other. For example, Karn, Silver Golem and Karn Liberated can be controlled by a player at the same time even though they represent the same person.
Legendary creatures and lands were introduced in 1994 with Legends, the game 's third expansion set. Although some cards printed prior to Legends represent unique individuals and would logically have been legendary, they were and are still treated as non-legendary. The first legendary artifact, Sword of the Chosen, was printed in the Stronghold set in 1998, and the first legendary enchantments were printed in Champions of Kamigawa in 2004.
The way the legend rule functioned when it was first introduced differed from its present form: if a legendary card came into play when another copy of the same card was already in play, the recently played legend would be put in the graveyard, but not the one that was already in play. This could be a significant advantage to the player who played the legend first, and was particularly an issue with legends that could be played cheaply and quickly, such as Lin Sivvi, Defiant Hero.
Initially, legendary creatures were printed with "Legend '' as their creature type. At the time, most creatures other than artifact creatures (which had no creature type at all) could only have one creature type, so "Legend '' replaced any other creature type they might have had. Later, some legends were printed with additional text giving them extra creature types: for example, while Barrin, Master Wizard has "Legend '' as his creature type, the card 's text reads "Barrin, Master Wizard counts as a Wizard '', effectively giving him the Wizard creature type as well. Beginning with the Urza 's Destiny set in 1999, legendary creatures were simply given multiple creature types: for example, Rayne, Academy Chancellor is simply printed as a "Wizard Legend '', making the "counts as a Wizard '' text unnecessary. The status of "Legend '' as a creature type could be exploited using the card Unnatural Selection: a player could eliminate an opponent 's creatures by changing them into Legends, triggering the legend rule.
In 2004, Legend was removed as a creature type, rendering it inaccessible by Unnatural Selection, and the legend rule was changed, only to be activated if two (or more) legendary permanents are with the same name. As a result, new, cheap legendary cards have been printed in subsequent sets. Early legendary creatures which had only "Legend '' as their creature type have been retroactively given other creature types.
In 2013, the Legend rule is changed to the current form, which the range of influence was changed from the whole battlefield to player oneself. This prevents any possibility of using the legend rule as a means to remove opponents ' legendary cards by playing another of the same legendary card or by making a copy of it.
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where does the national grid get its energy from | National Grid (Great Britain) - wikipedia
The National Grid is the high - voltage electric power transmission network in Great Britain, connecting power stations and major substations and ensuring that electricity generated anywhere in GB (England, Scotland and Wales) can be used to satisfy demand elsewhere. Northern Ireland is part of a single electricity market with the Republic of Ireland with SONI and EirGrid acting as system operator for this respective parts of the system.
The GB grid is connected as a wide area synchronous grid nominally running at 50 hertz. There are also undersea interconnections to northern France (HVDC Cross-Channel), Northern Ireland (HVDC Moyle), the Isle of Man (Isle of Man to England Interconnector), the Netherlands (BritNed) and the Republic of Ireland (EirGrid).
On the breakup of the Central Electricity Generating Board in 1990, the ownership and operation of the National Grid in England and Wales passed to National Grid Company plc, later to become National Grid Transco, and now National Grid plc. In Scotland the grid split into two separate entities, one for southern and central Scotland and the other for northern Scotland, connected by interconnectors to each other. The first is owned and maintained by SP Energy Networks, a subsidiary of Scottish Power, and the other by SSE. However, National Grid plc remains the System Operator for the whole GB Grid.
At the end of the 19th century, Nikola Tesla established the principles of three - phase high - voltage electric power distribution while he was working for Westinghouse in the United States. The first to use this system in the United Kingdom was Charles Merz, of the Merz & McLellan consulting partnership, at his Neptune Bank Power Station near Newcastle upon Tyne. This opened in 1901, and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe. The rest of the country, however, continued to use a patchwork of small supply networks.
In 1925, the British government asked Lord Weir, a Glaswegian industrialist, to solve the problem of Britain 's inefficient and fragmented electricity supply industry. Weir consulted Merz, and the result was the Electricity (Supply) Act 1926, which recommended that a "national gridiron '' supply system be created. The 1926 Act created the Central Electricity Board, which set up the UK 's first synchronised, nationwide AC grid, running at 132 kV, 50 Hz.
The grid was created with 4,000 miles of cables - mostly overhead cables, linking the 122 most efficient power stations. The first "grid tower '' was erected near Edinburgh on 14 July 1928, and work was completed in September 1933, ahead of schedule and on budget. It began operating in 1933 as a series of regional grids with auxiliary interconnections for emergency use. Following the unauthorised but successful short term parallelling of all regional grids by the night - time engineers on 29 October 1937, by 1938 the grid was operating as a national system. The growth by then in the number of electricity users was the fastest in the world, rising from three quarters of a million in 1920 to nine million in 1938. It proved its worth during the Blitz when South Wales provided power to replace lost output from Battersea and Fulham power stations. The grid was nationalised by the Electricity Act 1947, which also created the British Electricity Authority. In 1949, the British Electricity Authority decided to upgrade the grid by adding 275 kV links.
The 275 kV Transmission System at the time of its inception in 1950, was designed to form part of a national supply system with an anticipated total demand of 30,000 MW by 1970. The predicted demand was already exceeded by 1960. The rapid load growth led the Central Electricity Generating Board to carry out a study in 1960 of future transmission needs. The report was completed in September 1960, and its study is described in a paper presented to the Institution of Electrical Engineers by Messrs E.S. Booth, D. Clark, J.L. Egginton and J.S. Forrest in 1962.
Considered in the study, together with the increased demand, was the effect on the transmission system of the rapid advances in generator design resulting in projected power stations of 2,000 -- 3,000 MW 's installed capacity. These new stations were mostly to be sited where advantage could be taken of a surplus of cheap low - grade fuel and adequate supplies of cooling water, but these situations did not coincide with the load centres. West Burton with 4 x 500 MW machines, sited at the Nottinghamshire coalfield near the River Trent, is a typical example. These developments shifted the emphasis on the transmission system, from interconnection to the primary function of bulk power transfers from the generation areas to the load centres, such as the anticipated transfer in 1970 of some 6,000 MW from The Midlands to the Home counties.
Continued reinforcement and extension of the existing 275 kV systems was examined as a possible solution. However, in addition to the technical problem of very high fault levels many more lines would have been required to obtain the estimated transfers at 275 kV. As this was not consistent with the Central Electricity Generating Board 's policy of preservation of amenities a further solution was sought. Consideration was given to both a 400 kV and 500 kV scheme as the alternatives, either of which gave a sufficient margin for future expansion. The decision in favour of a 400 kV system was made for two main reasons. Firstly the majority of the 275 kV lines could be uprated to 400 kV, and secondly it was envisaged that the operation at 400 kV could commence in 1965 compared with 1968 for a 500 kV scheme. Design work was started and in order to meet the programme for 1965 it was necessary for the contract engineering for the first projects to run concurrently with the design. One of these projects was the West Burton 400 kV Indoor Substation, the first section of which was commissioned in June 1965. From 1965, the grid was partly upgraded to 400 kV, beginning with a 150 - mile (241 km) line from Sundon to West Burton, to become the Supergrid.
In the most recent issue of the code that governs the British Grid, the Grid Code, the Supergrid is defined as referring to those parts of the British electricity transmission system that are connected at voltages in excess of 200 kV. British power system planners and operational staff therefore invariably speak of the Supergrid in this context although in practice the definition used captures all of the infrastructure owned by the National Grid company in England and Wales, and (in England and Wales) no other equipment.
In 2013 the construction of the 2.2 GW undersea Western HVDC Link from Scotland to North Wales started, with power expected to flow in 2017. This is the first major non-alternating current grid link within GB, though interconnects to foreign grids already use HVDC.
The following figures are taken from the 2005 Seven Year Statement (SYS)
Total generating capacity is supplied roughly equally by renewable, nuclear, coal fired and gas fired power stations. Annual energy used in the UK is around 360 TWh (1.3 EJ), with an average load factor of 72 % (i.e. 3.6 × 10 / (8,760 × 57 × 10).
Figures are again from the 2005 SYS.
Although overall losses in the national grid are low, there are significant further losses in onward electricity distribution to the consumer, causing a total distribution loss of about 7.7 %. However losses differ significantly for customers connected at different voltages; connected at high voltage the total losses are about 2.6 %, at medium voltage 6.4 % and at low voltage 12.2 %.
Generated power entering the grid is metered at the high - voltage side of the generator transformer. Any power losses in the generator transformer are therefore accounted to the generating company, not to the grid system. The power loss in the generator transformer does not contribute to the grid losses.
There is an average power flow of about 11 GW from the north of the UK, particularly from Scotland and northern England, to the south of the UK across the grid. This flow was anticipated to grow to about 12 GW by 2014.
Because of the power loss associated with this north to south flow, the effectiveness and efficiency of new generation capacity is significantly affected by its location. For example, new generating capacity on the south coast has about 12 % greater effectiveness due to reduced transmission system power losses compared to new generating capacity in north England, and about 20 % greater effectiveness than northern Scotland.
The UK grid is connected to adjacent European and Irish electrical grids by submarine power cables at an electricity interconnection level (transmission capacity relative to production capacity) of 6 %. The connections include direct - current cables to northern France (2 GW HVDC Cross-Channel), the Netherlands (1 GW BritNed), Northern Ireland (250 MW HVDC Moyle), and Republic of Ireland (500 MW East -- West Interconnector). There is also the 40 MW AC cable to the Isle of Man (Isle of Man to England Interconnector). There are plans to lay cables to link the UK with Belgium (Nemo link), Norway (1.4 GW NSN Link), Denmark via the 1.4 GW Viking Link, a second link with France, and Iceland in the future. The internal Western HVDC Link is being built to connect Scotland and Wales at 2.2 GW.
National Grid is responsible for contracting short term generating provision to cover demand prediction errors and sudden failures at power stations. This covers a few hours of operation giving time for market contracts to be established to cover longer term balancing.
Frequency - response reserves act to keep the system 's AC frequency within ± 1 % of 50 Hz, except in exceptional circumstances. These are used on a second by second basis to either lower the demand or to provide extra generation.
Reserve services are a group of services each acting within different response times:
These reserves are sized according to three factors:
The English and Welsh parts of the National Grid are controlled from the National Grid Control Centre which is located in St Catherine 's Lodge, Sindlesham, Wokingham in Berkshire. It is sometimes described as being a ' secret ' location. As of 2015 the system is under consistent hacker attack via computer systems.
The costs of operating the National Grid System are recouped by National Grid Electricity Transmission plc (NGET) through levying of Transmission Network Use of System (TNUoS) charges on the users of the system. The costs are split between the generators and the users of electricity.
Tariffs are set annually by NGET, and are zonal in nature -- that is, the country is divided up into different zones, each with a different tariff for generation and consumption. In general, tariffs are higher for generators in the north and consumers in the south. This is representative of the fact that there is currently a north - south flow of electricity, and the additional stresses on the system increasing demand in areas of currently high demand causes.
Triad demand is measured as the average demand on the system over three half - hours between November and February (inclusive) in a financial year. These three half - hours comprise the half - hour of system demand peak and the two other half - hours of highest system demand which are separated from system demand peak and each other by at least ten days.
These half - hours of peak demand are usually referred to as Triads.
Triad dates in recent years were:
In April of each year, each licensed electricity supplier (such as Centrica, BGB, etc.) is charged a yearly fee for the load it imposed on the grid during those three half - hours of the previous winter. Exact charges vary depending on the distance from the centre of the network, but in the South West it is £ 21,000 / MW. The average for the whole country is about £ 15,000 / MW. This is a means for National Grid to recover its charges, and to impose an incentive on users to minimise consumption at peak, thereby easing the need for investment in the system. It is estimated that these charges reduced peak load by about 1 GW out of say 57 GW.
This is the main source of income which National Grid uses to cover its costs and these charges are commonly also known as Transmission Network Use of System charges (TNUoS). (This is for high voltage long distance transmission: lower voltage distribution is charged separately.) The grid also charges an annual fee to cover the cost of generators, distribution networks and large industrial users connecting.
Triad charges encourage users to cut load at peak periods; this is often done using diesel generators. Such generators are also routinely used by National Grid.
If the total TNUoS or Triad receipts (say £ 15,000 / MW year × 50,000 MW = £ 750 million / year) is divided by the total number of units delivered by the UK generating system in a year (the total number of units sold -- say 360 terawatt - hours (1.3 EJ).), then a crude estimate can be made of transmission costs, and one gets the figure of around 0.2 p / kWh. Other estimates also give a figure of 0.2 p / kWh.
However, Bernard Quigg notes: "According to the 06 / 07 annual accounts for NGC UK transmission, NGC carried 350TWh for an income of £ 2012m in 2007, i.e. NGC receives 0.66 p per kW hour. With two years inflation to 2008 / 9, say 0.71 p per kWh. '', but this also includes generators ' connection fees.
In order to be allowed to supply electricity to the transmission system, generators must be licensed (by BEIS) and enter into a connection agreement with NGET which also grants Transmission Entry Capacity (TEC). Generators contribute to the costs of running the system by paying for TEC, at the generation TNUoS tariffs set by NGET. This is charged on a maximum - capacity basis. In other words, a generator with 100 MW of TEC who only generated at a maximum rate of 75 MW during the year would still be charged for the full 100 MW of TEC.
In some cases, there are negative TNUoS tariffs. These generators are paid a sum based on their peak net supply over three proving runs over the course of the year. This represents the reduction in costs caused by having a generator so close to the centre of demand of the country.
Consumers of electricity are split into two categories: half - hourly metered (HH) and non-half - hourly metered (NHH). Customers whose peak demand is sufficiently high are obliged to have a HH meter, which, in effect, takes a meter reading every 30 minutes. The rates at which charges are levied on these customers ' electricity suppliers therefore varies 17,520 times a (non-leap) year.
The TNUoS charges for a HH metered customer are based on their demand during three half - hour periods of greatest demand between November and February, known as the Triad. Due to the nature of electricity demand in the UK, the three Triad periods always fall in the early evening, and must be separated by at least ten clear working days. The TNUoS charges for a HH customer are simply their average demand during the triad periods multiplied by the tariff for their zone. Therefore, (as of 2007) a customer in London with a 1 MW average demand during the three triad periods would pay £ 19,430 in TNUoS charges.
TNUoS charges levied on NHH metered customers are much simpler. A supplier is charged for the sum of their total consumption between 16: 00 and 19: 00 every day over a year, multiplied by the relevant tariff.
Power cuts due to either problems on the actual infrastructure of the supergrid (defined in the Grid Code, as the transmission system operated by National Grid, which in England and Wales, comprises lines energized at 275,000 volts and 400,000 volts), or due to lack of generation to supply it with sufficient energy at each point in time, are exceedingly rare. The nominal standard of security of supply is for power cuts due to lack of generation to occur in nine winters in a hundred.
The overall performance measure for electricity transmission is published on NGET 's website: -- this site includes a simple high level figure on transmission availability and reliability of supply -- for 2008 - 9 this was 99.99979 %. It is issues affecting the low voltage distribution systems, for which National Grid is not responsible, that cause almost all the 60 minutes or so per year, on average, of actual domestic power cuts. Most of these low voltage distribution interruptions are in turn, the fault of third parties such as workmen drilling through the street mains (or subterranean higher voltage) cables; this does not happen to major transmission lines, which are for the most part overhead on pylons. For comparison with supergrid availability, Ofgem, the electricity regulator, has published figures on the performance of 14 electricity distributors.
Since 1990, there have only been two power cuts of high national prominence, that were linked to National Grid (although one was actually due to generation issues).
The first case was in 2003, and related to the condition of National Grid 's assets. National Grid was implicated in a power cut affecting 10 per cent of London in August -- see 2003 London blackout. In essence, some news stories accused Grid of under - investment in new assets at the time; this was not necessarily true, but it did transpire that a transformer oil leak had been left untreated, except for top - ups, for many months, pending a proper fix. It also transpired that there was a significant error in a protection relay setting which became evident, resulting in a power cut, only when the first fault, the oil leak, had a real effect. National Grid took some time to admit to these aspects of the incident. It is arguable either way whether, with more money spent on system planning and maintenance, the human error in the relay setting could have been prevented.
The second case was in May 2008, and related to some generation issues for which National Grid was not responsible. A power cut took place in which a protective shutdown of parts of the network was undertaken by the distribution network operators, under pre-arranged rules, due to a sudden loss of generating capacity causing a severe drop in system frequency. What happened first, was that two of Britain 's largest power stations, Longannet in Fife and Sizewell B in Suffolk, shut down unexpectedly (' tripped ') within five minutes of one another. There was definitely no relationship between the two trips -- the first did not cause the second. Such a loss is most unusual; Grid currently secures only against the loss of 1320 MW (the "infrequent infeed loss limit '', due to rise to 1800 MW from 2014). There was, as a result, a sudden 1,510 megawatt adverse change in the balance of generation and demand on the supergrid. Because National Grid only secures against the near - instantaneous loss of 1320 MW, the frequency dropped to 49.2 Hz. Whilst the frequency was dropping to 49.2 Hz, or just after it reached that point, 40 MW of wind farms and more than 92 MW of other embedded (meaning, connected to the distribution system, rather than directly connected to the supergrid) generation, such as landfill plant, tripped on the basis of the rate of change of frequency (' ROCOF ') being high, just as it is supposed to do under the G 59 / 2 connection rules.
The frequency stabilised at 49.2 Hz for a short while. This would have been an acceptable frequency excursion, even though it was below the usual lower limit of 49.5 Hz, and recovery would not have been problematic. In fact, the fact that frequency stabilised at this level in spite of a beyond - design - basis event, could be viewed as reassuring. Ireland, which being a smaller system has a ' friskier ' grid, sees about 10 frequency excursions below 49.5 Hz per year -- her target frequency being 50 Hz, just as in Britain. Consumers would not have noticed the small drop in system frequency; other aspects of their supply such as voltage, remained perfect. There would, therefore, have been no consumer detriment; all would have been well at this point, had nothing further untoward occurred.
Further issues, however, affecting smaller generators, arose. The problem was because the frequency had remained below 49.5 Hz for more than a few seconds, and because some generators ' control settings were wrong. The current connection standard G 59 / 2 for embedded generation states that they must not trip (cease generating) as a result of sustained low frequency, until frequency has fallen below 47 Hz. However, a number of embedded generators are still using out of date control software that is not compliant with G59 / 2, as it erroneously trips them (as per the previous standard, G / 59, in force when they were designed and specified) if frequency falls below 49.5 Hz for a few seconds. Because of the out of date software, another 279 MW of embedded generation tripped as a result of the low frequency whilst it was at 49.2 Hz. This was a problem as the Grid had no remaining available fast - acting generation, or demand - response, reserve margins. The frequency fell as a result to 48.792 Hz. The grid rules state that as frequency falls below 48.8 Hz, distribution network operators must enact compulsory demand control. This should start, if time permits, with voltage reduction, rapidly followed by the compulsory disconnection of, in stages, up to a final total of 60 per cent of all distribution - connected customers (a very small number of very large customers are connected directly to the supergrid; for them, other measures apply). There was no time to use voltage reduction (which keeps customers on supply, but subtly reduces their demand through reducing the voltage slightly); as a result, 546 MW of demand was automatically disconnected by distribution network operators. None of the directly supergrid - connected customers were cut off. National Grid had by now taken other measures to increase output at other generation sites (and demand had been reduced at those customer sites where the customer has volunteered for this to happen, in return for reimbursement, under demand - side response contracts with National Grid, or with their supplier). National Grid was then able to restore system frequency. The average duration of loss of supply to the 546 MW of mostly low - voltage - connected (e.g. domestic) demand affected was 20 minutes. As to communications during the incident, National Grid had time to issue a warning to all users of the supergrid, (demand control imminent), which is just one step away from its most serious warning "demand disconnection warning ''. During these incidents, the System was at risk to further generation loss which could have resulted in parts of the network being automatically disconnected by the operation of low frequency protection to ensure frequency is maintained within mandatory limits.
On 4 November 2015 National Grid issued an emergency notice asking for voluntary power cuts because of "multiple plant breakdowns ''. No power cuts occurred but wholesale electricity prices rose dramatically, with the grid paying up to £ 2,500 per megawatt - hour.
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who did jack nicholson play in little shop of horrors | The Little Shop of Horrors - wikipedia
The Little Shop of Horrors is a 1960 American black comedy film directed by Roger Corman. Written by Charles B. Griffith, the film is a farce about an inadequate florist 's assistant who cultivates a plant that feeds on human flesh and blood. The film 's concept is thought to be based on a 1932 story called "Green Thoughts '', by John Collier, about a man - eating plant. However, Dennis McDougal in Jack Nicholson 's biography suggests that Griffith may have been influenced by Arthur C. Clarke 's sci - fi short story from 1956, "The Reluctant Orchid '' (which was in turn inspired by the 1905 H.G. Wells story "The Flowering of the Strange Orchid ''). Mythology about man - eating plants dates back to at least the 1800s, and probably much earlier.
The film stars Jonathan Haze, Jackie Joseph, Mel Welles, and Dick Miller, all of whom had worked for Corman on previous films. Produced under the title The Passionate People Eater, the film employs an original style of humor, combining black comedy with farce and incorporating Jewish humor and elements of spoof. The Little Shop of Horrors was shot on a budget of $28,000, with interiors being shot in two days utilizing sets that had been left standing from A Bucket of Blood.
The film slowly gained a cult following through word of mouth when it was distributed as the B movie in a double feature with Mario Bava 's Black Sunday and eventually with The Last Woman on Earth. The film 's popularity increased with local television broadcasts, in addition to the presence of a young Jack Nicholson, whose small role in the film has been prominently promoted on home video releases of the film. The film was the basis for an Off Broadway musical, Little Shop of Horrors, which was notably made into a 1986 feature film and enjoyed a 2003 Broadway revival, all of which have attracted attention to the 1960 film.
On Los Angeles 's skid row, penny - pinching Gravis Mushnick owns a florist shop which is staffed by him and his two employees, the sweet but simple Audrey Fulquard and clumsy Seymour Krelboyne. Although the rundown shop gets little business, there are some repeat customers; for instance, Mrs. Siddie Shiva shops almost daily for flower arrangements for her many relatives ' funerals. Another regular customer is Burson Fouch, who eats the plants he buys for lunch. When Seymour fouls up the arrangement of Dr. Farb, a sadistic dentist, Mushnick fires him. Hoping Mushnick will change his mind, Seymour tells him about a special plant that he crossbred from a butterwort and a Venus flytrap. Bashfully, Seymour admits that he named the plant "Audrey Jr. '', a revelation that delights the real Audrey.
From the apartment he shares with his hypochondriac mother Winifred, Seymour fetches his odd - looking, potted plant, but Mushnick is unimpressed by its sickly, drooping look. However, when Fouch suggests that Audrey Jr. 's uniqueness might attract people from all over the world to see it, Mushnick gives Seymour one week to revive it. Seymour has already discovered that the usual kinds of plant food do not nourish his strange hybrid and that every night at sunset the plant 's leaves open up. When Seymour accidentally pricks his finger on another thorny plant, Audrey Jr. opens wider, eventually causing Seymour to discover that the plant craves blood. After that, each night Seymour nurses his creation with blood from his fingers. Although he feels increasingly listless, Audrey Jr. begins to grow and the shop 's revenues increase due to the curious customers who are lured in to see the plant.
The plant develops the ability to speak and demands that Seymour feed it. Now anemic and not knowing what to feed the plant, Seymour takes a walk along a railroad track. When he carelessly throws a rock to vent his frustration, he inadvertently knocks out a man who falls on the track and is run over by a train. Miserably guilt - ridden but resourceful, Seymour collects the body parts and feeds them to Audrey Jr. Meanwhile, at a restaurant, Mushnick discovers he has no money with him, and when he returns to the shop to get some cash, he secretly observes Seymour feeding the plant. Although Mushnick considers telling the police, he procrastinates by the next day when he sees the line of people waiting to spend money at his shop.
When Seymour later arrives that morning suffering a toothache, Mushnick sends Seymour to Dr. Farb, who tries to remove several of his teeth without anesthetic to get even with Seymour for ruining Farb 's flowers. Grabbing a sharp tool, Seymour fights back and accidentally stabs and kills Farb. Seymour is horrified that he has now murdered twice, and after posing as a dentist to avoid the suspicion of Farb 's masochistic patient Wilbur Force, Seymour feeds Farb 's body to Audrey Jr. The unexplained disappearances of the two men attract the attention of the police and Mushnick finds himself questioned by Sergeant Joe Fink and his assistant Officer Frank Stoolie (take - offs of Dragnet characters Joe Friday and Frank Smith,). Although Mushnick acts suspiciously nervous, Fink and Stoolie conclude that he knows nothing. Audrey Jr., which has grown several feet tall, is beginning to bud, as is the relationship between Seymour and Audrey (whom Seymour invites on a date).
When a representative of the Society of Silent Flower Observers of Southern California comes to the shop to evaluate the plant, she announces that Seymour will receive a trophy from them, and that she will return when the plant 's buds open. While Seymour is on a date with Audrey, Mushnick stays at the shop to see that Audrey Jr. does not hurt anyone else. After trading barbs with the plant when Audrey awakens and demands to be fed, Mushnick finds himself at the mercy of Kloy Haddock, a robber who pretended to be a customer of the previous day, and believes that the huge crowd he had observed attending the shop indicated the presence of a large amount of money. To save his own life, Mushnick tricks Haddock into thinking that the money is with the plant, which crushes and eats him. Not only does the monstrous plant 's growth increase with this latest meal, but its intelligence and abilities do as well. It intimidates Mr. Mushnick, who is now more terrified than ever, but not so much that he will forgo the money the plant is bringing in as an attraction. After he is forced to damage his relationship with Audrey to keep her from discovering the plant 's nature, an angry Seymour confronts the plant asserting he will no longer do its bidding just because it orders him to. The plant then employs hypnosis on the feckless lad and commands him to bring it more food. He wanders the night streets aimlessly until pursued by a rather aggressively persistent street walker Leonora Clyde, intent on making a score. Believing him harmless, she flirts with him to no avail until he inadvertently knocks her out with a rock and carries her back to feed Audrey Jr.
Lacking clues about the mysterious disappearance of the two men, Fink and Stoolie attend a special sunset celebration at the shop, during which Seymour is to be presented with the trophy and Audrey Jr. 's buds are expected to open. As the attendees look on, four buds open and inside each flower is the face of one of the plant 's victims. As the crowd breaks out in shock and fright, Fink and Stoolie realize Seymour is their culprit who flees from the shop with the police in hot pursuit. Managing to lose them in a junkyard filled with tires, sinks and toilets with the help of Mushnick who followed along, Seymour eventually makes his way back to Mushnick 's shop which is now empty. Audrey Jr. demands, "Feed me! '' Seymour curses the plant for ruining his life. He grabs a kitchen knife and climbs into Audrey Jr. 's maw, saying, "I 'll feed you like you never been fed before! ''
Later that evening, Audrey, Winifred, Mushnick, Fink, and Stoolie return to the shop where they discover that Audrey Jr. has begun to wither and die. As Winifred laments over how her son used to be such a good boy, one final bud opens to reveal the face of Seymour, which pitifully moans, "I did n't mean it! '' before drooping over -- apparently ending the life of Audrey Jr.
The Little Shop of Horrors was developed when director Roger Corman was given temporary access to sets that had been left standing from his previous film, A Bucket of Blood. Corman decided to use the sets in a film made in the last two days before the sets were torn down.
Corman initially planned to develop a story involving a private investigator. In the initial version of the story, the character that eventually became Audrey would have been referred to as "Oriole Plove ''. Actress Nancy Kulp was a leading candidate for the part. The characters that eventually became Seymour and Winifred Krelboyne were named "Irish Eye '' and "Iris Eye. '' Actor Mel Welles was scheduled to play a character named "Draco Cardala '', Jonathan Haze was scheduled to play "Archie Aroma, '' and Jack Nicholson would have played a character named "Jocko ''.
Charles B. Griffith wanted to write a horror - themed comedy film. According to Mel Welles, Corman was not impressed by the box office performance of A Bucket of Blood, and had to be persuaded to direct another comedy. However, Corman later claimed he was interested because of A Bucket of Blood and said the development process was similar to that of the earlier film, when he and Griffith were inspired by visiting various coffee houses:
We tried a similar approach for The Little Shop of Horrors, dropping in and out of various downtown dives. We ended up at a place where Sally Kellerman (before she became a star) was working as a waitress, and as Chuck and I vied with each other, trying to top each other 's sardonic or subversive ideas, appealing to Sally as a referee, she sat down at the table with us, and the three of us worked out the rest of the story together.
The first screenplay Griffith wrote was Cardula, a Dracula - themed story involving a vampire music critic. After Corman rejected the idea, Griffith says he wrote a screenplay titled Gluttony, in which the protagonist was "a salad chef in a restaurant who would wind up cooking customers and stuff like that, you know? We could n't do that though because of the code at the time. So I said, "How about a man - eating plant? '', and Roger said, "Okay. '' By that time, we were both drunk. ''
Jackie Joseph later recalled "at first they told me it was a detective movie; then, while I was flying back (to make the movie), I think they wrote a whole new movie, more in the horror genre. I think over a weekend they rewrote it. ''
The screenplay was written under the title The Passionate People Eater. Welles stated, "The reason that The Little Shop of Horrors worked is because it was a love project. It was our love project. ''
The film was partially cast with stock actors that Corman had used in previous films. Writer Charles B. Griffith portrays several small roles. Griffith 's father appears as a dental patient, and his grandmother, Myrtle Vail, appears as Seymour 's hypochondriac mother. Dick Miller, who had starred as the protagonist of A Bucket of Blood was offered the role of Seymour, but turned it down, instead taking the smaller role of Burson Fouch. Production at the Bucket of Blood sets was compressed into three days of cast rehearsals, immediately followed by two days and one night of principal photography.
It had been rumored that the film 's shooting schedule was based on a bet that Corman could not complete a film within that time. However, this claim has been denied by Mel Welles. According to Joseph, Corman shot the film quickly in order to beat changing industry rules that would have prevented producers from "buying out '' an actor 's performance in perpetuity. On January 1, 1960, new rules were to go into effect requiring producers to pay all actors residuals for all future releases of their work. This meant that Corman 's B - movie business model would be permanently changed and he would not be able to produce low - budget movies in the same way. Before these rules went into effect, Corman decided to shoot one last film and scheduled it to happen the last week in December 1959.
Interiors were shot with three cameras in wide, lingering master shots in single takes. Welles states that Corman "had two camera crews on the set -- that 's why the picture, from a cinematic standpoint, is really not very well done. The two camera crews were pointed in opposite directions so that we got both angles, and then other shots were ' picked up ' to use in between, to make it flow. It was a pretty fixed set and it was done sort of like a sitcom is done today, so it was n't very difficult. ''
At the time of shooting, Jack Nicholson had appeared in two films, and had worked with Roger Corman as the lead in The Cry Baby Killer. According to Nicholson, "I went in to the shoot knowing I had to be very quirky because Roger originally had n't wanted me. In other words, I could n't play it straight. So I just did a lot of weird shit that I thought would make it funny. '' According to Dick Miller, all of the dialogue between his character and Mel Welles was ad - libbed. During a scene in which writer Charles B. Griffith played a robber, Griffith remembers that "When (Welles) and I forgot my lines, I improvised a little, but then I was the writer. I was allowed to. '' However, Welles states that "Absolutely none of it was ad - libbed (...) every word in Little Shop was written by Chuck Griffith, and I did ninety - eight pages of dialogue in two days. ''
According to Nicholson, "we never did shoot the end of the scene. This movie was pre-lit. You 'd go in, plug in the lights, roll the camera, and shoot. We did the take outside the office and went inside the office, plugged in, lit and rolled. Jonathan Haze was up on my chest pulling my teeth out. And in the take, he leaned back and hit the rented dental machinery with the back of his leg and it started to tip over. Roger did n't even call cut. He leapt onto the set, grabbed the tilting machine, and said ' Next set, that 's a wrap. ' '' By 9 am of the first day, Corman was informed by the production manager that he was behind schedule.
Exteriors were later directed by Griffith and Welles over two successive weekends, with $279 worth of rented equipment. Griffith and Welles paid a group of children five cents apiece to run out of a subway tunnel. They were also able to persuade winos to appear as extras for ten cents apiece. "The winos would get together, two or three of them, and buy pints of wine for themselves! We also had a couple of the winos act as ramrods -- sort of like production assistants -- and put them in charge of the other wino extras. '' Griffith and Welles also persuaded a funeral home to donate a hearse and coffin -- with a real corpse inside -- for the film shoot. Griffith and Welles were able to use the nearby Southern Pacific Transportation Company yard for an entire evening using two bottles of scotch as persuasion. The scene in which a character portrayed by Robert Coogan is run over by a train was accomplished by persuading the railroad crew to back the locomotive away from the actor. The shot was later printed in reverse. Griffith and Welles spent a total of $1,100 on fifteen minutes worth of exteriors.
The film 's musical score, written by cellist Fred Katz, was originally written for A Bucket of Blood. According to Mark Thomas McGee, author of Roger Corman: The Best of the Cheap Acts, each time Katz was called upon to write music for Corman, Katz sold the same score as if it were new music. The score was used in a total of seven films, including The Wasp Woman and Creature from the Haunted Sea. Katz explained that his music for the film was created by a music editor piecing together selections from other soundtracks that he had produced for Corman.
Howard R. Cohen learned from Charles B. Griffith that when the film was being edited, "there was a point where two scenes would not cut together. It was just a visual jolt, and it did n't work. And they needed something to bridge that moment. They found in the editing room a nice shot of the moon, and they cut it in, and it worked. Twenty years go by. I 'm at the studio one day. Chuck comes running up to me, says, ' You 've got to see this! ' It was a magazine article -- eight pages on the symbolism of the moon in Little Shop of Horrors. '' According to Corman, the total budget for the production was $30,000. Other sources estimate the budget to be between $22,000 and $100,000.
Corman had initial trouble finding distribution for the film, as some distributors, including American International Pictures (AIP), felt that the film would be interpreted as anti-Semitic, citing the characters of Gravis Mushnick and Siddie Shiva. Welles, who is Jewish, stated that he gave his character a Turkish Jewish accent and mannerisms, and that he saw the humor of the film as playful, and felt there was no intent to defame any ethnic group. The film was finally released by its production company, The Filmgroup, nine months after it had been completed.
The Little Shop of Horrors was screened out of competition at the 1960 Cannes Film Festival. A year later, AIP distributed the film as the B movie for their release of Mario Bava 's Black Sunday. Despite being barely mentioned in advertising (it was only occasionally referred to as an "Added Attraction '' to Bava 's film), Black Sunday 's critical and commercial success resulted in positive word of mouth responses to The Little Shop of Horrors. The film was re-released again the following year in a double feature with Last Woman on Earth.
Because Corman did not believe that The Little Shop of Horrors had much financial prospect after its initial theatrical run, he did not bother to copyright it, resulting in the film falling into the public domain. Because of this, the film is widely available in copies of varying quality. The film was originally screened theatrically in the widescreen aspect ratio of 1.85: 1, but has largely only been seen in open matte at an aspect ratio of 1.33: 1 since its original theatrical release.
The film 's critical reception was largely favorable, with modern review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes giving the film a "Tomatometer '' score of 91 %. Variety wrote, "The acting is pleasantly preposterous. (...) Horticulturalists and vegetarians will love it. ''
Jack Nicholson, recounting the reaction to a screening of the film, states that the audience "laughed so hard I could barely hear the dialogue. I did n't quite register it right. It was as if I had forgotten it was a comedy since the shoot. I got all embarrassed because I 'd never really had such a positive response before. ''
The film 's popularity slowly grew with local television broadcasts throughout the 1960s and 1970s.
Interest in the film was rekindled when a stage musical called Little Shop of Horrors was produced in 1982. It was based on the original film and was itself adapted to cinema as Little Shop of Horrors, in 1986. A short - lived animated television series inspired by the musical film, Little Shop, premiered in 1991.
The film was colorized twice, the first time in 1987. This version was poorly received. The film was colorized again by Legend Films, who released their color version as well as a restored black - and - white version of the film on DVD in 2006. Legend Films ' colorized version was well received, and was also given a theatrical premiere at the Coney Island Museum on May 27, 2006. The DVD included an audio commentary track by comedian Michael J. Nelson of Mystery Science Theater 3000 fame. A DivX file of Legend 's colorized version with the commentary embedded is also available as part of Nelson 's RiffTrax On Demand service. On January 28, 2009, a newly recorded commentary by Nelson, Kevin Murphy and Bill Corbett was released by RiffTrax in MP3 and DivX formats. Legend 's colorized version is also available from Amazon Video on Demand, without Nelson 's commentary.
In November 2006, the film was issued by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in a double feature with The Cry Baby Killer (billed as a Jack Nicholson double feature) as part of the Roger Corman Classics series. However, the DVD contained only the 1987 colorized version of The Little Shop of Horrors, and not the original black - and - white version.
It was announced on April 15, 2009 that Declan O'Brien would helm a studio remake of the film. "It wo n't be a musical '' he told Bloody Disgusting in reference to the Frank Oz film from 1986. "I do n't want to reveal too much, but it 's me. It 'll be dark. '' When speaking with Shock ' Till You Drop, he revealed "I have a take on it you 're not going to expect. I 'm taking it in a different direction, let 's put it that way. '' However, this version of the remake seems to be shelved. On December 7, 2016, Deadline reports that Greg Berlanti is set to direct a revamped film of the musical adaptation with Matthew Robinson writing the script.
In April 2017, a modern day trading card set was released by Attic Card Company. The set includes autograph cards by both Jonathan Haze and Jackie Joseph.
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who is the crab in moana based on | Moana (2016 film) - Wikipedia
Moana (/ moʊˈɑːnə /) is a 2016 American 3D computer - animated musical adventure film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 56th Disney animated feature film. Directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, co-directed by Don Hall and Chris Williams, the film introduces Auliʻi Cravalho as Moana and features the voices of Dwayne Johnson, Rachel House, Temuera Morrison, Jemaine Clement, Nicole Scherzinger, and Alan Tudyk. The film features songs written by Lin - Manuel Miranda and Opetaia Foa'i and orchestral score composed by Mark Mancina.
The film tells the story of Moana, the strong - willed daughter of a chief of a Polynesian village, who is chosen by the ocean itself to reunite a mystical relic with a goddess. When a blight strikes her island, Moana sets sail in search of Maui, a legendary demigod, in the hope of returning the heart of Te Fiti and saving her people.
Moana was released theatrically in the United States on November 23, 2016 to generally positive reviews from critics, with particular praise going towards its animation, music, and vocal performances. The film went on to gross over $643 million worldwide. Along with Zootopia, it marked the first time since 2002 that Walt Disney Animation Studios released two feature films in the same year. It received two Academy Award nominations at the 89th Academy Awards: one for Best Animated Feature and another for Best Original Song ("How Far I 'll Go '').
On the Polynesian island of Motunui, the inhabitants worship the goddess Te Fiti, who brought life to the ocean, using a pounamu stone as her heart and the source of her power. Maui, the shapeshifting demigod and master of sailing, steals the heart to give humanity the power of creation. However, Te Fiti disintegrates, and Maui is attacked by Te Kā, a volcanic demon, losing both his magical giant fishhook and the heart to the depths.
A millennium later, Moana, daughter of Motunui 's chief Tui, is chosen by the ocean to return the heart to Te Fiti. However, Tui arrives and takes Moana away, causing her to lose the heart. Tui and Moana 's mother Sina try to keep her away from the ocean to prepare for her ascension as the island 's chief. Years later, after Moana has grown older, a blight strikes the island, rotting the coconuts and dwindling the number of fish caught. Moana suggests going beyond the island 's reef to find more fish, but Tui forbids it. Sina explains to Moana that Tui and his best friend tried going beyond the reef, but the latter perished. Moana and her pet pig Pua try conquering the reef but are overpowered by the ocean 's tides and end up shipwrecked back on Motunui.
Moana 's grandmother Tala shows her a secret cave, where a number of ships are hidden, revealing to Moana that their people used to be voyagers. Tala explains they stopped when Maui stole Te Fiti 's heart and that Te Kā 's darkness is poisoning the island, but it can be cured if Moana finds Maui and gets him to restore the heart of Te Fiti, which she gives to Moana. Tala falls ill shortly after and dies, but not before encouraging Moana to go and fulfill her destiny.
Moana sets sail on a camakau found in the cavern, accidentally accompanied by her dim - witted rooster Heihei. Moana is caught in a typhoon and shipwrecked on an island where she finds the stranded Maui, who traps her and steals the camakau, but Moana catches up to him with help from the ocean. She demands that Maui return the heart but he refuses. Maui is accompanied by a sentient "Mini-Maui '' tattoo, acting as his conscience.
They are attacked by Kakamora -- coconut - armored pirates -- who seek to steal the heart, but Moana and Maui outwit them. Moana realizes Maui is no longer a hero, and convinces him to redeem himself by returning the heart. Maui first needs to obtain his magical fishhook, which is located in Lalotai, the Realm of Monsters, and is in the possession of Tamatoa, a giant, greedy coconut crab. Moana enters Tamatoa 's lair, using herself as live bait to distract him and allowing Maui to climb atop the crab and retrieve his fishhook. However, Maui discovers he can not control his shapeshifting and loses self - confidence, quickly becoming overpowered by Tamatoa. Moana 's quick thinking allows them to escape with Maui 's hook. Maui reveals that his first tattoo was earned when his mortal parents rejected him. After reassurance from Moana, Maui teaches her the art of sailing and regains control of his powers.
The two arrive at Te Fiti 's island, only to be attacked by Te Kā, who badly damages Maui 's fishhook. Tired of all the trials and tribulations and fearful he will lose his hook, and therefore his power, Maui angrily abandons Moana, who tearfully asks the ocean to find someone else to restore the heart. The ocean obliges and takes the heart from Moana. Tala 's spirit appears, inspiring Moana to find her true calling. Moana decides to fulfill her destiny, retrieves the heart, and sails back to confront Te Kā. Maui returns, convinced by his Mini-Maui tattoo to change his mind, and buys Moana time to reach Te Fiti by fighting Te Kā, destroying his fishhook in the process. Moana discovers Te Fiti is missing, and realizes Te Kā is Te Fiti without her heart. Moana tells the ocean to clear a path while singing, allowing her to restore Te Fiti 's heart, transforming her back to normal. Te Fiti then heals the ocean and islands of Te Kā 's poison. Maui apologizes to Te Fiti, who forgivingly restores his fishhook and goes into a deep sleep. Moana bids farewell to Maui, returning home where she reunites with her parents. Moana takes up her role as chief and wayfinder, leading her people on a voyage, accompanied from afar by Maui (in a form of a giant hawk) and Tala (in the form of a manta ray).
In a post-credits scene, Tamatoa, still stuck on his back, addresses the audience, knowing they would help if he was named Sebastian and sang in a Jamaican accent (making reference to The Little Mermaid).
After directing The Princess and the Frog (2009), Clements and Musker started working on an adaptation of Terry Pratchett 's Mort, but problems with acquiring the necessary film rights prevented them from continuing with that project. To avoid a recurrence of that issue, they pitched three original ideas. The genesis of one of those ideas (the one that was ultimately green - lighted) occurred in 2011, when Musker began reading up on Polynesian mythology, and learned of the heroic exploits of the demigod Māui. Intrigued with the rich culture of Polynesia, he felt it would be a suitable subject for an animated film. Shortly thereafter, Musker and Clements wrote a treatment and pitched it to John Lasseter, who recommended that both of them should go on research trips. Accordingly, in 2012, Clements and Musker went on research trips to Fiji, Samoa, and Tahiti to meet the people of the South Pacific Ocean and learn about their culture. At first, they had planned to make the film entirely about Maui, but their initial research trips inspired Clements to pitch a new idea focused on the young daughter of a chief.
Clements and Musker were fascinated to learn during their research that the people of Polynesia abruptly stopped making long - distance voyages about three thousand years ago. Their navigational traditions predated those of European explorers, beginning around 300 CE. Native people of the Pacific possessed knowledge of the world and their place in it prior to the incursion of foreigners. For example, Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians) were well aware of the existence of far away islands, had names for these places, and were interested in exploring them to benefit their societies. This voyaging heritage was made possible by a geographical knowledge system based on individual perspective rather than the European cardinal direction system. The reasons for the halt of this voyaging tradition remain unknown, but scholars have offered climate change and resulting shifts in ocean currents and wind patterns as one possible explanation. Native peoples of the Pacific resumed voyaging again a thousand years later. Clements and Musker set the film at the end of that era, about two thousand years ago, on a fictional island in the central Pacific Ocean, which drew inspiration from elements of the real - life island nations of Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga.
Over the five years it took to develop and produce the film, Clements and Musker recruited experts from across the South Pacific to form an Oceanic Story Trust, who consulted on the film 's cultural accuracy and sensitivity as the story evolved through nine versions. The Trust responded negatively, for example, to a depiction of Maui as bald, and to a proposed scene in which Moana threw a tantrum by throwing coconuts. In response, Maui was reworked with long hair and the coconut scene was scrapped.
Te Kā was referred to in early drafts of the film as Te Pō, a reference to the Māori goddess Hine - nui - te - pō, who was originally the life - giving goddess Hine - tītama, but became the goddess of death upon discovering that her husband the god Tāne was also her father. Māui set out to defeat her in order to bring immortality to humans, but failed and was himself killed.
During the 2015 D23 Expo 's panel for Disney 's slate of upcoming animated films, Moana 's last name was given as "Waialiki '', but that name was not retained in the final film.
Taika Waititi wrote the initial screenplay. The first draft focused on Moana as the sole daughter in a family with "five or six brothers '', in which gender played into the story. However, the brothers and gender - based theme were deleted from the story, as the directors thought Moana 's journey should be about finding herself. A subsequent draft presented Moana 's father as the one who wanted to resume navigation, but it was rewritten to have him oppose navigation so he would not overshadow Moana. Instead, Pamela Ribon came up with the idea of a grandmother character for the film, who would serve as a mentor linking Moana to ancient traditions. Another version focused on Moana rescuing her father, who had been lost at sea. The film 's story changed drastically during the development phase (which happens with most Disney films), and that idea ultimately survived only as a subtle element of the father 's backstory. Aaron and Jordan Kandell joined the project during a critical period to help deepen the emotional story architecture of the film. They are credited with developing the core relationship between Moana and Maui, the prologue, the Cave of the Wayfinders, the Kakamora, and the collector crab Tamatoa (played by Jemaine Clement). Jared Bush received sole credit as the writer of the final version of the screenplay.
Like most Disney and Pixar animated films, several major story problems were identified in 2015 only after the film had already transitioned from development into production, but computer - generated films tend to have much shorter production schedules and much larger animation teams (in this case, about 90 animators) than traditionally animated films. Since Clements and Musker were already working 12 - hour days (and Saturdays) directing such a large team of animators, Don Hall and Chris Williams (who had just finished directing Big Hero 6) came on board as co-directors to help fix the film 's story issues. The scene in which Maui and Moana encounter the Kakamora is an intentional homage to Mad Max: Fury Road.
After the filmmakers sat through auditions of hundreds of candidates from across the Pacific, 14 - year - old high school freshman Auliʻi Cravalho was cast as the lead character Moana. At that point in time, the design of Moana 's face and personality was already complete, and Cravalho 's obvious physical resemblance to her character was simply a coincidence. During animation production, Disney animators were able to integrate some of Cravalho 's mannerisms into Moana 's behavior as depicted onscreen.
The majority of the film 's cast members are of Polynesian descent: Auliʻi Cravalho (Moana) and Nicole Scherzinger (Sina, Moana 's mother) were born in Hawaii and are of Native Hawaiian heritage; Dwayne Johnson (Maui), Oscar Kightley (Fisherman), and Troy Polamalu (Villager No. 1) are of Samoan heritage; and New Zealand -- born Rachel House (Tala, Moana 's grandmother), Temuera Morrison (Tui, Moana 's father), and Jemaine Clement (Tamatoa) are of Māori heritage.
Moana is Clements and Musker 's first fully computer - animated film. One of the reasons for using computer animation was that the environment, including the ocean, benefited much more from the use of CGI as opposed to traditional animation. The filmmakers have also suggested that three - dimensional computer animation is well - suited to the "beautiful sculpturing '' of the faces of the people of the South Pacific. Eric Goldberg worked on the hand - drawn animation used to depict Maui 's sentient tattoos. During early development, the filmmakers considered the possibility of making the film with hand - drawn traditional animation, but only a few early animation tests were made in that style. In the final cut, only Maui 's tattoos are hand - drawn.
Moana was produced in makeshift quarters in a giant warehouse in North Hollywood (together with Zootopia), while Disney Animation 's headquarters building in Burbank was being renovated. Musker observed that Moana was similar in that respect to The Little Mermaid, which was produced in a warehouse in Glendale. Production wrapped on October 20, 2016.
The film 's soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on November 18, 2016. The songs were written by Opetaia Foa'i, Mark Mancina, and Lin - Manuel Miranda, while the score was written by Mancina. The lyrics are in English, Samoan and the Tokelauan language. The soundtrack peaked at number two on the Billboard 200.
On October 20, 2014, Walt Disney Pictures announced that it would be releasing the film in late 2016, and hinted that it might be the November 23, 2016 release window previously announced by the studio in March 2014 for a then - untitled film. In November 2014, Disney confirmed that it would be releasing the film on November 23, 2016. The film is accompanied by the short film, Inner Workings. The film 's world premiere was held at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on November 14, 2016.
In many European countries, the name of the titular character, Moana, was changed to Vaiana due to a trademark conflict. The film was released in those countries to bear the alternative name in the title. In Italy, the film was released with the title Oceania. Media outlets speculated that the name change was to avoid confusion with Italian pornographic actress Moana Pozzi, and Disney Italy 's head of theatrical marketing, Davide Romani, acknowledged they were "thinking about the issue '' at a meeting of Italian exhibitors in 2015.
On October 25, 2016, at a press conference in Papeete, it was announced that the film will be the first motion picture to be fully dubbed in the Tahitian language. This marks the third time Disney has released a special dubbing dedicated to the culture which inspired the film: the first case was The Lion King (1994), for which the directors travelled to South Africa to cast voice actors for a Zulu - dubbed version; and the second case was Mulan (1998), which was the first Disney film to have a Mandarin Chinese dubbing made in China, separate from and independent of the version released in Taiwan. In June 2017, a Māori - language dubbing of the movie was announced, premiering in Auckland on September 11, with 30 theatres screening it for free as part of Māori Language Week. Rachel House, Jemaine Clement, Temuera Morrison and Oscar Kightley reprised their respective roles in this version, directed by Rachel House herself. In November 2017, a Hawaiian - language dubbing was announced to be under way, with Auliʻi Cravalho reprising her role as Moana.
In India, popular music composer Bappi Lahiri (who is known to be India 's "gold - man '') voiced the character of Tamatoa in the Hindi - dubbed version of the film; mostly because in reality, he too, similar to Tamatoa, has an immense love and fondness for gold. In Russia, Tamatoa was voiced by a popular singer, Ilya Lagutenko, who performed Tamatoa 's song with his distinctive soft "meowing '' intonations.
On January 27, 2017, a sing - along version of Moana was released in more than 2,000 theaters in the United States, featuring on - screen lyrics.
On October 15, 2016, Hawaiian Airlines unveiled their Moana - themed livery for three of their Airbus A330 - 200 fleet.
There are currently meet - and - greets with Moana at Disneyland, Walt Disney World, Disneyland Paris, and at Aulani, a Disney Resort and Spa. At Hong Kong Disneyland, there will be a stage show called Moana 's Village Festival, which is scheduled to open in 2018.
Moana was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray (2D and 3D) and DVD in the United States on March 7, 2017, with a digital release on February 21, 2017. The releases include the short film, Inner Workings. The Blu - ray release also introduces a short film featuring Maui and Moana, titled Gone Fishing. The film is also available for streaming on Netflix.
Moana grossed $248.7 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $394.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $643.3 million. On January 22 and March 16, 2017, respectively, the film reached the $500 million and $600 million marks, becoming the fourth consecutive Walt Disney Animation Studios film to reach both milestones after Frozen (2013), Big Hero 6 (2014), and Zootopia (2016). Although Disney has not disclosed the film 's production budget, most of its animated films cost around $150 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $121.3 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 12th most profitable release of 2016.
In the United States, Moana was released during the Thanksgiving weekend. The film played in 3,875 theaters of which a majority of them (80 %) screened it in 3D. It also played in 50 premium large format screens and more than 400 D - Box screens. It was projected to take in around $50 million in three days, with $75 -- 85 million in five days (some estimates going as high as $90 million). Deadline.com said the numbers were good for the original Disney film and marked a great rebound for the company in the wake of Pixar 's The Good Dinosaur the previous year, which had made $55 million over five days off a production budget of $175 -- 200 million.
Moana made $2.6 million from Tuesday paid previews which began at 7 pm, the highest ever for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film and for a non-Pixar Disney animated film. On its opening day, it made $15.5 million, a new record for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film opening on Wednesday (breaking Frozen 's record) and the biggest opening day ever for a film released on pre-Thanksgiving Day. On Thanksgiving Day, it earned $9.9 million, a decrease of 36 % from its previous day. On Black Friday -- the highest - grossing day of the Thanksgiving stretch -- it made $21.8 million, a 127 % increase from the day before. Through Sunday, the film posted a three - day opening weekend worth $56.6 million over its Friday - to - Sunday debut and $82.1 million from Wednesday to Sunday, the third biggest three - day Thanksgiving opening (behind Frozen and Toy Story 2) and the second biggest five - day Thanksgiving opening (behind Frozen), dethroning Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them off the top spot. Among all films that did not necessarily open in this weekend but may have played, Moana ranks sixth among three - day weekends and fifth among five - day weekends.
The film 's opening was considered to be another animated success for the studio after Zootopia and Pixar 's Finding Dory posted huge openings, respectively, the same year in March and June.
In its second weekend, the film dropped by about 50 % for a total of $28.3 million, a smaller drop than Toy Story 2, Frozen, Tangled, and The Good Dinosaur. The film managed to top the box office for its third weekend, despite competition from newcomers and holdovers, earning $18.5 million while falling by 34 %. It became the sixth film of 2016 to top the box office three times, following Deadpool, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, Finding Dory, and Suicide Squad. The film was overtaken by Disney 's own Rogue One: A Star Wars Story in its fourth weekend, despite only a marginal decline.
It fell to number six in its fifth weekend, due to competition from four new releases -- Sing, Passengers, Why Him?, and Assassin 's Creed -- despite a small drop again; it grossed $2.9 million on Christmas Day. On the holiday week of December 23 -- 29, the film finished at number four with a gross of $26 million, which was 14 % up from the previous week, despite losing over 300 theaters. It finished at number four in its sixth weekend, going up 42 % and 97 %, respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends; it grossed $3.6 million on New Year 's Day.
It fell outside the top ten in its eighth weekend (which included Martin Luther King Jr. Day), dropping 33 % and 4 % respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends.
Internationally, the film earned $17.2 million in its first weekend from 12 markets, the bulk of which came from China. In its second weekend, the film expanded to a total of 30 markets, adding an additional $33.7 million.
In China, the film had a November 25 opening day with $1.9 million from 38,000 screenings. However, it enjoyed a big weekend bump on Saturday -- even though its screens dipped -- and Sunday. In total, it scored an opening weekend of $17.2 million, the second best for a Disney animated title, behind only Zootopia. It was No. 2 behind Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. Strong social media numbers showed among the highest the studio has seen there. Similar to how Zootopia started off slow and later became a blockbuster phenomenon. The film slipped 55 % in its second weekend, earning $5.8 million, and $21.8 in total in China. It would eventually earn a total of $32.7 million in China.
It had similar successful number - one debuts in France, Russia, Mexico and Spain. The film also saw success in Belgium, the Netherlands and French - speaking Switzerland. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film faced competition from Fantastic Beasts -- which was playing in its third weekend -- and as a result, it posted a low opening of only £ 2.2 million ($2.8 million).
The biggest earning markets to date have been Japan ($45.9 million), followed by France ($35.5 million), China ($32.8 million), the UK ($25.3 million), Brazil ($22.9 million), Australia ($19 million), Germany ($17 million), Italy ($15.9 million), and South Korea ($15.5 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Moana holds an approval rating of 96 % based on 245 reviews, and an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With a title character as three - dimensional as its lush animation and a story that adds fresh depth to Disney 's time - tested formula, Moana is truly a family - friendly adventure for the ages. '' Subsequently, the film is also listed as number 11 on the website 's "50 Best Computer Animated Movies '' list. On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on a scale ranging from A+ to F, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave an 89 % overall positive score and a 71 % "definite recommend ''.
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal proclaimed that "Moana is beautiful in more ways than I can tell, thanks to the brilliance of more animators than I could count. '' Animator Eric Goldberg received praise from critics and audiences for his hand - drawn animation of Maui 's tattoos, which they claimed "stole the show '' from the actual CGI - animated motion picture. Wai Chee Dimock, writing in the Los Angeles Review of Books, compared the ocean in Moana to the one in "The Water Baby, '' a short story by Jack London, saying that both are animated: one, by the tension between digital and analog animation, and the other, by the tension between an encroaching future and a past in retreat still capable of pushing back.
Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com gave the film three and a half out of four stars, stating that "Moana would have been enormously entertaining regardless of when it came out, but its arrival at this particular moment in history gives it an added sense of significance -- as well as inspiration. '' Peter Debruge of Variety praised the film, calling it "a return to the heights of the Disney Renaissance ''.
Disney has been accused of appropriating Polynesian mythology and culture. Through the film, the corporation has been claimed to perpetuate settler colonialist practices of exploitation and erasure by utilizing the knowledge and narratives of native peoples to spur a profitable capitalist enterprise of music, celebrities and merchandise. A Maui "skin suit '' costume made to tie in with the film was pulled by Disney from its online store following complaints about it being culturally insensitive and for appearing to promote brownface.
The film takes specific cultural elements from a variety of native Pacific groups and incorporates them into one generalized portrayal of Polynesian culture. This conglomeration of cultures has been regarded as degrading to the diversity of the Pacific, falsely reducing all of Polynesia to a single cultural entity.
The film has also been criticized as a tourism advertisement for the Pacific. It has been accused of fetishizing Polynesian island nations as exotic vacation spots, the people and culture of which exist only to entertain foreign audiences. Disney initiating a partnership with Hawaiian Airlines to promote the film has been perceived as having this particular motive, as well as Auliʻi Cravalho speaking with The New York Times in an interview sharing travel tips for visitors to Hawaii. Critiques of these promotional tactics focus on how adverse effects of tourism have devastated native communities in the Pacific, resulting in environmental degradation and poverty.
Colin Philp, an educator on Polynesian history, noted that the sailing canoe used by the film 's protagonists is believed to be a Fijian camakau, and that the film 's concept artists based it on one of the canoes they saw when they visited the Korova settlement in Laucala. Philp said that using that design without permission of the Korova community could be viewed as a violation of the intellectual property rights of their elders.
Brigham Young University -- Hawaii sociocultural anthropologist Tēvita ' Ō. Ka'ili stated that "despite its important girl - power message, the film had a major flaw. It lacked symmetry by its omission of a heroic goddess. Disney resorted to reducing the mighty god Maui to a one - dimensional, selfish, borderline abusive, buffoon to foreground the strength of the movie 's protagonist Moana. '' He went on to explain that, "the omission of a goddess - heroine is significant because Polynesia is a culture with a vast pantheon of powerful heroic goddesses. Hina, a companion goddess to the god Maui, was nowhere to be found in Disney 's imagineering of Moana. ''
Maui 's Fish Hook, an item featured on Moana, makes an appearance in the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time as an enchanted talisman, establishing that the film 's history exists in its universe.
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how many world of tanks players are there | World of Tanks - wikipedia
World of Tanks is a massively multiplayer online game developed by the Belarusian - Cypriot company Wargaming, featuring mid-20th century (1930s - 1960s) era combat vehicles. It is built upon a freemium business model where the game is free - to - play, but participants also have the option of paying a fee for use of "premium '' features. The focus is on player vs. player gameplay with each player controlling an armored vehicle, which may be a light, medium or heavy tank, tank destroyer, or self - propelled gun. World of Tanks debuted as an eSports game at the World Cyber Games 2012.
World of Tanks has been ported to multiple gaming consoles. An Xbox 360 version was developed by Wargaming West studio, called World of Tanks: Xbox 360 Edition. Xbox 360 players use separate servers to those playing the Windows version, and players of each version have separate accounts. The PlayStation 4 version was released in 2016. World of Tanks has also recently expanded to mobile platforms under the name World of Tanks Blitz, in addition to a board game titled World of Tanks Rush and a collectable card game titled World of Tanks: Generals.
The player takes control of a single armored vehicle of their choice, and is placed into a battle on a random map. The player has control over the vehicle 's movement, firing, and can communicate with allied players through typed or voice chat. A simple random match is won either by destroying all vehicles on the opposing team or capturing the opposing team 's base. There are other game modes that change the rules of the battle, but gameplay mechanics remain the same. World of Tanks contains multiple game mechanics such as camouflage, shell ricochets, and module damage.
The players in World of Tanks can choose six primary types of battles: random battles, team - training battles, tank - company battles, team battles, stronghold battles and special battles. "Historical Battle '' and "Rampage '' are former options but have since been taken down for improvement upon its poor reception following its release. Within random battles, players can also participate in platoons, groups of two to three players who are put into the same team. There are also missions to be completed in the game modes for varying amounts of rewards.
The vehicles are modeled to closely resemble their counterparts in real life, however certain parameters have been simplified or modified to fit game mechanics, and better gameplay.
World of Tanks has five different types of vehicles: light tanks (LTs or lights), medium tanks (MTs or mediums), heavy tanks (HTs or heavies), tank destroyers (TDs, tank hunters, jäger or anti tank guns / cannons), and self - propelled guns (SPGs, artillery, artillery gun / cannon or "arty '', short for artillery). There are also few main battle tanks in the game, listed as TDs or HTs. The game currently includes over 400 armored vehicles from Britain, China, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Japan, Poland, the Soviet Union, Sweden, and the United States. Each nation has at least one line of vehicles starting at tier I to tier X, players progress by playing games in vehicles in that line.
All vehicles are fully tracked with exception for several vehicles used only for special events, and cover the eras from World War I (i.e. the Renault FT) to the early Cold War. Tanks are based on historical designs, though many, such as the German Maus and British TOG II, only existed as prototypes, and others, like the FV215b 183, only as design studies. The game also features conjectural vehicle designs such as the Jagdpanther II, which never existed.
Clan Wars in World of Tanks has two main components: Strongholds and the Global Map. Clan Wars can be participated in with vehicles of tiers 6, 8, or 10. Tier 6 has a maximum of 7 players per team, Tier 8 has 10, and Tier 10 has 15.
Each clan can have their own stronghold, if the clan 's commander wishes to construct one. Each stronghold begins with one zone and can grow up to four zones as the clan 's membership increases. However, if the clan 's membership decreases the zones can also be closed. Zones are where structures can be built.
Many different types of Structures exist, however only one of each can be built. Some structures generate (by consuming industrial resource) special missions or reserves that can be used to temporarily boost clan members experience or credits, or enable artillery or airstrikes during a battle for stronghold. In order to build structures industrial resource is required, which can be won by attacking another stronghold or through skirmishes.
The Global Map is a collection of fronts on a map based off the real - world map. There are three fronts for tier 6, 8, and 10. Each front has provinces which generate gold for whichever clan that currently owns it. A clan may enter the global map by entering a tournament for a specific province, facing other clans and ultimately the current land owner.
All vehicles can be customized to a certain degree, either visually or in terms of performance, with the majority of parts (such as tracks, guns, turrets, and engines) being modular parts purchased from the game 's extensive Tech tree.
Various two - tone and three - tone camouflage schemes are available for all tanks as well, including both historically accurate patterns and game - specific, custom variants. Camouflage is available for temporary use (7 days or 30 days) by paying with freely earned in - game credits, or for permanent use by paying with gold purchased in the World of Tanks store or won in an in - game event. Players can apply national flags, pre-designed slogans, and camouflage (that will increase the chance of remaining undetected).
All vehicles can mount three pieces of additional equipment, which varies from vehicle to vehicle, and offers various advantages. Some equipment allow the gun to fire faster, some increase the durability of certain parts of the vehicle, and some help keep the vehicle hidden while stationary.
Each vehicle can carry three consumables (single use items that must be re-purchased each time they are used). Examples of these include repair kits, medical kits, and extra rations that boost the tank 's crew for the duration of a single battle.
The developers thought of the concept of World of Tanks in December 2008. The game was officially announced by Wargaming on 24 April 2009. Developers claim that the game budget was the largest ever in the game industry of CIS, but there has been no independent proof of this claim.
Alpha testing of the Russian version of the game began September 2009, with only six different vehicles (Su - 85, BT - 7, T - 34, Pz IV, Hummel, Tiger) and a single map available. By the beginning of the closed beta test, which started on 30 January 2010, several dozen vehicles and three maps were completed. In three months, the number of beta tester requests approached 40,000, and over 400,000 tank battles took place. Open beta test of the Russian version started 24 June 2010; at that point, there were seven maps available, along with over 60 Russian and German vehicles. Closed beta test of English version of the game began on 8 July 2010. The Russian version of the game was officially released on 12 August 2010; however, due to technical difficulties, the game servers went offline on 13 August.
According to a Wargaming official press release, the number of World of Tanks users worldwide reached 700,000, including 500,000 users on Russian servers (350,000 active players), and 200,000 on Western servers (150,000 active players). The number of peak concurrent users exceeded 43,000 on Russian servers and 10,000 on Western servers. The average active gamer spent 3 hours 20 minutes playing the game every day; over 10,000,000 battles have been fought since September 2010. By 4 January 2011 World of Tanks had recorded more than one million registrations worldwide (Europe, Russia and the United States). This milestone was reached in less than a year since the launch of the closed beta in Russia.
On 5 January 2011 there were 74,536 players simultaneously online on the Russian World of Tanks server, which, according to Wargaming, had become a world record amongst MMO games. The "Most players online simultaneously on one MMO server '' world record was officially registered by Guinness World Records on 23 January 2011 and constituted 91,311 players. According to the game 's official site, the Russian server hit the one million registration mark on 18 January 2011.
The open beta of the English version of the game was launched on 27 January 2011; the official release was scheduled for 12 April 2011.
The World of Tanks pre-orders were scheduled to be available for the American and European clusters before the game release. World of Tanks was released on 12 April 2011 in Europe and North America.
On 24 May 2011 total number of registrations for all three game servers reached 3,000,000 players (2,000,000 on Russian server and 1,000,000 on Europe and North America). On 18 November 2011 the public test of awaited version 0.7. 0 was started. Two new maps are released based on the fjords of Norway and the swamps of Eastern Europe. New texture for tanks also introduced.
In June 2013, Wargaming stated that they now have 60 million registered users for World of Tanks.
The game was localised into the Japanese language within the Asia server on 5 September 2013. The Japanese version has collaboration events related to the tank - battle anime series Girls und Panzer. Additionally, six voice packs featuring the characters from the anime as well as an expansion pack changing the tanks look were released. In addition, the Vietnamese server was shut down and merged into the Asia server during 2014. As of June 2017, Wargaming released two premium tanks, based from the anime series Valkyria Chronicles on the East Asia server.
In April 2016, Wargaming announced that a comic book based on the World of Tanks universe is in development. Titled World of Tanks: Roll Out, the five - issue series is being written by Garth Ennis and Carlos Ezquerra, and is set to be published by Dark Horse Comics.
In May 2013, Wargaming announced World of Tanks Blitz, a mobile version of World of Tanks for tablets and smartphones using Android and iOS. The game allows 7v7 battles, as compared to the 15v15 battles on PC. The Closed Beta Test (CBT) started on 19 March, and ended 3 April. World of Tanks Blitz was released (in the iOS version only) on May 2014 in European countries like Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, and Iceland, with all other countries currently awaiting launch. It was released on 27 June 2014 in North America, (again, in the iOS version only). Beta testing and / or release of the Android version has been released on the Russian server. World of Tanks Blitz was released on Android on 4 December 2014. As of February 2015, the Android version had 1.1 million downloads. The game was released in the Windows Store on 28 December 2015 making it available for PC users running Windows 10.
World of Tanks: Xbox 360 Edition was developed with Wargaming West, formerly Day 1 Studios until purchased early in 2013. Day 1 was looking for a publisher for their console mech game when Wargaming asked the studio about porting World of Tanks. Day 1 prototyped the game on the Xbox 360 "in mere days ''. They were given unrestricted access to Wargaming 's servers and art. The game 's client side runs on Wargaming 's Despair engine. The company aimed to give each tank class 100 hours of unlockable content, or 400 to 500 hours overall.
The version is free - to - play for Xbox Live Gold subscribers, and includes a 7 - day trial for Xbox Live Silver subscribers. Playing the game earns experience for tanks and accessories, and silver for buying tanks and equipment. Players can use gold, an in - game currency, to buy premium World of Tanks accounts, which in turn give players more experience and credits faster. Players can buy gold with real money in the later patches. Gold for premium accounts and tanks is the fastest method for progressing through the game. The Xbox 360 Edition is not connected with the PC game, with a separate user base and no crossplay. World of Tanks: Xbox 360 Edition received positive reviews from critics. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the version 78 / 100 score and GameRankings - 76.86 %.
A closed beta test began in early 2013, and E3 2013 attendees were invited to the beta after the game 's announcement. The game was working on retail Xbox 360s by mid-May 2013. In late May 2013, Wargaming announced that they would be showing its first console game at E3 2013. The game was officially announced during Microsoft 's E3 2013 press event. An open beta with 40 American and German tanks was scheduled to begin the weekend after E3 2013. The beta was for stress testing the servers and multiplayer matchmaking. Players could not buy gold in the open beta, but Wargaming provided free in - game gold to test the store, though this reset with the official release. British tanks were also available within the beta. About 60 total tanks were expected to be included in the full version. The open beta was released on 7 August 2013. The beta closed on 28 January 2014. All stats on all of the players who participated were reset. The people who participated in the beta got the game first when the full version came out on 12 February 2014.
Xbox Live regulations bar Wargaming from offering premium accounts as recurring subscriptions. Expansion released on 3 June 2014 includes Russian tanks. Wargaming West said that if the Xbox 360 version gets a "meaningful user base '' then they will focus on the Xbox One edition.
On 18 February 2015, Wargaming announced that they were developing an Xbox One version of the game. The game was released on 28 July 2015. It supports cross-platform play between Xbox 360 and Xbox One. Players ' status and progress can be transferred from the Xbox 360 version to the Xbox One version.
On September 17, 2015 Wargaming CEO Victor Kislyi announced at the Tokyo Game Show that World of Tanks would be coming to the PlayStation 4. Developed by Wargaming West, the same developer as the Xbox One and Xbox 360 versions.
This version of World of Tanks is also free to play for all PlayStation Network account holders. As with the PC, Xbox One, and Xbox 360 versions, the major features of the game, such as the UI, game mechanics, and gameplay are synced across all of the platforms, however there is no cross-platform play.
The only official World of Tanks e-sports tournament is the Wargaming.net League, which takes place on four different regions: CIS, APAC, EU, which have 12 teams each, and NA, which only has 10. The prize pool for the 2016 WGL Grand Finals was $300,000 USD.
There will be two phases in the season. The first phase is a round robin tournament within each region, and the top 8 teams from each region will remain in the tournament. Phase 2 is another round robin tournament for the remaining teams. The top two teams ranked on points will automatically progress to the regional season finals, and the teams ranked third to sixth will participate in the regional season quarter finals to fight for a spot in the finals. The regional quarterfinals and finals are both a single elimination format.
Once the champions of each region are crowned, the top two teams from the NA, EU, AND APAC regions as well as two wild card teams will participate in a single elimination tournament called the challengers ' rumble. The top two teams from the challengers ' rumble will move onto the champions ' rumble, where they will fight against the current Grand Finals winner and another team from the CIS region. The winner of the champions ' rumble will automatically qualify for the 2017 Grand Finals.
In season two (2017 -- 18) there will be one format change, as there will only be 8 teams to begin with. The seventh place, instead of being eliminated from the tournament, will play in a qualifier tournament to retain their position in league.
World of Tanks has received favorable reviews, and currently holds a Metacritic score of 80 out of 100.
World of Tanks holds a Guinness World Record in the category of Most Players Online Simultaneously on one MOG Server. The record was registered on 23 January 2011 when the number of players on the game 's Russian server totaled 91,311. This record was beaten by the European server on 13 April 2012 during the anniversary special weekend, where all players could enter a code to be Premium account holders for a day. Numbers of over 305,000 were recorded during this period.
As of December 2013, there were 75,000,000 registered players worldwide and a 1.1 million peak concurrent players. This is an increase of 15 million over the 60 million in June 2013 and 30 million over the 45 million in December 2012. Within two weeks of the launch of the South Korean server, the number of concurrent users in Korea reached 10,000.
In 2012, Wargaming 's revenue was declared to be 217.9 million euro, with net profit of 6.1 million euro, as declared in an annual report for the Cyprus Stock Exchange. The money gained by Wargaming almost exclusively came from World of Tanks.
In 2013, the microtransaction revenue of World of Tanks surpassed that of World of Warcraft, earning $372 million and ranking fourth highest amongst online game revenues.
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does wells fargo have branches in the uk | Wells Fargo - Wikipedia
Wells Fargo & Company is an American international banking and financial services holding company headquartered in San Francisco, California, with "hubquarters '' throughout the country. It is the world 's second - largest bank by market capitalization and the third largest bank in the U.S. by assets. In July 2015, Wells Fargo became the world 's largest bank by market capitalization, edging past ICBC, before slipping behind JP Morgan Chase in September 2016, in the wake of a scandal involving the creation of over 2 million fake bank accounts by Wells Fargo employees. Wells Fargo surpassed Citigroup Inc. to become the third - largest U.S. bank by assets at the end of 2015. Wells Fargo is the second - largest bank in deposits, home mortgage servicing, and debit cards. The firm 's primary U.S. operating subsidiary is national bank Wells Fargo Bank, N.A., which designates its main office as Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Wells Fargo in its present form is a result of a merger between San Francisco -- based Wells Fargo & Company and Minneapolis - based Norwest Corporation in 1998 and the subsequent 2008 acquisition of Charlotte - based Wachovia. Following the mergers, the company transferred its headquarters to Wells Fargo 's headquarters in San Francisco and merged its operating subsidiary with Wells Fargo 's operating subsidiary in Sioux Falls. Along with JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, and Citigroup, Wells Fargo is one of the "Big Four Banks '' of the United States. As of December 31, 2015, it had 8,700 retail branches and 13,000 automated teller machines. The company operates across 35 countries and has over 70 million customers globally.
In February 2014, Wells Fargo was named the world 's most valuable bank brand for the second year running in The Banker and Brand Finance study of the top 500 banking brands. In 2016, Wells Fargo ranked 7th on the Forbes Magazine Global 2000 list of largest public companies in the world and ranked 27th on the Fortune 500 list of largest companies in the United States. In 2015, the company was ranked the 22nd most admired company in the world, and the 7th most respected company in the world. As of October 2015, the company had a credit rating of AA −. However, for a brief period in 2007, the company was the only AAA - rated bank, reflecting the highest credit rating from two firms.
Following the emergence in September 2016 of the scandals involving unauthorized cross-selling and the creation of fake accounts, Wells Fargo in October 2016 became the largest bank ever to lose its accreditation with the Better Business Bureau and was also placed under investigation by the California attorney general for alleged criminal identity theft during the creation of millions of accounts without customer consent. Separately in October 2016, Wells Fargo settled upon a payout for a racketeering lawsuit alleging the overcharging of hundreds of thousands of homeowners by the bank for appraisals ordered after defaults on the customers ' mortgage loans. In December 2016, following the scandal, the company amended its by - laws to separate the roles of chairman and CEO. A regulatory filing by Wells Fargo revealed in November 2016 that it was under investigation by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission in relation to its accounts sales practices. Also in November 2016, three U.S. senators alleged that Wells Fargo 's sales scandal had extended from retail bankers to its brokerage employees, and the U.S. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency placed new monitoring restrictions upon Wells Fargo 's hiring of new executives, payments of "golden parachutes '' to exiting managers, and branch openings and closures. In December 2016, Bloomberg News reported that regulators in California and New Jersey announced that Wells Fargo was under investigation to determine whether the bank signed up customers for Prudential Financial life insurance policies without their permission, and that Prudential announced it was suspending distribution of such policies through Wells Fargo.
In January 2017, it emerged that Wells Fargo had kept its talks with the U.S. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau about the fake account investigation silent from shareholders for up to six months beginning as early as March 2016. In June 2017, it was revealed that a new class action lawsuit stated that Wells Fargo made unauthorized alterations in the home loans of borrowers in bankruptcy that would ultimately charge these customers more in mortgage payments over the long term. In July 2017, Wells Fargo apologized for charging as many as 570,000 customers with unnecessary automobile insurance costs, which may have caused about 20,000 of them to default on their car loans. In August 2017, a federal judge refused to dismiss a lawsuit accusing Wells Fargo of denying loans to immigrants who came to the United States as children and have been allowed to remain in the country. Also in August 2017, a lawsuit was filed against Wells Fargo in federal court for overcharging small mom - and - pop businesses for processing credit - card transactions and then charging them massive fees for early termination of the relationship. In October 2017, Wells Fargo was accused by U.S. Senator Sherrod Brown of lying to the U.S. Congress in late 2016 by failing to disclose a contemporaneous auto insurance scandal. Also in October 2017, Wells Fargo admitted to wrongly charging some borrowers "mortgage rate lock extension fees '' for missing deadlines to lock in promised interest rates even when Wells Fargo caused the delays.
Wells Fargo delineates three different business segments when reporting results: Community Banking, Wholesale Banking, and Wealth, Brokerage and Retirement.
The Community Banking segment includes Regional Banking, Diversified Products, and Consumer Deposits groups, as well as Wells Fargo Customer Connection (formerly Wells Fargo Phone Bank, Wachovia Direct Access, the National Business Banking Center, and Credit Card Customer Service). Wells Fargo also has around 2,000 stand - alone mortgage branches throughout the country. There are mini-branches located inside of other buildings, which are almost exclusively grocery stores, that usually contain ATMs, basic teller services, and, space permitting, an office for private meetings with customers. In March 2017, Wells Fargo announced a plan to offer smartphone - based transactions with mobile wallets including Wells Fargo Wallet, Android Pay and Samsung Pay.
As of Q3 2011, Wells Fargo Home Mortgage was the largest retail mortgage lender in the United States, originating one out of every four home loans. Wells Fargo services $1.8 trillion in home mortgages, the second largest servicing portfolio in the U.S. It was reported in 2012 Wells Fargo reached 30 % market share for US mortgages, however, the then - CEO John Stumpf had said the numbers were misleading because about half of that share represented the aggregation of smaller loans that were then sold on in the secondary market. In 2013, its share was closer to 22 %; of which eight percentage points was aggregation.
Wells Fargo private student loans are available to students to pay for college expenses, such as tuition, books, computers, or housing. Loans are available for undergraduate, career and community colleges, graduate school, law school and medical school. Wells Fargo also provides private student loan consolidation and student loans for parents.
Its wholesale banking segment contains products sold to large - and middle - market commercial companies, as well as to consumers on a wholesale basis. This includes lending, treasury management, mutual funds, asset - based lending, commercial real estate, corporate and institutional trust services, and capital markets and investment banking services through Wells Fargo Securities. One area that is very profitable to Wells Fargo, however, is asset - based lending: lending to large companies using accounts receivable and inventory as collateral, though less traditional assets are often included in the collateral package. Historically, this type of lending has been done when normal routes of raising funds, such as the Capital Markets or unsecured bank loans, have been exhausted. The main business unit associated with this activity is Wells Fargo Capital Finance. Wells Fargo also owns Eastdil Secured, which is described as a "real estate investment bank '', but is essentially one of the largest commercial real estate brokers for very large transactions (such as the purchase and sale of large Class - A office buildings in central business districts throughout the United States).
Wells Fargo has various divisions that finance and lease equipment to different types of companies. One venture is Wells Fargo Rail, which in 2015 completed the purchase of GE Capital Rail Services and merged in with First Union Rail. Wells Fargo Equipment Finance is the country 's largest equipment financer and nearly doubled in size after it purchased GE Capital 's equipment finance division effective March 1, 2016.
Wells Fargo offers investment products through its subsidiaries, Wells Fargo Investments, LLC and Wells Fargo Advisors, LLC, as well as through national broker / dealer firms. Mutual funds are offered under the Wells Fargo Advantage Funds brand name. The company also serves high - net - worth individuals through its private bank and family wealth group.
Wells Fargo Advisors is the brokerage subsidiary of Wells Fargo, located in St. Louis. It is the third largest brokerage firm in the United States as of the third quarter of 2010 with $1.1 trillion retail client assets under management.
Wells Fargo Advisors was known as Wachovia Securities until May 1, 2009, when it legally changed names following the Wells Fargo 's acquisition of Wachovia Corporation.
Wells Fargo Securities ("WFS '') is the investment banking division of Wells Fargo & Co. The size and financial performance of this group is not disclosed publicly, but analysts believe the investment banking group houses approximately 4,500 employees and generates between $3 and $4 billion per year in investment banking revenue. By comparison, two of Wells Fargo 's largest competitors, Bank of America and J.P. Morgan Chase generated approximately $5.5 billion and $6 billion respectively in 2011 (not including sales and trading revenue). WFS headquarters is in Charlotte, North Carolina, with other U.S. offices in New York, Minneapolis, Boston, Houston, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, and international offices in London and Hong Kong.
A key part of Wells Fargo 's business strategy is cross-selling, the practice of encouraging existing customers to buy additional banking products. Customers inquiring about their checking account balance may be pitched mortgage deals and mortgage holders may be pitched credit card offers in an attempt to increase the customer 's profitability to the bank. Other banks have attempted to emulate Wells Fargo 's cross-selling practices (described by The Wall Street Journal as a hard sell technique); Forbes magazine describes Wells Fargo as "better than anyone '' at the practice.
Wells Fargo provides banking services throughout the world, with offices in Hong Kong, London, Dubai, Singapore, Tokyo, Toronto.
Wells Fargo operates under Charter # 1, the first national bank charter issued in the United States. This charter was issued to First National Bank of Philadelphia on June 20, 1863, by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. Traditionally, acquiring banks assume the earliest issued charter number. Thus, the first charter passed from First National Bank of Philadelphia to Wells Fargo through its 2008 acquisition of Wachovia, which had inherited it through one of its many acquisitions.
The company operates 11 museums, most known as a Wells Fargo History Museum, in its corporate buildings in Charlotte, North Carolina, Denver, Colorado, Los Angeles, California, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Phoenix, Arizona, Portland, Oregon, Sacramento, California and San Francisco, California. Displays include original stagecoaches, photographs, gold nuggets and mining artifacts, the Pony Express, telegraph equipment and historic bank artifacts. The company also operates a museum about company history in the Pony Express Terminal in Old Sacramento State Historic Park in Sacramento, California, which was the company 's second office, and the Wells Fargo History Museum in Old Town San Diego State Historic Park in San Diego, California.
Wells Fargo operates the Alaska Heritage Museum in Anchorage, Alaska, which features a large collection of Alaskan Native artifacts, ivory carvings and baskets, fine art by Alaskan artists, and displays about Wells Fargo history in the Alaskan Gold Rush era.
On October 3, 2008, Wachovia agreed to be bought by Wells Fargo for about $14.8 billion in an all - stock transaction. This news came four days after the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) made moves to have Citigroup buy Wachovia for $2.1 billion. Citigroup protested Wachovia 's agreement to sell itself to Wells Fargo and threatened legal action over the matter. However, the deal with Wells Fargo overwhelmingly won shareholder approval since it valued Wachovia at about seven times what Citigroup offered. To further ensure shareholder approval, Wachovia issued Wells Fargo preferred stock that holds 39.9 % of the voting power in the company.
On October 4, 2008, a New York state judge issued a temporary injunction blocking the transaction from going forward while the situation was sorted out. Citigroup alleged that they had an exclusivity agreement with Wachovia that barred Wachovia from negotiating with other potential buyers. The injunction was overturned late in the evening on October 5, 2008, by New York state appeals court. Citigroup and Wells Fargo then entered into negotiations brokered by the FDIC to reach an amicable solution to the impasse. Those negotiations failed. Sources say that Citigroup was unwilling to take on more risk than the $42 billion that would have been the cap under the previous FDIC - backed deal (with the FDIC incurring all losses over $42 billion). Citigroup did not block the merger, but indicated they would seek damages of $60 billion for breach of an alleged exclusivity agreement with Wachovia.
On October 28, 2008, Wells Fargo was the recipient of $25 billion of Emergency Economic Stabilization Act funds in the form of a preferred stock purchase by the US Treasury. Tests by the Federal government revealed that Wells Fargo needed an additional $13.7 billion in order to remain well capitalized if the economy were to deteriorate further under stress test scenarios. On May 11, 2009 Wells Fargo announced an additional stock offering which was completed on May 13, 2009 raising $8.6 billion in capital. The remaining $4.9 billion in capital was planned to be raised through earnings. On Dec. 23, 2009, Wells Fargo redeemed the $25 billion of preferred stock issued to the US Treasury. As part of the redemption of the preferred stock, Wells Fargo also paid accrued dividends of $131.9 million, bringing the total dividends paid to $1.441 billion since the preferred stock was issued in October 2008.
Wells Fargo Securities was established in 2009 to house Wells Fargo 's capital markets group which it obtained during the Wachovia acquisition. Prior to that point, Wells Fargo had little to no participation in investment banking activities, though Wachovia had a well established investment banking practice which it operated under the Wachovia Securities banner.
Wachovia 's institutional capital markets and investment banking business arose from the merger of Wachovia and First Union. First Union had bought Bowles Hollowell Connor & Co. on April 30, 1998 adding to its merger and acquisition, high yield, leveraged finance, equity underwriting, private placement, loan syndication, risk management, and public finance capabilities.
Legacy components of Wells Fargo Securities include Wachovia Securities, Bowles Hollowell Connor & Co., Barrington Associates, Halsey, Stuart & Co., Leopold Cahn & Co., Bache & Co... Prudential Securities, A.G. Edwards, Inc. and the investment banking arm of Citadel LLC.
In 2009, Wells Fargo ranked # 1 among banks and insurance companies, and # 13 overall, in Newsweek Magazine 's inaugural "Green Rankings '' of the country 's 500 largest companies.
So far, Wells Fargo has provided more than $6 billion in financing for environmentally beneficial business opportunities, including supporting 185 commercial - scale solar photovoltaic projects and 27 utility - scale wind projects nationwide.
As a member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's Climate Leaders program, Wells Fargo aims to reduce its absolute greenhouse gas emissions from its U.S. operations by 20 % below 2008 levels by 2018.
Wells Fargo has launched what it believes to be the first blog among its industry peers to report on its environmental stewardship and to solicit feedback and ideas from its stakeholders.
"We want to be as open and clear as possible about our environmental efforts -- both our accomplishments and challenges -- and share our experiences, ideas and thoughts as we work to integrate environmental responsibility into everything we do, '' said Mary Wenzel, director of Environmental Affairs. "We also want to hear and learn from our customers. By working together, we can do even more to protect and preserve natural resources for future generations. ''
Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan filed suit against Wells Fargo on July 31, 2009, alleging that the bank steers African Americans and Hispanics into high - cost subprime loans. A Wells Fargo spokesman responded that "The policies, systems, and controls we have in place -- including in Illinois -- ensure race is not a factor... '' According to Beth Jacobson, a loan officer at Wells Fargo interviewed for a report in The New York Times, "We just went right after them. Wells Fargo mortgage had an emerging - markets unit that specifically targeted black churches, because it figured church leaders had a lot of influence and could convince congregants to take out subprime loans. '' The report goes on to present data from the city of Baltimore, where "more than half the properties subject to foreclosure on a Wells Fargo loan from 2005 to 2008 now stand vacant. And 71 percent of those are in predominantly black neighborhoods. ''
In a March 2010 agreement with federal prosecutors, Wells Fargo acknowledged that between 2004 and 2007 Wachovia had failed to monitor and report suspected money laundering by narcotics traffickers, including the cash used to buy four planes that shipped a total of 22 tons of cocaine into Mexico.
In August 2010, Wells Fargo was fined by U.S. District Judge William Alsup for overdraft practices designed to "gouge '' consumers and "profiteer '' at their expense, and for misleading consumers about how the bank processed transactions and assessed overdraft fees.
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally / GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in direct payments to the states and federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.
On April 5, 2012, a federal judge ordered Wells Fargo to pay $3.1 million in punitive damages over a single loan, one of the largest fines for a bank ever for mortgaging service misconduct. Elizabeth Magner, a federal bankruptcy judge in the Eastern District of Louisiana, cited the bank 's behavior as "highly reprehensible '', stating that Wells Fargo has taken advantage of borrowers who rely on the bank 's accurate calculations. She went on to add, "perhaps more disturbing is Wells Fargo 's refusal to voluntarily correct its errors. It prefers to rely on the ignorance of borrowers or their inability to fund a challenge to its demands, rather than voluntarily relinquish gains obtained through improper accounting methods. ''
In 2011, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) launched an investigation of Wells Fargo for racial discrimination practices, the second federal probe in 2012 of alleged violations of misconduct with regard to race. The other, began in 2011 by the National Fair Housing Alliance has found "overwhelming '' and "troubling '' evidence that six of the nation 's major banks handle foreclosures in neighborhoods populated primarily by minorities differently than in white communities.
On July 13, 2012, Wells Fargo entered a settlement agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice for allegedly discriminating against African - American and Hispanic borrowers from 2004 to 2009. Wells Fargo agreed to pay $125 million to subprime borrowers and $50 million in direct down payment assistance in certain areas, for a total of $175 million. Wells Fargo spokespersons denied all claims and are settling only to avoid contested litigation.
On August 14, 2012, Wells Fargo agreed to pay around $6.5 million to settle SEC charges that in 2007 it sold risky mortgage - backed securities without fully realizing their dangers.
On October 9, 2012, the U.S. federal government sued the bank under the False Claims Act at the federal court in Manhattan, New York. The suit alleges that Wells Fargo defrauded the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) over the past ten years, underwriting over 100,000 FHA backed loans when over half did not qualify for the program. This suit is the third allegation levied against Wells Fargo in 2012.
In October 2012, Wells Fargo was sued by U.S. federal attorney Preet Bharara over questionable mortgage deals.
In April 2013, Wells Fargo settled a suit with 24,000 Florida homeowners alongside insurer QBE, in which Wells Fargo was accused of inflating premiums on forced - place insurance.
In May 2013, Wells Fargo paid $203 million to settle class - action litigation accusing the bank of imposing excessive overdraft fees on checking - account customers. Also in May, the New York attorney - general, Eric Schneiderman, announced a lawsuit against Wells Fargo over alleged violations of the national mortgage settlement, a $25 billion deal struck between 49 state attorneys and the five - largest mortgage servicers in the US. Schneidermann claimed Wells Fargo had violated rules over giving fair and timely serving.
In February 2015, Wells Fargo agreed to pay $4 million for violations where an affiliate took interest in the homes of borrowers in exchange for opening credit card accounts for the homeowners. This is illegal according to New York credit card laws. There was a $2 million penalty with the other $2 million going towards restitution to customers.
With CEO John Stumpf being paid 473 times more than the median employee, Wells Fargo ranks number 33 among the S&P 500 companies for CEO -- employee pay inequality. In October 2014, a Wells Fargo employee earning $15 per hour emailed the CEO -- copying 200,000 other employees -- asking that all employees be given a $10,000 per year raise taken from a portion of annual corporate profits to address wage stagnation and income inequality. After being contacted by the media, Wells Fargo responded that all employees receive "market competitive '' pay and benefits significantly above federal minimums.
In December 2011, the non-partisan organization Public Campaign criticized Wells Fargo for spending $11 million on lobbying and not paying any taxes during 2008 -- 2010, instead getting $681 million in tax rebates, despite making a profit of $49 billion, laying off 6,385 workers since 2008, and increasing executive pay by 180 % to $49.8 million in 2010 for its top five executives. As of 2014 however, at an effective tax rate of 31.2 % of its income, Wells Fargo is the fourth - largest payer of corporation tax in the U.S.
The GEO Group, Inc., a multi-national provider of for - profit private prisons, received investments made by Wells Fargo mutual funds on behalf of clients, not investments made by Wells Fargo and Company, according to company statements. By March 2012, its stake had grown to more than 4.4 million shares worth $86.7 million. As of November, 2012, the latest SEC filings reveal that Wells Fargo has divested 33 % of its dispositive holdings of GEO 's stock, which reduces Wells Fargo 's holdings to 4.98 % of Geo Group 's common stock. By reducing its holdings to less than 5 %, Wells Fargo will no longer be required to disclose some financial dealings with GEO.
While a coalition of organizations, National People 's Action Campaign, have seen some success in pressuring Wells Fargo to divest from private prison companies like GEO Group, the company continues to make such investments.
In 2015, an analyst at Wells Fargo settled an insider trading case with the SEC. The former employee was charged with insider trading alongside an ex-Wells Fargo trader. Sadis & Goldberg obtained a settlement that permitted the client to continue in securities industry, while neither admitting nor denying one charge of negligence - based § 17 (a) (3) claim, and paying a $75,000 civil penalty
In September 2016, Wells Fargo was issued a combined total of $185 million in fines for creating over 1.5 million checking and savings accounts and 500,000 credit cards that its customers never authorized. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau issued $100 million in fines, the largest in the agency 's five - year history, along with $50 million in fines from the City and County of Los Angeles, and $35 million in fines from the Office of Comptroller of the Currency. The scandal was caused by an incentive - compensation program for employees to create new accounts. It led to the firing of nearly 5,300 employees and $5 million being set aside for customer refunds on fees for accounts the customers never wanted. Carrie Tolstedt, who headed the department, retired in July 2016 and received $124.6 million in stock, options, and restricted Wells Fargo shares as a retirement package. On October 12, 2016, John Stumpf, the then Chairman and CEO, announced that he would be retiring amidst the controversies involving his company. It was announced by Wells Fargo that President and Chief Operating Officer Timothy J. Sloan would succeed, effective immediately. Following the scandal, applications for credit cards and checking accounts at the bank plummeted dramatically. In response to the event, the Better Business Bureau dropped accreditation of the bank, S&P Global Ratings lowered its outlook for Wells Fargo to negative from stable, and several states and cities across the US ended business relations with the company. An investigation by the Wells Fargo board of directors, the report of which was released in April 2017, primarily blamed Stumpf, whom it said had not responded to evidence of wrongdoing in the consumer services division, and Tolstedt, who was said to have knowingly set impossible sales goals and refused to respond when subordinates disagreed with them. The board chose to use a clawback clause in the retirement contracts of Stumpf and Tolstedt to recover $75 million worth of cash and stock from the former executives.
In November 2016, Wells Fargo agreed to pay $50 million to settle a racketeering lawsuit in which the bank was accused of overcharging hundreds of thousands of homeowners for appraisals ordered after they defaulted on their mortgage loans. While banks are allowed to charge homeowners for such appraisals, Wells Fargo frequently charged homeowners $95 to $125 on appraisals for which the bank had been charged $50 or less. The plaintiffs had sought triple damages under the U.S. Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act on grounds that sending invoices and statements with fraudulently concealed fees constituted mail and wire fraud sufficient to allege racketeering.
Wells Fargo is a top investor in the Dakota Access Pipeline project in North Dakota, a 1,172 - mile - long (1,886 km) underground oil pipeline project in the United States. The pipeline has been controversial regarding its necessity, and potential impact on the environment.
In February 2017, Seattle, Washington 's city council unanimously voted to not renew its contract with Wells Fargo "in a move that cites the bank 's role as a lender to the Dakota Access Pipeline project as well as its "creation of millions of bogus accounts. '' and saying the bidding process for its next banking partner will involve "social responsibility. '' The City Council in Davis, California, took a similar action voting unanimously to find a new bank to handle its accounts by the end of 2017.
In December 2016, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority fined Wells Fargo $5.5 million for failing to store electronic documents in a "write once, read many '' format, which makes it impossible to alter or destroy records after they are written.
One Wells Fargo Center -- Charlotte, North Carolina
Wells Fargo Center in Los Angeles
Wells Fargo Center in Minneapolis
Wells Fargo Center in Denver
Wells Fargo Center in Salt Lake City
Wells Fargo Center in Albuquerque
Wells Fargo Center in Jacksonville
Wells Fargo Center in Sacramento, California
Wells Fargo Plaza in San Diego, California
Wells Fargo Building in Lubbock, Texas With Texas Tech logo
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marina abramovic's 2010 performance the artist is present | Marina Abramović - wikipedia
Marina Abramović (Serbian Cyrillic: Марина Абрамовић, (maˌrǐːna abˈrǎːmoʋit͡ɕ); born November 30, 1946) is a Serbian performance artist. Her work explores the relationship between performer and audience, the limits of the body, and the possibilities of the mind. Active for over four decades, Abramović has been described as the "grandmother of performance art. '' She pioneered a new notion of identity by bringing in the participation of observers, focusing on "confronting pain, blood, and physical limits of the body. ''
Abramović was born in Belgrade, Yugoslavia on November 30, 1946. Her great - uncle was Varnava, Serbian Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Both of her parents were Yugoslav Partisans during the Second World War. Her mother was Danica Rosić and her father was Vojin Abramović. After the war, Abramović 's parents were "national heroes '' and were given positions in the post-war Yugoslavian government. In an interview, Abramović described her family as having been "Red bourgeoisie. ''
Until she was six years old, Abramović was raised by her grandparents. Her grandmother was deeply religious and Abramović "spent (her) childhood in a church following (her) grandmother 's rituals -- candles in the morning, the priest coming for different occasions. '' At age six, when Abramović 's brother was born, she began living with her parents and took piano, French, and English lessons. While she did not take art lessons, she took an early interest in art and enjoyed painting as a child.
As a child, Abramović 's mother beat her. In an interview published in 1998, Abramović described how her "mother took complete military - style control of me and my brother. I was not allowed to leave the house after 10 o'clock at night till I was 29 years old... (A) ll the performances in Yugoslavia I did before 10 o'clock in the evening because I had to be home then. It 's completely insane, but all of my cutting myself, whipping myself, burning myself, almost losing my life in the firestar, everything was done before 10 in the evening. ''
In an interview published in 2013, Abramović said, "My mother and father had a terrible marriage. '' Describing an incident when her father smashed 12 champagne glasses and left the house, she said, "It was the most horrible moment of my childhood. ''
She was a student at the Academy of Fine Arts in Belgrade from 1965 to 1970. She completed her post-graduate studies at the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb, Croatia in 1972. From 1973 to 1975, she taught at the Academy of Fine Arts at Novi Sad, while implementing her first solo performances.
From 1971 to 1976, she was married to Neša Paripović. In 1976, she went to Amsterdam to perform a piece (later claiming on the day of her birthday) then decided to move there permanently.
From 1990 -- 1991 Abramović was a visiting professor at the Académie des Beaux - Arts in Paris and at the Berlin University of the Arts. From 1992 -- 1996 she was a visiting professor at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and from 1997 -- 2004 she was a professor for performance - art at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Braunschweig. Her best known students are Sebastian Bieniek and Chiharu Shiota.
In her first performance in Edinburgh in 1973, Abramović explored elements of ritual and gesture. Making use of twenty knives and two tape recorders, the artist played the Russian game, in which rhythmic knife jabs are aimed between the splayed fingers of one 's hand. Each time she cut herself, she would pick up a new knife from the row of twenty she had set up, and record the operation. After cutting herself twenty times, she replayed the tape, listened to the sounds, and tried to repeat the same movements, attempting to replicate the mistakes, merging past and present. She set out to explore the physical and mental limitations of the body -- the pain and the sounds of the stabbing; the double sounds from the history and the replication. With this piece, Abramović began to consider the state of consciousness of the performer. "Once you enter into the performance state you can push your body to do things you absolutely could never normally do. ''
In this performance, Abramović sought to re-evoke the energy of extreme bodily pain, using a large petroleum - drenched star, which the artist lit on fire at the start of the performance. Standing outside the star, Abramović cut her nails, toenails, and hair. When finished with each, she threw the clippings into the flames, creating a burst of light each time. Burning the communist five - pointed star represented a physical and mental purification, while also addressing the political traditions of her past. In the final act of purification, Abramović leapt across the flames, propelling herself into the center of the large star. Due to the light and smoke given off by the fire, the observing audience did not realize that, once inside the star, the artist had lost consciousness from lack of oxygen. Some members of the audience realized what had occurred only when the flames came very near to her body and she remained inert. A doctor and several members of the audience intervened and extricated her from the star.
Abramović later commented upon this experience: "I was very angry because I understood there is a physical limit. When you lose consciousness you ca n't be present, you ca n't perform. ''
Prompted by her loss of consciousness during Rhythm 5, Abramović devised the two - part Rhythm 2 to incorporate a state of unconsciousness in a performance. She performed the work at the Gallery of Contemporary Art in Zagreb, in 1974. In Part I, which had a duration of 50 minutes, she ingested a medication she describes as ' given to patients who suffer from catatonia, to force them to change the positions of their bodies. ' The medication caused her muscles to contract violently, and she lost complete control over her body, while remaining aware of what was going on. After a ten - minute break, she took a second medication ' given to schizophrenic patients with violent behavior disorders to calm them down. ' The performance ended after five hours, when the medication wore off.
In this piece, Abramović kneeled alone and naked in a room with a high - power industrial fan. She approached the fan slowly, attempting to breathe in as much air as possible to push the limits of her lungs. Soon after she lost consciousness.
To test the limits of the relationship between performer and audience, Abramović developed one of her most challenging (and best - known) performances. She assigned a passive role to herself, with the public being the force which would act on her. Abramović placed on a table 72 objects that people were allowed to use (a sign informed them) in any way that they chose. Some of these were objects that could give pleasure, while others could be wielded to inflict pain, or to harm her. Among them were a rose, a feather, honey, a whip, olive oil, scissors, a scalpel, a gun and a single bullet. For six hours the artist allowed the audience members to manipulate her body and actions. This tested how vulnerable and aggressive the human subject could be when hidden from social consequences. By the end of the performance, her body was stripped, attacked, and devalued into an image that Abramović described as the "Madonna, mother, and whore. '' Additionally, markings of aggression were apparent on the artist 's body. There were cuts on her neck made by audience members, and her clothes were cut off her body.
In her works, Abramović affirms her identity through the perspective of others, however, more importantly by changing the roles of each player, the identity and nature of humanity at large is unraveled and showcased. By doing so, the individual experience morphs into a collective one and creates a powerful message. Abramović 's art also represents the objectification of the female body, as she remains motionless and allows the spectators to do as they please with her body, pushing the limits of what one would consider acceptable. This type of representation also reflects key political issues such as BDSM, which complicates and questions the relation between art versus sexuality and public discourse.
Initially, members of the audience reacted with caution and modesty, but as time passed (and the artist remained passive) people began to act more aggressively. As Abramović described it later: "What I learned was that... if you leave it up to the audience, they can kill you... I felt really violated: they cut up my clothes, stuck rose thorns in my stomach, one person aimed the gun at my head, and another took it away. It created an aggressive atmosphere. After exactly 6 hours, as planned, I stood up and started walking toward the audience. Everyone ran away, to escape an actual confrontation. ''
Cleaning the Mirror consisted of five monitors playing footage in which Abramović scrubs a grimy human skeleton in her lap. She vigorously brushes the different parts of the skeleton with soapy water. Each monitor is dedicated to one part of the skeleton: the head, the pelvis, the ribs, the hands, and the feet. Each video is filmed with its own sound, creating an overlap. As the skeleton becomes cleaner, Abramović becomes covered in the grayish dirt that was once covering the skeleton. This three - hour performance is filled with metaphors of the Tibetan death rites that prepare disciples to become one with their own mortality. The piece consists of a three - piece series. Cleaning the Mirror # 1 was performed at the Museum of Modern Art, consisting of three hours. Cleaning the Mirror # 2 consists of 90 minutes performed at Oxford University. Cleaning the Mirror # 3 was performed at Pitt Rivers Museum for five hours.
Abramović worked with Jacob Samuel to produce a cookbook of "aphrodisiac recipes '' called Spirit Cooking in 1996. These "recipes '' were meant to be "evocative instructions for actions or for thoughts. '' For example, one of the recipes calls for "13,000 grams of jealousy, '' while another says to "mix fresh breast milk with fresh sperm milk. '' The work was inspired by the popular belief that ghosts feed off intangible things like light, sound, and emotions.
In 1997, Abramović created a multimedia Spirit Cooking installation. This was originally installed in the Zerynthia Associazione per l'Arte Contemporanea in Rome, Italy and included white gallery walls with "enigmatically violent recipe instructions '' painted in pig 's blood. According to Alexxa Gotthardt, the work is "a comment on humanity 's reliance on ritual to organize and legitimize our lives and contain our bodies. ''
In 1976, after moving to Amsterdam, Abramović met the West German performance artist Uwe Laysiepen, who went by the single name Ulay. They began living and performing together that year. When Abramović and Ulay began their collaboration, the main concepts they explored were the ego and artistic identity. They created "relation works '' characterized by constant movement, change, process and "art vital. '' This was the beginning of a decade of influential collaborative work. Each performer was interested in the traditions of their cultural heritages and the individual 's desire for ritual. Consequently, they decided to form a collective being called "The Other, '' and spoke of themselves as parts of a "two - headed body. '' They dressed and behaved like twins and created a relationship of complete trust. As they defined this phantom identity, their individual identities became less accessible. In an analysis of phantom artistic identities, Charles Green has noted that this allowed a deeper understanding of the artist as performer, for it revealed a way of "having the artistic self made available for self - scrutiny. ''
The work of Abramović and Ulay tested the physical limits of the body and explored male and female principles, psychic energy, transcendental meditation and nonverbal communication. While some critics have explored the idea of a hermaphroditic state of being as a feminist statement, Abramović herself denies considering this as a conscious concept. Her body studies, she insists, have always been concerned primarily with the body as the unit of an individual, a tendency she traces to her parents ' military pasts. Rather than concerning themselves with gender ideologies, Abramović / Ulay explored extreme states of consciousness and their relationship to architectural space. They devised a series of works in which their bodies created additional spaces for audience interaction. In discussing this phase of her performance history, she has said: "The main problem in this relationship was what to do with the two artists ' egos. I had to find out how to put my ego down, as did he, to create something like a hermaphroditic state of being that we called the death self. ''
Between 1981 and 1987, the pair performed "Nightsea Crossing '' in twenty - two performances. They sat silently across from each other in chairs for seven hours a day.
In 1988, after several years of tense relations, Abramović and Ulay decided to make a spiritual journey which would end their relationship. They each walked the Great Wall of China, in a piece called Lovers, starting from the two opposite ends and meeting in the middle. As Abramović described it: "That walk became a complete personal drama. Ulay started from the Gobi Desert and I from the Yellow Sea. After each of us walked 2500 km, we met in the middle and said good - bye. '' She has said that she conceived this walk in a dream, and it provided what she thought was an appropriate, romantic ending to a relationship full of mysticism, energy, and attraction. She later described the process: "We needed a certain form of ending, after this huge distance walking towards each other. It is very human. It is in a way more dramatic, more like a film ending... Because in the end you are really alone, whatever you do. '' She reported that during her walk she was reinterpreting her connection to the physical world and to nature. She felt that the metals in the ground influenced her mood and state of being; she also pondered the Chinese myths in which the Great Wall has been described as a "dragon of energy. '' It took the couple eight years to acquire permission from the Chinese government to perform the work, by the time of which their relationship had completely dissolved.
At her 2010 MoMa retrospective, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, in which she shared a period of silence with each stranger who sat in front of her. Although "they met and talked the morning of the opening, '' Abramović had a deeply emotional reaction to Ulay when he arrived at her performance, reaching out to him across the table between them; the video of the event went viral.
In November 2015, Ulay took Abramović to court, claiming she had paid him insufficient royalties according to the terms of a 1999 contract covering sales of their joint works.
In September 2016, a Dutch court ordered Abramović to pay € 250,000 to former co-creator and lover Ulay as his share of sales of artistic collaborations over their joint works. In its ruling, the court in Amsterdam found that Ulay was entitled to royalties of 20 % net on the sales of their works, as specified in the original 1999 contract, and ordered Abramović to back date royalties of more than € 250,000, as well as more than € 23,000 in legal costs. Additionally, she was ordered to provide full accreditation to joint works listed as by "Ulay / Abramović '' covering the period from 1976 to 1980, and "Abramović / Ulay '' for those from 1981 to 1988.
Beginning on November 9, 2005, Abramović presented Seven Easy Pieces at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. On seven consecutive nights for seven hours she recreated the works of five artists first performed in the ' 60s and ' 70s, in addition to re-performing her own Lips of Thomas and introducing a new performance on the last night. The performances were arduous, requiring both the physical and the mental concentration of the artist. Included in Abramović 's performances were recreations of Gina Pane 's Self - Portraits, which required lying on a bed frame suspended over a grid of lit candles, and of Vito Acconci 's 1972 performance in which the artist masturbated under the floorboards of a gallery as visitors walked overhead. It is argued that Abramović re-performed these works as a series of homages to the past, though many of the performances were altered from their originals.
Here is a full list of the works performed:
From March 14 to May 31, 2010, the Museum of Modern Art held a major retrospective and performance recreation of Abramović 's work, the biggest exhibition of performance art in MoMA 's history, curated by Klaus Biesenbach. Biesenbach also provided the title for the performance, which referred to the fact that during the entire performance "the artist would be right there in the gallery or the museum. ''
During the run of the exhibition, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, a 736 - hour and 30 - minute static, silent piece, in which she sat immobile in the museum 's atrium while spectators were invited to take turns sitting opposite her. Ulay made a surprise appearance at the opening night of the show.
Abramovic sat in a rectangle drawn with tape in the floor of the second floor atrium of the MoMA; theater lights shone on her sitting in a chair and a chair opposite her. Visitors waiting in line were invited to sit individually across from the artist while she maintained eye contact with them. Visitors began crowding the atrium within days of the show opening, some gathering before the exhibit opened each morning to rush for a more preferable place in the line to sit with Abramovic. Most visitors sat with the artist for five minutes or less and the line attracted no attention from museum security except for the last day of the exhibition when a visitor vomited in line and another began to disrobe. Tensions among visitors in line could have arisen from an understanding that for every minute each person in line spent with Abramovic, there would be that many fewer minutes in the day for those further back in line to spend with the artist. Due to the strenuous nature of sitting for hours at a time, art - enthusiasts have speculated as to whether Abramovic wore an adult diaper to eliminate the need to move to urinate. Others have highlighted the movements she made in between sitters as a focus of analysis, as the only variations in the artist between sitters were when she would cry if a sitter cried and her moment of physical contact with Ulay, one of the earliest visitors to the exhibition. Abramovic sat across from 1,545 sitters, including Klaus Biesenbach, James Franco, Lou Reed and Bjork; sitters were asked not to touch or speak to the artist. By the end of the exhibit, hundreds of visitors were lining up outside the museum overnight to secure a spot in line the next morning. Abramovic concluded the performance by slipping from the chair where she was seated and rising to a cheering crowd more than ten people deep.
A support group for the "sitters, '' "Sitting with Marina, '' was established on Facebook, as was the blog "Marina Abramović made me cry. '' The Italian photographer Marco Anelli took portraits of every person who sat opposite Abramović, which were published on Flickr, compiled in a book and featured in an exhibition at the Danziger Gallery in New York.
Abramović said the show changed her life "completely -- every possible element, every physical emotion, '' and that Lady Gaga saw it helped boost her popularity: "So the kids from 12 and 14 years old to about 18, the public who normally do n't go to the museum, who do n't give a shit about performance art or do n't even know what it is, started coming because of Lady Gaga. And they saw the show and then they started coming back. And that 's how I get a whole new audience. '' In September 2011, a video game version of Abramović 's performance was released by Pippin Barr.
In 2009, Abramović was featured in Chiara Clemente 's documentary Our City Dreams and a book of the same name. The five featured artists -- also including Swoon, Ghada Amer, Kiki Smith, and Nancy Spero -- "each possess a passion for making work that is inseparable from their devotion to New York, '' according to the publisher. Abramović is also the subject of an independent feature documentary movie entitled Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present, which is based on her life and performance at her retrospective "The Artist Is Present '' at the Museum of Modern Art in 2010. The film was broadcast in the United States on HBO and won a Peabody Award in 2012. In January 2011, Abramović was on the cover of Serbian ELLE, photographed by Dušan Reljin. Kim Stanley Robinson 's science fiction novel 2312 mentions a style of performance art pieces known as "abramovics. ''
A world premiere installation by Abramović was featured at Toronto 's Trinity Bellwoods Park as part of the Luminato Festival in June 2013. Abramović is also co-creator, along with Robert Wilson of the theatrical production The Life and Death of Marina Abramović, which had its North American premiere at the festival, and at the Park Avenue Armory in December.
Abramović is creating the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a nonprofit foundation for performance art, in a 33,000 square - foot space in Hudson, New York. Visitors to the institute will undergo mind and body cleansing exercises devised by her. She also founded a performance institute in San Francisco. She is a patron of the London - based Live Art Development Agency.
In June 2014 she presented a new piece at London 's Serpentine Gallery called 512 Hours. In the Sean Kelly Gallery - hosted "Generator, '' (December 6, 2014) participants are blindfolded and wear sound - cancelling headphones in an exploration of nothingness.
In March 2015, Abramovic presented her TED talk titled, "An art made of trust, vulnerability and connection. ''
Abramović had proposed some solo performances during her career that never were performed. One proposal was titled "Come to Wash with Me. '' This performance would take place in a gallery space that was to be transformed into a laundry with sinks placed all around the walls of the gallery. The public would enter the space and be asked to take off all of their clothes and give them to Abramović. The individuals would then wait around as she would wash, dry and iron their cloths for them, and once she was done, she would give them back their clothing, and they could get dressed and then leave. She proposed this in 1969 for the Galerija Doma Omladine in Belgrade. The proposal was refused.
In 1970 she proposed a similar idea to the same gallery that was also refused. The piece was untitled. Abramović would stand in front of the public dressed in her regular clothing. Present on the side of the stage was a clothes rack adorned with clothing that her mother wanted her to wear. She would take the clothing one by one and change into them, then stand to face the public for a while. "From the right pocket of my skirt I take a gun. From the left pocket of my skirt I take a bullet. I put the bullet into the chamber and turn it. I place the gun to my temple. I pull the trigger. '' The performance had two possible outcomes.
The list of Mother 's clothes included:
Abramović maintains a friendship with actor James Franco, who interviewed her for the Wall Street Journal in 2009. Franco visited Abramović during The Artist Is Present in 2010. The two also attended the 2012 Metropolitan Costume Institute Gala together.
In July 2013, Abramović worked with pop singer Lady Gaga on the singer 's third album Artpop. Gaga 's work with Abramović, as well as artists Jeff Koons and Robert Wilson, was displayed at an event titled "artRave '' on November 10. Furthermore, both have collaborated on projects supporting the Marina Abramović Institute, including Gaga 's participation in an ' Abramović Method ' video and a non-stop reading of Stanisław Lem 's sci - fi novel, Solaris.
Also in July 2013, Jay - Z showcased an Abramović inspired piece at Pace Gallery in New York City. He performed his art inspired track "Picasso Baby '' for six straight hours. During the performance, Abramović and several figures in the art world were invited to dance with him standing face to face. The footage was later turned into a music video. She allowed Jay - Z to adapt "The Artist Is Present '' under the condition that he would donate to the Marina Abramović Institute. Abramović claimed that Jay - Z did n't live up to his end of the deal, describing the performance as a "one - way transaction. '' However, two years later in 2015, Abramović publicly issued an apology stating she was never informed of Jay - Z 's sizable donation.
Abramović sparked controversy in August 2016 when passages from an early draft of her memoir were released, in which - based on notes from her 1979 initial encounter with Australian Aborigines - she compares them to dinosaurs and comments that "they have big torsos (just one bad result of their encounter with Western civilisation is a high sugar diet that bloats their bodies) and sticklike legs. '' She responded to the controversy on Facebook, saying she had "the greatest respect for the Aborigine people, to whom (she) owed everything ''. Abramovic emails were mentioned in Wikileaks which she claimed to be taken out of context.
Abramović directed a segment Balkan Erotic Epic in Destricted, a compilation of erotic films made in 2006. In 2008 she directed a segment Dangerous Games in another film compilation Stories on Human Rights. She also acted in a five - minute short film Antony and the Johnsons: Cut the World.
The Marina Abramović Institute (MAI) is a performance art organization with a focus on durational works and the use of the "Abramovic Method. '' It is a proposed multi-functional museum space in Hudson, New York.
Abramović purchased the site for the institute in 2007. Located in Hudson, New York, the building was built in 1933 and has been used as a theatre and community tennis center. The building will be renovated according to a design by Rem Koolhaas and Shohei Shigematsu of OMA.
The early design phase of this project has been funded by a Kickstarter campaign. The campaign was funded by more than 4,000 contributors, including Lady Gaga and Jay - Z.
The Marina Abramovic Institute has been criticized for its use of unpaid "volunteers '' for positions that require advanced skills, such as "proficiency in Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative Suite and basic HTML / CSS coding, familiarity with non-profit administration. ''
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when will the movie the irishman be released | The Irishman (2019 film) - wikipedia
The Irishman is an upcoming American biographical crime film directed by Martin Scorsese and written by Steven Zaillian, based on the book I Heard You Paint Houses by Charles Brandt. The film stars Robert De Niro as Frank Sheeran, a labor union leader and alleged hitman for the Bufalino crime family, and Al Pacino as Jimmy Hoffa. Joe Pesci, Anna Paquin, Bobby Cannavale, Harvey Keitel, and Ray Romano also star. It is the ninth feature collaboration between De Niro and Scorsese, the fourth film to star both De Niro and Pacino (following The Godfather Part II, Heat and Righteous Kill) and the first time Pacino has been directed by Scorsese. The film is anticipated to be released by Netflix in 2019.
Frank Sheeran, a labor union official with mob connections, recalls his involvement in the slaying of Jimmy Hoffa, an American labor union leader.
Martin Scorsese has long been attached to direct The Irishman, which would star Robert De Niro, Joe Pesci, and Al Pacino. In September 2014, Pacino confirmed that the film was in development and that it would be Scorsese 's next project after Silence. Bobby Cannavale was also added to the cast. In October 2015, De Niro stated that the film is still happening and may shoot in 2016 with Scorsese confirming that Steven Zaillian will write the script.
In May 2016, it was announced that the film 's rights would be offered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, while Mexican financier / producer Fábrica de Cine had offered $100 million to finance the film, and through that deal Paramount Pictures would retain domestic rights. IM Global was also circling to bid for the film 's international sales rights. STX Entertainment bought the international distribution rights to the film for $50 million beating out other studios like Universal Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Lionsgate, while Fabrica de Cine closed the deal and Paramount retained its domestic rights.
In July 2017, Pesci and Pacino officially joined the cast, with Ray Romano also joining and Bobby Cannavale and Harvey Keitel in final negotiations. Pesci turned down his offer a reported 50 times before agreeing to take part. In September 2017, Jack Huston, Stephen Graham, Domenick Lombardozzi, Jeremy Luke, Joseph Russo, Kathrine Narducci, Danny Abeckaser, J.C. MacKenzie, and Craig Vincent joined the cast. In October, Gary Basaraba, Anna Paquin, Welker White, and Jesse Plemons joined the cast of the film. Later, Craig Di Francia and Action Bronson were revealed to have joined the cast.
In July 2017, Zack Sharf reported that the film script was adapted by Steven Zaillian to be presented as a series of flashbacks of an older lead character, Frank Sheeran portrayed by Robert De Niro, depicted as recollecting his many criminal activities over several decades: "The Irishman will include flashbacks that span decades, and De Niro is set to play Sheeran in all of them. He 'll appear as young as 30 years old. ''
Filming was set to start in August 2017, in and around New York City. and would continue through December 2017. Principal photography on the film began on September 18, 2017 and continued through March 2018. Filming wrapped on March 5, 2018.
In May 2016, Mexican financier / producer Fábrica de Cine had offered $100 million to finance the film, and through that deal Paramount Pictures would retain domestic rights. IM Global was also circling to bid for the film 's international sales rights. STX Entertainment bought the international distribution rights to the film for $50 million beating out other studios like Universal Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Lionsgate, while Fabrica de Cine closed the deal and Paramount retained its domestic rights.
By February 2017, Paramount Pictures had dropped domestic distribution rights for The Irishman following the announcement that the Mexican financer, Fabrica de Cine, would not be financing the film due to its climbing budget. Netflix then bought the film for $105 million and agreed to finance the film 's $125 million budget with a release date set for 2019.
By March 5, 2018, it was also reported the film 's budget had ballooned from $125 million to $140 million, due in large part to the impending visual effects needed to make De Niro, Pesci, and Pacino appear up to 30 years younger at various points throughout the film.
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who voices vic in f is for family | F is for Family - wikipedia
F Is for Family is an American web animated sitcom created by Bill Burr and Michael Price and produced by Gaumont International Television and Vince Vaughn 's Wild West Television.
The show premiered on December 18, 2015 to generally favorable reviews. Season 2 premiered May 30, 2017. On June 28, 2017, the show was renewed for a third season.
On July 1, 2018, Burr confirmed season 3 for a November 2018 release at a show in Detroit.
The series was announced in October 2014 as part of a partnership between Netflix, Gaumont International Television, and Wild West Television. The show is a "family comedy '' based on the standup of Bill Burr. Moreover, the show takes place in the 1970s, "a time when you could smack your kid, smoke inside, and bring a gun to the airport ''. Burr voices the Murphy family patriarch, with Laura Dern as his wife, Justin Long as his eldest son, Debi Derryberry as his daughter Maureen, and Haley Reinhart as his young son. The first season consists of six episodes, shown in a serial manner, written by Bill Burr and Michael Price. Price is best known for his Emmy and Writers Guild award - winning work on The Simpsons. The series is co-directed by Ben Marsaud (director of Counterfeit Cat & former storyboard artist on The Amazing World of Gumball).
The series has received generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes the first season holds a rating of 82 % based on 17 reviews, with an average score of 6.56 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While the humor relies on vulgarity, the strength of F Is for Family is its substantial heart. '' On Metacritic, the first season holds a score of 75 out of 100, based on 14 reviews, indicating "Generally favorable reviews ''.
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when's the third maze runner coming out | Maze Runner (film series) - wikipedia
Maze Runner is an American film series consisting of science - fiction dystopian action adventure films based on The Maze Runner novels by the American author James Dashner. Produced by Ellen Goldsmith - Vein and distributed by 20th Century Fox, the films star Dylan O'Brien, Kaya Scodelario, Thomas Brodie - Sangster, Ki Hong Lee, Dexter Darden and Patricia Clarkson. Wes Ball directed all three films.
The first film, The Maze Runner, was released on September 19, 2014 and became a commercial success grossing over $348 million worldwide. The second film, Maze Runner: The Scorch Trials was released on September 18, 2015, and was also a success, grossing over $312 million worldwide. The film series will conclude with the release of the third film, Maze Runner: The Death Cure on January 26, 2018.
The film features Thomas who wakes up trapped in a maze with a group of other boys, he has no memory of the outside world other than dreams about an organization known as W.C.K.D. Only by piecing together fragments of his past with clues he discovers in the maze can Thomas hope to uncover his purpose and a way to escape.
Development for the film began in January 2011 when Fox purchased the film rights to Dashner 's novel The Maze Runner. Principal photography began in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in May 2013 and ended in July. It was released on September 19, 2014.
The film features Thomas and his fellow Gladers as they search for clues about the organization known as W.C.K.D. Their journey takes them to the Scorch, a desolate landscape filled with obstacles. Teaming up with resistance fighters, the Gladers take on W.C.K.D 's "vastly superior '' forces and uncover its plans for them all.
Principal photography commenced in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in October 2014 and ended in January 2015. It was released on September 18, 2015.
In March 2015, T.S. Nowlin, who co-wrote the first and wrote the second film, was hired to write Maze Runner: The Death Cure based on the novel The Death Cure. In September 2015, Ball was hired to direct the film. Ball said that the film will not be split into two films. Principal photography took place in Cape Town, South Africa between March and June 2017 for a January 26, 2018 release.
The first two Maze Runner films both opened at number - one at the North American box - office during their opening weekend. In North America, the Maze Runner film series is the fifth highest grossing film series based on young adult books, after the film series of Harry Potter, The Hunger Games, The Twilight Saga, and The Divergent Series respectively earning over $184 million. Worldwide, it is the fourth highest grossing film series based on young - adult books, after the film series of Harry Potter, The Twilight Saga, and The Hunger Games respectively, earning over $660 million from a $95 million total production budget.
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do it like they do on the discovery channel song | The Bad Touch - wikipedia
"The Bad Touch '' is a song recorded by American alternative rock band Bloodhound Gang. It was released on 31 May 1999 as the lead single from their album Hooray for Boobies, which was released a year later, in the US and UK. The song was remixed by many artists including God Lives Underwater, KMFDM and Eiffel 65.
Like much of the Bloodhound Gang 's other music, the song contains a wide variety of sexual colloquialisms. The sleeve for the single features a photo of two zebras in copula.
The main chorus and anthem of the song is the stanza "You and me, baby, ai n't nothin ' but mammals; So let 's do it like they do on the Discovery Channel '', referring to the nature documentaries shown on the Discovery television channel in the 1990s.
The lyrics are composed almost entirely of double entendre, which include a number of references to late - 1990s or topical North American popular culture. In the first verse these are: lack of precipitation leading to drought in the United States and specifically the state of Texas; risqué lyrics from musician Prince; Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert from television film - review programme At the Movies giving "two thumbs up ''; restaurant - chain Waffle House and their hash browns foodstuffs; the delivery speed of courier firm FedEx; the stock - price of The Coca - Cola Company; and daylight saving time change during the Northern - hemisphere spring - time and its relation to nocturnal penile tumescence.
The second verse continues alluding to: the lost Egyptian Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa and early Egyptian hieroglyphs; the southern Pacific Ocean; US - National Weather Service weather alerts distributed as a small craft advisory to marine vessels; oceanic high - tides; the boardgame Battleship; automated coffeemaker manufacturer Mr. Coffee; juvenile exploration through playing doctor; television programme - in - programme Tool Time, from sitcom Home Improvement; country music singer Lyle Lovett; and science - fiction series The X-Files.
The song 's video, shot during the summer of 1999, features the band dressed in "MonkeyRat '' costumes with oversized ears, in numerous locations of Paris (including the Place de l'Estrapade, Avenue de Saxe, and Champ de Mars), and the Eiffel Tower is visible in many shots. During the video, the band uses blowguns to shoot tranquilizer darts into the buttocks of four passing young women dressed in black with short skirts and stockings, then carrying them away. They then use a fishing rod to dangle a croissant in front of a group of French chefs, enticing them to follow. The band members dance around for a few seconds and then lure three chefs into following them. The band members swallow several mealworms, before finding two stereotypically French effeminate gay men in a café, who are then beaten over the head with baguettes and knocked unconscious. A dwarf mime artist played by actor Jordan Prentice is captured in a net and then thrown into a cage with the four women, three chefs and the gay couple in a clear parody of animal collectors capturing frightened specimens. The band leap around the cage taunting their captives. As the song draws to an end, the prisoners are released and all dance together in formation in the street. The mime artist escapes and is run over by a speeding Renault 5 car driven by Lüpüs Thünder.
The uncensored version of the video shows the band playing with and eating a brown semi-liquid food, with the implication that it is feces, and a beginning which features them feigning sex in a doggy - style position rather than dancing as in the clean version. The violent capture of the gay couple is also missing from some versions.
A scene in the video featuring a pair of gay men in sailor suits, who share french fries and are subsequently beaten by the band members wielding baguettes, was cut after it initially premiered. GLAAD complained about the scene to MTV stating that "a gay - bashing scene in any context in today 's climate is not acceptable ''. MTV reviewed the video and suggested to Geffen Records that the scene be cut. On the scene, lead singer Jimmy Pop commented "I would give any gay man two tickets to the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical of his choice if he could describe exactly who 's going to become violent based on that scene ''.
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when do us schools break up for summer | School holidays in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, the academic year typically has about 180 school days for K - 12, running from the early (Northern Hemisphere) fall to early summer. Colleges and universities often have shorter years. School holidays (also referred to as vacations, breaks, and recess) are the periods during which schools are closed.
Public schools for grades K - 12 typically have the following vacations and holidays:
Schools offering summer camp are also off on Independence Day though the regular school year generally includes this holiday as part of the larger summer break.
Most colleges and universities have the following breaks / holidays:
Most colleges and universities divide the school year into two semesters. The fall semester often begins the day after Labor Day in early September and runs until mid-December. The spring semester typically starts in the middle or end of January and runs until May. Winter and summer classes might be offered in January and May -- August...
Weather - related cancellations, such as snow days and hurricane - related closures, can affect school calendars, as can local emergencies such as water main breaks, gas leaks, structural problems, or shootings. Some K - 12 districts build in a certain number of expected snow days, though in warmer climates typically none are scheduled. If the expected number is different from the actual number of canceled days, the beginning of summer vacation might be adjusted to keep the school year the same length. If there are too many canceled days, some districts will keep the beginning of summer vacation from moving too far by holding school during a scheduled spring vacation, or by holding school on Saturdays, professional development days, or other scheduled holidays. If the cancellation does reduce the number of days of instruction below the state minimum, the district may decide to simply drop the missed day from the academic year.
Colleges and universities set their own cancellation policies, and typically do not add makeup days, though they also cancel school more rarely, especially for residential campuses.
Where different days have different schedules (e.g. math and English on Mondays, science and art on Tuesdays), the schedule of remaining days might be adjusted to ensure all subjects retain the same number of instructional days per year.
"School Holidays in the United States. '' YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
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when was the roper logan tierney model developed | Roper -- Logan -- Tierney model of Nursing - wikipedia
The Roper, Logan and Tierney model of nursing (originally published in 1980, and subsequently revised in 1985, 1990, 1998 and the latest edition in 2000) is a model of nursing care based upon activities of living (ALs). It is extremely prevalent in the United Kingdom, particularly in the public sector. The model is named after the authors -- Nancy Roper, Winifred W. Logan and Alison J. Tierney
First developed in 1980, this model is based upon work by Nancy Roper in 1976. It is the most widely used nursing model in the United Kingdom. The model is based loosely upon the activities of daily living that evolved from the work of Virginia Henderson in 1966. The latest book edited by these women 2001 is their culminating and completing work, in which they upgrade their model based on their view of societal needs. The original purpose of the model was to be an assessment used throughout the patient 's care, but it has become the norm in UK nursing to use it only as a checklist on admission. It is often used to assess how a patient 's life has changed due to illness or admission to hospital rather than as a way of planning for increased independence and quality of life.
Activities of Living (AL), is to promote maximum independence, through complete assessment leading to interventions that further support independence in areas that may prove difficult or impossible for the individual on their own.
The activities of living assesses the individual 's relative independence and potential for independence on a continuum ranging from complete dependence to complete independence in order to determine what interventions will lead to increased independence as well as what ongoing support is or will be required to compensate for dependency. Its application requires that it be used throughout the engagement with the patient (not only on admission) as an approach to problems and their resolution, and as a tool to determine how the patient can be supported to learn about, cope with, adjust and improve their own health and challenges.
The ALs themselves are frequently misunderstood or are assumed to have limited scope, leading to dissatisfaction with the model, when one fails to recognise that the ALs are more complex than the title would lead one to believe. For this reason, it is not recommended in the model that it be used as a checklist, but rather as Roper states "As a cognitive approach to the assessment and care of the patient, not on paper as a list of boxes, but in the nurse 's approach to and organisation of their care '' and that nurses in clinical practice deepen their knowledge and understanding of the model and its application; it is essential that those using such a widespread tool be competent in its correct application.
The ALs are listed as:
These activities, outlining both the norm for the patient as well as any changes that may have resulted from current changes in condition, are assessed on admission onto a ward or service, and are reviewed as the patient progresses and as the care plan evolves. To provide effective care, all of the patient 's needs (which are determined by assessing the patient 's specific abilities and preferences relative to each activity, based on the factors listed) must be met as practicably as possible through supporting the patient to meet those needs independently or by providing the care directly, most preferably by a combination of the two.
By considering changes in the dependence - independence continuum, one can see how the patient is either improving or failing to improve, providing evidence either for or against the current care plan and giving guidance as to the level of care the patient does or may require. This value only results when the assessment is done frequently as changes occur and if it is combined with health improvement and health promotion. It is not effective in a paternalistic environment where all care is provided for an individual even when self care is possible.
The following factors that affect ALs are identified. Nancy Roper, when interviewed by members of the Royal College of Nursing 's (RCN) Association of Nursing Students at RCN Congress in 2002 in Harrogate stated that the greatest disappointment she held for the use of the model in the UK was the lack of application of the five factors listed below, citing that these are the factors which make the model holistic, and that failure to consider these factors means that the resulting assessment is both incomplete and flawed. She implored students to support the use of the model through promoting an understanding of these factors as an element of the model.
These factors do not stand alone; they are used to determine the individual 's relative independence (and requirements to restore independence) for each other activities of daily living.
The model also incorporates a life span continuum, where the individual passes from fully dependent at birth, to fully independent in the midlife, and returns to fully dependent in their old age / after death. Some researchers argue that the lifespan continuum begins at conception, others that it begins at birth.
Within short - stay settings such as surgery or in areas where the assessor is uncomfortable with or unsure of the applicability of certain activities of daily living (ADL) it is common for the activities ' sexuality ' and ' death ' (as well as others) to be disregarded. These modifications depend upon the institution or the nurse and often results from a lack of understanding of the application of, or the factors within, the model. This is unfortunate, because this limits the application of the model and thereby reduces its efficacy.
Often clinical settings use a list of the activities of daily living as an assessment document, without any reference to the other elements of the model; Roper herself rejected the use of the list of ADLs as a "checklist '' as she stated that it was essential not simply to read the title of the ADL, but to base assessment on knowledge of the scope of the ADL as assessed using the 5 key factors. Roper stated that if nurses themselves were uncomfortable discussing certain factors, they might assume patients also would be and thereby attribute the lack of assessment to the patient 's preference, when the patient 's opinion was never actually sought.
Roper 's assertion leads one to believe that rather than delete or disregard activities of daily living, it can benefit the individual being assessed if the nurse uses the model more thoroughly and assesses the ADL fully, using the 5 factors, irrespective of the area in which the care is being received. Roper stated "The patient is the patient, they are not a different patient because they are in a different clinical area. Their needs are the same - it 's who will meet those needs that changes ''. For example, "sexuality '' as an activity of daily living refers not only to the act of reproduction, but also to body image, self - esteem and gender - related beliefs, roles, values and practices, all issues that could have a high degree of relevance for the individual about to undergo surgery. Another example is the ADL "death '' which does not only apply strictly to the specific last moments of life, but also to the processes perceived to lead up to the eventuality of death, such as loss of independence, periods of ill health, fear of failure to recover, and fear of the unknown. These are all immeasurably relevant to most or all episodes of care.
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was the necklace from the titanic ever found | Heart of the Ocean - wikipedia
The Heart of the Ocean is the name of a fictional blue diamond featured prominently in the 1997 film Titanic. In the story, the 56 carat diamond was originally owned by Louis XVI and cut into a heart shape after the French Revolution. In the film the necklace was purchased by Hockley, played by Billy Zane, a week before he sailed on the ill - fated ocean liner Titanic. The necklace was meant to be given as an engagement present to his fiancée Rose, played by Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart. It is believed that both Rose and the necklace went down with the ship, leading some of the main characters to believe the necklace lies somewhere within the wreckage of the Titanic.
The story of the Hope Diamond bears many similarities to the story of the Heart of the Ocean with the obvious exception of the Hope Diamond not actually having been on board the Titanic. In the 1953 film Titanic, a blue diamond plays an important role in a love affair as well. A primary plot point in this earlier film is the theft of the diamond, which creates a dramatic break in a romantic relationship which is similar to the 1997 film.
In the 1997 film a fictional treasure hunter, Brock Lovett (Bill Paxton), searches for a priceless blue diamond necklace which he believes lies within the wreck of the RMS Titanic. Lovett explains that the necklace was fashioned from a large blue diamond worn by Louis XVI in his royal crown. Shortly after the King 's execution in 1793, the diamond was cut into a heart shape and became known as the Heart of the Ocean. The story of the Heart of the Ocean is similar to the story of the Hope Diamond, except the Hope Diamond was worn by Louis XIV in a royal necklace. Lovett 's hunch about the diamond 's whereabouts seems to be confirmed when his team salvages a drawing in which a nude woman is wearing the necklace. The drawing is dated April 14, 1912, the day the Titanic sank.
Later on an elderly woman (Gloria Stuart) watches Lovett 's discovery on the news and immediately contacts the salvage team. Claiming to be both the woman in the picture and Rose Dewitt Bukater she is immediately flown out to Lovett 's salvage ship. Rose requests to view the recovered drawing and Lovett shows her some artifacts salvaged from the wreck, specifically those recovered from her stateroom on Titanic. During this scene Lovett reveals the origins of the diamond and that if it is recovered the Heart of the Ocean would be worth more than the Hope Diamond. While examining an ornate butterfly comb, Rose becomes emotional and begins detailing her time aboard the Titanic. During the film the audience 's perspective alternates between the past and present as Rose shares her memories. Rose divulges the intimate details of her relationship with the artist of the drawing, Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio), which leads up to the night of the sinking.
On the night of the sinking the diamond changes hands a few times between Rose and Jack, resulting in Jack being framed of its theft by Rose 's fiancé Cal. As the ship starts to list dramatically it becomes quite clear that the unsinkable Titanic will indeed sink. With this in mind Rose 's fiancé, Cal, returns to the suite and empties the safe placing the precious gem in his overcoat. Later on Cal puts this same coat on Rose as she enters a lifeboat, forgetting about the diamond in its pocket. It is not thoroughly stated whether or not Rose (Gloria Stuart) tells Brock Lovett about Cal emptying his safe along with the diamond, it is assumed she does n't as Lovett does n't have any follow up questions. At the end of the film, Rose walks alone to the stern of the salvage ship and opens her hands revealing both the necklace and Rose 's identity as Rose Dewitt Bukater. While examining the necklace, Rose has a flashback to 1912 on her arrival in New York and discovers the necklace in the overcoat. Returning to the present, Rose, with a smile, drops the necklace from her hand into the water presumably above the Titanic wreck site.
London - based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold to create an Edwardian - style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. Asprey & Garrard produced and designed the necklaces: the result was three different and unique designs. Two of their designs were used in the film while the other went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace, and the Asprey necklace. The three necklaces are all very similar but have distinguishable differences.
The original necklace was the necklace seen throughout the film. This necklace has a large London - blue stone cut into a trillion / cleftless heart surrounded by white round cut cubic zirconias set in white gold. The chain is composed of a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white cubic zirconias. The bail on this necklace was a heart cut white cubic zirconia attached to a white round cut stone which was attached to the cage on the main stone.
Due to The J. Peterman Company 's acquisition of this particular necklace through the sale of props from the film, this design is often referred to as the J. Peterman design, though officially the necklace does not hold this designation. This particular design is another blue cubic zirconia; however, it is cut into the shape of a heart rather than a trillion cut. The main stone is surrounded by round cut cubic zirconias and features a white round cut stone at the top where it attaches to the chain. The chain is composed of white round cut cubic zirconias, with a larger inverted pear cut cubic zirconia as the bail. This particular design is featured in the film for a brief moment when Caledon retrieves the necklace from his safe during the sinking, this is the only time the necklace is seen on screen. This particular necklace is believed to still be in the possession of the J. Peterman Company.
The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film 's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum - set, 171 - carat (34.2 g) heart - shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds. This design featured a much larger inverted pear shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby 's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California 's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client for $1.4 million, under the agreement that Celine Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. This necklace has since not been made available for public viewing.
After the release of the film in 1998, The J. Peterman Company sold less expensive reproductions. Their necklace consisted of 137 Austrian crystals and a detachable, inauthentic "blue diamond '' pendant packaged in a navy blue, hinged presentation box. This is the only officially licensed reproduction of the necklace. This particular replica can still be found on the secondary market, although likely in used condition.
There are many other unofficial inspired reproductions available on the secondary market ranging from as little as five dollars to thousands of dollars.
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why does england have their own soccer team | United Kingdom national football team - wikipedia
No United Kingdom national football team currently exists, as there currently are separate teams representing each of the nations of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) in international football.
These national teams compete in the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championships and other internationals. A United Kingdom team has played in friendly matches, though never in a full FIFA international and not since 1955. However, the United Kingdom has competed in the association football tournament at the Summer Olympic Games, where it is represented by the Great Britain Olympic football team.
When the world 's first football association, The Football Association (FA), was formed in 1863, its geographical remit was not clear: there was no specification of whether it covered just England, all of the United Kingdom, the British Empire or even the entire world. The question was answered when the Scottish Football Association (SFA) was founded in 1873.
The third national football association, the Football Association of Wales (FAW) was founded in 1876 and a fourth, the Irish Football Association (IFA), was founded in 1880. Football therefore developed with separate associations and national teams for each of the countries of the United Kingdom or "Home Nations ''.
Representative international matches between England and Scotland were played as far back as 1872, and the Home Nations formed the International Football Association Board (IFAB) in 1886 to co-ordinate matches between their teams. FIFA was formed by non-British associations in 1904, and by 1913 the Home Nations were in FIFA and FIFA was on the IFAB. In 1921, around the time of the partition of Ireland, the Football Association of Ireland (FAI) split from the IFA and disputed its authority.
In 1923, an agreement between the IFAB and FIFA meant the FAI would represent the Irish Free State and the IFA Northern Ireland; also, FIFA agreed that relationships between the Home Nations would be outside its remit. England and Scotland separately played internationals against various European teams, but the Home Nations withdrew from FIFA in 1928, in a dispute over amateurism, and did not rejoin till 1946, missing the first three World Cups.
England have been the only Home Nation to have any major success internationally, winning the 1966 World Cup. Scotland have qualified for the final tournaments of eight World Cups and two European Championships, but have never progressed beyond the group stage of any international tournament. Northern Ireland have not qualified for a World Cup finals tournament since 1986, and Wales since 1958.
This is sometimes raised as an argument in favour of a single United Kingdom national team: based on statistical analysis. In June 2006, it was estimated that a United Kingdom national team would have had a one - third greater chance of winning the 2006 World Cup, than England did at the tournament 's outset. Opponents of the plan argue that the existing footballing identities of the fans of the Home Nations should not be sacrificed simply to stand a better chance of success.
There has been limited support for the creation of a permanent British national team. Although often hypothetical in nature, such a proposal has been put forward by prominent government ministers, including Jack Straw and Tony Banks. In July 2014, after England performed poorly in the 2014 World Cup, Conservative MP Laurence Robertson submitted an early day motion, calling for a United Kingdom Football Team.
Despite this, the Home Nations have previously united to play two friendly internationals against ' Rest of Europe ' representative sides. On both occasions, they included all four Home Nations: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Despite Northern Ireland 's participation, both matches were played under the name of ' Great Britain '.
The 1947 game, dubbed the ' Match of the Century ', was played to celebrate the return of the Home Nations to FIFA, which they had left in 1920. For the match, played at Scotland 's Hampden Park in front of 135,000 spectators, the Great Britain side wore a navy blue strip in honour of the host association. The gate receipts, totalling £ 35,000, helped boost the finances of FIFA, which had been damaged by the lack of competition during World War II. On that occasion, the Great Britain team consisted of:
The 1955 game was played to celebrate the Irish Football Association 's seventy - fifth anniversary. For this reason, the match was held at Belfast 's Windsor Park, and the British team took to the field wearing Northern Ireland 's green strip. The Great Britain team fielded comprised:
Two other games were played between Wales and a team representing the rest of the United Kingdom, with players from England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The first match, in 1951, commemorated the seventy - fifth anniversary of the Football Association of Wales. The second match, in 1969, commemorated the investiture of the Prince of Wales. In both cases, the England, Scotland and Northern Ireland select team played under the name of ' Rest of the United Kingdom '.
There was also a match played at Wembley in 1973 to commemorate the entry of the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark into the European Economic Community. This match, called "The Three '' v "The Six '', involved a select team from those three countries playing against a selection of players from the original six members of the EEC: West Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and Italy.
Ten of the thirteen players used by "The Three '' were from the United Kingdom, with only Johnny Giles and two Danish players representing the other two countries. Henning Jensen and Colin Stein scored as The Three won 2 -- 0.
A Great British team lined up against another Rest of Europe XI in 1965 for Stanley Matthews ' testimonial. Europe won 6 -- 4. A Scotland XI team played a Rest of Great Britain team in a testimonial match for Alan Mullery. Scotland were defeated 3 -- 2 at Craven Cottage on 22 March 1976.
From the 1904 Summer Olympics to the 1972 Summer Olympics, and again for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the UK has competed in either the Olympic football tournament or its qualifying competition. During the first tournament, played as a demonstration sport at the 1900 Summer Olympics but retrospectively accredited by the IOC, Upton Park F.C. represented the UK and won gold. Following this Great Britain won gold medals at the 1908 and 1912 Games.
All ' Great Britain ' Olympic football teams were organised by The Football Association (FA) with the acquiescence of the other Home Nations ' football associations, and after the FA scrapped the distinction between professional and amateur players in 1974, no more British Olympic teams were entered.
Although professional players were allowed into the Olympics from 1992, no British teams were entered because the individual home nations, rather than a unified team, participated in the qualifying competition.
The 2012 Summer Olympics were hosted by London, which meant that Great Britain qualified as right of being host nation. After much discussion between the Home Nations and opposition from the Northern Irish, Scottish and Welsh associations, men 's and women 's teams organised by the (English) FA were entered to the 2012 Olympics.
At the Universiade, the United Kingdom team has won three medals: two silver medals in 2011 and 2013 and a bronze medal in 1991.
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who is the guy that made daredevils suit | Gladiator (Melvin Potter) - wikipedia
Gladiator (Melvin Potter) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Potter was initially depicted as a supervillain and one of the first enemies of the superhero Daredevil. In civilian life, he is a costume - designer at the Spotlight Costume Shop in New York City. He eventually reformed and became one of the staunchest supporters of Daredevil.
Melvin Potter is portrayed by Matt Gerald in the Marvel Netflix series Daredevil as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Gladiator first appeared in Daredevil # 18 (July 1966), and was created by Stan Lee and John Romita Sr.
Melvin Potter was a costume designer who had the deluded belief that he was far better than any superhero. In order to prove his point, he designed a suit of battle armor for himself, complete with deadly wrist blades, and became known as the Gladiator. He battled Daredevil in his first criminal outing, and then met the Masked Marauder, another enemy of Daredevil 's. Gladiator later appeared in Europe, where he fought Daredevil again, and was then invited to join the Maggia. He joined Electro 's Emissaries of Evil to attack Daredevil again. Later, Gladiator aided Whitney Frost in a raid of Stark Enterprises, where he first fought Iron Man.
Gladiator later battled Daredevil again. Some time later, he fought Daredevil aboard an airplane in flight. He later allied with the Death - Stalker, and later still allied with the Beetle. While under control of the Purple Man, he attacked Daredevil. Gladiator had one last battle against Daredevil before deciding to reform. He began undergoing therapy from Betsy Beatty, whom he later married.
Now reformed, the Gladiator later allied with Daredevil and Elektra against the Hand. Donning his Gladiator costume again, Potter met Spider - Man.
Potter was pressured into producing a Daredevil costume for a madman in the employ of the crime lord known as the Kingpin, but Murdock comes to tell him to play along. Potter later donned his Gladiator costume again to discourage a youth from a life of crime.
He was later forced into working for the Kingpin 's elderly predecessor Alexander Bont, who claimed that Potter had a four - year - old daughter that he had never met and that she would die if Potter did not help. Gladiator brought Murdock to Bont, who attempted to kill Murdock and assume his old mantle but instead died of a drug - induced heart attack. The Gladiator was defeated by the new White Tiger, and went back to prison.
Gladiator is accused of murdering two fellow inmates and Matt Murdock 's law firm is defending him. Murdock 's super-senses indicate that he is telling the truth when he claims he is innocent. However, at the end of the issue, taunted by another inmate, Gladiator snaps his handcuffs and brutally assaults the inmate and a corrections officer, only to surrender to another officer and claim once again that he did n't do it. Later, after being broken out of an armored car, Melvin beats a confused Daredevil and moves to the sewers, heading for his Gladiator costume. Gladiator then goes on a rampage in Chinatown killing innocent people and then attacking Matt and Milla in a restaurant. After being knocked out, Matt reawakens in a police car to hear a voice that Gladiator will murder his wife. Matt finds the Gladiator and Milla, rescues Milla, and defeats the Gladiator. Melvin realizes what he has done and attempts suicide, but is saved by Daredevil. Potter is taken back to prison, and is heavily sedated after repeatedly banging his head against the wall. It is revealed that Mr. Fear had secretly administered chemicals to Potter that caused him to go irreversibly insane with rage.
Gladiator has no superhuman abilities. However, he is a superb martial arts fighter and is very physically powerful. He wore a thick metal armor with a helmet and metallic gauntlets, and was armed with an arsenal of edged weapons and whirling, jagged circular sawblades made of titanium steel, one mounted on each gauntlet. Small rotors in the gauntlets cause the blades to rotate at high speeds, and the whirling blades could also be detached to serve as short - range missile weapons.
In civilian life, Potter is an accomplished clothing designer, proficient in drafting, design and sewing.
In the House of M universe, Gladiator appears as an assassin of the Kingpin.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Gladiator has a cameo appearance. He appears as an enemy of Spider - Man and is a crazed madman obsessed with "the emperor. ''
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why did nasa shut down the space shuttle program | Space Shuttle retirement - wikipedia
The retirement of NASA 's Space Shuttle fleet took place from March to July 2011. Discovery was the first of the three active space shuttles to be retired, completing its final mission on March 9, 2011; Endeavour did so on June 1. The final shuttle mission was completed with the landing of Atlantis on July 21, 2011, closing the 30 - year Space Shuttle program.
The Shuttle was presented to the public in 1972 as a "space truck '' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low earth orbit in the early 1990s and then be replaced by a new vehicle. When the concept of the U.S. space station evolved into that of the International Space Station, which suffered from long delays and design changes before it could be completed, the service life of the Space Shuttle was extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired.
In 2010 the Shuttle was formally scheduled for retirement with Atlantis being taken out of service first after STS - 132 in May of that year, but the program was once again extended when the two final planned missions were delayed until 2011. Later, one additional mission was added for Atlantis for July 2011, extending the program further. Counter-proposals to the shuttle 's retirement were considered by Congress and the prime contractor United Space Alliance as late as spring 2010.
Hardware developed for the Space Shuttle met various ends with conclusion of the program, including donation, disuse and / or disposal, or reuse. An example of reuse, is that one of the three Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) was converted to a permanent module for the International Space Station.
On April 12, 2011, NASA announced a selection of locations for the remaining Shuttle orbiters:
* Prior to its move to New York, Enterprise was displayed at the Udvar - Hazy Center, Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum, Chantilly, Virginia, where Discovery has taken its place.
Museums and other facilities not selected to receive an orbiter were disappointed. Elected officials representing Houston, Texas, location of the Johnson Space Center; and Dayton, Ohio, location of National Museum of the United States Air Force called for Congressional investigations into the selection process, though no such action was taken. While local and Congressional politicians in Texas questioned if partisan politics played a role in the selection, former JSC Director Wayne Hale wrote "Houston did n't get an orbiter because Houston did n't deserve it '' pointing to weak support from area politicians, media and residents, describing a "sense of entitlement ''. Chicago media questioned the decision not to include the Adler Planetarium in the list of facilities receiving orbiters, pointing to Chicago 's 3rd - largest population in the United States. The chair of the NASA committee that made the selections pointed to the guidance from Congress that the orbiters go to facilities where the most people could see them, and the ties to the space program of Southern California (home to Edwards Air Force Base, where nearly half of shuttle flights have ended and home to the plants which manufactured the orbiters and the Space Shuttle Main Engines), the Smithsonian (curator of the nation 's air and space artifacts), the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex (where all shuttle launches have originated, and a large tourist draw) and the Intrepid Sea - Air - Space Museum (which served as the recovery ship for Project Mercury and Project Gemini).
In August 2011 the NASA Inspector General released an audit of the display selection process; it highlighted issues which led to the final decision. The Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington, March Field Air Museum, Riverside, California, Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, Dayton, Ohio, San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, Space Center Houston, Houston, Texas, Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium, Tulsa, Oklahoma and U.S. Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama scored poorly on international access. Additionally Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History and the Bush Library at Texas A&M, in College Station, Texas scored poorly on museum attendance, regional population and was the only facility found to pose a significant risk in transporting an orbiter there. Overall, the California Science Center scored first and Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History scored last. The two most controversial locations which were not awarded an orbiter, Space Center Houston and National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, finished 2nd to last and near the middle of the list respectively. The report noted a scoring error, which if corrected would have placed the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force in a tie with the Intrepid Museum and Kennedy Visitor Complex (just below the California Science Center), although due to funding concerns the same decisions would have been made.
The Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington was not selected to receive an orbiter but instead received the three -- story Full Fuselage Trainer from the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. Museum officials, though disappointed, were able to allow the public to go inside the trainer, something not possible with an actual orbiter.
In addition to the challenge of transporting the large vehicles to the display site, placing the units on permanent display required considerable effort and cost. An article in the February 2012 issue of Smithsonian Magazine discussed the work performed on Discovery. It involved removing the three main engines (they were slated to be reused on NASA 's new Space Launch System); the windows were given to project engineers for analysis of how materials and systems fared after repeated space exposure; the communications modules were removed due to national -- security concerns; and hazardous materials such as traces of propellants were thoroughly flushed from the plumbing. The total cost of preparation and delivery via a modified Boeing 747 was estimated at $26.5 million in 2011 dollars.
NASA ran a program to donate thermal protection system tiles to schools and universities for $23.40 USD each (the fee for S&H). About 7000 tiles were available on a first - come, first - served basis, but limited to one per institution. Each orbiter incorporated over 24,000 tiles.
About 42 reusable SSMEs (Pratt & Whitney RS - 25 / 26) have been part of the STS program, with three used per orbiter per mission. The decision was made to retain all engines with plans to make use of them in future launch vehicles.
Worn out engine nozzles are typically considered scrap, although nine nozzles were refurbished for display on the donated orbiters, so the actual engines can be retained by NASA.
Three Shuttle arms were used by NASA; the arms of both Discovery and Atlantis will be left in place for their museum display. Endeavour 's arm is to be removed from the orbiter for separate display in Canada. The OBSS extension of Endeavour 's arm was left on the International Space Station, for use with the station 's robotic arm.
In December 2010, as NASA prepared for the STS program ending, an audit by the NASA Office of Inspector General (OIG) found that information technology had been sold or prepared for sale that still contained sensitive information. NASA OIG recommended NASA be more careful in the future.
The twin pads originally built for the Apollo program are now inactive. LC - 39B was deactivated first on January 1, 2007. Three lightning towers were added to the pad and it was temporarily "re-activated '' in April 2009 when Endeavour was placed on standby to rescue the STS - 125 crew (the STS - 125 mission was the last to visit the Hubble Space Telescope, which meant that the ISS was out of range) if needed; Endeavour was then moved over to LC - 39A for STS - 126. In October 2009 the prototype Ares I-X rocket was launched from 39B. The pad was then permanently deactivated and has since been dismantled and is being modified for the Space Launch System program, and possibly other launch vehicles. Like the Apollo structures before them, the shuttle structures were scrapped. 39A was deactivated in July 2011 after STS - 135 was launched. On January 16, 2013, it was erroneously reported that NASA planned to abandon the pad, but the actual plan is to, like pad B, convert it for other rockets without dismantling it. If NASA did plan to permanently decommission the pads, they would have to restore them to their original Apollo - era appearance as both pads are on the National Historic Register. In December 2013 NASA announced that SpaceX would be the new Tenant of pad 39A. SpaceX has since converted the pad to launch Falcon Heavy and manned Crew Dragon Falcon 9 flights. following the destruction of Space Launch Complex 40 in an on - pad explosion in September 2016. SpaceX had to move all east coast launches to 39A while SLC - 40 is being rebuilt. The first launch, Dragon resupply vehicle carried by a Falcon 9, occurred February 12 2017. This flight was the first unmanned launch from Complex 39 since Skylab was launched in 1973. Once SLC - 40 is back in action, SpaceX will finish modifying the pad for Falcon Heavy. Due to SLC - 40s destruction, 39A had to be rushed into service and activities such as dismantling the RSS were put on hold.
After STS - 135, the VAB was used as a storage shed for the decommissioned shuttles before they were sent to museums. High Bay 3 is now being gutted of all equipment and given upgraded platforms, to support the Space Launch System and potentially the SpaceX Falcon Heavy as well as other vehicles. After the shuttle was decommissioned, NASA opened the VAB for public tours, which ended on February 11, 2014 as NASA prepares the VAB for future launch vehicles.
The twin launch platforms are currently being modified for the Space Launch System with a large tower resembling those used in the Apollo program. Work is expected to be complete by 2016.
The Crawler - Transporters were used as the mobile part of the pad with the shuttles; the two vehicles were deactivated and are being upgraded for the SLS program. The crawlerways used for transporting launch vehicles from the VAB to the twin pads of KSC are also being extensively renovated for the SLS program.
Used to mate the shuttle on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, the Mate - Demate Devices were dismantled and scrapped.
Two modified Boeing 747s were used to fly the shuttles back to KSC when they landed at Edwards AFB. N911NA was retired on February 8, 2012 and is now a parts hulk for the "SOFIA '' 747. Beginning in September 2014, N911NA was loaned out to the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark, in Palmdale, CA, where it is on outdoor display next to the B - 52. The other aircraft, N905NA was used to send Discovery, Endeavour and Enterprise to their museums and in September 2012 was found to have few parts for Sofia. It is currently a museum piece at the Johnson Space Center.
Used to retrieve the SRBs, MV Liberty Star and Freedom Star are now separated. Liberty Star was renamed as TV Kings Pointer and was transferred to the Merchant Marine Academy in New York for use as a training vessel. It will remain on call in case NASA needs it for further missions. Freedom Star was transferred to the James River Reserve Fleet on September 28, 2012 and placed under ownership of the United States Department of Transportation.
The buildings used to process the shuttles after each mission were decommissioned. OPF - 1 was leased to Boeing in January 2014 for processing the X-37B spaceplane while OPF - 3 is also used by Boeing for the manufacture and testing of the CST - 100 spacecraft. OPF - 2 also currently remains under lease by Boeing for its X-37B spaceplane.
The runway at KSC is currently used as a normal runway for the center and neighboring Cape Canaveral 's daily operations. It may be used to land the X-37B and Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser spaceplanes. the SLF received its first landing since the Atlantis in June 2017 when the USAF X-37B landed on it at the end of almost 2 years in orbit.
In the 1980s, a planned successor to STS was called "Shuttle II '', which encompassed a number of different ideas and was influenced by the Challenger disaster. At one point before retirement, extension of the Space Shuttle program for an additional five years while a replacement could be developed, was considered by the U.S. government. Some programs to provide access to space after the shuttle were the Lockheed Martin X-33, VentureStar, the Orbital Space Plane Program, and Ares I launcher (part of, and cancelled with Constellation). Some program from the 1980s were the NASA Advanced Manned Launch System program as well as the Future Space Transportation System program. There was a number of proposals for space access systems in the 1970s also, such as the Rockwell Star - raker Star - raker was a large single - stage to orbit design that used both rockets and ramjet for propulision. It was a contemporary to the Boeing Reusable Aerodynamic Space Vehicle, which an all - rocket propulsion single - stage to orbit design.
For comparison to an earlier retirement, when the Saturn IB was last flown in 1975 for the Apollo - Soyuz Test Project, the Shuttle development program was already well underway. However, the Shuttle did not fly until 1981, which left a six - year gap in U.S. manned spaceflight. Because of this and other reasons, in particular, higher than expected Solar activity that caused Skylab 's orbit to decay faster than hoped, the U.S. space station Skylab burned up in the atmosphere.
The Ares I was going to be NASA 's manned spacecraft after STS, with Congress attempting to accelerate its development so it would be ready as early as 2016 for the ISS, in addition they attempted to delay retirement of the shuttle to reduce the time gap. However, Ares I was cancelled along with the rest of Constellation in 2010. The successor to STS with the cancellation would be combination of yet - to - be developed commercial crew spacecraft and the Orion plus the SLS
Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in early 2003 President George W. Bush, announced his Vision for Space Exploration which called for the completion of the American portion of the International Space Station by 2010 (due to delays this would not happen until 2011), the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet following its completion, to return to the moon by 2020 and one day to Mars. A new vehicle would need be developed, it eventually was named the Orion spacecraft, a six - person variant would have serviced the ISS and a four - person variant would have traveled to the Moon. The Ares I would have launched Orion, and the Ares V heavy - lift vehicle (HLV) would have launched all other hardware. The Altair lunar lander would have landed crew and cargo onto the moon. The Constellation program experienced many cost overruns and schedule delays, and was openly criticized by the subsequent U.S. President, Barack Obama.
In February 2010, the Obama administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies. During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, President Obama proposed the design selection of the new HLV that would replace the Ares - V but would not occur until 2015. The U.S. Congress drafted the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 and President Obama signed it into law on October 11 of that year. The authorization act officially cancelled the Constellation program.
The combination of Ares I and Orion was predicted to cost about 50 billion dollars. One of the issues with Ares I was the criticism of the second stage, which the post-cancellation Liberty proposal attempted to address by using a second stage from an Ariane 5. The Liberty proposal applied for but was not chosen for commercial crew. The other on - going complaint was that it made more sense to make a man - rated version of the Atlas or Delta. The first crewed flight for Ares I was scheduled for March 2015, and one of its priorities was crew safety. One reason for the emphasis on safety, was that it was envisioned in the aftermath of the Colombia disaster.
U.S. astronauts have continued to access the ISS aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. The Soyuz was chosen as the ISS lifeboat during the development of the International Space Station. The first NASA astronaut to launch on a Soyuz rocket was Norman Thagard, as part of the Shuttle - Mir program. Launching on March 14, 1995 on Soyuz TM - 21, he visited the Mir Space Station however he returned to Earth on the Space Shuttle mission STS - 71. The start of regular use of the Soyuz began as part of the international space station program, with William Shepherd launching on Soyuz TM - 31 in October 2000. NASA continued to takes regular flights in the next couple decades. NASA is currently contracted seats until at least 2018.
The consideration of Soyuz as a lifeboat began in the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Russia proposed using the Soyuz as a life boat for what was still Space Station Freedom in late 1991, leading to further analysis of this concept in the early 1990s. One of the milestones was in 1992, when after three months of negotiations the heads of the two Space Agencies agreed to study applications of the Soyuz spacecraft.
In March 1992, Russian and US space officials discussed the possibility of cooperation in manned space program, including ACRV. On June 18, 1992, after three months of negotiations, NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin and Director General of the Russian Space Agency Yuri Nikolayevich Koptev, "ratified '' a contract between NASA and NPO - Energia to study possible application of the Soyuz spacecraft and Russian docking port in the Freedom project
In the course of a few decades NASA astronauts have flown on the following Soyuz versions:
NASA also purchased several space modules from Russia including Spektr, Docking Module (Mir), Priroda, and Zarya.
The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 required a new heavy -- lift vehicle design to be chosen within 90 days of its passing. The authorization act called this new HLV the Space Launch System (SLS). The Orion spacecraft was left virtually unchanged from its previous design. The Space Launch System will launch both Orion and other necessary hardware. The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 tons (154,000 kg) into LEO, it is then planned to be upgraded to 105 tons and then eventually to 130 tons.
Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT - 1), an unmanned test flight of Orion 's crew module, launched on December 5, 2014 on a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Exploration Mission - 1 (EM - 1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS, planned for December 2019. The first manned flight of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission - 2 (EM - 2) is to launch June 2022; it is a 10 - to 14 - day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit. As of 2017, the destination for EM - 3 is the Deep Space Gateway.
The ISS is planned to be funded until at least 2020. There has been discussion to extend it to 2028 or beyond. Until another U.S. crew vehicle is ready, crews will access the ISS exclusively aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. The Soyuz was chosen as the ISS lifeboat during the development of the International Space Station, and has been one of the space taxis used by the international participants to this program. A Soyuz took Expedition 1, which included one U.S. astronaut in the year 2000. Previously the United States and Russia had collaborated on extended the Mir space station with the Shuttle - Mir program in the 1990s.
Although the Orion spacecraft is oriented towards deep - space missions such as NEO visitation, it can also be used retrieve crew or supplies from the ISS if that task is needed once the spacecraft is operational. However, it is expected that the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program will produce a functioning manned space vehicle as early as 2018, providing an alternative to Orion or Soyuz. The delay is longer than expected because the Ares I was cancelled in 2010, leaving little time before the STS retired for something new to be ready for flight. U.S. Congress was aware a spaceflight gap could occur and accelerated funding in 2008 and 2009 in preparation for the retirement of the Shuttle. At that time the first crewed flight of the planned Ares I launcher would not have occurred until 2015, and its first use at ISS until 2016. Another option that has been analyzed is to adapt Orion to a man - rated heavy launch vehicle like the Delta IV Heavy. (see also Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle) Another spacecraft evaluated by NASA, and also for commercial crew, was the ATK Liberty rocket, which looked similar to Ares I and was based on STS (SRB) and Ariane 5 (Second stage) components.
The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) development program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated automated cargo spacecraft to service the ISS. The program is a fixed -- price milestone - based development program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had to have a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they would not receive until after achieving the milestone. Private companies are also required to have some "skin in the game '' which refers to raising additional private investment for their proposal.
On 23 December 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation. SpaceX will use its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft. Orbital Sciences will use its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012. The first Cygnus resupply mission occurred in September 2013. The CRS program provides for all the projected U.S. cargo - transportation needs to the ISS, with the exception of a few vehicle -- specific payloads to be delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.
The Dragon is seen being berthed to the ISS
Artist 's rendering of the Enhanced variant of Cygnus
Cygnus in space
The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating commercially operated crew vehicles capable of delivering at least four astronauts to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them to Earth. Like COTS, CCDev is a fixed -- price milestone - based developmental program that requires some private investment.
In the first phase of the program, NASA provided a total of $50 million divided among five U.S. companies, intended to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, during the second phase of the program, NASA provided $270 million divided among four companies. During the third phase of the program, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies. This phase of the CCDev program was expected to last from 3 June 2012 to 31 May 2014. The winners of that round were SpaceX 's DragonRider (derived from the Dragon cargo vehicle), Boeing 's CST - 100 and Sierra Nevada 's Dream Chaser. The United Launch Alliance is working on human - rating their Atlas V rocket as part of the latter two proposals. NASA wants to have two Commercial Crew vehicles in - service, these spacecraft are expected to begin delivering crew around 2017.
Dragon 2 hover test
Computer rendering of CST - 100 in orbit
Dream Chaser test article
Early testing of STS
Early art for SLS in flight
Portrayal of a SLS + Orion on the launchpad
Orion EM - 1 internal structure
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what was the purpose of the maxwell land grant | Maxwell Land Grant - wikipedia
The Maxwell Land Grant, also known as the Beaubien - Miranda Land Grant, was a 1,714,765 - acre (6,939.41 km) Mexican land grant in Colfax County, New Mexico and part of adjoining Las Animas County, Colorado. This 1841 land grant was one of the largest contiguous private landholdings in the history of the United States. The New Mexico towns of Cimarron, Colfax, Dawson, Elizabethtown, French, Lynn, Maxwell, Miami, Raton, Rayado, Springer, Ute Park and Vermejo Park, came to be located within the grant, as well as numerous other towns that are now ghost towns.
The lands covered in the Maxwell Land Grant were originally tribal lands belonging to Jicarilla Apache Indians. The region of northern New Mexico was claimed by Spain in 1524, but there were few settlements east of the Sangre de Cristo Range. In 1821, the government of Mexico was established, and the new government retained the Spanish policy of encouraging settlement by making land grants.
Carlos Beaubien was a French - Canadian trapper who became a Mexican citizen. His partner, Guadalupe Miranda was the secretary to Governor Manuel Armijo in Santa Fe. On January 8, 1841, Beaubien and Miranda petitioned Armijo for a land grant. They had to swear that they would colonize and cultivate the land. Three days later, Armijo granted them the land on the condition that they put it to good use. However, Beaubien and Miranda failed to prove up the grant for the next two years. On February 13, 1843, they asked the Justice of the Peace in Taos to sign an order promising them possession of the land. The justice affirmed that he had marked the boundaries of the grant and that Beaubien and Miranda were in full possession of the land grant.
Lucien Bonaparte Maxwell was a pioneer, explorer and adventurer who married Luz Beaubien, the daughter of Carlos Beaubien. Beaubien hired Maxwell to manage his interests, and Maxwell and his wife settled in Rayado, New Mexico in 1849. In 1860, Maxwell built a large home in Cimarron, a stop on the Mountain Branch of the Santa Fe Trail.
In 1875, a range war known as the Colfax County War soon erupted between Maxwell and the settlers whom he perceived as squatters and tried to remove. There seems to be a discrepancy as to Lucien 's middle name. A 1945 book lists it as Benjamin rather than Bonaparte.
In 1870, for reasons that are not clear, Maxwell decided to sell the Grant. A group of financiers, representing an English syndicate, purchased the Grant for a reported price of $1,350,000. Maxwell moved to Santa Fe, and then to Fort Sumner, where he died in 1875.
The new owners formed the Maxwell Land Grant and Railway Company. They attempted to remove the squatters from the Grant. Some of the squatters felt that they had Maxwell 's unwritten permission to live on the Grant. Many people left, but some stayed and fought. This struggle between owners and squatters came to be called the Colfax County War. F.J. Tolby, a minister sympathetic to the squatters was murdered on September 14, 1875.
The English company was bankrupt by 1874, and it went into foreclosure in 1879. A new group of owners from the Netherlands formed the Maxwell Land Grant Company installing future Senator and Secretary of War Stephen Benton Elkins as president. In 1885, the new owners convinced the Territorial Governor Lionel Allen Sheldon to use the National Guard to suppress the squatters.
Because of a variety of financial problems, the Dutch company went bankrupt in 1888. In the early 1880s, the United States sued the company for making claims of lands in the Public Domain in Colorado. In 1887, this case reached the US Supreme Court, and was decided as United States v. Maxwell Land Grant Company. The court decision affirmed the company 's ownership of the land. At this point, the settlers and squatters realized that they could not obtain good title to the land, and most of them left.
In 1867, Lucien Maxwell sold what he thought was a 1,000 acres (400 ha) claim to J.B. Dawson. When Dawson had the land surveyed it turned out to be 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) underlain by coal. Phelps Dodge bought the Dawson Homestead and underlying coal in 1906. The company named the town Dawson, New Mexico and it grew to have about 2000 people.
The struggles over the grant continued, especially in the Colorado portion of the grant, where quite a bit of homesteading had taken place. On August 25, 1888, there was a violent incident at Stonewall, Colorado, in which several people were killed. The Maxwell Land Grant Company continued to sue homesteaders, and in many cases made them pay for their homesteads a second time. In 1894, the US Supreme Court decided Russell v. Maxwell Land Grant Company, which completely rejected the homesteaders claims in favor of the company.
Many other sales of lands in the Grant took place in the early 1900s.
In 1902, William Bartlett, a wealthy grain operator from Chicago bought 205,000 acres (830 km) of the grant along the drainage of the Vermejo River. Under the agreement, he withheld part of the last payment until the Maxwell Land Grant Company evicted the last of the squatters. In his words, "They are given two years to get the Mexicans off and I hold back $10,000. '' Bartlett 's Vermejo Park portion of the Grant has passed through several owners during the Twentieth Century. Pennzoil bought the Vermejo Park Ranch in 1973, and expanded its size. In 1982, Pennzoil donated a 100,000 acres (400 km) portion of the ranch known as Valle Vidal to the US Government. This area is managed as a wilderness by the US Forest Service. In 1992, Ted Turner bought Vermejo Park Ranch (590,823 acres (2,390.98 km) from Pennzoil. Ted Turner did not buy the mineral rights, so Atlas Energy Group, LLC produces gas on the Vermejo Park Ranch, while Ted Turner raises buffalo.
Beginning in 1922, Waite Phillips, an oilman from Tulsa, Oklahoma also assembled a block of land on the Maxwell Land Grant. Phillips bought over 300,000 acres (1,200 km), and named his ranch Philmont. In two separate gifts in 1938 and 1941, Phillips donated 127,395 acres (515.55 km) as a wilderness camping area for the Boy Scouts of America.
In 1963, Norton Clapp, an officer of the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America, donated another piece of the Maxwell Land Grant to Philmont. This was the Baldy Mountain mining area consisting of 10,098 acres (40.87 km).
Manley M. Chase purchased land in Chase Ranch in 1866, where M.M. Chase purchased a one - third interest in John B. Dawson 's ranch (part of the Maxwell Land Grant) on the Vermejo River. Chase raised both sheep and cattle. In 1871, Chase purchased another part of the original Maxwell grant. He paid 50 cents an acre for 2,000 acres along Poñil Creek, an area which included the old Kit Carson homestead. The two - story adobe house which he built about three miles northeast of Cimarron is still the ranch headquarters and the family home.
The Cimarron Canyon State Park extends along Cimarron Canyon from Eagle Nest Lake to Ute Park and along US Route 64. The park is part of the Colin Neblett State Wildlife Area, which consists of 33,116 acres (134.02 km) acres of former Grant land. This area was purchased by the State of New Mexico in the early 1950s.
The Whittington Center, founded in 1973, is the largest shooting and hunting complex in the world. It is owned by the National Rifle Association, and covers 33,000 acres (130 km) of the Maxwell Land Grant.
Five cases involving the land grant went to the United States Supreme Court:
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who is the opener of indian cricket team | List of India Test cricketers - wikipedia
This is a list of Indian Test cricketers. A Test match is an international cricket match between two of the leading cricketing nations. The list is arranged in the order in which each player won his Test cap. Where more than one player won his first Test cap in the same Test match, those players are listed alphabetically by surname.
Statistics are correct as of India 's Test match against England, ending on 12 August 2018.
A total of 33 players have captained the Indian Test team. Of those who have captained more than two Test matches, Virat Kohli has the highest win rate (60.00 %), followed by Virender Sehwag (50 %). Mahendra Singh Dhoni has captained the team for the most number of Test matches (60). Sunil Gavaskar (1975 - 1984) has the most number of drawn matches (30) and Mahendra Singh Dhoni (2008 - 2014) has the most number of wins (27). As of 2018, Nawab of Pataudi, Jr. remains the youngest captain for India in test matches.
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examine the language policy of india as an important aspect of our constitution | Languages with Official status in India - Wikipedia
The Constitution of India designates the official language of the Government of India as Hindi written in the Devanagari script, as well as English. There is no national language as declared by the Constitution of India. Hindi and English are used for official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary, communications between the Central Government and a State Government. States within India have the liberty and powers to specify their own official language (s) through legislation and therefore there are 22 officially recognized languages in India of which Hindi is the most used. The number of native Hindi speakers ranges between 14.5 and 24.5 % in total Indian population, however, other dialects of Hindi termed as Hindi languages are spoken by nearly 45 % of Indians, mostly accounted from the states falling under the Hindi belt. Other Indian languages are each spoken by around 10 % or less of the population.
States specify their own official language (s) through legislation. The section of the Constitution of India dealing with official languages therefore includes detailed provisions which deal not just with the languages used for the official purposes of the union, but also with the languages that are to be used for the official purposes of each state and union territory in the country, and the languages that are to be used for communication between the union and the states inter se.
During the British Raj, English was used for purposes at the federal level. The Indian constitution adopted in 1950 envisaged that Hindi would be gradually phased in to replace English over a fifteen - year period, but gave Parliament the power to, by law, provide for the continued use of English even thereafter. Plans to make Hindi the sole official language of the Republic met with resistance in some parts of the country. Hindi continues to be used today, in combination with other (at the central level and in some states) State official languages at the state level.
The legal framework governing the use of languages for official purpose currently includes the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, Official Languages (Use for Official Purpose of the Union) Rules, 1976, and various state laws, as well as rules and regulations made by the central government and the states.
The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi - speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian - speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.
In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Some of these protests also turned violent. As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.
The position was thus that the Union government continues to use English in addition to Hindi for its official purposes as a "subsidiary official language, '' but is also required to prepare and execute a programme to progressively increase its use of Hindi. The exact extent to which, and the areas in which, the Union government uses Hindi and English, respectively, is determined by the provisions of the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, the Official Languages Rules, 1976, and statutory instruments made by the Department of Official Language under these laws.
The Indian constitution draws a distinction between the language to be used in Parliamentary proceedings, and the language in which laws are to be made. Parliamentary business, according to the Constitution, may be conducted in either Hindi or English. The use of English in parliamentary proceedings was to be phased out at the end of fifteen years unless Parliament chose to extend its use, which Parliament did through the Official Languages Act, 1963. In addition, the constitution permits a person who is unable to express themselves in either Hindi or English to, with the permission of the Speaker of the relevant House, address the House in their mother tongue.
In contrast, the constitution requires the authoritative text of all laws, including Parliamentary enactments and statutory instruments, to be in English, until Parliament decides otherwise. Parliament has not exercised its power to so decide, instead merely requiring that all such laws and instruments, and all bills brought before it, also be translated into Hindi, though the English text remains authoritative.
The constitution provides, and the Supreme Court has reiterated, that all proceedings in the Supreme Court of India, the country 's highest court and the High Courts, shall be in English. Parliament has the power to alter this by law, but has not done so. However, in many high courts, there is, with consent from the president, allowance of the optional use of Hindi. Such proposals have been successful in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
The Union government is required by law to progressively increase the use of Hindi in its official work, which it has sought to do through "persuasion, incentive and goodwill ''.
The Official Language Act provides that the Union government shall use both Hindi and English in most administrative documents that are intended for the public. The Official Languages Rules, in contrast, provide for a higher degree of use of Hindi in communications between offices of the central government (other than offices in Tamil Nadu, to which the rules do not apply). Communications between different departments within the central government may be in either Hindi or English, although a translation into the other language must be provided if required. Communications within offices of the same department, however, must be in Hindi if the offices are in Hindi - speaking states, and in either Hindi or English otherwise with Hindi being used in proportion to the percentage of staff in the receiving office who have a working knowledge of Hindi. Notes and memos in files may be in either Hindi or English, with the Government having a duty to provide a translation into the other language if required.
In addition, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to a government officer or authority has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in India.
Various steps have been taken by the Indian government to implement the use and familiarisation of Hindi extensively. Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha headquartered at Chennai was formed to spread Hindi in South Indian states. Regional Hindi implementation offices at Bengaluru, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bhopal, Delhi and Ghaziabad have been established to monitor the implementation of Hindi in Central government offices and PSUs.
Annual targets are set by the Department of Official Language regarding the amount of correspondence being carried out in Hindi. A Parliament Committee on Official Language constituted in 1976 periodically reviews the progress in the use of Hindi and submits a report to the President. The governmental body which makes policy decisions and established guidelines for promotion of Hindi is the Kendriya Hindi Samiti (est. 1967). In every city that has more than ten central Government offices, a Town Official Language Implementation Committee is established and cash awards are given to government employees who write books in Hindi. All Central government offices and PSUs are to establish Hindi Cells for implementation of Hindi in their offices.
In 2016, the Modi government announced plans to promote Hindi in government offices in Southern and Northeast India.
The Indian constitution does not specify the official languages to be used by the states for the conduct of their official functions, and leaves each state free to, through its legislature, adopt Hindi or any language used in its territory as its official language or languages. The language need not be one of those listed in the Eighth Schedule, and several states have adopted official languages which are not so listed. Examples include Kokborok in Tripura and Mizo in Mizoram.
The constitutional provisions in relation to use of the official language in legislation at the State level largely mirror those relating to the official language at the central level, with minor variations. State legislatures may conduct their business in their official language, Hindi or (for a transitional period, which the legislature can extend if it so chooses) English, and members who can not use any of these have the same rights to their mother tongue with the Speaker 's permission. The authoritative text of all laws must be in English, unless Parliament passes a law permitting a state to use another language, and if the original text of a law is in a different language, an authoritative English translation of all laws must be prepared.
The state has the right to regulate the use of its official language in public administration, and in general, neither the constitution nor any central enactment imposes any restriction on this right. However, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to an officer or authority of the state government has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in that state, regardless of its official status.
In addition, the constitution grants the central government, acting through the President, the power to issue certain directives to the government of a state in relation to the use of minority languages for official purposes. The President may direct a State to officially recognise a language spoken in its territory for specified purposes and in specified regions, if its speakers demand it and satisfy him that a substantial proportion of the State 's population desire its use. Similarly, States and local authorities are required to endeavour to provide primary education in the mother tongue for all linguistic minorities, regardless of whether their language is official in that State, and the President has the power to issue directions he deems necessary to ensure that they are provided these facilities.
States have significantly less freedom in relation to determine the language in which judicial proceedings in their respective High Courts will be conducted. The constitution gives the power to authorise the use of Hindi, or the state 's official language in proceedings of the High Court to the Governor, rather than the state legislature, and requires the Governor to obtain the consent of the President of India, who in these matters acts on the advice of the Government of India. The Official Languages Act gives the Governor a similar power, subject to similar conditions, in relation to the language in which the High Court 's judgments will be delivered.
Four states -- Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan -- have been granted the right to conduct proceedings in their High Courts in their official language, which, for all of them, was Hindi. However, the only non-Hindi state to seek a similar power -- Tamil Nadu, which sought the right to conduct proceedings in Tamil in its High Court -- had its application rejected by the central government earlier, which said it was advised to do so by the Supreme Court. In 2006, the law ministry said that it would not object to Tamil Nadu state 's desire to conduct Madras High Court proceedings in Tamil. In 2010, the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court allowed lawyers to argue cases in Tamil.
List of official languages of states of India
List of official languages of Union Territories of India
The Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution contains a list of 22 scheduled languages. At the time the constitution was enacted, inclusion in this list meant that the language was entitled to representation on the Official Languages Commission, and that the language would be one of the bases that would be drawn upon to enrich Hindi, the official language of the Union. The list has since, however, acquired further significance. The Government of India is now under an obligation to take measures for the development of these languages, such that "they grow rapidly in richness and become effective means of communicating modern knowledge. '' In addition, a candidate appearing in an examination conducted for public service at a higher level is entitled to use any of these languages as the medium in which he or she answers the paper.
Via the 92nd Constitutional amendment 2003, four new languages -- Dogri, Maithili, Santali and Bodo -- were added to the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution.
The table below lists the 22 languages set out in the Eighth Schedule as of May 2008, together with the regions where they are used.
Even though the English language is not included in the Eighth Schedule (as it is a foreign language), it is one of the official languages of the Union of India.
Of the 22 official languages, 15 are Indo - Aryan, four are Dravidian, two are Tibeto - Burman, and one is Munda.
Since 2003, a government committee has been looking into the feasibility of treating all languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution as "Official Languages of the Union ''.
The language in which communications between different states, or from the union government to a state or a person in a state, shall be sent is regulated by the Official Languages Act and, for states other than Tamil Nadu, by the Official Languages Rules. Communication between states who use Hindi as their official language is required to be in Hindi, whereas communication between a state whose official language is Hindi and one whose is not, is required to be in English, or, in Hindi with an accompanying English translation (unless the receiving state agrees to dispense with the translation).
Communication between the union and states which use Hindi as their official language (classified by the Official Language Rules as "the states in Region A ''), and with persons who live in those states, is generally in Hindi, except in certain cases. Communication with a second category of states "Region B '', which do not use Hindi as their official language but have elected to communicate with the union in Hindi (currently Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Punjab) is usually in Hindi, whilst communications sent to an individual in those states may be in either Hindi or English. Communication with all other states "Region C '', and with people living in them, is in English.
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who is jj's husband on criminal minds | Josh Stewart - wikipedia
Joshua Regnall Stewart (born February 6, 1977) is an American actor best known for his role as Holt McLaren in the FX TV series Dirt and as Detective William LaMontagne, Jr., in Criminal Minds. He was also cast as Brendan Finney in the final season of the NBC TV series Third Watch and as Barsad in Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Rises.
Stewart was born in Diana, West Virginia, the son of Margie and Charles Regnall Stewart. His father was a high school physical education teacher as well as a former pastor of the First Baptist Church in Webster Springs and Holly River Baptist Church, and is now pastor at the Redeeming Grace Baptist Church in Webster Springs. His mother is a sixth grade teacher at Webster Springs Elementary. Stewart first attended West Virginia Wesleyan College, then transferred to West Virginia University, where he studied business. After graduating from WVU, he moved to New York to pursue acting.
Stewart got his start doing local theater at the Landmark Theatre in Sutton, West Virginia, and eventually moved to New York City to study at the T. Schreiber studios. He was a company member of the 13th Street Repertory Theatre. He continued his theater in Los Angeles, performing in Light Bulb and Beacon alongside Robert Forster and Brooke Shields.
Stewart appeared as an extra in The WB series Dawson 's Creek episode "To Green, With Love ''. In 2003 he filmed a pilot for a Western for ABC entitled Then Came Jones. In the pilot he played the character of Bill Jenkins.
Stewart later appeared as Sean Cleary the CSI episode "Bad to the Bone '', which aired on April 1, 2004. That same year, he also appeared in a commercial for Levi 's 501 Original jeans. Stewart currently has a recurring role in Criminal Minds as Detective William LaMontagne, Jr., SSA Jennifer "JJ '' Jareau 's boyfriend and later, husband.
Stewart got his break when he was cast as Brendan Finney in the final season of the NBC series Third Watch. As Finney, he played the son of IAB captain Cathal "CT '' Finney.
After Third Watch was cancelled, Stewart started filming a movie entitled Lenexa, 1 Mile (released on DVD as Full Count), alongside William Baldwin, Michael Beach, Jennifer Hall, Timothy Ryan Hensel, Chris Klein, Austin Nichols, Jason Ritter, Michael Rooker, and Paul Wesley. This was also the directing debut of Jason Wiles. After filming wrapped, Stewart began filming a new television series starring Courteney Cox Arquette entitled Dirt, for the FX Network, where he played the character of Holt McLaren. On June 8, 2008, Cox Arquette announced that Dirt had been cancelled. During the 2010 - 2011 season, he appeared as Joshua in ABC 's No Ordinary Family.
In 2017, Stewart starred as Solotov on the second season of the USA Network thriller drama Shooter.
On February 26, 2018, it was announced that Stewart will join as a series regular in the second season of Netflix 's The Punisher.
Stewart made his mainstream feature film debut in 2008 's Curious Case of Benjamin Button playing the character of Benjamin 's crewmate, Pleasant Curtis. Also that year, he appeared in The Haunting of Molly Hartley in the role of Mary Hartley 's teacher, Mr. Draper. In 2009, he had his first feature film starring role, in the horror movie The Collector, playing the part of Arkin, a man attempting to rob a house to make enough money to pay off his wife 's debts to loan sharks. In 2010, he starred, alongside Jamie - Lynn Sigler in the movie Beneath the Dark, (originally titled Wake) inspired by the novel The Shining. He appeared in Christopher Nolan 's final film in his Batman Saga, The Dark Knight Rises as Bane 's right - hand man, Barsad. He appeared as the main protagonist in the 2012 webisodes, The Walking Dead: Cold Storage, which are based on the popular television show The Walking Dead. In 2013, Josh finished filming his directorial debut, The Hunted, in which he also stars. Stewart reunited in 2014 with Director Christopher Nolan as the voice of CASE in the sci - fi epic Interstellar. The same year Stewart was cast in the Disney film The Finest Hours.
Josh recently completed filming his directorial and writing debut, The Hunted. He co-produced the film along with The Collector producers Brett Forbes and Patrick Rizzotti. The ' found footage ' film revolves around Jake (Stewart) and Stevie (Ronnie Gene Blevins) who want their own TV show. In an attempt to grab the media 's attention, both Jake and Stevie head to the dense, secluded woods in West Virginia, armed with only their bows and a camera, to find the biggest guy they can. However, as the sun sets over the mountains, they soon realise they are not alone in the woods and something supernatural is hunting them instead. The film screened at TIFF and eOne Films have since picked up the North American distribution rights.
Stewart has two children with Deanna Brigidi: daughter Ryan Justine (born 2008) and son River Jacob (born 2010).
On February 27, 2012, Stewart went into cardiac arrest after contracting salmonella. His wife performed CPR for several minutes. Stewart now has an implantable cardioverter - defibrillator in his chest.
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where did the suit and tie come from | History of suits - wikipedia
The man 's suit of clothes, in the sense of a lounge or business or office suit, is a set of garments which are crafted from the same cloth. This article discusses the history of the lounge suit, often called a business suit when made in dark colours and of conservative cut.
The current styles were founded in a period of sartorial revolution during the early 19th century. This sharply changed the elaborately embroidered and jeweled formal clothing into the simpler clothing of the Regency period (1811 -- 20), which gradually evolved to the stark formality of the Victorian era (1837 - 1901). It was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the modern lounge suit.
The suit is a traditional form of men 's formal clothes in the Western world. For some four hundred years, suits of matching coat, trousers, and waistcoat have been in and out of fashion. The modern lounge suit 's derivation is visible in the outline of the brightly coloured, elaborately crafted royal court dress of the 17th century (suit, wig, knee breeches), which was shed because of the French Revolution. This evolution is seen more recently in British tailoring 's use of steam and padding in moulding woolen cloth, the rise and fall in popularity of the necktie, and the gradual disuse of waistcoats and hats in the last fifty years.
The modern lounge suit appeared in the late 19th century, but traces its origins to the simplified, sartorial standard of dress established by the English king Charles II in the 17th century. In 1666, the restored monarch, Charles II, per the example of King Louis XIV 's court at Versailles, decreed that in the English Court men would wear a long coat, a waistcoat (then called "petticoat ''), a cravat (a precursor of the necktie), a wig, and knee breeches (trousers), and a hat.
In the early 19th century, British dandy Beau Brummell redefined and adapted this style, then popularised it, leading European men to wearing well - cut, tailored clothes, adorned with carefully knotted neckties. The simplicity of the new clothes and their sombre colours contrasted strongly with the extravagant, foppish styles just before. Brummell 's influence introduced the modern era of men 's clothing which now includes the modern suit and necktie. Moreover, he introduced a whole new era of grooming and style, including regular (daily) bathing as part of a man 's toilette.
In this regency period, the predominant upper - class clothing introduced by Brummell for day wear was a tightly fitting, dark coloured tailcoat with non-matching (usually pale) trousers, pale waistcoat, white shirt and cravat and tall boots.
Towards the start of the Victorian period, the frock coat, initially not just black, became popular, and quickly became the standard daily clothing for gentlemen. From the middle of the 19th century, a new (then informal) coat, the morning coat, became acceptable. It was a less formal garment, with a cut away front, making it suitable for wearing while riding. Morning dress and the frock coat garments were not suits, because they were worn with trousers that did n't match in color or fabric; a matching waistcoat and trousers were considered informal and could be described using the short - lived term ditto suit. The frock coat was still the standard garment for all formal or business occasions, and a tailcoat was worn in the evenings.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the modern lounge suit was born as a very informal garment meant only to be worn for sports, in the country, or at the seaside.
Parallel to this, the dinner jacket was invented and came to be worn for informal evening events. It was descended from white tie (the dress code associated with the evening tailcoat) but quickly became a full new garment, the dinner jacket, with a new dress code, initially known as ' dress lounge ' and later black tie. When it was imported to the United States, it became known as the tuxedo. The ' dress lounge ' was originally worn only for small private gatherings and white tie (' White tie and tails ') was still worn for large formal events. The ' dress lounge ' slowly became more popular for larger events as an alternative to full evening dress in white tie.
The beginning of the Edwardian era in the early 20th century brought a steady decline in the wearing of frock coats as the morning coat rose in relative formality, first becoming acceptable for businessmen, then becoming standard dress even in town. The lounge suit was slowly accepted as being correct outside its original settings, and during Edwardian times gradually began to be seen in town. While still reserved for private gatherings, usually with no ladies, black tie became more common.
In North America, the "sack suit '', a cut of lounge suit, saw a large rise in popularity, and, except for the shoulders, it is unfitted, loose, and informal, as it has no darts.
After the end of the first World War, most men adopted the short lounge coated suit. Long coats quickly went out of fashion for everyday wear and business, and the morning coat gained its current classification of "formal ''. During the 1920s, short suits were always worn except on formal occasions in the daytime, when a morning coat would be worn. Older, more conservative men continued to wear a frock coat, or "Prince Albert coat '' as it was known. In America, for evening occasions, the short dinner jacket virtually replaced the long "full dress '' tails, which was perceived as "old hat '' and was only worn by old conservative men. In Britain, black tie became acceptable as a general informal alternative to white tie, though at the time the style and accessories of black tie were still very fluid.
In the 1920s men began wearing wide, straight - legged trousers with their suits. These trousers normally measured 23 inches around the cuff. Younger men often wore even wider - legged trousers which were known as "Oxford bags. '' Trousers also began to be worn cuffed shortly after World War I and this style persisted until World War II. Trousers first began to be worn creased in the 1920s. Trousers were worn very highly waisted throughout the 1920s and this fashion remained in vogue until the 1940s. Single - breasted suits were in style throughout the 1920s and the double - breasted suit was mainly worn by older more conservative men. In the 1920s, very fashionable men would often wear double - breasted waistcoats (with four buttons on each side) with single - breasted coats. Lapels on single - breasted suits were fashionably worn peaked and were often wide. In the early 1930s these styles continued and were often even further exaggerated.
Before 1935 (and again in the 1970s) men preferred snugly tailored coats and waistcoats. In 1935, a complete change in style occurred. Loose fitting coats were introduced, trousers began to be tapered at the bottom and suit coats began to have tapered arms. These new trends were only reluctantly accepted by men at first. At first the waistcoat continued to be made in the traditional fitted and snug style. By 1940, the waistcoat began to be made in a loose style which made it uncomfortable to wear. In fashion magazines of the day, men complained how these new vests continually rode up when they happen to sit down or bend over. Fashionable men changed their preference to the double - breasted suit coat at this time and it would remain in fashion for the next two decades.
By this time, morning dress was being replaced by day time semi-formal, known in America as the stroller. This was quite popular, but has actually been outlived by the morning coat. Since the 1950s it has been used as a black version of the lounge suit as an informal look to the dinner jacket. In modern times the black lounge suit has become popular to wear during the day.
Throughout the 1940s and 1950s the trend was to simplify and modernize the suit as much as possible. For example, by the 1960s the size of the lapel had shrunk to a very small size. Suit coats were also cut as straight as possible without any indication of a waistline. Cloth rationing changed styles significantly, contributing to a large reduction in the popularity of many cuts, such as the double - breasted suit.
The New York Times Style Magazine explains one iconic suit of the era, the gray flannel suit:
Back in 1955, when denim was the height of rebelliousness, Sloan Wilson 's novel The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit turned a men 's classic into a synonym for drab, middle - class conformity... Flannel had humble beginnings -- the name is reputedly derived from "gwlanen, '' Welsh for woolen cloth -- and was used for underwear in the 19th century. In the 1880s white flannel was worn for summer sports; by the 1920s the more seasonless gray had become a favorite. When the Prince of Wales wore gray flannel trousers on his 1924 trip to America, they were aped by collegiates on both sides of the Atlantic. Cary Grant and Fred Astaire then carried the trend through to the 1940s. The archetypal square of the postwar era was later described by Esquire 's style encyclopedia as a neat, circumspect, conservative man who carried an attaché case and regarded a pink button - down shirt as his one sartorial fling.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s the Nehru jacket style was worn by a few in the United States -- Johnny Carson for example.
In the 1970s, a snug - fitting suit coat became popular once again and this style permitted the return of the waistcoat. This new three - piece suit style became associated with disco music and its culture, specifically popularised by the film Saturday Night Fever, where the tight waistcoat was basic to that fashion. The tight three - piece suit was equated with the discothèque culture. The socially conservative backlash against disco music culture ended the popularity of snug - fitting three piece suits.
In the late 1970s, several brands, most notably Haggar, started to introduce the concept of "suit separates '', separately sized coats and pants allowing a man to purchase the appropriate coat and pant size. "The concept of ' Custom Fit Suits ' was a Haggar innovation allowing gentlemen to purchase jackets and pants separately, by size, which eliminated the need for tailoring the pant. '' '
The 1980s saw a trend towards the simplification of the suit once again. The jacket became looser and the waistcoat was completely dispensed with. A few suit makers continued to make waistcoats, but these tended to be cut very low and often had only four buttons. The waistline on the suit coat went down again in the 1980s to a position well below the waist. By 1985 - 1986, three - piece suits were on the way out and making way for cut double - breasted suits and two piece single - breasted.
The late 1990s saw the return to popularity of the three - button two - piece suit, which then went back out of fashion some time in the first decade of the 21st Century.
The earliest women 's suits were riding habits, which consisted of a tailored coat or jacket and matching skirt from the 1660s. Practical and sturdy, riding habits were worn not only on horseback, but also for travel and other daytime pursuits. Jacket - and - skirt ensembles not intended for riding appeared in the later 19th century. Both riding habits and walking suits reflected the skirt and sleeve styles of the day. Until the 1910s, coat and skirt ensembles were usually described as "costumes '' rather than suits, and the term "suit '', as applied to such sets, was not usual until after the First World War.
In the first half of the 20th century, the skirted suit became the common daytime city costume for women, in the workplace and out; dressmaker suits featured softer fabrics and "feminine '' details, and cocktail suits were worn for semi-formal occasions in mid-century.
Under the influence of Dress for Success, a working woman 's uniform of skirted suit, tailored shirt, and floppy tie evolved in the 1970s and 1980s. Pantsuits (women 's suits with trousers) were introduced by designer André Courrèges in 1964 but were only gradually accepted as formal business attire.
Over the past half - century, the wearing of suits has become far less common than it once was and is now usually reserved for formal and business activities. During the 1990s, many businesses in North America adopted casual dress codes, beginning with "casual Fridays '' and then extending to the entire business week. The abandonment of a uniform dress code has led to considerable confusion over what is considered appropriate business wear. More recently, some businesses have reinforced the wearing of suits, although they may never again be as common as they once were. A similar trend has occurred in Europe.
Although the man 's tailored suit is commonly perceived as the ultimate conservative costume of Western culture, extravagant variations on the tailored suit have been adopted by many subcultures over the last century as a matter of fashion or social identity. As early as 1922, Emily Post addressed what she termed the "freak American suit '' in her influential guide Etiquette:
Some of the non-traditional tailored suit styles of the past century include:
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where did the groundhog day tradition come from | Groundhog Day - wikipedia
Groundhog Day, (Pennsylvania German: Grund'sau dåk, Grundsaudaag, Grundsow Dawg, Murmeltiertag; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular tradition celebrated in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog (Deitsch: Grundsau, Grunddax, Dax) emerging from its burrow on this day sees a shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den and winter will persist for six more weeks, and if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early. While the tradition remains popular in modern times, studies have found no consistent correlation between a groundhog seeing its shadow or not and the subsequent arrival time of spring - like weather.
The weather lore was brought from German - speaking areas where the badger (German: dachs) is the forecasting animal. This appears to be an enhanced version of the lore that clear weather on Candlemas forebodes a prolonged winter.
The Groundhog Day ceremony held at Punxsutawney in western Pennsylvania, centering around a semi-mythical groundhog named Punxsutawney Phil, has become the most attended. Grundsow Lodges in Pennsylvania Dutch Country in the southeast part of the state celebrate them as well. Other cities in the United States and Canada have also adopted the event.
The 1993 film Groundhog Day helped boost recognition of the custom, and the celebration has spread even further afield. In 2009, Quebec began to mark the day (Canadian French: Jour de la Marmotte) with its own groundhog.
The observance of Groundhog Day in the United States first occurred in German communities in Pennsylvania, according to known records.
The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is a February 2, 1840 entry in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, Pennsylvania, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock.
The first reported news of a Groundhog Day observance was arguably made by the Punxsutawney Spirit newspaper of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania in 1886: "up to the time of going to press, the beast has not seen its shadow ''. However, it was not until the following year in 1887 that the first Groundhog Day considered "official '' was commemorated here, with a group making a trip to the Gobbler 's Knob part of town to consult the groundhog. People have gathered annually at the spot for the event ever since.
Clymer Freas (1867 -- 1942) who was city editor at the Punxsutawney Spirit is credited as the "father '' who conceived the idea of "Groundhog Day ''. It has also been suggested that Punxsutawney was where all the Groundhog Day events originated, from where it spread to other parts of the United States and Canada.
The Groundhog Day celebrations of the 1880s were carried out by the Punxsutawney Elks Lodge. The lodge members were the "genesis '' of the Groundhog Club formed later, which continued the Groundhog Day tradition. But the lodge started out being interested in the groundhog as a game animal for food. It had started to serve groundhog at the lodge, and had been organizing a hunting party on a day each year in late summer.
The chronologies given are somewhat inconsistent in the literature. The first "Groundhog Picnic '' was held in 1887 according to a book for popular reading by an academic, but given as post-circa - 1889 by a local historian in a journal. The historian states that around 1889 the meat was served in the lodge 's banquet, and the organized hunt started after that.
Either way, the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club was formed in 1899, and continued the hunt and "Groundhog Feast '', which took place annually in September. The "hunt '' portion of it became increasingly a ritualized formality, because the practical procurement of meat had to occur well ahead of time for marinating. A drink called the "groundhog punch '' was also served. The flavor has been described as a "cross between pork and chicken ''. The hunt and feast did not attract enough outside interest, and the practice discontinued.
The largest Groundhog Day celebration is held in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, where crowds as large as 40,000 gather each year (nearly eight times the year - round population of the town). The average draw had been about 2,000 until the year after the movie screened in 1993, after which attendance rose to about 10,000. The official Phil is pretended to be a supercentenarian, having been the same forecasting beast since 1887.
The Slumbering Groundhog Lodge, which was formed in 1907, has carried out the ceremonies that take place in Quarryville, Pennsylvania. It used to be a contending rival to Punxsutawney over the Groundhog Day fame. It employs a taxidermic specimen (stuffed woodchuck).
In southeastern Pennsylvania, Groundhog Lodges (Grundsow Lodges) celebrate the holiday with fersommlinge, social events in which food is served, speeches are made, and one or more g'spiel (plays or skits) are performed for entertainment. The Pennsylvania German dialect is the only language spoken at the event, and those who speak English pay a penalty, usually in the form of a nickel, dime, or quarter per word spoken, with the money put into a bowl in the center of the table.
Staten Island Chuck is the official weather - forecasting woodchuck for New York City. Dunkirk Dave (a stage name for numerous groundhogs that have filled the role since 1960) is the local groundhog for Western New York, handled by Bob Will, a typewriter repairman who runs a rescue shelter for groundhogs.
In Washington, DC, the Dupont Circle Groundhog Day event features Potomac Phil, another taxidermic specimen. In addition to the spring prediction, if Potomac Phil sees its shadow, it portents six more months of political gridlock.
In the American South, the General Beauregard Lee of Lilburn, Georgia is known to have the most accurate prediction, standing at 94 %. The University of Dallas in Irving, Texas has boasted of hosting the second largest Groundhog celebration in the world.
The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States, including Wiarton Willie of Wiarton, Ontario, and Shubenacadie Sam in Nova Scotia which, due to Nova Scotia 's Atlantic Time Zone, makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. "Daks Day '' (from the German dachs) is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.
In French Canada, Fred la marmotte of Val - d'Espoir has been the representative forecaster for the province of Quebec since 2009. A study also shows that in Quebec, the marmot or groundhog (siffleux) are regarded as Candlemas weather - predicting beasts in some scattered spots, but the bear is the more usual animal.
In 2017 Groundhog Day was scheduled to be observed at zoos in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Samara, Russia.
The Pennsylvania Dutch were immigrants from German - speaking areas of Europe. The Germans already had a tradition of marking Candlemas (February 2) as "Badger Day '' (Dachstag), where if a badger emerging found it to be a sunny day thereby casting a shadow, it foreboded the prolonging of winter by four more weeks.
The Candlemas was a Catholic festival officially eliminated by the Protestant Reformers, but it had been retained and continued to be celebrated by the folk.
The weather - predicting animal on Candlemas was usually the badger, although regionally the animal was the bear or the fox. The original weather - predicting animal in Germany had been the bear, another hibernating mammal, but when they grew scarce the lore became altered.
Similarity to the groundhog lore has been noted for the German formula "Sonnt sich der Dachs in der Lichtmeßwoche, so geht er auf vier Wochen wieder zu Loche '' (If the badger sunbathes during Candlemas - week, for four more weeks he will be back in his hole). A slight variant is found in a collection of weather lore (bauernregeln, lit. "farmers ' rules '') printed in Austria in 1823.
So the same tradition as the Germans, except that winter 's spell would be prolonged for six weeks instead of four, was maintained by the Pennsylvanians on Groundhog Day. In Germany, the animal was dachs or badger. For the Pennsylvania Dutch, it became the dox which in Deitsch referred to "groundhog ''.
The standard term for "groundhog '' was grun ′ daks (from German dachs), with the regional variant in York County being grundsau, a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th - century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins "Der zwet Hær ′ ning is Grund ′ sau dåk. Wânn di grundau îr schâtte sent... ('' February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow...) '' is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph. The form grundsow has been used by the lodge in Allentown and elsewhere.
The groundhog was once also known by the obsolete Latin alias Arctomys monax. The genus name signified "bear - rat ''. The European marmot is of the same genus and was formerly called Arctomys alpinus. It was speculated that the European counterpart might have lore similar to the groundhog attached to it.
The German version, with the introduction of the badger (or other beasts) was an expansion on a more simple tradition that if the weather was sunny and clear on Candlemas Day people expected winter to continue. The simpler version is summarized in the English (Scots dialect) couplet that runs "If Candlemas is fair and clear / There 'll be twa winters in the year '', with equivalent phrases in French and German. And the existence of a corresponding Latin couplet has been suggested as evidence of the great antiquity of this tradition.
In fact, the Christian Candlemas itself was an assimilation of the Roman rite for the goddess Februa with a procession on February 2, to honor her, according to Yoder. The Roman calendar, in turn, had Celtic origins. Candlemas concurs with Imbolc, one of the Celtic ' cross-quarter days ', the four days which marked the midpoints between solstice and equinox.
Scholar Rhys Carpenter in 1946 emphasized that the Badger Day tradition was strong in Germany, but absent in the British Isles (England, Scotland, or Ireland), and he referred to this as a reason that the U.S. Groundhog Day was not brought by immigrants from these places.
There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland - born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer / journalist Samuel Adams Drake 's book published in 1900.
There are also claims of Irish lore that the hedgehog emerging out of hibernation on Brigid 's Day (February 1) is a predictor of weather, and a few Celtic scholars advocate this modern Christian Irish lore to be the source of the Groundhog Day tradition in the United States.
In Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney Phil has become a popular tradition. On February 2nd, people within the city will gather to find out whether or not Phil 's shadow is revealed. With that, he will allegedly determine whether spring will soon begin by not seeing his shadow, or if winter will ensue for six more weeks.
Punxsutawney Phil 's statistics are kept by the Pennsylvania 's Groundhog Club which cares for the animal. Phil has predicted 103 forecasts for winter and just 17 for an early spring. Most assessments of Phil 's accuracy have given accuracy lower than would be expected with random chance, with Stormfax Almanac giving an estimate of 39 %, and meteorologist Tim Roche of Weather Underground giving a 36 % accuracy rate between 1969 and 2016 (a range chosen because local weather data was most reliable from 1969 onward) and a 47 % record in that time span when predicting early spring. Other poor results from analysis are reported by the Farmer 's Almanac (which itself has been known for forecasts of questionable accuracy) as "exactly 50 percent '' accuracy, and The National Geographic Society reporting only 28 % success. But a Middlebury College team found that a long - term analysis of temperature high / low predictions were 70 % accurate, although when the groundhog predicted early spring it was usually wrong. Canadian meteorologist Cindy Day has estimated that Nova Scotia 's "Shubenacadie Sam '' has an accuracy rate of about 45 % compared to 25 % for Wiarton Willy in Ontario.
Part of the problem with pinning down an accuracy rate for the groundhog is that what constitutes an early spring is not clearly defined. Other groundhogs such as Staten Island Chuck do use an objective formula (in Chuck 's case, a majority of days that reach 40 ° F (4 ° C) in New York City between Groundhog Day and the March equinox) to assess accuracy.
Prediction based on an animal 's behavior, which may seem ridiculous nowadays, used to be given more credence in the past when stores of food became scarce as winter progressed.
One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather.
Groundhogs are creatures within the rodent family that weigh between 12 and 15 pounds and can live up to 8 years. These animals are omnivores, but commonly feast on grass, vegetables, and fruit. Groundhogs have the ability to climb trees and, much like beavers, swim. Each fall, groundhogs go into hibernation until March. When the animals emerge from hibernation, their initial purpose is to find a mate.
In Croatia and Serbia, Orthodox Christians have a tradition that on February 2 (Candlemas) or February 15 (Sretenje, The Meeting of the Lord), the bear will awaken from winter dormancy, and if it sees (meets) its own shadow in this sleepy and confused state, it will get scared and go back to sleep for an additional 40 days, thus prolonging the winter. Thus, if it is sunny on Sretenje, it is a sign that the winter is not over yet. If it is cloudy, it is a good sign that the winter is about to end.
Similarly in Germany, on the 27th of June, they recognize the Seven Sleepers ' Day (Siebenschläfertag). If it rains that day, the rest of summer is supposedly going to be rainy. As well, in the United Kingdom, the 15th of July is known as St. Swithin 's day. It was traditionally believed that, if it rained on that day, it would rain for the next 40 days and nights.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who has more members boy scouts or girl scouts | Boy Scouts of America - Wikipedia
The Boy Scouts of America (BSA) is one of the largest Scouting organizations in the United States of America and one of the largest youth organizations in the United States, with more than 2.4 million youth participants and nearly one million adult volunteers. The BSA was founded in 1910, and since then, more than 110 million Americans have been participants in BSA programs at some time. The BSA is part of the international Scout Movement and became a founding member organization of the World Organization of the Scout Movement in 1922.
The BSA 's goal is to train youth in responsible citizenship, character development, and self - reliance through participation in a wide range of outdoor activities, educational programs, and, at older age levels, career - oriented programs in partnership with community organizations. For younger members, the Scout method is part of the program to instill typical Scouting values such as trustworthiness, good citizenship, and outdoors skills, through a variety of activities such as camping, aquatics, and hiking. In order to further these outdoor activities, the BSA has four high - adventure bases: Northern Tier (Minnesota, Manitoba, and Ontario), Philmont Scout Ranch (New Mexico), Sea Base (Florida), and Summit Bechtel Reserve (West Virginia).
The traditional Scouting divisions are Cub Scouting for boys ages 7 to 11 years, Boy Scouting for boys ages 11 to 18 and Venturing for young men and women ages 14 (or 13 and having completed the 8th grade) through 21. Learning for Life is a non-traditional subsidiary that provides in - school and career education. Starting in 2018, girls will be allowed to join Cub Scout dens, and in 2019, programs for older girls will allow for a path to earn the rank of Eagle Scout.
The BSA operates traditional Scouting by chartering local organizations, such as churches, clubs, civic associations, or educational organization, to implement the Scouting program for youth within their communities. Units are led entirely by volunteers appointed by the chartering organization, who are supported by local councils using both paid professional Scouters and volunteers.
The progressive movement in the United States was at its height during the early 20th century. With the migration of families from farms to cities, there were concerns among some people that young men were no longer learning patriotism and individualism. The YMCA was an early promoter of reforms for young men with a focus on social welfare and programs of mental, physical, social and religious development.
BSA had two notable predecessors in the United States: the Woodcraft Indians started by Ernest Thompson Seton in 1902 in Cos Cob, Connecticut, and the Sons of Daniel Boone founded by Daniel Carter Beard in 1905 in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1907, Robert Baden - Powell, founded the Scouting movement in England using elements of Seton 's works among other influences. Several Scout programs for boys started independently in the US. (see Scouting in the United States). Many of these Scout programs in the US merged with the BSA.
In 1909, Chicago publisher W.D. Boyce was visiting London, where he encountered a boy who came to be known as the Unknown Scout. Boyce was lost on a foggy street when an unknown Scout came to his aid, guiding him to his destination. The boy then refused Boyce 's tip, explaining that he was a Boy Scout and was merely doing his daily good turn. Interested in the Boy Scouts, Boyce met with staff at the Boy Scouts Headquarters and, by some accounts, Baden - Powell. Upon his return to the US, Boyce incorporated the Boy Scouts of America on February 8, 1910. Edgar M. Robinson and Lee F. Hanmer became interested in the nascent BSA and convinced Boyce to turn the program over to the YMCA for development in April 1910. Robinson enlisted Seton, Beard, Charles Eastman, and other prominent leaders in the early youth movements. Former president Theodore Roosevelt, who had long complained of the decline in American manhood, became an ardent supporter. In January 1911, Robinson turned the movement over to James E. West who became the first Chief Scout Executive and Scouting began to expand in the US
The BSA 's stated purpose at its incorporation in 1910 was "to teach (boys) patriotism, courage, self - reliance, and kindred values. '' Later, in 1937, Deputy Chief Scout Executive George J. Fisher expressed the BSA 's mission: "Each generation as it comes to maturity has no more important duty than that of teaching high ideals and proper behavior to the generation which follows. '' The current mission statement of the BSA is "to prepare young people to make ethical and moral choices over their lifetimes by instilling in them the values of the Scout Oath and Law. '' The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints was the first partner to sponsor Scouting in the United States, adopting the program in 1913 as part of its Mutual Improvement Association program for young men.
The BSA holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, which means that it is one of the comparatively rare "Title 36 '' corporations in the United States. On behalf of the BSA, Paul Sleman, Colin H. Livingstone, Ernest S. Martin, and James E. West successfully lobbied Congress for a federal charter for the BSA which President Woodrow Wilson signed on June 15, 1916. One of the principal reasons for seeking a congressional charter was as a way to deal with competition from other Scout organizations including the United States Boy Scouts and the Lone Scouts of America, The 1916 statute of incorporation established this institution among a small number of other patriotic and national organizations which are similarly chartered, such as the Girl Scouts of the USA, the American Legion, the Red Cross, Little League Baseball, and the National Academy of Sciences. The federal incorporation was originally construed primarily as an honor; however, it does grant the chartered organization some special privileges and rights, including freedom from antitrust and monopoly regulation and complete control over the organization 's symbols and insignia. The special recognition neither implies nor accords Congress any special control over the BSA, which remains free to function independently.
In the BSA, Scouting is considered to be one movement with four main programs:
There are about 100,000 physically or mentally disabled Scouts throughout the United States. Anyone certified as disabled "may enroll in Scouting and remain in its program beyond the regulation age limits. This provision allows all members to advance in Scouting as far as they wish. '' Advancement is measured by the achievement to the best of the Scout 's abilities.
The Boy Scouts of America offers several other programs and subprograms beyond the traditional membership:
Learning for Life is a school and work - site based program that is a subsidiary of the BSA. It utilizes programs designed for schools and community - based organizations that are designed to prepare youth for the complexities of contemporary society and to enhance their self - confidence, motivation, and self - esteem. Exploring is the worksite - based program of Learning for Life with programs based on five areas of emphasis: career opportunities, life skills, citizenship, character education, and leadership experience.
Learning for Life is not considered a traditional Scouting program; it does not use the Scout Promise, Scout Law, uniforms, or insignia of traditional Scouting. All Learning for Life programs are open to youth and adults without restriction based on gender, residence, sexual orientation, or other considerations other than age requirements.
Unlike the BSA 's Learning for Life, membership in the traditional BSA programs has been more restricted and controversial. Until recently, girls were not allowed to join Cub Scouting or Boy Scouting, but could join Venturing and Sea Scouting; women can be adult volunteers in all programs. On October 11, 2017, the BSA announced that girls would be allowed to become Cub Scouts, starting in 2018, and that in 2019, a separate program for older girls will be available, enabling girls to earn the rank of Eagle Scout.
Today, the BSA does not prohibit gay and lesbian adults or youth from participation. The BSA does prohibit members who are atheist and agnostic based on its "duty to God '' principle.
In 2000, the Supreme Court ruled in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale that Boy Scouts, and all similar private voluntary organizations, have the constitutionally protected right under the First Amendment of freedom of association to set membership standards. In 2004, the BSA adopted a new policy statement, including a "Youth Leadership '' policy that disallowed members to continue in leadership positions in the event they were to hold themselves out as "open and avowed homosexuals. ''
At the Scouts annual meeting in April 2012, a leader from the Northeast presented a resolution that "would allow individual units to accept gays as adult leaders ''. However, in July 2012, at the culmination of a review started in 2010, an 11 - person committee convened by the BSA reached a "unanimous consensus '' recommending retaining the current policy. Intel, UPS, and Merck cut financial ties with the BSA over the policy decision. Within the BSA National Executive Board, members James Turley, CEO of Ernst & Young, and Randall Stephenson, CEO of AT&T and who was then "on track to become president of the Scout 's national board in 2014 '' and later was, publicly opposed the policy and stated their intention "to work from within the BSA Board to actively encourage dialogue and sustainable progress '' in changing the policy. On January 28, 2013, the BSA announced they were considering rescinding the ban on homosexuals, allowing chartered organizations to determine local policy.
On May 23, 2013, 61 % of the 1,400 - member BSA National Council voted to remove the restriction denying membership to youth on the basis of sexual orientation while emphasizing that any sexual conduct, whether heterosexual or homosexual, is not allowed. The resolution went into effect on January 1, 2014, but Scout leaders who were "open and avowed homosexuals '' were still prohibited. The policy specifically states that BSA does not inquire into a person 's sexuality. Gay rights groups hailed the decision, but vowed to press on until all gay members were accepted. Some churches and conservative members threatened to quit the Boy Scouts in response. On June 12, 2013, the Southern Baptist Convention passed non-binding resolutions urging the BSA not to change their policy. In September 2013, a new Scouting group called Trail Life USA was created. Subsequently, some Christian denomination congregations replaced their Boy Scouts of America troops with those of Trail Life USA.
In May 2015, Boy Scouts of America President Robert Gates said it was time to end the ban on gay leaders. Gates said, it "can not be sustained, '' any longer. On July 10, 2015, the Boy Scouts of America Executive Committee agreed, and referred the matter to the National Executive Board. On July 27, 2015, the Boy Scouts of America National Executive Board voted to lift the organization 's blanket ban on openly gay leaders and employees. Local chartering organizations are still permitted to set their own standards based on religious principle for selecting the adult volunteers for their unit.
On January 30, 2017, the Boy Scouts of America announced that transgender boys would be allowed to enroll in boys - only programs, effective immediately. Previously, the sex listed on an applicant 's birth certificate determined eligibility for these programs; going forward, the decision would be based on the gender listed on the application. Joe Maldonado became the first openly transgender boy to join the Scouts on February 7, 2017. In 2016, he was rejected from the Boy Scouts for being transgender, but the policy was changed after his story became nationally known.
The objectives of the BSA are referred to as Aims of Scouting: moral character development; citizenship training; and development of physical, mental, and emotional fitness. The BSA pursues these aims through an informal education system called the Scout method, with variations that are designed to be appropriate for the age and maturity of each membership division. Each unit is sponsored by a community organization as part of their youth program and is involved in the neighborhood and community.
Cub Scouts wear a uniform that gives each boy a level of identity within the den, the pack and the community. The boys learn teamwork by meeting and working together in a den of four to ten boys under adult leadership. They learn and apply the ideals codified in the Cub Scout Promise and the Law of the Pack, and in the Character Connections program that develops the core values of citizenship, compassion, cooperation, courage, faith, health and fitness, honesty, perseverance, positive attitude, resourcefulness, respect and responsibility. The advancement system uses both age - based ranks and an optional Academics and Sports Program designed for the development of physical, mental and emotional fitness. Most advancement is done in the home and is intended to involve the entire family and many Cub Scout activities include family members.
Boy Scouts learn to use the ideals spelled out in the Scout Oath, the Scout Law, the Outdoor Code, the Scout motto ("Be prepared ''), and the Scout slogan ("Do a good turn daily ''). They wear a uniform and work together in patrols of four to ten boys with an elected patrol leader. Scouts share responsibilities, apply skills learned at meetings and live together in the outdoors. The advancement system provides opportunities for personal growth and self - reliance. Scouts interact with adult leaders who act as role models and mentors, but they are expected to plan their own activities within the troop and to participate in community service. Opportunities are provided for leadership training with practical application.
Venturers are expected to know and live by the Venturing Oath and Venturing Code. They associate and work directly with adults as partners, but the crew is led by elected youth officers who are given opportunities to learn and apply leadership skills. Venturers plan and participate in interdependent group experiences dependent on cooperation. An emphasis on high adventure provides opportunities for team - building and practical leadership applications. A series of awards provide opportunities for recognition and personal growth. Each award requires the Venturer to teach what they have learned to others returning the skill and knowledge back to the community and enabling the Venturer to master those skills.
In October 2012, the National Council announced that, as a result of the findings and recommendations of a select committee made up of volunteer Scouters, the Cub Scout and Venturing programs would transition to use of the Boy Scout Oath and Promise, and in the case of the Venturers, the Boy Scout three - finger salute and sign as well. The Venturing change will occur in late 2013 or early 2014; the Cub Scout change will take effect in mid-2015.
Eagle Scout is the highest rank one can receive in BSA. A Scout who attains this rank is called an Eagle Scout. Since its introduction in 1911, the Eagle Scout rank has been earned by more than two million young men. Requirements include earning at least 21 merit badges and demonstrating Scout Spirit through the Boy Scout Oath and Law, service, and leadership all before or by age 18. This includes an extensive service project that the Scout plans, organizes, leads, and manages. Eagle Scouts are presented with a medal and a badge that visibly recognizes the accomplishments of the Scout. Additional recognition can be earned through Eagle Palms, awarded for completing additional tenure, leadership, and merit badge requirements. Many famous Americans are Eagle Scouts: astronaut Neil Armstrong, film director Michael Moore, TV host Mike Rowe, Steven Spielberg, Mayor Michael Bloomberg, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, and President Gerald Ford are just a small sample of Eagle Scouts.
The national Scout jamboree is a gathering of Boy Scouts from across the US. It is usually held every four years, with some adjustment for special years such as the 2010 National Scout Jamboree that celebrated the BSA centennial. The first jamboree was held in 1937 at the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. Since then, jamborees have been held in varying locations. Beginning in 1981, the jamboree has been held at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. A permanent location owned by the BSA was sought in 2008 for future jamborees, high adventure programs and training. The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve near Beckley, West Virginia is now the permanent site beginning with the 2013 National Scout Jamboree.
The Boy Scouts of America operates several high adventure bases at the national level. Each offers a wide range of programs and training -- a typical core program may include sailing, wilderness canoeing or wilderness backpacking trips. These bases are administered by the High Adventure Division of the National Council.
Current high - adventure bases of the Boy Scouts of America include Philmont Scout Ranch, Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases, Florida National High Adventure Sea Base, and The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve.
The BSA offers a wide variety of mandatory and optional training programs in youth protection, outdoor skills and leadership.
Every adult leader must complete Youth Protection Training, and then is strongly encouraged to complete a general overview training called This is Scouting, and a Fast Start training specific to his / her program level. Position - specific training is then offered for all direct - contact leaders. Upon completion of basic training, a leader may wear the Trained emblem on his / her BSA uniform.
Supplemental skill - specific training is also available to BSA volunteers to gain knowledge in outdoors skills including camping, hiking, first aid, Leave No Trace, swim safety, climbing safety, hazardous weather, and other skills.
The highest level of BSA training is Wood Badge, which is focused on helping participants develop leadership skills while participating in an outdoor program over two weekends. Some councils offer high - adventure training for adults using the Powder Horn program. Sea Scouting leaders can take the Seabadge advanced leadership and management course.
Boy Scout and Varsity Scout youth leaders may attend the unit - level Troop Leadership Training. Local councils offer the advanced National Youth Leadership Training and the National Council offers the National Advanced Youth Leadership Experience conducted at Philmont Training Center. The Boy Scouts of America also offers the NYLT Leadership Academy which trains youth staff members from across the country for council - level NYLT courses.
Venturers and Sea Scouts may attend the unit - level Introduction to Leadership Skills for Crews or Introduction to Leadership Skills for Ships. Crew officers can attend Crew Officer Orientation, and then a council - provided Kodiak leadership training program.
Order of the Arrow members may attend the National Leadership Seminar, run multiple times each year by each region.
The Boy Scouts of America operates a National Camping School program, which trains people how to run various departments or areas at the Boy Scout summer camps. Some online training is offered, but most areas require an in - person week - long training program at one of the National Camping Schools. After successfully completing a week - long program, a person is entitled to wear the National Camping School patch. The regular size patch may be worn on the right breast shirt pocket, in the temporary patch spot. National Camping School certification is valid for five years.
The National Council is the corporate membership of the Boy Scouts of America and consists of volunteer Scouters who meet annually. The day - to - day operations of the National Council are administered by the Chief Scout Executive and other national professional staff. National Council members include volunteers who are elected National Officers and Executive Board members, regional presidents, the local council representatives, members at large, and honorary members. The national headquarters has been in Irving, Texas since 1979.
Since the founding of the BSA in 1910, the President of the United States has served as the organization 's honorary president during his term in office.
The BSA National Executive Board governs the organization. The 2015 National Executive Board consisted of 79 members.
The board is led by the national president, a volunteer elected by the National Council. Board members included regular elected members, regional presidents, and up to five appointed youth members. The Chief Scout Executive is the board secretary and non-voting member. The National Executive Board has a number of standing committees that correspond to the professional staff organization of the National Council.
Present and past members of the National Executive Board include former presidential nominee Mitt Romney, Ernst & Young CEO James Turley and AT&T CEO Randall Stephenson. Other members include LDS Church President Thomas S. Monson.
The Program Impact Division is responsible for developing the Scouting program and includes the volunteer committees and staff working on volunteer training, youth development, and other program impact needs. The All Markets membership emphasis includes focus groups and special committees working to improve outreach to youth and families in various underserved ethnic populations, with literature and marketing materials targeting Hispanic / Latino families, Asian - American families, and African - American families. The BSA also participates in the American Indian Scouting Association in partnership with the Girl Scouts of the USA.
The Outdoor Adventure Division oversees four high adventure bases Philmont Scout Ranch, Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases, The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve, and Florida National High Adventure Sea Base, as well as other special programs and the Order of the Arrow.
Other divisions provides support for the world and national jamborees and International Scouting relations. The Membership Impact Division works to sustain marketing efforts and relationships with the national organizations that make up the predominant number of chartered organizations, such as Lions International, Rotary International, Kiwanis International, American Legion, Elks, VFW, and all religious denominations chartering BSA units.
The National Supply Group is responsible for developing and selling uniforms, apparel, insignia, literature, and equipment. It sells equipment and supplies through National Scout Shops, local council trading posts, authorized independent resellers, and online at ScoutStuff.org. Supply Group also licenses trademarks for use by other commercial vendors. The Administrative Group provides internal administration service and support. It includes the Marketing and Communications Division responsible for marketing the BSA program, administering the national websites, and publishing Scouting for adult leaders and Boys ' Life for youth.
The National Scouting Museum is located in Irving, Texas. Exhibits include Norman Rockwell paintings, high adventure sections, hands - on learning experiences, interactive exhibits, and a historical collection tracing uniforms, themes, and documents from the beginning of the Scouting movement in America. Among the museum 's artifacts are the Eagle Scout medal of Arthur Rose Eldred, the first Eagle Scout.
The National Court of Honor certifies the BSA 's highest awards: lifesaving and meritorious action awards, distinguished service awards, Eagle Scout and Quartermaster.
For administrative purposes, the BSA is divided into four regions -- Western, Central, Southern and Northeast. Each region is then subdivided into areas.
Each region has a volunteer president, assisted by volunteer officers, board members, and committee members. The day - to - day work of Scouting is managed by the regional director, assistant and associate regional directors, and area directors. Regions and areas are subdivisions of the National Council and do not have a corporate status separate from the BSA.
The BSA program is administered through 272 local councils, with each council covering a geopolitical area that may vary from a single city to an entire state. Councils receive an annual charter from the National Council and are usually incorporated as a charitable organization.
The council level organization is similar to that of the National Council. The council executive board is headed by the council president and is made up of annually elected local community leaders. The board establishes the council program and carries out the resolutions, policies, and activities of the council. Board members serve without pay and some are volunteer Scouters working at the unit level. Youth members may be selected to the council executive board according to the council by - laws.
The Scout executive manages council operations -- including finance, property management, advancement and awards, registrations, and Scout Shop sales -- with a staff of other professionals and para-professionals. Volunteer commissioners lead the unit service functions of the council, help maintain the standards of the BSA, and assures a healthy unit program.
The BSA charters two councils for American Scouts living overseas, largely on military bases in Europe and Asia. The Transatlantic Council, headquartered in Livorno, Italy, serves BSA units in much of Europe, and the Far East Council, headquartered in Japan, serves units in the western Pacific areas. The Direct Service branch makes the Scouting movement available to US citizens and their dependents living in countries outside these jurisdictions or in isolated areas. The Aloha Council in Hawaii also serves BSA units in the American territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and in the sovereign countries of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau.
The Greater New York Councils are unique in that they are divided into five boroughs with each led by a borough Scout executive and each borough then divided into districts. Similarly, due to Scouting population and geographic distance, the Utah National Parks Council is divided into 12 Sectors with each led by a volunteer assistant vice president and assistant council commissioner with each sector then divided into districts.
Councils are divided into districts with leadership provided by the district executive, district chairman, and the district commissioner. Districts are directly responsible for the operation of Scouting units and, except for the district executive, are mostly staffed with volunteers. The voting members of each district consist of volunteer representatives from each chartered organization having at least one BSA unit, plus annually elected members - at - large who in turn elect the district chairman. Boroughs and districts are subdivisions of the local council and do not have a separate corporate status.
The Boy Scouts of America partners with community organizations, such as religious congregations, fraternal groups, service clubs, and other community associations, to provide the Scouting program for the particular neighborhood or community in which the particular organization wishes to outreach to youth and families. These organizations hold charters issued by the BSA and are known then as chartered organizations. Each chartered organization provides the meeting place for BSA youth, oversees the volunteer leaders, and agrees to follow the basic BSA safety policies and values - based program, and the organization is considered the "owner '' of its local program, much like a franchise.
Within each chartered organization, there may be one or more "units ''. A unit is a group of youth and adults which are collectively designated as a Cub Scout pack, Boy Scout troop, Varsity Scout team, or Venturing crew / Sea Scout ship. Each chartered organization may charter as many units as it wishes, but usually only 3 or 4 (one unit for each program level). The BSA council provides the leader training, inter-unit activities, camping programs, volunteer and professional support, and insurance coverage. Units also create their own activities (such as monthly camping trips, outings, or service projects), and most meet weekly at the place of the chartered organization for youth to learn basic skill development and practice leadership in small groups known as dens and patrols.
The National Council is incorporated as a 501 (c) (3) non-profit organization and is funded from private donations, membership dues, corporate sponsors, and special events with total revenues of $237 million.
In addition to donations from individuals, the BSA receives extensive donations from major corporations. In 2010, their top corporate donors were, in order, Intel, Emerson, Verizon, 3M, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, Pfizer, Valero, UPS, U.S. Bank, Eli Lilly, GE, and Monsanto. However, Intel and UPS cut funding to BSA in 2012.
Scouting and Boy Scouts are well known throughout American culture. The term "Boy Scout '' is used to generally describe someone who is earnest and honest, or who helps others cheerfully; it can also be used as a pejorative term for someone deemed to be overly idealistic.
Prominent Americans in diverse walks of life, from filmmaker Steven Spielberg (who helped launch a merit badge in cinematography) to adventurer Steve Fossett to politicians, were BSA members as youths. Over two - thirds of all astronauts have had some type of involvement in Scouting, and eleven of the twelve men to walk on the Moon were Scouts, including Eagle Scouts Neil Armstrong and Charlie Duke. The pinewood derby -- a wood car racing event for Cub Scouts -- has been declared "a celebrated rite of spring '' and was named part of "America 's 100 Best '' by Reader 's Digest.
President Gerald Ford said, "I can say without hesitation, because of Scouting principles, I know I was a better athlete, I was a better naval officer, I was a better congressman, and I was a better prepared President. ''
Famed American illustrator Norman Rockwell 's works were closely associated with the Boy Scouts of America for much of the 20th century. Beginning in 1913, Rockwell began illustrating covers of Boys ' Life, the magazine for BSA youth. He also drew the organization 's annual calendar illustrations between 1925 and 1976.
In 1969, as a tribute to Rockwell 's 75th birthday, officials of Brown & Bigelow and the Boy Scouts of America asked Rockwell to pose in Beyond the Easel for a calendar illustration. As part of the US Bicentennial celebrations in 1976, Rockwell 's Scouting paintings toured the nation and were viewed by 280,000 people. In 2008, a twelve - city US tour of Rockwell 's works was scheduled.
Alvin Townley wrote in Legacy of Honor about the large positive impact of Eagle Scouts in America. Townley cited such examples as how Scouts, especially Eagle Scouts, were disproportionately represented among Hurricane Katrina 's volunteer relief workers; just as they are disproportionately represented among members of the United States Senate. Former Governor Rick Perry of Texas is an Eagle Scout who defended BSA policies and restrictions against ACLU criticisms in his book, On My Honor: Why the American Values of the Boy Scouts Are Worth Fighting For.
Mark Mays, CEO of Clear Channel Communications, told a magazine interviewer in May 2008 that, "Particularly in the very impactful ages of youth 11 to 14 years old, when they can really go astray and you 're taking the time to spend with them and focus on cultural core values like reverent, trustworthy, loyal, and helpful -- all of those different things... Scouting has a huge positive impact on boys and their lives, and that in turn positively impacts our communities and society as a whole. ''
Mayor of New York City and business tycoon Michael Bloomberg, said that the BSA 's Scout Law required of all Boy Scouts -- a Scout is trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly, courteous, kind, obedient, cheerful, thrifty, brave, clean, and reverent -- are "all the American values... Americans have quaintly simplistic ways and direct ways of phrasing things... I think it 's one of the great strengths of this country. ''
Peter Applebome, an editor of The New York Times, wrote in 2003 of his experience as an adult participating with his son in Scouting activities, "I feel lucky to have had this unexpected vehicle to share my son 's youth, to shape it, and to be shaped by it as well. '' He concluded that, although Scouting is viewed by some as old - fashioned, "Scouting 's core values... are wonderful building blocks for a movement and a life. Scouting 's genuinely egalitarian goals and instincts are more important now than they 've ever been. It 's one of the only things that kids do that 's genuinely cooperative, not competitive. ''
At the turn of the 20th century, Halloween had turned into a night of vandalism, with destruction of property and cruelty to animals and people. Around 1912, the BSA, Boys Clubs and other neighborhood organizations came together to encourage a safe celebration that would end the destruction that had become so common on this night.
The Boy Scouts of America are quite particular about how and when the Scout uniforms and insignia may be used in film and other portrayals; and for that reason, most films and television productions made in the US utilize "ersatz '' Scouting organizations. Examples of this include the "Order of the Straight Arrow '', portrayed in the King of the Hill cartoon series, and the "Indian Guides '' depicted in the 1995 Chevy Chase film, Man of the House. One exception to this policy is the Walt Disney movie Follow Me, Boys! with Fred McMurray portraying a Scoutmaster of a rural troop. It was released to theaters in 1966 and re-released in 1976. Another is the final scene of The Sopranos television show, where Tony Soprano sits down to dinner in a restaurant. At another table, several Cub Scouts, in full uniform, are seated.
From the inception of the Scouting movement, Scouts have been urged to "Do a Good Turn Daily '', as it is the slogan for the Boy Scouts of America. The first national Good Turn was the promotion of a safe and sane Fourth of July in 1912. During World War I, Every Scout to Save a Soldier was a slogan used to motivate children involved in Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts to help sell War savings stamps. Scouting for Food is an ongoing annual program begun in 1986 that collects food for local food banks. In 1997, the BSA developed Service to America with a commitment to provide 200 million hours of service by youth members by the end of the year 2000. As part of Service to America, the BSA provided service projects in conjunction with the National Park Service (NPS). In October 2003, the Department of the Interior expanded the program with the creation of Take Pride in America, opening service to all Americans.
Service to America became Good Turn for America in 2004 and expanded to address the problems of hunger, homelessness, and inadequate housing and poor health in conjunction with the Salvation Army, the American Red Cross, Habitat for Humanity, and other organizations.
Scouting sex abuse cases are situations where youth involved in Scouting programs have been sexually abused by someone who is also involved in the Scouting program. J.L. Tarr, a Chief Scout Executive in the United States, was quoted in the 1980s in an article regarding sexual assault cases against Scout leaders across all 50 states: "That 's been an issue since the Boy Scouts began. '' Several reports have surfaced over the years regarding incidents of sexual abuse within the Boy Scouts of America to include incidents of repeat offenders. There have also been several high - profile court cases that resulted in convictions and settlements involving such incidents. On October 19, 2012, the Boy Scouts of America were forced by court order to release over 20,000 pages of documentation on 1200 alleged child sexual abuse cases within the organization from between 1965 and 1985.
In the 1980s BSA developed its Youth Protection program, to educate youth, leaders and parents about the problem as a whole, and to introduce barriers to sexual abuse of children using the Scout program to reach victims. "Two deep '' leadership dictates that no adult member can be alone with any youth member (other than their own child). Before joining, youth must discuss with their parents a pamphlet on sexual abuse and adults must take youth protection training and, since 2003, new adult members must pass a criminal background check (adults who were already members had to pass a background check by 2008). The Youth Protection Plan from the organization is linked to in a CDC report on such programs.
Due to reports surfacing in the 1970s and 80s, regarding a high level of bullying in the Boy Scouts, efforts were made to develop a no - tolerance bully policy within the Boy Scouts of America. In the 1990s the Boy Scouts acknowledged that the organization had a problem with bullying, in particular due to a "boys will be boys '' attitude within Scouting before the 1970s, when adult leaders tended to overlook younger or weaker Scouts who were "picked on '' by older boys, such adult leaders feeling that bullying "toughened someone up '', labeling boys as "snitches '' and "tattletales '' should bullying be reported to the adult leadership.
Due to the personal nature of bullying, as well as the act itself not being considered as serious a crime as sexual assault, published media reports of bullying in the Boy Scouts were generally unknown by the public with some rare exceptions. One of the more widely published accounts of Boy Scout bullying occurred in July 1987 when a Boy Scout at the Goshen Scout Reservation was severally beaten in his sleep by several other Scouts. The incident resulted in the Goshen staff changing the lay - out of its camp sites, to prevent having sites in extremely isolated areas, as well as assigning camp staff members to each visiting troop as "advisors '' and also to watch for fights or other trouble resulting from conflicts developing at the various camp - sites.
In the 21st century, the Boys Scouts have adopted a "Bullying Awareness Program '' which trains adults to recognize the signs of bullying, especially in isolated environments such as extended camp - outs in the wilderness or at summer camp. Parents are also advised on what to do, and who to contact, should a Scout state they are being bullied by other Scouts. Dealing with the bullies themselves is also addressed, in particular those bullies who "game the system '', pretending to be compassionate and apologetic to bully victims when adults confront them, only to return to such behaviors when the adults are no longer present.
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when can you say that a person is intellectually honest | Intellectual Honesty - wikipedia
Intellectual honesty is an applied method of problem solving, characterized by an unbiased, honest attitude, which can be demonstrated in a number of different ways:
Harvard ethicist Louis M. Guenin describes the "kernel '' of intellectual honesty to be "a virtuous disposition to eschew deception when given an incentive for deception ''.
Intentionally committed fallacies in debates and reasoning are called intellectual dishonesty.
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who does vanessa end up with gossip girl | Vanessa Abrams - wikipedia
Vanessa Abrams is a fictional character in the Gossip Girl (novel series). She is portrayed by Jessica Szohr in Gossip Girl. Vanessa was introduced on the first season as a recurring character, but became series regular after a successful run due to the popularity of their character, but left the series at the end of the fourth season.
Described as sullen, with a shaved head and black clothing, Vanessa is a budding filmmaker and Constance student on scholarship. Her dream is to one day attend NYU and major in film. Her hippie artist parents live in Vermont but allowed her to move to Williamsburg, Brooklyn to live with her sister Ruby.
In the first books, she stays away from Blair Waldorf and Serena van der Woodsen 's social scene, resenting the Upper East Side way of life and preferring the company of Dan Humphrey, her best friend, and her sister Ruby. She has had a huge crush on Dan ever since they met on a fire escape when they were both locked out of a party, but Dan had always been too in love with Serena van der Woodsen to realize it. Dan and Vanessa finally get together in the second book, but break up when Dan cheats on her with a writer named Mystery.
Vanessa is very fond of making dark films and spends most of her time filming people and objects. She later becomes friends with Blair Waldorf, and they become short - lived roommates. She takes much from her, becoming more open to the Upper East Side way of life and later semi-adapting to Blair 's sense of fashion (though she once quipped that she would not be wearing snakeskin Manolos anytime soon) She begins a relationship with Aaron Rose, Blair 's stepbrother, only to cheat on him with Dan come graduation.
Dan and Vanessa once again become a couple, but with Vanessa taking a job as an assistant for Ken Mogul (and later a babysitter) and Dan cheating on her yet again with a leggy blond named Bree, they break up. Dan has a period of crisis when he thinks that he is gay after kissing a guy at work, but Vanessa stands by him. She agrees to move in with Rufus Humphrey (having been kicked out of her apartment by her sister Ruby and her new fiance Piotr) during the fall when she goes to NYU. Dan turns out to be straight, and they spend the time they have together before college being a real couple. In I Will Aways Love You, it was revealed that Vanessa grew her hair out.
After a recurring role in the short - lived series What About Brian, Yahoo! stated her "capitalizing on that minor success '' and eventually earned the role of "the stunning and unpredictable aspiring filmmaker ensconced in the highly dramatic lives of privileged teenagers on Manhattan 's Upper East Side world ''. Szohr began her stint on Gossip Girl in a recurring role until her promotion to regular status in the show 's fourteenth episode. Szohr said in Nylon magazine: Producers originally did n't want to cast her on Gossip Girl because her straight, shiny hair was too preppy. "I told my agent, you send every picture of my hair short, curly, black, blonde, I do n't care. '' In Teen Vogue she said the story of how she snagged her breakthrough role on Gossip Girl: "Two of my friends in L.A. invited me to this Labor Day barbecue, but I really just wanted to stay on the couch with my French bulldog, '' she says. They kept calling, though, so off she went. "I remember hanging out by the pool in an old T - shirt and jean shorts, just talking to people. Three days later, my manager calls to tell me that I 'd been with the show 's executive producer and one of the creators and they want me to audition. '' Less than a week after that, Jessica was on her way to New York. "Nuts, '' she says.
Szohr 's character enters the wealthy world of Manhattan and occasional love interest of her longtime best friend, Dan Humphrey. People magazine cites her television portrayal of her character especially Ziegesar saying that Vanessa on the show "has more of a bohemian hipster look ''. During an interview for Ocean Drive magazine Szohr commented on her character 's noted honesty, stating that "Vanessa does n't change for other people. She says what she thinks, and that 's a hard thing to do in high school (...) she 's just a badass girl from Brooklyn ''. Szohr finds her character as the most relatable series since Vanessa does n't have the same lifestyle as most of the other wealthy characters on the show do. During an interview for Vanity Fair, Eric Daman described Vanessa 's style as "a breath of fresh air. She 's the Lower East Side, Raising Victor Vargas home - girl. '' and cited two - time Grammy award - winning artist M.I.A. as an influence.
Vanessa is officially introduced in the sixth episode of the season, entitled "The Handmaiden 's Tale. '' While talking on the phone with Dan, she appears on his fire escape and the two gladly reunite. She announces that she 's decided to move back to the city and live with her sister, Ruby. She also mentions that she missed Dan while she was away and has repeatedly thought about the last words he said to her before she moved to Vermont. Vanessa helps Dan 's younger sister, Jenny Humphrey, sneak into a masquerade ball, and she decides to sneak in herself, where she spots Dan and attempts to reconcile their relationship. It is then revealed that Dan 's last words to Vanessa were "I love you, '' but despite this fact, Dan says that he 's moved on and is dating Serena. Vanessa gets teary - eyed and abandons the party, however the two friends make up later in Dan 's bedroom. They share a snack while Dan fills her in on everything that 's changed in his life.
In "Victor / Victrola, '' Vanessa acts as a mentor for Jenny, giving the young blond some advice about parental issues. She seems to express some jealousy when she stumbles in on Dan and Serena about to have sex. However, in the next episode, she and Serena bond over Guitar Hero after Dan explains that Vanessa is his best friend and that the two will always share a special bond from their childhood. Later, Serena and Vanessa engage in conversation and get to know each other better. On Christmas Day, Serena feels a bit jealous when Vanessa gets Dan the perfect present (by publishing his short story in The New Yorker). Vanessa makes a rival out of Blair Waldorf when Blair suspects her of liking Dan as ' more than a friend. ' Despite her suspicions, Vanessa helps Serena create the only thing Dan wanted for Christmas -- snow.
In "School Lies, '' Vanessa accompanies Dan to a pool party on school property. Someone nearly dies at the party, however, and when Vanessa catches a confidential conversation between Chuck and Blair on camera, it becomes the most sought - after item on the Upper East Side. Chuck tries to bribe Vanessa into giving her the tape, but she tricks him and takes his money anyway. When Blair asks for the tape, Vanessa concedes without any conditions attached. Despite this, Blair pays Vanessa 's rent for a year to thank her for giving up the tape, which would have ruined Blair 's reputation.
When the SATs roll around, Vanessa helps Dan with his studying. This leads to her official introduction to Nate Archibald. The two bicker and banter light - heartedly, but when Vanessa finds a practice essay Nate wrote for the SATs, she sees a more vulnerable side to him. The two spend the day together and Vanessa listens to his problems. Despite their coming from different worlds, they realize they have a lot in common and end the night with a kiss. The next day, Nate takes Vanessa on a ' surprise date ' where he tells her she should take the SATs just to ensure that she has options. He pays and registers for her, and after finally giving in, the two enter into a relationship. When she finds out that Georgina Sparks is not who she says she is, Vanessa confronts her and says she knows her real name, as well as her intentions. Despite this fact, Georgina escapes with Dan, who continues to believe the lies she tells him.
In the season finale, "Much ' I Do About Nothing '' Vanessa prepares for Lily and Bart Bass 's wedding. Once she 's all dressed up in one of Jenny 's designs, Dan tells her that she ' cleans up nice, ' before the two proceed to the wedding together. After the ceremony, Nate, burdened by the myriad of problems with his father, tells Vanessa he 's not ready to be in a relationship, and the two break up. Later, Vanessa and Dan 's friendship grows as they bond over their break - ups.
Vanessa spends the summer redecorating Rufus 's art gallery and turning the extra space into a cafe. Nate confides in her the financial circumstances of his father 's debts and although the two seem interested in each other, Nate is continuously too busy to hang out with her. Vanessa pushes him away because of this, but he confesses that he does want a relationship with her. During a citywide blackout, however, the older woman Nate slept with throughout summer, Catherine, threatens to turn Nate 's father into the police if Nate ever leaves her. Vanessa sacrifices her relationship with Nate for the Captain 's safety and tells Nate she does n't want to be with him. Later, Vanessa snaps a photo of Catherine when she sees the older woman making out with her stepson, hoping to use it as blackmail. She learns the consequences of her meddling, however, when she realizes that telling Catherine 's husband of her affairs left Nate as penniless as ever, whereas Blair was going to gain back the Archibald 's riches. Nate becomes upset with Vanessa, not because she made him lose the money, but because she never confided in him.
Vanessa helps Jenny convince Rufus to let her do home - schooling. She further displays her charitable side by helping save the Brooklyn Inn from auction and petitioning for landmark status. When Blair refuses to cooperate with the charity, Vanessa blackmails her by using the photo of Catherine and Lord Marcus kissing, which, if exploited, would humiliate Blair. The Queen of Constance is therefore forced to comply, but conspires with Chuck to destroy Vanessa. The two intend to seduce and humiliate her. At Lily 's housewarming party, Vanessa witnesses the more vulnerable side of Chuck and the two bond briefly. She 's embarrassed, however, when she learns it was all Blair 's ploy, and turns her back on them both. During Jenny 's guerrilla fashion show, Vanessa spots Nate and Jenny kissing. She feels betrayed by both of them, since she still had feelings for Nate and since she and Jenny were such close friends. In turn, on Thanksgiving, Vanessa hides an important letter from Jenny. This letter was a confession of Nate 's feelings for Jenny and his desire to be with her. Not knowing about the letter that was kept from her, Jenny reconciles her friendship with Vanessa.
Around Christmastime, Vanessa and Nate repair their relationship, which they try to hide from Jenny. The blond discovers a picture of them kissing on Gossip Girl, however, and embarrasses Vanessa by giving her a see - through dress, which everyone mocks at the Snowflake Ball. A teary - eyed Vanessa runs off, leaving Nate to tell Jenny that he 's not the girl he thought she was. He chooses Vanessa and the two speed away in a taxi as a brokenhearted Jenny watches from afar. Vanessa tries not to interfere with Serena and Dan 's relationship, and instead celebrates her 2 - month anniversary with Nate at the opera, where the two happily kiss and mock the other theater - goers.
When the seniors of Constance Billiard and St. Jude 's are forced to put on a play, Nate worries that Vanessa is attracted to the play 's director, seeing as the two have so much in common. This leads to a heated argument between Vanessa and him, in which the two fight about their differences and insecurities. Later, Vanessa goes to Nate 's house and they make up, deciding to watch the Age of Innocence together.
Vanessa and Nate make plans to travel Europe together over summer break. Nate feels manipulated by his family to intern at the mayor 's office and Vanessa worries that he 's being controlled by his grandfather. Eventually, Nate decides he will intern for the mayor, which he announces in a speech. After hearing this, a disappointed Vanessa leaves the party. She goes over to the Humphreys, where she tells Jenny that her relationship with Nate might in fact be over.
A week later, Vanessa and Chuck see Blair and Nate hugging. The two then conspire to tear their friendship apart. Vanessa attempts to make Nate jealous by kissing Chuck at Jenny 's party, but when Nate and Blair appear unfazed, Vanessa and Chuck really do sleep together. In "Southern Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, '' Vanessa and Dan play the drinking game I Never, in which she admits to sleeping with Chuck twice and regretting it both times. In the season finale, Vanessa and Nate catch up and become friends at the Constance - St. Jude 's Graduation. A week later, Nate tells her that the mayor hit on him, so he quit his internship. He and Vanessa reinstate their summer plans to go backpacking through Europe. The three unknowingly get to know Scott Rosson, the lovechild of Lily and Rufus. Afterwards, Dan receives a suspicious phone call from Georgina who tells both Vanessa and Dan that she 'll be seeing them at NYU next year.
It 's revealed that Vanessa did indeed spend her summer backpacking through Europe with Nate and the two had a fling one night, but remain good friends and nothing more. When she returns to New York, she gets to know Scott Ronsson, and develops a crush on him. When she discovers that Dan 's been living the high life thanks to the van der Woodsens and has been hiding it from her, she fights with him and eventually tells him that despite his wealth, he needs to be himself in order for her to be friends with him. Scott and Vanessa begin dating and Scott encourages Vanessa to stay friends with Dan. When Vanessa moves into her dorm at NYU, she realizes that she shares the hall with Blair Waldorf and Georgina Sparks. Vanessa and Georgina become friends after Vanessa forgives her for her past behavior, whereas Vanessa and Blair 's rivalry deepens. She grows suspicious of Scott and eventually discovers he is not a student at NYU. When she confronts him, he confesses that he 's Lily and Rufus ' son and she encourages him to tell them. Scott eventually tells Lily and Rufus the truth at their wedding and moves back to Boston, promising to come down and visit the now broken - hearted Vanessa.
Famous actress Olivia Burke becomes Vanessa 's new roommate, and the two become immediate friends. Olivia and Dan embark on a relationship, but when they have a threesome with Vanessa, the trio become awkward around each other, resulting in Vanessa and Olivia fighting over Dan. Once Olivia realizes that Dan 's true feelings lie with Vanessa, she breaks up with him and moves out of NYU to continue pursuing her acting career. Dan finally confessed his love for Vanessa, who becomes confused and tries to brush off the subject. Later, however, she admits that she loves him as well and that although she does n't want to ruin her friendship with him, she wants to explore these feelings, starting with being "friends with benefits ''. The two finally begin their relationship.
Their relationship becomes problematic when Vanessa secretly applies to NYU 's program for writers, Tisch, which Dan has also applied for. Despite their competition, Vanessa is chosen by the program and although this causes further issues between the two, Dan eventually expresses pride in Vanessa. Later, however, their relationship hits another obstacle when Dan discovers that Vanessa has received an offer difficult to reject: to work in Haiti, assisting the disaster aid as well as filming for CNN. When Dan tells Vanessa he knows she 's been offered this position, she insists on not going and staying in the city with Dan to work on their relationship. Dan eventually convinces Vanessa to accept the offer, however, when he informs her that it 's a once in a lifetime opportunity. Thus, Vanessa says a tearful goodbye to Dan and leaves, the couple planning on engaging in a long - distance relationship.
In the finale, while Vanessa is still in Haiti, Nate sends her a Gossip Girl blast that includes a picture of Dan and Serena in bed together, implying that Dan has cheated on her.
Vanessa returns from Haiti to find Dan with Georgina. Suspecting a relationship between the two, Vanessa is shocked to discover that they are raising his son, Milo. Vanessa confronts Dan regarding Milo 's paternity and realizes that Dan has kept his son 's existence from his immediate family. Before Georgina leaves for an extended vacation, she answers a call from Vanessa, who tells her to pass a message to Dan that she will be there for him when he needs her. After meeting Juliet Sharp, Vanessa gets entangled in one of her schemes to break the love triangle between Dan, Nate and Serena, using Vanessa 's feelings for Dan to sway him away from Serena. Vanessa later finds out that Dan does not feel the same way about her after sex but Dan comes forward to her and professes his love. With Dan 's struggles in raising Milo increase, Vanessa offers her aid to raise him and moves in with him. Dan accepts but Georgina returns to take Milo from Dan. Vanessa unsuccessfully attempts to comfort Dan on losing his son but only succeeds in driving him towards Serena and avoid facing his problems. Dan lies about his whereabouts until Vanessa finds out that he will be arriving at a party with Serena. Realizing his mistake, Dan and Vanessa reconcile and resume their relationship. With Serena 's enrollment in Columbia, Gossip Girl spreads a blast implying that Serena has a sexually transmitted disease, causing Vanessa and Juliet to panic considering that their respective partners have a sexual history with Serena. Hoping to confirm on whether or not Dan had slept with Serena and if he still had residual feelings for her, Vanessa and Juliet steal Serena 's phone. Vanessa happily finds out that Dan loves her and discovers that Juliet was responsible for another blast against Serena, one stating that she was soliciting sex for grades. Fearing backlash against her, Juliet frames Vanessa for the blast, causing Vanessa to leave and effectively ending her relationship with Dan. In the aftermath of ruining Blair 's 20th birthday, Vanessa listens to Dan 's troubles, replying to his conclusion on the contagious scheming of the Upper East side by saying that they need rest and a good dose of Brooklyn.
Nate turns to Vanessa when he uncovers one of her lies and she accepts, knowing that helping Nate would clear her name. Distracting Juliet from returning to her apartment, Nate calls off their scheme when he finds out about Juliet 's background but Vanessa sneaked in, finding pictures of Serena kissing her college professor, Colin. Vanessa confronts Juliet, hoping to recruit her in vindicating her name and exposing Serena but Juliet declines her offer, unaware that Vanessa took the pictures with her.
Following Charlie 's mental breakdown at the Constance Billiard alumni party, Vanessa scouts out Dan 's apartment to look for her but instead finds a novel that Dan has been working on and reads it. When Dan calls her if she found Charlie, Vanessa pours out her admiration for Dan 's work and suggests that he publish it, further concluding that in the five years that he wrote the novel, she deduced Dan 's secret desire to be a part of the Upper East side, one that even surpasses Jenny 's from years ago. Dan had been reluctant to publish it, fearing backlash against his friends for writing a novel that satirizes them. Vanessa tells him to stop dropping everything for his friends and instead be a great person, stating that he was a better person before he met Serena. Dan angrily shoots back at her, saying that his life was better before she climbed into his fire escape years ago. Vanessa steals his manuscript and has it published. When asked where the money will be directed, Vanessa reveals that she will be living in Spain and that she 'll make sure the money goes to the right place.
Vanessa received an SMS which reveals that Dan was "Gossip Girl ''. Her cameo was filmed on the set of the Sex and The City prequel, The Carrie Diaries; the producers like to imagine that she was directing an episode.
Originally set for a four or five - episode guest appearance, Yahoo! cites Szohr "who so clicked with viewers that producers eventually added her to series regular status. '' Szohr 's performance even led her to making People magazine 's famous yearly list of its "Most Beautiful People '' in 2008. Szohr 's portrayal of Vanessa in the TV series has drawn criticism from Ziegesar, who claimed Vanessa is "one character they ruined '', in response to the show 's deviation from the novels where Vanessa is bald and often clothed in black. TV Guide named her one of TV 's Worst - Dressed Characters.
Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad brushed off initial fans ' dislike of the character when reviewing the second - season episode, The Dark Night, stating "I 'm glad that, contrary to how most characters on GG react, Vanessa did n't scream, throw things, and pull hair when telling Nate how disappointed in him she is. Vanessa is not my favorite character, but she is slowly growing on me because of the calmness and maturity she can show. ''.
Regarding the direction of her character as the show progressed to its fourth season, Vanessa received negative reviews from critics. Mark O. Estes from Tv Overmind was displeased with her character inconsistency that she displayed on the fourth - season episode, Gaslit, stating "even I ca n't speak up for her throwing Jenny under the bus the way she did. '' and further expressed disappointment that the show 's writers are catering to fans ' negative reception of Vanessa. TV Guide heavily panned the character, describing her direction "from a borderline interesting counterpoint to all the glamour of her surroundings to a sniveling buttinsky with nothing better to do than meddle for the sole sake of spoiling everyone 's fun. '', laying out the possibility of her character leaving or becoming a villain. On May 9, 2011, it was announced that Taylor Momsen and Jessica Szohr would not be back as series regulars for the fifth season of the show, although both have been invited back as guest stars. Szohr left the show after discussing with producers on the direction of her character, having felt that her portrayal of Vanessa had run its course. "I had so much fun and I made friends I 'll have for a lifetime and it was so great to work in the city, but I got the most I could out of Vanessa. ''
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best songs of all time list rolling stone | Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest songs of All Time - wikipedia
"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' was the cover story of a special issue of Rolling Stone, issue number 963, published in December 2004, a year after the magazine published its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''.
In May 2010, Rolling Stone compiled an update, published in a special issue and in digital form for the iPod and iPad. The list differs from the 2004 version, with 26 songs added, all of which are songs from the 2000s except "Juicy '' by The Notorious B.I.G., released in 1994. The top 25 remained unchanged, but many songs further down the list were given different rankings as a result of the inclusion of new songs, causing consecutive shifts among the songs listed in 2004. The highest - ranked new entry was Gnarls Barkley 's "Crazy '' (number 100).
The number of songs from each decade in the updated version is as follows:
Two songs by U2 and two by Jay - Z were added to the list. Jay - Z is also featured in two other new songs on the list, "Crazy in Love '', by Beyoncé, and "Umbrella '', by Rihanna.
The only artist to have two songs dropped from the list is the Crystals; their "Da Doo Ron Ron '' (previously number 114) was the highest - ranked song to have been dropped.
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who won the d3 women's lacrosse championship | NCAA Division III Women 's Lacrosse Championship - wikipedia
The annual NCAA Division III Women 's Lacrosse Championship tournament has determined the top women 's lacrosse team in the NCAA Division III since 1985.
The current champions are Gettysburg College. The College of New Jersey, previously known as Trenton State, is the most successful program with 12 total titles, the most recent coming in 2006.
See Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women Champions for the 1981 and 1982 Division III women 's lacrosse champions.
† NCAA vacated the 1992 Trenton State title due to use of an ineligible player during the tournament
† NCAA vacated the 1992 Trenton State title due to use of an ineligible player during the tournament
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when do we make a class virtual base class in c++ | Virtual class - Wikipedia
In object - oriented programming, a virtual class is a nested inner class whose functions and member variables can be overridden and redefined by subclasses of an outer class. Virtual classes are analogous to virtual functions.
The run time type of a virtual class depends on the run time type of an object of the outer class. (Just like the run time type of an object decides which virtual function should be used.)
A run time instance type of the outer class object not only decides on the polymorphic type of its own type object, but also on a whole family tree of virtual class members.
Virtual classes solve the extensibility problem of extending data abstraction with new functions and representations. Like virtual functions, virtual classes follow the same rules of definition, overriding, and reference.
When a derived class inherits from a base class, it must define or override the virtual inner classes it inherited from the base class. An object of the child class may be referred to by a reference or pointer of the parent class type or the child class type. When the reference or pointer invoke the virtual inner classes, the derived class 's implementation will be called if the object is of the derived class type. The type of the outer class determines the run time of the inner virtual class.
A method with an object argument has access to the object 's virtual classes. The method can use the virtual classes of its arguments to create instances and declare variables. Virtual classes of different instances are not compatible.
For example, a base class Machine could have a virtual class Parts. Subclass Car would implement Parts differently than the subclass Bicycle, but the programmer can call any methods in the virtual inner class Parts on any class Machine object, and get the Parts implementation of that specific derived class.
Any object of class type Machine can be accessed the same way. The programmer can ask for the number of wheels (by calling get_Wheels ()), without needing to know what kind of machine it is, how many wheels that machine has, or all the possible types of machines there are. Functions like get_Fuel_Type () can be added to the virtual class Parts by the derived class Car.
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who created the gravity model of spatial interaction | Gravity model of migration - wikipedia
The gravity model of migration is a model in urban geography derived from Newton 's law of gravity, and used to predict the degree of interaction between two places. Newton 's law states that: "Any two bodies attract one another with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. ''
When used geographically, the words ' bodies ' and ' masses ' are replaced by ' locations ' and ' importance ' respectively, where importance can be measured in terms of population numbers, gross domestic product, or other appropriate variables. The gravity model of migration is therefore based upon the idea that as the importance of one or both of the location increases, there will also be an increase in movement between them. The farther apart the two locations are, however, the movement between them will be less. This phenomenon is known as distance decay.
The gravity model can be used to estimate:
The gravity model can also be used to determine the sphere of influence of each central place by estimating where the breaking point between the two settlements will be. An example of this is the point at which customers find it preferable, because of distance, time and expense considerations, to travel to one center rather than the other.
The gravity model can be used to measure accessibility to services (e.g., access to health care). A special case of gravity model is the two - step floating catchment area method (2SFCA), which is popular in health care research.
The gravity model was expanded by William J. Reilly in 1931 into Reilly 's law of retail gravitation to calculate the breaking point between two places where customers will be drawn to one or another of two competing commercial centers.
Opponents of the gravity model explain that it can not be confirmed scientifically, that it 's only based on observation. They also state that the gravity model is an unfair method of predicting movement because its biased toward historic ties and toward the largest population centers. Thus, it can be used to perpetuate the status quo.
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is the movie a star is born bases on a true story | The Rose (film) - wikipedia
The Rose is a 1979 American drama film which tells the story of a self - destructive 1960s rock star who struggles to cope with the constant pressures of her career and the demands of her ruthless business manager. The film stars Bette Midler, Alan Bates, Frederic Forrest, Harry Dean Stanton, Barry Primus, and David Keith.
The story is loosely based on the life of singer Janis Joplin. Originally titled Pearl, after Joplin 's nickname, and the title of her last album, it was fictionalized after her family declined to allow the producers the rights to her story. It was written by Bill Kerby and Bo Goldman from a story by Bill Kerby, and directed by Mark Rydell.
The Rose was nominated for four Academy Awards including Best Actress in a Leading Role (Bette Midler, in her screen debut), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Frederic Forrest), Best Film Editing and Best Sound.
Midler performed the soundtrack album for the film, and the title track became one of her biggest hit singles.
In late 1969, Mary Rose Foster (Bette Midler) is a famous rock and roll diva known as The Rose. Although a success, she is burnt out and lonely but is kept working by her gruff, greedy manager and promoter Rudge Campbell (Alan Bates). Though loud and brassy, Rose is an insecure alcoholic and former drug user who seems to crave approval in her life. As such, she is determined to return to her hometown, now as a superstar. After being humiliated by a country singing star named Billy Ray (Harry Dean Stanton) whose songs she performs in her show, Rose takes off with a limousine driver named Huston Dyer (Frederic Forrest) and begins a romance with him. Rudge thinks Huston is just another hanger on, but Rose thinks she has finally met her true love. Huston tells her that he is actually an AWOL sergeant from the Army, and she tells him of her past in Florida. They have a rocky relationship and her lifestyle of "Sex, Drugs, and Rock & Roll '', constant touring, and Huston 's jealousy over Rose 's lesbian lover Sarah lead her to an inevitable breakdown at a tour stop in Memphis. Huston and Rose break up and she returns to her hometown of Jacksonville, Florida with PFC Mal, whom she met in Texas, as a security escort, telling him about her past.
Arriving at the stadium for afternoon rehearsals for her concert, Rose repeats her intention to take a one - year break from performing, leading Rudge to tell her she will be in breach of contract and tells her she 's fired (a ploy, his "ace in the hole '', to keep her performing). Dyer reappears and they realize that they can now leave and be together. She takes him on a tour of bars and music joints in her town. Their reunion ends when Rudge reaches her on their car phone and convinces her to return for the concert, causing Dyer to give up and immediately grab a ride out - of - town with a trucker. Finally, Rose collapses on stage and dies (from an overdose of alcohol, barbiturates and heroin) in the opening minutes of her long - awaited homecoming concert.
This is allusion to the oft - repeated story of a certain strain of Los Angeles heroin being especially potent as it circulated in late September and early October 1970, claiming not only the life of Janis Joplin but many other people as well as leaving many others with permanent disabilities.
The film was originally offered to Ken Russell, who chose instead to direct Valentino. Russell has described this decision as the biggest mistake of his career. At one point, Michael Cimino was also slated to direct, but he chose to direct Heaven 's Gate instead. Cimimo did, however, make uncredited contributions to the script.
The Rose has an 80 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 15 reviews. The film earned North American rentals of $19.1 million.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
The Criterion Collection released the film on Blu - ray and DVD on May 19, 2015.
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what does it mean to have a christian organization | Christian mission - wikipedia
A Christian mission is an organized effort to spread Christianity. Missions often involve sending individuals and groups, called missionaries, across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, for the purpose of proselytism (conversion to Christianity, or from one Christian tradition to another). This involves evangelism (preaching a set of beliefs for the purpose of conversion), and humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged. There are a few different kinds of mission trips: short - term, long - term, relational and ones meant simply for helping people in need. Some might choose to dedicate their whole lives to missions as well. Missionaries have the authority to preach the Christian faith (and sometimes to administer sacraments), and provide humanitarian work to improve. Christian doctrines (such as the "Doctrine of Love '' professed by many missions) permit the provision of aid without requiring religious conversion.
The earliest Christian mission, then, the Great Commission and Dispersion of the Apostles, was active within Second Temple Judaism. Whether a Jewish proselytism existed or not that would have served as a model for the early Christians is unclear, see Circumcision controversy in early Christianity # Jewish background for details. Soon, the expansion of the Christian mission beyond Judaism to those who were not Jewish became a contested issue, notably at the Council of Jerusalem. The Apostle Paul was an early proponent of this expansion, and contextualized the Christian message for the Greek and Roman cultures, allowing it to reach beyond its Hebrew and Jewish roots.
From Late Antiquity onward, much missionary activity was carried out by members of religious orders. Monasteries followed disciplines and supported missions, libraries, and practical research, all of which were perceived as works to reduce human misery and suffering and glorify the Christian God. For example, Nestorian communities evangelized parts of Central Asia, as well as Tibet, China, and India. Cistercians evangelized much of Northern Europe, as well as developing most of European agriculture 's classic techniques. St Patrick evangelized many in Ireland. St David was active in Wales.
During the Middle Ages, Ramon Llull (c. 1232 -- c. 1315) advanced the concept of preaching to Muslims and converting them to Christianity by means of non-violent argument. A vision for large - scale mission to Muslims would die with him, not to be revived until the 19th Century.
Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions.
During the Middle Ages Christian monasteries and missionaries such as Saint Patrick, and Adalbert of Prague propagated learning and religion beyond the boundaries of the old Roman Empire. In the seventh century Gregory the Great sent missionaries, including Augustine of Canterbury, into England. The Hiberno - Scottish mission began in 563.
In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, Franciscans such as William of Rubruck, John of Montecorvino, and Giovanni ed ' Magnolia were sent as missionaries to the Near and Far East. Their travels took them as far as China in an attempt to convert the advancing Mongols, especially the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire. (Also see Medieval Roman Catholic Missions in China.)
One of the main goals of the Christopher Columbus expedition financed by Queen Isabella of Spain was to spread Christianity. During the Age of Discovery, Spain and Portugal established many missions in their American and Asian colonies. The most active orders were the Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. These are some of the most well - known missions in history. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others (notably Matteo Ricci 's Jesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused on integration rather than cultural imperialism.
In both Portugal and Spain, religion was an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the Treaty of Tordesillas, the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. The proselytization of Asia became linked to Portuguese colonial policy.
Portuguese trade with Asia rapidly proved profitable from 1499 onwards, and as Jesuits arrived in India around 1540, the colonial government in Goa supported the mission with incentives for baptized Christians. Later, the Church sent Jesuits to China (1552 onwards) and to other countries in Asia.
The Reformation unfolded in Europe in the early 16th century. For over a hundred years, occupied by their struggle with the Catholic Church, the early Protestant churches as a body were not strongly focused on missions to "heathen '' lands. Instead, the focus was initially more on Christian lands in the hope to spread the Protestant faith, identifying the papacy with the Antichrist.
In the centuries that followed, Protestant churches began sending out missionaries in increasing numbers, spreading the proclamation of the Christian message to previously unreached people. In North America, missionaries to the Native Americans included Jonathan Edwards (1703 -- 1758), the well - known preacher of the Great Awakening (ca 1731 -- 1755), who in his later years retired from the very public life of his early career. He became a missionary to the Housatonic Native Americans (1751) and a staunch advocate for them against cultural imperialism.
As European culture has been established in the midst of indigenous peoples, the cultural distance between Christians of differing cultures has been difficult to overcome. One early solution was the creation of segregated "praying towns '' of Christian natives. This pattern of grudging acceptance of converts played out again later in Hawaii when missionaries from that same New England culture went there. In the course of the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Catholic missionaries learned the languages of the Amerindians and devised writing systems for them. Then they preached to indigenous people in those languages (Quechua, Guarani, Nahuatl) instead of Spanish, to keep Indians away from "sinful '' whites. An extreme case of segregation occurred in the Guarani Reductions, a theocratic semi-independent region established by the Jesuits in the region of the future Paraguay between the early 17th century and 1767.
From 1732 onwards the Moravian Church began sending out missionaries.
Around 1780, an indigent Baptist cobbler named William Carey began reading about James Cook 's travels voyages in Polynesia. His interest grew to a furious sort of "backwards homesickness '', inspiring him to obtain Baptist orders, and eventually to write his famous 1792 pamphlet, "An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of Heathen ''. Far from a dry book of theology, Carey 's work used the best available geographic and ethnographic data to map and count the number of people who had never heard the Gospel. It inspired a movement that has grown with increasing speed from his day to the present.
In the United States, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was chartered in 1812.
Protestant missionaries from the Anglican and Lutheran and Presbyterian traditions starting arriving in what was then the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th Century. This eventually let to the creation of what are today the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land and the see of the Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem. Furthermore, it was during this time that the Christian and Missionary Alliance started their missionary activity in Jerusalem.
American "Hard - shell Baptists '', "Anti-Mission Baptists '', or "Old School Baptists '' adhering to strict Calvinist rejected all mission boards, Bible tract societies, and temperance societies as nonbiblical. The mainstream of the Baptist denomination, however, supported missionary work.
Thomas Coke, (1747 -- 1814) the first bishop of the American Methodists, was "the Father of Methodist Missions ''. After spending time in the newly formed United States of America strengthening the infant Methodist Church alongside Episcopal colleague Francis Asbury, the British - born Coke left for mission work. During his time in America, Coke worked vigorously to increase Methodist support of Christian missions and of raising up mission workers. Coke died while on a mission trip to India, but his legacy among Methodists -- his passion for missions -- continues.
A wave of missions, starting in the early 1850s, targeted inland areas, led by Hudson Taylor (1832 -- 1905) with his China Inland Mission (1865 --). Taylor was later supported by Henry Grattan Guinness (1835 -- 1910) who founded (1883) Cliff College, which continues as of 2014 to train and equip for local and global mission.
The missions inspired by Taylor and Guinness have collectively been called "faith missions '' and owe much to the ideas and example of Anthony Norris Groves (1795 -- 1853). Taylor, a thorough - going nativist, offended the missionaries of his era by wearing Chinese clothing and speaking Chinese at home. His books, speaking, and examples led to the formation of numerous inland missions and of the Student Volunteer Movement (SVM, founded in 1886), which from 1850 to about 1950 sent nearly 10,000 missionaries to inland areas, often at great personal sacrifice. Many early SVM missionaries traveling to areas with endemic tropical diseases left with their belongings packed in a coffin, aware that 80 % of them would die within two years.
In the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century, missionaries based in Britain saw the Empire as a fertile field for proselytizing for Christianity. All the main denominations were involved, including the Church of England, the Presbyterians of Scotland, and the Nonconformists. Much of the enthusiasm emerged from the Evangelical revival. Within the Church of England, the Church Mission Society (CMS) originated in 1799 and went on to undertake activity all around the world, including in what became known as "the Middle East ''.
Before the American Revolution, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful and after the revolution and entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States. A major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans had never happened. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada).
Missionary societies funded their own operations that were not supervised or directed by the Colonial Office. Tensions emerged between the missionaries and the colonial officials. The latter feared that missionaries might stir up trouble or encourage the natives to challenge colonial authority. In general, colonial officials were much more comfortable with working with the established local leadership, including the native religions, rather than introducing the divisive force of Christianity. This proved especially troublesome in India, were very few local elites were attracted to Christianity. In Africa, especially, the missionaries made many converts. Of the 21st century there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England.
Missionaries increasingly came to focus on education, medical help, and long - term modernization of the native personality to inculcate European middle - class values. They established schools and medical clinics. Christian missionaries played a public role, especially in promoting sanitation and public health. Many were trained as physicians, or took special courses in public health and tropical medicine at Livingstone College, London.
By the 1870s Protestant missions around the world generally acknowledged the long - term material goal was the formation of independent, self - governing, self - supporting, self - propagating churches. The rise of nationalism in the Third World provoked challenges from critics who complained that the missionaries were teaching Western ways, and ignoring the indigenous culture. The Boxer Rebellion in China in 1898 involved very large scale attacks on Christian missions and their converts. The First World War diverted resources, and pulled most Germans out of missionary work when that country lost its empire. The worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s was a major blow to funding mission activities.
In 1910, the Edinburgh Missionary Conference was presided over by active SVM and YMCA leader (and future Nobel Peace Prize recipient) John R. Mott, an American Methodist layperson, the conference reviewed the state of evangelism, Bible translation, mobilization of church support, and the training of indigenous leadership. Looking to the future, conferees worked on strategies for worldwide evangelism and cooperation. The conference not only established greater ecumenical cooperation in missions, but also essentially launched the modern ecumenical movement.
The next wave of missions was started by two missionaries, Cameron Townsend and Donald McGavran, around 1935. These men realized that although earlier missionaries had reached geographic areas, there were numerous ethnographic groups that were isolated by language, or class from the groups that missionaries had reached. Cameron formed Wycliffe Bible Translators to translate the Bible into native languages. McGavran concentrated on finding bridges to cross the class and cultural barriers in places like India, which has upwards of 4,600 peoples, separated by a combination of language, culture, and caste. Despite democratic reforms, caste and class differences are still fundamental in many cultures.
An equally important dimension of missions strategy is the indigenous method of nationals reaching their own people. In Asia this wave of missions was pioneered by men like Dr G.D. James of Singapore, Rev Theodore Williams of India and Dr David Cho of Korea. The "two thirds missions movement '' as it is referred to, is today a major force in missions.
Most modern missionaries and missionary societies have repudiated cultural imperialism, and elected to focus on spreading the gospel and translating the Bible. Sometimes, missionaries have been vital in preserving and documenting the culture of the peoples among whom they live.
Often, missionaries provide welfare and health services, as a good deed or to make friends with the locals. Thousands of schools, orphanages, and hospitals have been established by missions. One service provided by missionaries was the Each one, teach one literacy program begun by Dr. Frank Laubach in the Philippines in 1935. The program has since spread around the world and brought literacy to the least enabled members of many societies.
During this period missionaries, especially evangelical and Pentecostal missionaries, witnessed a substantial increase in the number of conversions of Muslims to Christianity. In an interview published in 2013 a leader of a key missionary agency focused on Muslims claimed that the world is living in a "day of salvation for Muslims everywhere. ''
The word "mission '' was historically often applied to the building, the "mission station '' in which the missionary lives or works. In some colonies, these mission stations became a focus of settlement of displaced or formerly nomadic people. Particularly in rural Australia, missions have become localities or ghettoes on the edges of towns which are home to many Indigenous Australians. The word may be seen as derogatory when used in this context.
Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions.
Major nations not only send and fund missionaries abroad, but also receive them from other countries. In 2010, the United States sent out 127,000 missionaries, while 32,400 came to the United States. Brazil was second, sending out 34,000, and receiving 20,000. France sent out 21,000 and received 10,000. Britain sent out 15,000 and received 10,000. India sent out 10,000 and received 8000. Other major exporters included Spain at 21,000 sent out, Italy at 20,000, South Korea at 20,000, Germany at 14,000, and Canada at 8,500. Large recipient nations included Russia, receiving 20,000; Congo receiving 15,000; South Africa, 12,000; Argentina, 10,000; and Chile, 8,500. The largest sending agency in the United States was the Southern Baptist Convention, with 4,800 missionaries, plus 450 support staff working inside the United States. The annual budget is about $50,000 per year per missionary. In recent years, however, the Southern Baptist foreign missionary operation (the International Mission Board) has operated at a deficit, and it is cutting operations by 15 percent. It is encouraging older missionaries to retire and return to the United States.
The Lausanne Congress of 1974, birthed a movement that supports evangelical mission among non-Christians and nominal Christians. It regards "mission '' as that which is designed "to form a viable indigenous church - planting and world changing movement. '' This definition is motivated by a theologically imperative theme of the Bible to make God known, as outlined in the Great Commission. The definition is claimed to summarize the acts of Jesus ' ministry, which is taken as a model motivation for all ministries.
This Christian missionary movement seeks to implement churches after the pattern of the first century Apostles. The process of forming disciples is necessarily social. "Church '' should be understood in the widest sense, as a body of believers of Christ rather than simply a building. In this view, even those who are already culturally Christian must be "evangelized ''.
Church planting by cross-cultural missionaries leads to the establishment of self - governing, self - supporting and self - propagating communities of believers. This is the famous "three - self '' formula formulated by Henry Venn of the London Church Missionary Society in the 19th century. Cross-cultural missionaries are persons who accept church - planting duties to evangelize people outside their culture, as Christ commanded in the Great Commission (Matthew 28: 18 -- 20, Mark 16: 15 -- 18).
The objective of these missionaries is to give an understandable presentation of their beliefs with the hope that people will choose to following the teaching of Jesus Christ and live their lives as His disciples. As a matter of strategy, many evangelical Christians around the world now focus on what they call the "10 / 40 window '', a band of countries between 10 and 40 degrees north latitude and reaching from western Africa through Asia. Christian missions strategist Luis Bush pinpointed the need for a major focus of evangelism in the "10 / 40 Window '', a phrase he coined in his presentation at the missionary conference Lausanne 1989 in Manila. Sometimes referred to as the "Resistant Belt '', it is an area that includes 35 % of the world 's land mass, 90 % of the world 's poorest peoples and 95 % of those who have yet to hear anything about Christianity.
Modern pioneering missionary doctrines now focus on inserting a culturally adapted seed of Christian doctrines into a self - selected, self - motivated group of indigenous believers, without removing them from their culture in any way.
Modern mission techniques are sufficiently refined that within ten to fifteen years, most indigenous churches are locally pastored, managed, taught, self - supporting and evangelizing. The process can be substantially faster if a preexisting translation of the Bible and higher pastoral education are already available, perhaps left over from earlier, less effective missions.
One strategy is to let indigenous cultural groups decide to adopt Christian doctrines and benefits, when (as in most cultures) such major decisions are normally made by groups. In this way, opinion leaders in the groups can persuade much or most of the groups to convert. When combined with training in discipleship, church planting and other modern missionary doctrine, the result is an accelerating, self - propelled conversion of large portions of the culture.
A typical modern mission is a co-operative effort by many different ministries, often including several coordinating ministries, such as the Faith2Share network, often with separate funding sources. One typical effort proceeded as follows:
The most crucial part of church planting is selection and training of leadership. Classically, leadership training required an expensive stay at a seminary, a Bible college. Modern church planters deprecate this because it substantially slows the growth of the church without much immediate benefit. Modern mission doctrines replace the seminary with programmed curricula or (even less expensive) books of discussion questions, and access to real theological books. The materials are usually made available in a major trading language in which most native leaders are likely to be fluent. In some cases, the materials can be adapted for oral use.
It turns out that new pastors ' practical needs for theology are well addressed by a combination of practical procedures for church planting, discussion in small groups, and motivated Bible - based study from diverse theological texts. As a culture 's church 's wealth increases, it will naturally form classic seminaries on its own.
Another related mission is Bible translation. The above - mentioned literature has to be translated. Missionaries actively experiment with advanced linguistic techniques to speed translation and literacy. Bible translation not only speeds a church 's growth by aiding self - training, but it also assures that Christian information becomes a permanent part of the native culture and literature. Some ministries also use modern recording techniques to reach groups with audio that could not be soon reached with literature.
For Catholics, "Missions '' is the term given to those particular undertakings by which the heralds of the Gospel, sent out by the Church and going forth into the whole world, carry out the task of preaching the Gospel and planting the Church among peoples or groups who do not yet believe in Christ.
Vatican II made a deep impact on Catholic missions around the world. The Church 's relations to non-Christian religions like Judaism and Islam were revisited.
A steep decline in the number of people entering the priesthood and religious life in the West has made the Church look towards laity more and more. Communities like Opus Dei arose to meet this need.
Inculturation increasingly became a key topic of missiological reflection for Catholics. Inculturation is understood as the meeting of the Christian message with a community in their cultural context.
Liberation Theology and liturgical reform have also been important in forming and influencing the mission of the Catholic Church in the 20th and 21st Centuries.
In relation to mission, Pope Benedict XVI has made the re-evangelization of Europe and North America a priority in his own ministry, even while the upper leadership of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and the college of cardinals has more members from Latin America, Africa, and Asia than ever before.
Key documents on mission for Catholics during this period are Evangelii nuntiandi by Pope Paul VI and Redemptoris missio by Pope John Paul II.
Christian mission organisations have long depended on the printed word as a channel through which to do mission. At times when countries have been "closed '' to Christians, great efforts have been made to smuggle Bibles and other literature into those countries. Brother Andrew, the founder of Open Doors, started smuggling Bibles into communist countries in the 1950s. Operation Mobilisation was established in 1957 by George Verwer. Other Christian publishers, such as Plough Publishing, provide free books to people in the UK and US as a form of mission. The Bible Society translates and prints Bibles, in an attempt to reach every country in the world.
Objections to missionary work among isolated, indigenous populations involve the claim that the goal of mission is to Westernize them. Such claims have been raised by indigenous rights groups organizations, such as Friends of Peoples Close to Nature and Survival International.
Missionaries, along with other travelers, brought diseases into local populations. Smallpox, measles, even the common cold, have been blamed on their arrivals. David Igler of the University of California, Irvine, includes missionary activity as a cause of spreading germs. However, he says that commercial traders were the main agents of disease.
... other diseases arrived on non-commercial voyages; missionary activities certainly spread germs, and Spanish conquests had dispersed deadly germs in parts of the Americas and Pacific prior to the late eighteenth century. Yet, for the period between the 1770s and the 1840s, trading vessels were the main agents of disease, creating in the Pacific what Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie has called a "paroxysm '' of the "microbian unification of the world. '' By 1850, the microbes of Europe, Asia, and Africa circulated in almost every Pacific population.
Political scientist Robert Woodberry uses statistics to argue that conversionary Protestants were a crucial catalyst in spreading religious liberty, education, and democracy. He shows that statistically the prevalence of such missionaries account for half of the variance in democracy in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania. In a 2014 Christianity Today article, he remarks, "Areas where Protestant missionaries had a significant presence in the past are on average more economically developed today, with comparatively better health, lower infant mortality, lower corruption, greater literacy, higher educational attainment (especially for women), and more robust membership in nongovernmental associations. ''
In India, Hindu organisations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh assert that most conversions undertaken by zealous evangelicals occur due to compulsion, inducement or fraud. In the Indian state of Tripura, the government has alleged financial and weapons - smuggling connections between Baptist missionaries and rebel groups such as the National Liberation Front of Tripura. The accused Tripura Baptist Christian Union is a member body of the Baptist World Alliance.
"In mid-May, the Vatican was also co-sponsoring a meeting about how some religious groups abuse liberties by proselytizing, or by evangelizing in aggressive or deceptive ways. Iraq... has become an open field for foreigners looking for fresh converts. Some Catholic Church leaders and aid organizations have expressed concern about new Christian groups coming in and luring Iraqis to their churches with offers of cash, clothing, food or jobs... Reports of aggressive proselytism and reportedly forced conversions in mostly Hindu India have fueled religious tensions and violence there and have prompted some regional governments to pass laws banning proselytism or religious conversion... Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya, a Hindu monk from southern India, told CNS that India 's poor and uneducated are especially vulnerable to coercive or deceptive methods of evangelization... Aid work must not hide any ulterior motives and avoid exploiting vulnerable people like children and the disabled, she said. ''
In an interview with Outlook Magazine, Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya said "If the Vatican could understand that every religious and spiritual tradition is as sacred as Christianity, and that they have a right to exist without being denigrated or extinguished, it will greatly serve the interests of dialogue, mutual respect, and peaceful coexistence. ''
While there is a general agreement among most major aid organizations not to mix aid with proselyting, others see disasters as a useful opportunity to spread the word. One such an occurrence was the tsunami that devastated parts of Asia on December 26, 2004.
The Christian Science Monitor echoes these concerns... "' I think evangelists do this out of the best intentions, but there is a responsibility to try to understand other faith groups and their culture, ' says Vince Isner, director of FaithfulAmerica.org, a program of the National Council of Churches USA. ''
The Bush administration has made it easier for U.S. faith - based groups and missionary societies to tie aid and church together.
Missionaries say that the government in India has passed anti-conversion laws in several states that are supposedly meant to prevent conversions from "force or allurement, '' but are primarily used, they say, to persecute and criminalize voluntary conversion due to the government 's broad definition of "force and allurement. '' Any gift received from a Christian in exchange for, or with the intention of, conversion is considered allurement. Voice of the Martyrs reports that aid - workers claim that they are being hindered from reaching people with much needed services as a result of this persecution. Alan de Lastic, Roman Catholic archbishop of New Delhi states that claims of forced conversion are false.
"' There are attacks practically every week, maybe not resulting in death, but still, violent attacks, ' Richard Howell, general secretary of the Evangelical Fellowship of India tells The Christian Science Monitor today. ' They (India 's controlling BJP party) have created an atmosphere where minorities do feel insecure. ' '' According to Prakash Louis, director of the secular Indian Social Institute in New Delhi, "We are seeing a broad attempt to stifle religious minorities and their constitutional rights... Today, they say you have no right to convert, Tomorrow you have no right to worship in certain places. '' Existing congregations, often during times of worship, are being persecuted. Properties are sometimes destroyed and burnt to the ground, while native pastors are sometimes beaten and left for dead.
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who won the battle of the little bighorn | Battle of the Little Bighorn - wikipedia
Up to 160 wounded
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass and also commonly referred to as Custer 's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25 -- 26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The US 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry 's 12 companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew and a brother - in - law. The total US casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their wounds), including four Crow Indian scouts and at least two Arikara Indian scouts.
Public response to the Great Sioux War varied in the immediate aftermath of the battle. Custer 's widow soon worked to burnish her husband 's memory, and during the following decades Custer and his troops came to be considered iconic, even heroic, figures in American history, a status that lasted into the 1960s. The battle, and Custer 's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.
In 1805 fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque reported joining a Crow camp in the Yellowstone area. On the way he noted that the Crow hunted buffalo on the "Small Horn River ''. The US built Fort Raymond in 1807 for trade with the Crow. It was located near the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Bighorn River, about 40 miles (64 km) north of the future battlefield. The area is first noted in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
In the latter half of the 19th century, tensions increased between the Native inhabitants of the Great Plains of the US and encroaching settlers. This resulted in a series of conflicts known as the Sioux Wars, which took place from 1854 - 90. While some of the indigenous people eventually agreed to relocate to ever - shrinking reservations, a number of them resisted, at times fiercely.
On May 7, 1868, the valley of the Little Bighorn became a tract in the eastern part of the new Crow Indian Reservation in the center of the old Crow country. The battlefield is known as "Greasy Grass '' to the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and most other Plains Indians; however, in contemporary accounts by participants, it was referred to as the "Valley of Chieftains ''.
Among the Plains Tribes, the long - standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, as well as making personal vows. Towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of "Agency Indians '' who had slipped away from their reservations. During a Sun Dance around June 5, 1876, on Rosebud Creek in Montana, Sitting Bull, the spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota, reportedly had a vision of "soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. '' At the same time US military officials were conducting a summer campaign to force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations, using infantry and cavalry in a so - called "three - pronged approach ''. (())
Col. John Gibbon 's column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the 7th Infantry and four companies (F, G, H, and L) of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 to patrol the Yellowstone River. Brig. Gen. George Crook 's column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the 3rd Cavalry, five companies (A, B, D, E, and I) of the 2nd Cavalry, two companies (D and F) of the 4th Infantry, and three companies (C, G, and H) of the 9th Infantry moved north from Fort Fetterman in the Wyoming Territory on May 29, marching toward the Powder River area. Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry 's column, including twelve companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M) of the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's immediate command, Companies C and G of the 17th U.S. Infantry, and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry departed westward from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. Companies C, D, and I of the 6th U.S. Infantry moved along the Yellowstone River from Fort Buford on the Missouri River to set up a supply depot and joined Terry on May 29 at the mouth of the Powder River. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln.
The 7th Cavalry had been created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers. A significant portion of the regiment had previously served 4 - 1 / 2 years at Fort Riley, Kansas, during which time it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 in cholera epidemics. In November 1868, while stationed in Kansas, the 7th Cavalry under Custer had successfully routed Black Kettle 's Southern Cheyenne camp on the Washita River in the Battle of Washita River, an attack which was at the time labeled a "massacre of innocent Indians '' by the Indian Bureau.
By the time of the Little Bighorn, half of the 7th Cavalry 's companies had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the Deep South, having been recalled to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 % of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718), were only marginally trained and had no combat or frontier experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from Ireland, England and Germany, just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition, despite being the best - equipped and supplied regiment in the Army.
Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in Company L), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. Samuel D. Sturgis) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. The ratio of troops detached for other duty (approximately 22 %) was not unusual for an expedition of this size, and part of the officer shortage was chronic, due to the Army 's rigid seniority system: three of the regiment 's 12 captains were permanently detached, and two had never served a day with the 7th since their appointment in July 1866. Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.
The Army 's coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17, 1876, when Crook 's column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud, just 30 miles (48 km) to the southeast of the eventual Little Bighorn battlefield. Surprised and according to some accounts astonished by the unusually large numbers of Native Americans, Crook held the field at the end of the battle but felt compelled by his losses to pull back, regroup, and wait for reinforcements. Unaware of Crook 's battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of Rosebud Creek. They reviewed Terry 's plan calling for Custer 's regiment to proceed south along the Rosebud while Terry and Gibbon 's united forces would move in a westerly direction toward the Bighorn and Little Bighorn rivers. As this was the likely location of native encampments, all army elements had been instructed to converge there around June 26 or 27 in an attempt to engulf the Native Americans. On June 22, Terry ordered the 7th Cavalry, composed of 31 officers and 566 enlisted men under Custer, to begin a reconnaissance in force and pursuit along the Rosebud, with the prerogative to "depart '' from orders if Custer saw "sufficient reason ''. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, believing they would slow his command.
While the Terry -- Gibbon column was marching toward the mouth of the Little Bighorn, on the evening of June 24, Custer 's Indian scouts arrived at an overlook known as the Crow 's Nest, 14 miles (23 km) east of the Little Bighorn River. At sunrise on June 25, Custer 's scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles (24 km) in the distance. After a night 's march, the tired officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither, and when Custer joined them, he was also unable to make the sighting. Custer 's scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 mi (16 km) away, disclosing the regiment 's position.
Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement. Three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno (A, G, and M) and three were placed under the command of Captain Frederick Benteen (H, D, and K). Five companies (C, E, F, I, and L) remained under Custer 's immediate command. The 12th, Company B under Captain Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition.
Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail was actually leaving the encampment and did not alert the rest of the village. Custer 's scouts warned him about the size of the village, with Mitch Bouyer reportedly saying, "General, I have been with these Indians for 30 years, and this is the largest village I have ever heard of. '' Custer 's overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.
As the Army moved into the field on its expedition, it was operating with incorrect assumptions as to the number of Indians it would encounter. These assumptions were based on inaccurate information provided by the Indian Agents that no more than 800 hostiles were in the area. The Indian Agents based this estimate on the number of Lakota that Sitting Bull and other leaders had reportedly led off the reservation in protest of U.S. government policies. It was in fact a correct estimate until several weeks before the battle, when the "reservation Indians '' joined Sitting Bull 's ranks for the summer buffalo hunt. The agents did not take into account the many thousands of these "reservation Indians '' who had unofficially left the reservation to join their "uncooperative non-reservation cousins led by Sitting Bull ''. Thus, Custer unknowingly faced thousands of Indians, including the 800 non-reservation "hostiles ''. All Army plans were based on the incorrect numbers. Although Custer was severely criticized after the battle for not having accepted reinforcements and for dividing his forces, it must be understood that he had accepted the same official government estimates of hostiles in the area which Terry and Gibbon had also accepted. Historian James Donovan states that when Custer asked interpreter Fred Gerard for his opinion on the size of the opposition, he estimated the force at between 1,500 to 2,500 warriors.
Additionally, Custer was more concerned with preventing the escape of the Lakota and Cheyenne than with fighting them. From his own observation, as reported by his bugler John Martin (Martini), Custer assumed the warriors had been sleeping in on the morning of the battle, to which virtually every native account attested later, giving Custer a false estimate of what he was up against. When he and his scouts first looked down on the village from the Crow 's Nest across the Little Bighorn River, they could only see the herd of ponies. Looking from a hill 2.5 miles (4.0 km) away after parting with Reno 's command, Custer could observe only women preparing for the day, and young boys taking thousands of horses out to graze south of the village. Custer 's Crow scouts told him it was the largest native village they had ever seen. When the scouts began changing back into their native dress right before the battle, Custer released them from his command. While the village was enormous in size, Custer thought there were far fewer warriors to defend the village. He assumed most of the warriors were still asleep in their tipis.
Finally, Custer may have assumed that in the event of his encountering Native Americans, that his subordinate Benteen with the pack train would quickly come to his aid. Rifle volleys were a standard way of telling supporting units to come to another unit 's aid. In a subsequent official 1879 Army investigation requested by Major Reno, the Reno Board of Inquiry (RCOI), Benteen and Reno 's men testified that they heard distinct rifle volleys as late as 4: 30 pm during the battle.
Custer had initially wanted to take a day and scout the village before attacking; however, when men went back after supplies dropped by the pack train, they discovered they were being back - trailed by Indians. Reports from his scouts also revealed fresh pony tracks from ridges overlooking his formation. It became apparent that the warriors in the village were either aware of or would soon be aware of his approach. Fearing that the village would break up into small bands that he would have to chase, Custer began to prepare for an immediate attack.
Custer 's field strategy was designed to engage noncombatants at the encampments on the Little Bighorn so as to capture women, children, and the elderly or disabled to serve as hostages to convince the warriors to surrender and comply with federal orders to relocate. Custer 's battalions were poised to "ride into the camp and secure noncombatant hostages '' and "forc (e) the warriors to surrender ''. Author Evan S. Connell observed that if Custer could occupy the village before widespread resistance developed, the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors "would be obliged to surrender, because if they started to fight, they would be shooting their own families. ''
In Custer 's book My Life on the Plains, published just two years before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he asserted:
Indians contemplating a battle, either offensive or defensive, are always anxious to have their women and children removed from all danger... For this reason I decided to locate our (military) camp as close as convenient to (Chief Black Kettle 's Cheyenne) village, knowing that the close proximity of their women and children, and their necessary exposure in case of conflict, would operate as a powerful argument in favor of peace, when the question of peace or war came to be discussed.
On Custer 's decision to advance up the bluffs and descend on the village from the east, Lt. Edward Godfrey of Company K surmised:
(Custer) expected to find the squaws and children fleeing to the bluffs on the north, for in no other way do I account for his wide detour. He must have counted upon Reno 's success, and fully expected the "scatteration '' of the non-combatants with the pony herds. The probable attack upon the families and capture of the herds were in that event counted upon to strike consternation in the hearts of the warriors, and were elements for success upon which General Custer fully counted.
The Sioux and Cheyenne fighters were acutely aware of the danger posed by the military engagement of noncombatants and that "even a semblance of an attack on the women and children '' would draw the warriors back to the village, according to historian John S. Gray. Such was their concern that a "feint '' by Capt. Yates ' E and F Companies at the mouth of Medicine Tail Coulee (Minneconjou Ford) caused hundreds of warriors to disengage from the Reno valley fight and return to deal with the threat to the village.
Some authors and historians, based on archaeological evidence and reviews of native testimony, speculate that Custer attempted to cross the river at a point they refer to as Ford D. According to Richard A. Fox, James Donovan, and others, Custer proceeded with a wing of his battalion (Yates ' Troops E and F) north and opposite the Cheyenne circle at that crossing, which provided "access to the (women and children) fugitives. '' Yates 's force "posed an immediate threat to fugitive Indian families... '' gathering at the north end of the huge encampment; he then persisted in his efforts to "seize women and children '' even as hundreds of warriors were massing around Keogh 's wing on the bluffs. Yates ' wing, descending to the Little Bighorn River at Ford D, encountered "light resistance '', undetected by the Indian forces ascending the bluffs east of the village. Custer was almost within "striking distance of the refugees '' before being repulsed by Indian defenders and forced back to Custer Ridge.
The Lone Teepee (or Tipi) was a landmark along the 7th Cavalry 's march. It was where the Indian encampment had been a week earlier, during the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17, 1876. The Indians had left a single teepee standing (some reports mention a second that had been partially dismantled), and in it was the body of a Sans Arc warrior, Old She - Bear, who had been wounded in the battle. He had died a couple of days after the Rosebud battle, and it was the custom of the Indians to move camp when a warrior died and leave the body with its possessions. The Lone Teepee was an important location during the Battle of the Little Bighorn for several reasons, including:
The first group to attack was Major Reno 's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer 's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village 's size, location, or the warriors ' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle. '' Reno 's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3: 00 pm on June 25. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away. ''
Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty - man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno 's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow - shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. Neither Custer nor Reno had much idea of the length, depth and size of the encampment they were attacking, as the village was hidden by the trees. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara / Ree and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village 's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap '' and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment.
He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno 's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno 's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), the mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno 's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno 's line. After about 20 minutes of long - distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one), and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno 's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno 's line, turning Reno 's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position.
After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me, '' and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later, Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13 -- 18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno 's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno 's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno 's face.
Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno 's shaken troops were joined by Captain Benteen 's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer 's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs. ''. Benteen 's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno 's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were reinforced by McDougall 's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all - around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. This practice had become standard during the last year of the American Civil War, with both Union and Confederate troops utilizing knives, eating utensils, mess plates and pans to dig effective battlefield fortifications.
Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4: 20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno 's badly wounded and hard - pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer 's position. Benteen 's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5: 00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5: 25 pm, Custer 's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill '' at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill. The destruction of Keogh 's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing native attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position.
Benteen was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier 's positions.
The precise details of Custer 's fight are largely conjectural since none of his men (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are conflicting and unclear.
While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen 's men was probably from Custer 's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry 's arrival on June 27. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer 's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north of Reno and Benteen 's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer 's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in an advanced state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry 's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell.
Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right - handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer 's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill ''. There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry 's casualties.
Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer 's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee (a drainage which led to the river), recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer 's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle.
According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes - Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "... and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two - bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag ''. In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big - nose. However, in Chief Gall 's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall 's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men ''.
Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died.
- Reported words of Lieutenant Colonel Custer at the battle 's outset.
Having isolated Reno 's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the native warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand '' remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half - mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village. Riding north along the bluffs, Custer could have descended into Medicine Tail Coulee. Some historians believe that part of Custer 's force descended the coulee, going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. According to some accounts, a small contingent of Indian sharpshooters effectively opposed this crossing.
White Cow Bull claimed to have shot a leader wearing a buckskin jacket off his horse in the river. While no other Indian account supports this claim, if White Bull did shoot a buckskin - clad leader off his horse, some historians have argued that Custer may have been seriously wounded by him. Some Indian accounts claim that besides wounding one of the leaders of this advance, a soldier carrying a company guidon was also hit. Troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses. The fact that either of the non-mutilation wounds to Custer 's body (a bullet wound below the heart and a shot to the left temple) would have been instantly fatal casts doubt on his being wounded and remounted.
Reports of an attempted fording of the river at Medicine Tail Coulee might explain Custer 's purpose for Reno 's attack, that is, a coordinated "hammer - and - anvil '' maneuver, with Reno 's holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno 's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have believed it was the north end of the Indian camp, although it was only the middle. Some Indian accounts, however, place the Northern Cheyenne encampment and the north end of the overall village to the left (and south) of the opposite side of the crossing. The precise location of the north end of the village remains in dispute, however.
Edward Curtis, the famed ethnologist and photographer of the Native American Indians, made a detailed personal study of the battle, interviewing many of those who had fought or taken part in it. First he went over the ground covered by the troops with the three Crow scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasin, and then again with Two Moons and a party of Cheyenne warriors. He also visited the Lakota country and interviewed Red Hawk, "whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear ''. Then, he went over the battlefield once more with the three Crow scouts, but also accompanied by General Charles Woodruff "as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer ''. Finally, Curtis visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with Custer 's command. Based on all the information he gathered, Curtis concluded that Custer had indeed ridden down the Medicine Tail Coulee and then towards the river where he probably planned to ford it. However, "the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side ''. They were soon joined by a large force of Sioux who (no longer engaging Reno) rushed down the valley. This was the beginning of their attack on Custer who was forced to turn and head for the hill where he would make his famous "last stand ''. Thus, wrote Curtis, "Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat ''.
Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout Ashishishe (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson 's claim.
Archaeological evidence and reassessment of Indian testimony has led to a new interpretation of the battle. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of. 45 -- 55 shell cases along the ridge line known today as Nye - Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Some historians believe Custer divided his detachment into two (and possibly three) battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.
Evidence from the 1920s supports the theory that at least one of the companies made a feint attack southeast from Nye - Cartwright Ridge straight down the center of the "V '' formed by the intersection at the crossing of Medicine Tail Coulee on the right and Calhoun Coulee on the left. The intent may have been to relieve pressure on Reno 's detachment (according to the Crow scout Curley, possibly viewed by both Mitch Bouyer and Custer) by withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. Had the U.S. troops come straight down Medicine Tail Coulee, their approach to the Minneconjou Crossing and the northern area of the village would have been masked by the high ridges running on the northwest side of the Little Bighorn River.
That they might have come southeast, from the center of Nye - Cartwright Ridge, seems to be supported by Northern Cheyenne accounts of seeing the approach of the distinctly white - colored horses of Company E, known as the Grey Horse Company. Its approach was seen by Indians at that end of the village. Behind them, a second company, further up on the heights, would have provided long - range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering company would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.
In the end, the hilltop to which Custer had moved was probably too small to accommodate all of the survivors and wounded. Fire from the southeast made it impossible for Custer 's men to secure a defensive position all around Last Stand Hill where the soldiers put up their most dogged defense. According to Lakota accounts, far more of their casualties occurred in the attack on Last Stand Hill than anywhere else. The extent of the soldiers ' resistance indicated they had few doubts about their prospects for survival. According to Cheyenne and Sioux testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands '' were apparently made by several groups. Custer 's remaining companies (E, F, and half of C) were soon killed.
By almost all accounts, the Lakota annihilated Custer 's force within an hour of engagement. David Humphreys Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Lakota survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one - half hour. Other native accounts said the fighting lasted only "as long as it takes a hungry man to eat a meal. '' The Lakota asserted that Crazy Horse personally led one of the large groups of warriors who overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast, causing a breakdown in the command structure and panic among the troops. Many of these men threw down their weapons while Cheyenne and Sioux warriors rode them down, "counting coup '' with lances, coup sticks, and quirts. Some Native accounts recalled this segment of the fight as a "buffalo run. ''
Captain Frederick Benteen, battalion leader of Companies D, H and K, recalled his observations on the Custer battlefield on June 27, 1876
I went over the battlefield carefully with a view to determine how the battle was fought. I arrived at the conclusion I (hold) now -- that it was a rout, a panic, until the last man was killed...
There was no line formed on the battlefield. You can take a handful of corn and scatter (the kernels) over the floor, and make just such lines. There were none... The only approach to a line was where 5 or 6 (dead) horses found at equal distances, like skirmishers (part of Lt. Calhoun 's Company L). That was the only approach to a line on the field. There were more than 20 (troopers) killed (in one group); there were (more often) four or five at one place, all within a space of 20 to 30 yards (of each other)... I counted 70 dead (cavalry) horses and 2 Indian ponies.
I think, in all probability, that the men turned their horses loose without any orders to do so. Many orders might have been given, but few obeyed. I think that they were panic stricken; it was a rout, as I said before.
A Brulé Sioux warrior stated: "In fact, Hollow Horn Bear believed that the troops were in good order at the start of the fight, and kept their organization even while moving from point to point. '' Red Horse, an Oglala Sioux warrior, commented: "Here (Last Stand Hill) the soldiers made a desperate fight. '' One Hunkpapa Sioux warrior, Moving Robe, noted that "It was a hotly contested battle '', while another, Iron Hawk, stated: "The Indians pressed and crowded right in around Custer Hill. But the soldiers were n't ready to die. We stood there a long time. '' In a letter from February 21, 1910, Private William Taylor, Company M, 7th Cavalry, wrote: "Reno proved incompetent and Benteen showed his indifference -- I will not use the uglier words that have often been in my mind. Both failed Custer and he had to fight it out alone. ''
Recent archaeological work at the battlefield indicates that officers on Custer Hill restored some tactical control. E Company rushed off Custer Hill toward the Little Bighorn River but failed to reach it, which resulted in the total destruction of that company. This left about 50 - 60 men, mostly from F Company and the staff, on Last Stand Hill. The remainder of the battle took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archaeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer 's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians ' attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers ' horses. One 7th Cavalry trooper claimed finding a number of stone mallets consisting of a round cobble weighing 8 -- 10 pounds (about 4 kg) with a rawhide handle, which he believed had been used by the Indian women to finish off the wounded. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers ' skirmish lines were overwhelmed. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder behind the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. Later, the troops would have bunched together in defensive positions and are alleged to have shot their remaining horses as cover. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have been abandoned as untenable.
Under threat of attack, the first U.S. soldiers on the battlefield three days later hurriedly buried the troopers in shallow graves, more or less where they had fallen. A couple of years after the battle, markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen, so the placement of troops has been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh, and strung out towards the Little Bighorn River.
Modern documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand '' as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that, in the end, Custer 's troops were not surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse 's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. Many of these troopers may have ended up in a deep ravine 300 -- 400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies (the most common number associated with burial witness testimony), including that of scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in or near that gulch, their deaths possibly the battle 's final actions. Although the marker for Mitch Bouyer has been accounted for as being accurate through archaeological and forensic testing, it is some 65 yards away from Deep Ravine. Other archaeological explorations done in Deep Ravine have found no human remains associated with the battle. According to Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire. The great majority of the Indian casualties were probably suffered during this closing segment of the battle, as the soldiers and Indians on Calhoun Ridge were more widely separated and traded fire at greater distances for most of their portion of the battle than did the soldiers and Indians on Custer Hill.
After the Custer force was soundly defeated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9: 00 pm) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen 's luck with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M. On June 27, the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the natives drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout White Man Runs Him was the first to tell General Terry 's officers that Custer 's force had "been wiped out. '' Reno and Benteen 's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. One of the regiment 's three surgeons had been with Custer 's column, while another, Dr. DeWolf, had been killed during Reno 's retreat. The only remaining doctor was Assistant Surgeon Henry R. Porter.
News of the defeat arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The Army began to investigate, although its effectiveness was hampered by a concern for survivors, and the reputation of the officers. Custer 's wife, Elisabeth Bacon Custer, in particular, guarded and promoted the ideal of him as the gallant hero, attacking any who cast an ill light on his reputation.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn had far - reaching consequences for the Natives. It was the beginning of the end of the ' Indian ' Wars and has even been referred to as "the Indians '' last stand '' in the area. Within 48 hours of the battle, the large encampment on the Little Bighorn broke up into smaller groups because there was not enough game and grass to sustain a large congregation of people and horses.
Oglala Sioux Black Elk recounted the exodus this way: "We fled all night, following the Greasy Grass. My two younger brothers and I rode in a pony - drag, and my mother put some young pups in with us. They were always trying to crawl out and I was always putting them back in, so I did n't sleep much. ''
The scattered Sioux and Cheyenne feasted and celebrated during July with no threat from soldiers. After their celebrations, many of the Natives returned to the reservation. Soon the number of warriors amounted to only about 600. Both Crook and Terry remained immobile for seven weeks after the battle, awaiting reinforcements and unwilling to venture out against the Sioux and Cheyenne until they had at least 2,000 men. Crook and Terry finally took the field against the Natives forces in August. General Nelson A. Miles took command of the effort in October 1876. In May 1877, Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Within days, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The Great Sioux War ended on May 7 with Miles ' defeat of a remaining band of Miniconjou Sioux.
Ownership of the Black Hills, which had been a focal point of the 1876 conflict, was determined by an ultimatum issued by the Manypenny Commission, according to which the Sioux were required to cede the land to the United States if they wanted the government to continue supplying rations to the reservations. Threatened with forced starvation, the Natives ceded Paha Sapa to the United States, but the Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the transaction. They lobbied Congress to create a forum to decide their claim and subsequently litigated for 40 years; the United States Supreme Court in the 1980 decision United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians acknowledged that the United States had taken the Black Hills without just compensation. The Sioux refused the money subsequently offered and continue to insist on their right to occupy the land.
Modern - day accounts include Arapaho warriors in the battle, but the five Arapaho men who were at the encampments were there only by accident. While on a hunting trip they came close to the village by the river and were captured and almost killed by the Lakota who believed the hunters were scouts for the U.S. Army. Two Moon, a Northern Cheyenne leader, interceded to save their lives.
The 7th Cavalry was accompanied by a number of scouts and interpreters:
Native Americans
Native Americans
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †, commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †
Major Marcus Reno
Captain Frederick Benteen
First Lieutenant Edward Gustave Mathey
Second Lieutenant Charles Varnum (wounded), Chief of Scouts
Estimates of Native American casualties have differed widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Native American listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. Lakota chief Red Horse told Col. W.H. Wood in 1877 that the Native Americans suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle. In 1881, Red Horse told Dr. C.E. McChesney the same numbers but in a series of drawings done by Red Horse to illustrate the battle, he drew only sixty figures representing Lakota and Cheyenne casualties. Of those sixty figures only thirty some are portrayed with a conventional Plains Indian method of indicating death. In the last 140 years, historians have been able to identify multiple Indian names pertaining to the same individual, which has greatly reduced previously inflated numbers. Today a list of positively known casualties exists that lists 99 names, attributed and consolidated to 31 identified warriors.
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties at Battle of Little Bighorn (Plate XLV)
Six unnamed Native American women and four unnamed children are known to have been killed at the beginning of the battle during Reno 's charge. Among them were two wives and three children of the Hunkpapa Leader Pizi (Gall).
The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier of the five companies with Custer was killed (except for some Crow scouts and several troopers that had left that column before the battle or as the battle was starting). Among the dead were Custer 's brothers Boston and Thomas, his brother - in - law James Calhoun, and his nephew Henry Reed.
In 1878, the army awarded 24 Medals of Honor to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded. Few on the non-Indian side questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers. Indian accounts spoke of soldiers ' panic - driven flight and suicide by those unwilling to fall captive to the Indians. While such stories were gathered by Thomas Bailey Marquis in a book in the 1930s, it was not published until 1976 because of the unpopularity of such assertions. Although soldiers may have believed captives would be tortured, Indians usually killed men outright and took as captive for adoption only young women and children. Indian accounts also noted the bravery of soldiers who fought to the death.
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen+ 2 Indian Government scouts (?)
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen & dead cavalry horses
Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers and recruiting efforts began to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn and reinforced by Gibbon 's column. On August 8, 1876, after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up Rosebud Creek in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook 's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the Little Missouri River. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reconstitute.
The U.S. Congress authorized appropriations to expand the Army by 2,500 men to meet the emergency after the defeat of the 7th Cavalry. For a session, the Democratic Party - controlled House of Representatives abandoned its campaign to reduce the size of the Army. Word of Custer 's fate reached the 44th United States Congress as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the Republican Senate. They approved a measure to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men on July 24. The committee temporarily lifted the ceiling on the size of the Army by 2,500 on August 15.
As a result of the defeat in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve '' rider (19 Stat. 192) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876), which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was the subject of an 1879 U.S. Army Court of Inquiry in Chicago, held at Reno 's request, during which his conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony by non-Army officers suggested that he was drunk and a coward. The court found Reno 's conduct to be without fault. After the battle, Thomas Rosser, James O'Kelly, and others continued to question the conduct of Reno due to his hastily ordered retreat. Defenders of Reno at the trial noted that, while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it became apparent that he was outnumbered and outflanked by the Indians. Contemporary accounts also point to the fact that Reno 's scout, Bloody Knife, was shot in the head, spraying him with blood, possibly increasing his own panic and distress.
General Terry and others claimed that Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign. For instance, he refused to use a battery of Gatling guns, and turned down General Terry 's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry. Custer believed that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. His rapid march en route to the Little Bighorn averaged nearly 30 miles (48 km) a day, so his assessment appears to have been accurate. Custer planned "to live and travel like Indians; in this manner the command will be able to go wherever the Indians can '', he wrote in his Herald dispatch.
By contrast, each Gatling gun had to be hauled by four horses, and soldiers often had to drag the heavy guns by hand over obstacles. Each of the heavy, hand - cranked weapons could fire up to 350 rounds a minute, an impressive rate, but they were known to jam frequently. During the Black Hills Expedition two years earlier, a Gatling gun had turned over, rolled down a mountain, and shattered to pieces. Lieutenant William Low, commander of the artillery detachment, was said to have almost wept when he learned he had been excluded from the strike force.
Custer believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force and that the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When offered the 2nd Cavalry, he reportedly replied that the 7th "could handle anything. '' There is evidence that Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how much. By dividing his forces, Custer could have caused the defeat of the entire column, had it not been for Benteen 's and Reno 's linking up to make a desperate yet successful stand on the bluff above the southern end of the camp.
The historian James Donovan believed that Custer 's dividing his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) can be attributed to his inadequate reconnaissance; he also ignored the warnings of his Crow scouts and Charley Reynolds. By the time the battle began, Custer had already divided his forces into three battalions of differing sizes, of which he kept the largest. His men were widely scattered and unable to support each other. Wanting to prevent any escape by the combined tribes to the south, where they could disperse into different groups, Custer believed that an immediate attack on the south end of the camp was the best course of action.
Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, "The more I study the moves here (on the Little Big Horn), the more I have admiration for Custer. '' Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians ' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.
The widowed Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who never remarried, wrote three popular books in which she fiercely protected her husband 's reputation. She lived until 1933, thus preventing much serious research until most of the evidence was long gone. In addition, Captain Frederick Whittaker 's 1876 book idealizing Custer was hugely successful. Custer as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces was an image popularized in Wild West extravaganzas hosted by showman "Buffalo Bill '' Cody, Pawnee Bill, and others. It was not until over half a century later that historians took another look at the battle and Custer 's decisions that led to his death and loss of half his command and found much to criticize.
General Alfred Terry 's Dakota column included a single battery of artillery, comprising two Rodman guns (3 - inch Ordnance rifle) and two Gatling guns. (According to historian Evan S. Connell, the precise number of Gatlings has not been established, ranging from two to three.)
Custer 's decision to reject Terry 's offer of the rapid - fire Gatlings has raised questions among historians as to why he refused them and what advantage their availability might have conferred on his forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
One factor concerned Major Marcus Reno 's recent 8 - day reconnaissance - in - force of the Powder - Tongue - Rosebud Rivers, June 10 to 18. This deployment had demonstrated that artillery pieces mounted on gun carriages and hauled by horses no longer fit for cavalry mounts (so - called condemned horses) were cumbersome over mixed terrain and vulnerable to breakdowns. Custer, valuing the mobility of the 7th Cavalry and recognizing Terry 's acknowledgement of the regiment as "the primary strike force '' preferred to remain unencumbered by the Gatling guns. Custer insisted that the artillery was superfluous to his success, in that the 7th Cavalry alone was sufficient to cope with any force they should encounter, informing Terry: "The 7th can handle anything it meets ''. In addition to these practical concerns, a strained relationship with Major James Brisbin induced Custer 's polite refusal to integrate Brisbin 's Second Cavalry unit -- and the Gatling guns -- into his strike force, as it would disrupt any hierarchical arrangements that Custer presided over.
Historians have acknowledged the firepower inherent in the Gatling gun: they were capable of firing 350. 45 - 70 caliber rounds per minute. Jamming caused by black powder residue could lower that rate, raising questions as to their reliability under combat conditions. Researchers have further questioned the effectiveness of the guns under the tactics that Custer was likely to face with the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The Gatlings, mounted high on carriages, required the battery crew to stand upright during its operation, making them easy targets for Lakota and Cheyenne sharpshooters.
Historian Robert M. Utley, in a section entitled "Would Gatling Guns Have Saved Custer? '' presents two judgments from Custer 's contemporaries: General Henry J. Hunt, expert in the tactical use of artillery in Civil War, stated that Gatlings "would probably have saved the command '', whereas General Nelson A. Miles, participant in the Great Sioux War declared "(Gatlings) were useless for Indian fighting. ''
The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors that opposed Custer 's forces possessed a wide array of weaponry, from Stone Age war clubs and lances to the most advanced firearms of the day. The typical firearms carried by the Lakota and Cheyenne combatants were muzzleloaders, more often a cap - lock smoothbore, the so - called Indian trade musket or Leman guns distributed to Indians by the US government at treaty conventions. Less common were surplus. 58 caliber rifled muskets of American Civil War vintage such as the Enfield and Springfield. Metal cartridge weapons were prized by native combatants, such as the Henry and the Spencer lever - action rifles, as well as Sharps breechloaders. Bows and arrows were utilized by younger braves in lieu of the more potent firearms; effective up to 30 yards (27 meters), the arrows could readily maim or disable an opponent.
Sitting Bull 's forces had no assured means to supply themselves with firearms and ammunition. Nonetheless, they could usually procure these through post-traders, licensed or unlicensed, and from gunrunners who operated in the Dakota Territory: "... a horse or a mule for a repeater... buffalo hides for ammunition. '' Custer 's highly regarded guide, "Lonesome '' Charley Reynolds, informed his superior in early 1876 that Sitting Bull 's forces were amassing weapons, including numerous Winchester repeating rifles and abundant ammunition.
Of the guns owned by Lakota and Cheyenne fighters at the Little Bighorn, approximately 200 were repeating rifles corresponding to about 1 of 10 of the encampment 's two thousand able - bodied fighters who participated in the battle
The troops under Custer 's command carried two regulation firearms authorized and issued by the U.S. Army in early 1876: the breech - loading, single - shot Springfield Model 1873 carbine, and the 1873 Colt single - action revolver. The regulation M1860 saber or "long knives '' were not carried by troopers upon Custer 's order.
With the exception of a number of officers and scouts who opted for personally owned and more expensive rifles and handguns, the 7th Cavalry was uniformly armed.
Ammunition allotments provided 100 carbine rounds per trooper, carried on a cartridge belt and in saddlebags on their mounts. An additional 50 carbine rounds per man were reserved on the pack train that accompanied the regiment to the battlefield. Each trooper had 24 rounds for his Colt handgun. The opposing forces, though not equally matched in the number and type of arms, were comparably outfitted, and neither side held a overwhelming advantage in weaponry.
Two hundred or more Lakota and Cheyenne combatants are known to have been armed with Henry, Winchester, or similar lever - action repeating rifles at the battle. Virtually every trooper in the 7th Cavalry fought with the single - shot, breech - loading Springfield carbine and the Colt revolver.
Historians have asked whether the repeating rifles conferred a distinct advantage on Sitting Bull 's villagers that contributed to their victory over Custer 's carbine - armed soldiers.
Historian Michael L. Lawson offers a scenario based on archaeological collections at the "Henryville '' site, which yielded plentiful Henry rifle cartridge casings from approximately 20 individual guns. Lawson speculates that, though less powerful than the Springfield carbines, the Henry repeaters provided a barrage of fire at a critical point, driving Lieutenant James Calhoun 's L Company from Calhoun Hill and Finley Ridge, forcing them to flee in disarray back to Captain Myles Keogh 's I Company, and leading to the disintegration of that wing of Custer 's Battalion.
After exhaustive testing -- including comparisons to domestic and foreign single - shot and repeating rifles -- the Army Ordnance Board (whose members included officers Marcus Reno and Alfred Terry) authorized the Springfield as the official firearm for the United States Army.
The Springfield, manufactured in a. 45 - 70 long rifle version for the infantry and a. 45 - 55 light carbine version for the cavalry, was judged a solid firearm that met the long - term and geostrategic requirements of the United States fighting forces.
British historian Mark Gallear maintains that US government experts rejected the lever - action repeater designs, deeming them ineffective in the event of a clash with fully equipped European armies, or in case of an outbreak of another American civil conflict. Gallear 's analysis minimizes the allegation that rapid depletion of ammunition in lever - action models influenced the decision in favor of the single - shot Springfield. The Indian War, in this context, appears as a minor theatre of conflict, whose contingencies were unlikely to govern the selection of standard weaponry for an emerging industrialized nation.
The Springfield carbine is praised for its "superior range and stopping power '' by historian James Donovan, and author Charles M. Robinson reports that the rifle could be "loaded and fired much more rapidly than its muzzle loading predecessors, and had twice the range of repeating rifles such as the Winchester, Henry and Spencer. ''
Gallear points out that lever - action rifles, after a burst of rapid discharge, still required a reloading interlude that lowered their overall rate of fire; Springfield breechloaders "in the long run, had a higher rate of fire, which was sustainable throughout a battle. ''
The breechloader design patent for the Springfield 's Erskine S. Allin trapdoor system was owned by the US government and the firearm could be easily adapted for production with existing machinery at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts. At time when funding for the post-war Army had been slashed, the prospect for economical production influenced the Ordnance Board member selection of the Springfield option.
The question as to whether the reported malfunction of the Model 1873 Springfield carbine issued to the 7th Cavalry contributed to their defeat has been debated for years.
That the weapon experienced jamming of the extractor is not contested, but its contribution to Custer 's defeat is considered negligible. This conclusion is supported by evidence from archaeological studies performed at the battlefield, where the recovery of Springfield cartridge casing, bearing tell - tale scratch marks indicating manual extraction, were rare. The flaw in the ejector mechanism was known to the Army Ordnance Board at the time of the selection of the Model 1873 rifle and carbine, and was not considered a significant shortcoming in the overall worthiness of the shoulder arm. With the ejector failure in US Army tests as low as 1: 300, the Springfield carbine was vastly more reliable than the muzzle - loading Springfields used in the Civil War.
Gallear addresses the post-battle testimony concerning the copper. 45 - 55 cartridges supplied to the troops in which an officer is said to have cleared the chambers of spent cartridges for a number of Springfield carbines. This testimony of widespread fusing of the casings offered to the Chief of Ordnance at the Reno Court of Inquiry in 1879 conflicts with the archaeological evidence collected at the battlefield. Field data showed that possible extractor failures occurred at a rate of approximately 1: 30 firings at the Custer Battlefield and at a rate of 1: 37 at the Reno - Benteen Battlefield.
Historian Thom Hatch observes that the Model 1873 Springfield, despite the known ejector flaw, remained the standard issue shoulder arm for US troops until the early 1890s. when the copper - cased, inside - primed cartridges were replaced with brass.
Soldiers under Custer 's direct command were annihilated on the first day of the battle (except for three Crow scouts and several troopers (including John Martin (Giovanni Martino)) that had left that column before the battle; one Crow scout, Curly, was the only survivor to leave after the battle had begun), although for years rumors persisted of other survivors.
Over 120 men and women would come forward over the course of the next 70 years claiming they were "the lone survivor '' of Custer 's Last Stand. The phenomenon became so widespread that one historian remarked, "Had Custer had all of those who claimed to be ' the lone survivor ' of his two battalions he would have had at least a brigade behind him when he crossed the Wolf Mountains and rode to the attack. ''
The historian Earl Alonzo Brininstool suggested he had collected at least 70 "lone survivor '' stories. Michael Nunnally, an amateur Custer historian, wrote a booklet describing 30 such accounts. W.A. Graham claimed that even Libby Custer received dozens of letters from men, in shocking detail, about their sole survivor experience. At least 125 alleged "single survivor '' tales have been confirmed in the historical record as of July 2012.
Frank Finkel, from Dayton, Washington, had such a convincing story that historian Charles Kuhlman believed the alleged survivor, going so far as to write a lengthy defense of Finkel 's participation in the battle. Douglas Ellison -- mayor of Medora, North Dakota, and an amateur historian -- also wrote a book in support of the veracity of Finkel 's claim, but most scholars reject it.
Some of these survivors held a form of celebrity status in the United States, among them Raymond Hatfield "Arizona Bill '' Gardner and Frank Tarbeaux. A few even published their own autobiographies, including their deeds at the Little Bighorn.
Almost as soon as men came forward implying or directly pronouncing their unique role in the battle, there were others who were equally opposed to any such claims. Theodore Goldin, a battle participant who later became a controversial historian on the event, wrote (in regards to Charles Hayward 's claim to have been with Custer and taken prisoner):
The Indians always insisted that they took no prisoners. If they did -- a thing I firmly believe -- they were tortured and killed the night of the 25th. As an evidence of this I recall the three charred and burned heads we picked up in the village near the scene of the big war dance, when we visited the village with Capt. Benteen and Lieut. Wallace on the morning of the 27th... I 'm sorely afraid, Tony, that we will have to class Hayward 's story, like that of so many others, as pure, unadulterated B.S. As a clerk at headquarters I had occasion to look over the morning reports of at least the six troops at Lincoln almost daily, and never saw his name there, or among the list of scouts employed from time to time... I am hoping that some day all of these damned fakirs will die and it will be safe for actual participants in the battle to admit and insist that they were there, without being branded and looked upon as a lot of damned liars. Actually, there have been times when I have been tempted to deny that I ever heard of the 7th Cavalry, much less participated with it in that engagement... My Medal of Honor and its inscription have served me as proof positive that I was at least in the vicinity at the time in question, otherwise I should be tempted to deny all knowledge of the event.
The only documented and verified survivor of Custer 's command (having been actually involved in Custer 's part of the battle) was Captain Keogh 's horse, Comanche. The wounded horse was discovered on the battlefield by General Terry 's troops, and although other cavalry mounts survived they had been taken by the Indians. Comanche eventually was returned to the fort and became the regimental mascot. Several other badly wounded horses were found and killed at the scene. Writer Evan S. Connell noted in Son of the Morning Star:
Comanche was reputed to be the only survivor of the Little Bighorn, but quite a few Seventh Cavalry mounts survived, probably more than one hundred, and there was even a yellow bulldog. Comanche lived on another fifteen years, and when he died, he was stuffed and to this day remains in a glass case at the University of Kansas. So, protected from moths and souvenir hunters by his humidity - controlled glass case, Comanche stands patiently, enduring generation after generation of undergraduate jokes. The other horses are gone, and the mysterious yellow bulldog is gone, which means that in a sense the legend is true. Comanche alone survived.
For more on survivor claims, see Custer Survivors in Little Bighorn Folklore.
The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in 1879 to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In 1946, it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument, reflecting its association with Custer. In 1967, Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven - gun salute. Beginning in the early 1970s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, 1991, and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to the U.S. dead. In 1881, the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In 1890, marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell.
Nearly 100 years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site. The 1991 bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day 1999, in consultation with tribal representatives, the U.S. added two red granite markers to the battlefield to note where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, a total of ten warrior markers have been added (three at the Reno -- Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield).
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity '' l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards (69 metres) from the 7th Cavalry obelisk. Its walls have some of the names of Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate '' window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
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"Only Daddy That 'll Walk the Line '' is a song written by Jimmy Bryant, and recorded by American country music singer and musician Waylon Jennings. It was released in July 1968 as the second single from Jennings ' album Only the Greatest.
Billboard, in a review of the album, said that it and "Walk On Out of My Mind '' were "typical of the robust, compelling vocal style. '' Nathan Brackett and Christian Hoard, in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, wrote that Jennings began to "really assert his rough - hewn sensibility '' on the song.
The song was featured in season seven episode five of Mad Men.
The song spent eighteen weeks on the Hot Country Singles charts, peaking at # 2 and holding that peak for five weeks. In Canada, it reached Number One on the RPM Country Tracks charts for the week ending September 30, 1968.
Linda Ronstadt included a gender - reversed version of the song (sung as "The Only Mama That 'll Walk the Line '') on her 1969 album Hand Sown... Home Grown; The song became a staple of Ronstadt 's set lists at her concerts during the late 1960s and early ' 70s. She performed it on The Johnny Cash Show in June 1969, nearly a year before Jennings performed it on the same show.
Hank Williams Jr. included a version of the song on his album Family Tradition, which was released in 1979.
In 1991, The Kentucky Headhunters recorded a cover version for the album Electric Barnyard. Also released as a single that year, this version spent seven weeks on the same chart and peaked at # 60.
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The National Consumers League, founded in 1899, is an American consumer organization. The National Consumers League is a private, nonprofit advocacy group representing consumers on marketplace and workplace issues. The NCL provides government, businesses, and other organizations with the consumer 's perspective on concerns including child labor, privacy, food safety, and medication information.
The organization was chartered in 1899 by social reformers Jane Addams and Josephine Lowell. Its first general secretary was Florence Kelley. Under Kelley 's direction, the League 's early focus was to oppose the harsh, unregulated working conditions many Americans were forced to endure. The founding principles of the NCL are: "That the working conditions we accept for our fellow citizens should be reflected by our purchases, and that consumers should demand safety and reliability from the goods and services they buy. '' The league 's focus continues to be to promote a fair marketplace for workers and consumers.
Under Kelley 's leadership, the League established labeling certifying that products were made under fair working conditions, protected workers from exploitation by employers, promoted food inspection and advocated for child labor restrictions, the limiting of work hours and establishing minimum wage laws for women. Kelley was opposed to sweatshops and for the minimum wage, eight - hour workdays, and children 's rights.
In founding the National Consumers League in 1899, one of Kelley 's strong concerns was that the league oppose sweatshop labor. Kelley also worked to establish a work - day limited to eight hours. In 1907 she participated in the Supreme Court case Muller v. Oregon, which sought to overturn limits to the hours female workers could work in non-hazardous professions. Kelley helped file the "Brandeis Brief '', which included sociological and medical evidence of the hazards of working long hours, and set the precedent of the Supreme Court 's recognition of sociological evidence, which was used to great effect later in the case "Brown v. Board of Education ''.
Sally Greenberg, formerly a senior attorney at Consumers Union (CU), is the executive director of the National Consumers League. Greenberg has worked with members of Congress, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, other federal agencies, the media and consumer safety organizations to shape policy on such issues as product safety, auto safety, and legal and liability reform.
Current NCL educational campaigns include:
Choose To Lose, NCL 's brand new survey conducted by Harris Interactive finds that while many Americans think they 're "lighter '' than they are, most are not being told by a doctor they need to lose weight.
NCL 's 2007 Five Worst Teen Jobs warns youth and parents about the dangers of some summer jobs. Over one million youth have been injured on the job since the release of the NIOSH Report on Deficiencies in Federal Child Labor Protections.
Second annual Corporate Social Responsibility survey conducted with Fleishman - Hillard Inc, examined the expectations that the public has of corporate America and the factors that drive those beliefs and attitudes.
LifeSmarts (www.LifeSmarts.org) is a free program designed to teach teenagers consumer rights and responsibilities as they pertain to health, finance, technology, and the environment.
Fraud.org is a reporting platform through which the National Consumers League collects information about scams, extracts trends from data, and forwards reports to law enforcement.
The Child Labor Coalition (www.StopChildLabor.org) was formed in 1989 to combat child labor and protect teen workers from health and safety hazards. It is co-chaired by the National Consumers League and the American Federation of Teachers.
Script Your Future (www.ScriptYourFuture.org) is a public awareness initiative which teaches patients undergoing long - term prescription therapy the importance of communicating with healthcare professionals and following regimens carefully.
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red velvet level up season 2 how many episodes | Red Velvet (band) - wikipedia
Red Velvet (Hangul: 레드 벨벳) is a South Korean girl group formed by SM Entertainment. The group debuted on August 1, 2014, with their digital single "Happiness '' and with four members: Irene, Seulgi, Wendy and Joy. In March 2015, Red Velvet added a fifth member, Yeri, to the group.
Since their debut, Red Velvet has experienced success and recognition. Their first EP, Ice Cream Cake, topped the Gaon Album Chart in early 2015. Similarly, the group 's first full - length album The Red (2015) and the extended plays The Velvet, Russian Roulette, both released in 2016, and Rookie (2017) all reached # 1 on the Gaon Album Chart. Additionally, The Red, Rookie and The Red Summer (2017) also topped the Billboard World Albums, and with the release of their second studio album Perfect Velvet (2017), they became the K - pop girl group with the most number - one albums on the chart and tied for most number - one albums among all K - pop acts. They have received several awards for music, choreography, or popularity, including the Golden Disc New Artist Award and the Mnet Asian Music Award for Best Female Group in 2017.
The members of Red Velvet have also made television appearances: Irene as a host of Music Bank, Yeri as a host of Show! Music Core, Joy on the fourth season of variety show We Got Married and as a lead character in the drama The Liar and His Lover, Seulgi on the reality / drama show Idol Drama Operation Team, and Wendy as a short - time host of KBS World 's K - Rush.
Seulgi was the first member to be cast as an SM Entertainment trainee through an audition in 2007, while Irene was cast in 2009, and Yeri in 2011. In 2012, Wendy and Joy were cast through the S.M. Global Auditions in Canada and Seoul respectively. Irene, Seulgi and Wendy were introduced initially to the public through the agency 's pre-debut team SM Rookies in 2013 and 2014, and they were rumored to debut as a group in July, which was then confirmed by S.M. Entertainment. With the addition of member Joy, the four - member group would debut as Red Velvet, S.M. Entertainment 's first girl group in five years since f (x).
On August 1, 2014, Red Velvet made their official debut stage on the music program Music Bank. Their debut single, "Happiness '', was digitally released on August 4. The song was penned by Yoo Young - jin and composed by Will Simms, Chad Hugo (The Neptunes), Chris Holsten, and Anne Judith Wik (Dsign Music). It was described as an urban Europop song with a strong synth sound and an African tribal beat. The original music video for "Happiness '' gained more than 2 million views on YouTube in its first 24 hours of release before being removed due to controversy over problematic background images and replaced with an edited version. "Happiness '' was the second-most viewed K - pop music video worldwide for the month of August.
Red Velvet released their second digital single "Be Natural '' and its music video on October 13, 2014. The song, which includes a rap verse by NCT member Taeyong, is a remake of the 2000 song by S.E.S., S.M. Entertainment 's first girl group. The music video for the song was directed by Kwon Soon - wook and Shim Jae - won, choreographed by Kyle Hanagami, and features original choreography seen in a pre-debut teaser of Irene and Seulgi, which they performed as part of SM Rookies. The group started their promotions on October 9, making their first appearance on the music program, M Countdown. The song peaked at number 33 on the Gaon Digital Chart and at number 6 on Billboard 's World Digital Songs chart.
On March 11, 2015, former S.M. Rookies member Yeri was officially announced as part of the group. On March 15, the group 's first mini-album Ice Cream Cake was released. The group promoted with double lead singles "Automatic '' and "Ice Cream Cake '' for which the music videos were released on March 14 and 15. On March 19, the group held their album showcase on Ice Cream TV, a program streamed through Naver Music and hosted by Shinee 's Minho. On March 27, they won their first music show trophy on KBS 's Music Bank. The album went on to become the best selling album by a girl group in South Korea for the first half of 2015 on the Hanteo Chart. In August 2015, Red Velvet held their first U.S. performance during the annual KCON convention and music festival in Los Angeles, California.
Red Velvet 's first full - length album, The Red, was released on September 9, 2015, with a total of ten tracks including the lead single "Dumb Dumb ''. The album was an immediate success which was received positively by critics: Billboard 's Jeff Benjamin called The Red "an impressive, solid debut album '', stating that it "indicates big things for the act that needs to follow in the footsteps of their beloved female label mates Girls ' Generation and f (x). '' The Red debuted at # 1 on Billboard 's World Albums Chart and South Korea 's Gaon Album Chart, and also appeared in Billboard 's list of the "10 Best K - Pop Albums of 2015 '', which described the album as "one of the year 's most enjoyable and experimental pop LPs. '' "Dumb Dumb '' peaked at number three on Billboard World Digital Songs chart, making it the best - selling K - pop song in America of the week. The single also topped the list of the "Top 20 K - pop Tracks of 2015 '' by Dazed, which stated that the group has "surpassed their idol competitors '' and "marked a monumental, career - crowning musical tornado ''. The music video for "Dumb Dumb '' was included as the only non-English language entry in Rolling Stone 's "10 Best Music Videos of 2015 ''. On December 18, the group took part in S.M. Entertainment 's special winter project Winter Garden, alongside label - mates f (x) and BoA, releasing a digital single titled "Wish Tree ''.
Red Velvet 's second mini album The Velvet was intended to be released on March 16, 2016, but ten minutes before its scheduled release, S.M. Entertainment announced that the music video and album 's release would be delayed "to guarantee a high quality of work ''. The album and its title track "One of These Nights '' (Korean title: 7 월 7 일) was released on March 17. The album showcases the smooth R&B - influenced "velvet '' side of the group 's concept and is a direct follow - up album to The Red, which highlighted the group 's bright and bold "red '' persona.
In May, various news sites in South Korea reported that the group was preparing to release a summer album. Despite this, it was postponed several times but the group eventually released their third extended play Russian Roulette on September 7. The album contains seven tracks, with the lead single titled "Russian Roulette ''. On September 13, 2016, Red Velvet took their first music show win for Russian Roulette on The Show. The title track peaked at number two on the Gaon Digital Chart and Billboard 's World Digital Songs chart, making it their highest rankings on both charts at the time.
On February 1, 2017, Red Velvet released their fourth mini album, Rookie. The EP contains six tracks including the title track "Rookie '', and a solo track by Wendy entitled "Last Love '' (마지막 사랑). The album topped the Weekly Gaon Album Chart as well as the Billboard World Albums Chart. The group took their first music show win for "Rookie '' on The Show on February 7, followed by wins on Show Champion, M Countdown, Music Bank, and Inkigayo. On March 31, the group released the first single for SM Station 2, titled "Would U ''. For further promotions, from July 27 to September 10, Red Velvet starred in their first reality television program, Level Up Project which showed footage of the girls ' trip to Thailand. It lasted for 23 episodes and was filmed without member Joy who was busy at the time shooting the drama The Liar and His Lover where she was the female lead.
On July 9, Red Velvet released their fifth EP The Red Summer with the title track "Red Flavor '' (빨간 맛), which marked their first summer release. The EP was a commercial success, again topping the Gaon Album Chart and the Billboard World Albums Chart. This was their third # 1 release and set the record for most # 1 albums on the chart by a K - pop girl group. Additionally, "Red Flavor '' debuted atop the Gaon Digital Chart and Gaon Download Chart with the other four songs also charting in the Top 50 of the Digital Chart.
Between August 18 -- 20, the group held their first solo concert titled "Red Room '' to an audience of 11,000. Although it was initially planned to be a two - day concert, another date was added due to demand.
On October 4, SM Entertainment announced through their Japanese website that the group would have their first showcase in Japan. "Red Velvet Premium Showcase F'U'N Room Reveluv - Baby Party '' took place at the Yebisu The Garden Hall in Tokyo on November 6. There, they performed the Japanese versions of their Korean songs "Dumb Dumb '' and "Red Flavor '' for the first time. After wrapping up the showcase, it was officially announced that Red Velvet 's concert "Red Room '' would be taken to Japan in 2018. It is planned to take place in March 28 and 29 at the Musashino Forest Sports Plaza, a 10,000 - seat capacity venue that will later be used for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
Red Velvet revisited their "velvet '' image by releasing their second full - length album Perfect Velvet on November 17 with the lead single "Peek - a-Boo ''. Unlike their first "velvet '' release, the album and single were both commercially successful. The album peaked atop Billboard 's World Album Chart. "Peek - a-Boo '' peaked at # 2 on Billboard 's World Digital Songs chart, tying with their 2016 single "Russian Roulette ''. In South Korea, the album and the single "Peek - a-Boo '' both charted at # 2 on the Gaon Album Chart and Gaon Digital Chart. Through the release of Rookie, The Red Summer and Perfect Velvet all in the same year, along with the popularity of the single "Red Flavor '' (which according to Jung Ji - won of Osen best represents the year of 2017), and the success of their albums overseas, Red Velvet achieved a "top girl group '' status in South Korea, which was cemented further when Perfect Velvet sold over 100,000 copies and "Peek - A-Boo '' won on the music program Inkigayo on their last day of promotions for the song, proving its longevity on the charts.
The group released their first repackaged album, The Perfect Red Velvet, on January 29, 2018. This included three new tracks in addition to all the songs from Perfect Velvet, with the single "Bad Boy '' promoted as its title track.
The album topped the Gaon Album Chart upon its release while "Bad Boy '' debuted at # 1 on Gaon 's Download Chart and at # 2 on the Gaon Digital Chart. The Perfect Red Velvet also charted at # 3 on Billboard 's World Albums chart while "Bad Boy '' debuted at # 2 on its World Digital Songs chart. Red Velvet also entered the Top 10 of Billboard 's Social 50 chart for the first time, charting at number nine. The album also marked the first time the group has appeared on the Canadian Hot 100 and charted at number 87, becoming only the seventh K - pop artist and the third female act to appear on the chart. Red Velvet promoted the song on various South Korean music shows, earning their first music show win for "Bad Boy '' on February 8 on Show Champion.
On March 20, 2018, it was announced that Red Velvet would be performing alongside other selected South Korean artists for an inter-Korean concert in Pyongyang, North Korea. This makes them the first artist from SM Entertainment in fifteen years since Shinhwa to perform in North Korea. On March 30, the group announced that they will be officially debuting in Japan in July with the release of a song.
On April 29, 2018, Red Velvet held their first fan meeting in Chicago, to an audience of 4,000. The event was held at Rosemont Theater, and also, notably, the first solo performance from a female K - pop group in the country since 2016. On May 23, it was revealed that the Japan debut album will be called Cookie Jar. It will be released on July 4, 2018, and will include three new songs and the japanese versions of "Dumb Dumb '', "Russian Roulette '' and "Red Flavor ''.
Red Velvet is known for their dual concept which has never been seen before among South Korean girl groups. These two concepts are dubbed their "red '' and "velvet '' sides which influences both their image and the music they release. The "red '' half is their brighter and bubblier side while their "velvet '' image is their softer, more mature and elegant concept.
Their music falls under two themes which corresponds to their two concepts. Because the "red '' side is more youthful, it is predominantly pop, while their sophisticated "velvet '' side heavily features the R&B and ballad genres. Both sides are n't limited to these genres, however. KookMin Ilbo noted that their music is n't as simple as being "dance '' vs. "ballad '' and are often mixed with other elements. Their debut single "Happiness '' which was considered as their first song under the "red '' concept, is an urban europop song fused with an intense synth sound and an African music beat. Their second single "Be Natural '' saw a completely different image of the group and is described as classic R&B, which embodies their "velvet '' side.
-- Member Joy, at a showcase for Perfect Velvet
Their first extended play Ice Cream Cake presented their dual concept for the first time, and they promoted with two singles, the R&B / neo-soul "Automatic '' and the dance - pop song "Ice Cream Cake ''. The music videos of each song showed the contrast between the two concepts as "Ice Cream Cake '' 's had a colorful, playful setting with a fast - paced choreography while the "Automatic '' music video had a darker theme and more sensual dance. Billboard 's Jeff Benjamin stated that the album "did a good job at establishing the two sides of their musical identity ''. Their first studio album The Red which focuses solely on the "red '' side of their music was followed up by the EP The Velvet, focusing on their "velvet '' songs as the title suggests. The group 's first summer album titled The Red Summer with the lead single "Red Flavor '', once again focused on their "red '' concept, after two releases (Russian Roulette, Rookie) without separating the two. The tracks from their second studio album Perfect Velvet were still considered as part of the "velvet '' side of their music but with hints of ' Red ', which their company believed is the perfect formula for the concept, hence the title. While The Velvet was still a commercial success, it was one of the group 's least successful single and album. Critics claimed that the release of the EP was a crucial step to introduce the "velvet '' side to the public, but ultimately it was Perfect Velvet that allowed it to gain recognition. The album, which incorporates not only R&B tracks and ballads as was expected from their "velvet '' concept, also features dance - pop, electronic pop, disco and even elements of hip - hop. Upon its release, the group was praised for their versatility and it was hailed as one of the most diverse albums by a K - pop artist.
This dual image also affects the members ' styling. For their "red '' concept, they are usually dressed in colorful, girlish clothing, such as the pastel sweaters and skirts from "Ice Cream Cake '' or the red doll outfits from "Dumb Dumb ''. On the other hand, they are dressed more maturely for their "velvet '' side, most notably, when the girls wore suits for "Be Natural ''. The group has been compared to their S.M. Entertainment seniors, Girls ' Generation and f (x), with a consensus that while Girls ' Generation in their early years released the standard bubblegum pop with a feminine image expected from most girl groups and f (x) is recognized for their electropop - based music and experimental style, Red Velvet is seen as a combination of the two, but still on a class of their own. Paul Bowler of uDiscover Music remarked that the group was "designed to combine the sophistication of f (x) with the effervescence of Girls ' Generation ''. Alexis Hodoyan - Gastelum of Idolator also commented that "If Girls ' Generation is the eldest sister who is classy and square, and f (x) is the cool, alternative middle sister, Red Velvet is the youngest one who steals the middle sister 's clothes, acts like the eldest, but is still a bit weird. ''
Red Velvet has been lauded for breaking stereotypes among popular girl groups in South Korea whose concepts tend to fall under two categories which are "cute or pure '' and "sexy '', often to fulfill a certain fantasy. In a country where girl groups ' fanbases are typically mostly male, according to Taylor Glasby of Dazed Digital, the majority of Red Velvet 's fans are young women and commented that "They 're neither sexy nor innocent, with music videos that are often dark, trippy, sinister, or haunting, even when they 're flooded in pastel colours ''. In 2017, IZE Magazine named the group as one of the successful female figures who helped transform the "passive image '' of South Korean women at a time when feminism had risen as an issue in the country. The group 's music also sets them apart from other K - pop artists. K - pop idols in general suffer from a prejudice that they are n't considered "real artists '' by music critics in their native country. Because of the group 's diverse musical inspirations and styles, they claimed that Red Velvet has pushed the boundaries of "idol music ''.
In February 2018, Time magazine named Red Velvet as one of the best K - pop groups, highlighting their versatile musical styles. Red Velvet was recognized for their brand recognition and marketing power, having topped ' Girl Group Brand Power Ranking ' published by the Korean Corporate Reputation Research Institute for three consecutive months.
Red Velvet performed in Pyongyang on April, 1 2018. This made them the fifth idol group to ever perform in North Korea. They performed "Red Flavor '' and "Bad Boy '' at the East Pyongyang Grand Theatre to an audience including Kim Jong - un. The concert was billed as "Spring is Coming '' and is part of a wider diplomatic initiative between South Korea and North Korea.
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where was the indian national congress session held in 1929 | Purna Swaraj - Wikipedia
The Purna Swaraj declaration, or Declaration of the Independence of India, was promulgated by the Indian National Congress on 19 December 1929, resolving the Congress and Indian nationalists to fight for Purna Swaraj, or complete self - rule independent of the British Empire (literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete, "self, '' raj, "rule, '' thus "complete self - rule '').
The flag of India had been hoisted by Gandhi on 31 December 1929, in Lahore, modern - day Pakistan. The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Independence Day. The flag of India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public.
Before 1930, Indian political parties had openly embraced the goal of political independence from the United Kingdom. The All India Home Rule League had been advocating Home Rule for India: dominion status within the British Empire, as granted to Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. The All India Muslim League favoured dominion status as well, and opposed calls for outright Indian independence. The Indian Liberal Party, by far the most pro-British party, explicitly opposed India 's independence and even dominion status if it weakened India 's links with the British Empire. The Indian National Congress, the largest Indian political party of the time, was at the head of the national debate. Congress leader and famous poet Hasrat Mohani was the first activist to demand complete independence (Poorna Swaraj) from the British in 1921 from an All - India Congress Forum. Veteran Congress leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal had also advocated explicit Indian independence from the Empire.
Following the 1919 Amritsar Massacre, there was considerable public outrage against British rule. Europeans, (civilians and officials) were targets and victims of violence across India. In 1920, Gandhi and the Congress committed themselves to Swaraj, described as political and spiritual independence. At the time, Gandhi described this as the basic demand of all Indians; he specifically said that the question of whether India would remain within the Empire or leave it completely would be answered by the behaviour and response of the British. Between 1920 and 1922, Mahatma Gandhi led the Non-Cooperation movement: nationwide civil disobedience to oppose the Rowlatt Acts and the exclusion of Indians from the government, and the denial of political and civil freedoms.
In 1928, the British government further outraged people across India by appointing a seven - man committee led by Sir John Simon, it was an all - European commission Simon Commission to deliberate on constitutional and political reforms for India. Indian political parties were neither consulted nor asked to involve themselves in the process. Upon arrival in India, Chairman Sir John Simon and other commission members were met with angry public demonstrations, which followed them everywhere. The death of a prominent Indian leader, Lala Lajpat Rai, from severe beatings by British police officials further outraged the Indian public.
The Congress appointed an all - Indian commission to propose constitutional reforms for India. Members of other Indian political parties joined the commission led by Congress President Motilal Nehru. The Nehru Report demanded that India be granted self - government under the dominion status within the Empire. While most other Indian political parties supported the Nehru commission 's work, it was opposed by the Indian Liberal Party and the All India Muslim League. The British ignored the commission, its report and refused to introduce political reform.
But the Nehru Report was also controversial within the Congress. Younger nationalist leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that the Congress resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British. Jawaharlal Nehru had been influenced by the idea of Bhagat Singh ("total independence ''), which Singh had introduced a resolution demanding in 1927, which was rejected because of Gandhi 's opposition. Now Bose and Nehru opposed dominion status, which would retain the Monarch of the United Kingdom as the constitutional head of state of India (although in the separate capacity as King of India), and preserve political powers for the British Parliament in Indian constitutional affairs. They were supported in their stand by a large number of rank - and - file Congressmen.
In December 1928, Congress session was held in Kolkata and Mohandas Gandhi proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant dominion status to India within two years. After Some time Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one. Jawaharlal Nehru voted for the new resolution, while Subhash Bose told his supporters that he would not oppose the resolution, and abstained from voting himself. The All India Congress Committee voted 118 to 45 in its favour (the 45 votes came from supporters of a complete break from the British). However, when Bose introduced an amendment during the open session of Congress that sought a complete break with the British, Gandhi admonished the move:
You may take the name of independence on your lips but all your muttering will be an empty formula if there is no honour behind it. If you are not prepared to stand by your words, where will independence be?
The amendment was rejected, by 1350 to 973, and the resolution was fully adopted.
On 31 October 1929, the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin announced that the government would meet with Indian representatives in London for a Round Table Conference. To facilitate Indian participation, Irwin met with Mohandas Gandhi, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and out - going Congress President Motilal Nehru to discuss the meeting. Gandhi asked Irwin if the conference would proceed on the basis of dominion status and Irwin said he could not assure that, resulting in the end of the meeting.
As a result of the denial of reforms and political rights, and the persistent ignorance of Indian political parties, the Indian National Congress grew increasingly cohesive -- unified in the desire to oust the British from India completely. A very large number of Congress volunteers and delegates, members of other political parties and an especially large public gathering attended the session convened in Lahore. Despite the bitterly cold weather, Pattabhi Sitaramayya records that:
The heat of passion and excitement, the resentment at the failure of negotiation, the flushing of faces on hearing the war drums -- oh, it was all in marked contrast to the weather.
Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President and veteran leaders like Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel returned to the Congress Working Committee. They approved a declaration of independence, which stated:
The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually... Therefore... India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence.
At midnight on New Year 's Eve, President Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore, which later became part of Pakistan. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony were asked if they agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. One hundred seventy two Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment.
The Declaration of Independence was officially promulgated on 26 January 1930. Gandhi and other Indian leaders would immediately begin the planning of a massive national non-violence would encourage the common people not to attack Britishers even if they attacked them. Subsequently, the Salt Satyagraha was initiated by Mahatma Gandhi on 12 March 1930 and what followed gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and sparked off the nationwide Non Cooperation Movement.
There is some dispute as to who drafted the text of the declaration. Gandhi directly claimed authorship in 1940, while other sources either cite Nehru as a major editor or attribute it to Nehru outright.
The Congress regularly observed 26 January as the Independence Day of India -- commemorating those who campaigned for Indian independence. In 1947, the British agreed to transfer power and political finesse to India, and 15 August became the official Independence Day. However, the new Constitution of India, as drafted and approved by the Constituent Assembly, was mandated to take effect on 26 January 1950, to commemorate the 1930 declaration. On that day in 1950, India became a republic. 26 January is now celebrated as Republic Day of India every year.
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who's playing magnum in the new series | Magnum P.I. (2018 tv series) - wikipedia
Magnum P.I. is an American crime drama television series developed by Peter M. Lenkov and Eric Guggenheim. It is a reboot of the series of the same name created by Donald P. Bellisario and Glen A. Larson, which aired from 1980 to 1988. It stars Jay Hernandez as the title character alongside Perdita Weeks, Zachary Knighton, Stephen Hill, Amy Hill, and Tim Kang. The pilot was directed by Justin Lin It was ordered to series on May 11, 2018, and premiered September 24, 2018, on CBS. On October 19, 2018, it was announced that the series had received a full season order from CBS.
On October 20, 2017, CBS announced a pilot commitment for a remake of the original series to be written by Peter M. Lenkov and Eric Guggenheim. The pilot would be co-produced by CBS Studios and Universal Television, the latter of which holds the rights to the original series. In February 2018, CBS announced that pilot production had been greenlit. Justin Lin was set to direct.
On May 11, 2018, the network picked up the series. Co-creator and executive producer Peter M. Lenkov will serve as the showrunner. On May 16, 2018, CBS released a first video trailer for new series. The pilot episode was aired as a special preview prior to the series San Diego Comic - Con panel.
On July 19, 2018, Lenkov announced that multiple crossovers have been planned with the ninth season of Hawaii Five - 0. Lenkov confirmed that Kimee Balmilero and Taylor Wily will make guest appearances as their Hawaii Five - 0 characters, medical examiner Noelani Cunha and entrepreneur Kamekona Tupuola respectively. Balmilero is set to appear in episode one while Wily is set to appear in episode two. Meanwhile, Alex O'Loughlin's character, Steve McGarrett, is set to cross paths with Hernandez 's character later in the season.
On Wednesday, August 22, 2018, with the anticipated landfall of Hurricane Lane, a Category 4 hurricane, in Hawaii CBS reported that they "were closely monitoring the situation '' but that production would continue as planned. The following day CBS temporarily shut down production of both Magnum P.I. and Hawaii Five - 0 until further notice.
On February 20, 2018, Jay Hernandez was announced as the new Magnum. It was announced on March 2, 2018 that Perdita Weeks will play Juliet Higgins. According to a May 16, 2018 announcement, Magnum 's best friend from U.S. Marines, Rick Wright, will be portrayed by Zachary Knighton. Three days later, it was announced that another one of Magnum 's friends, Theodore "T.C. '' Calvin, will be played by Stephen Hill. On July 20, 2018, it was announced that Tim Kang would join the cast as Honolulu PD detective Gordon Katsumoto, who will develop a friendly rivalry with Magnum as they work cases. Finally, it was announced on July 25, 2018 that Amy Hill had been cast in a recurring role. Hill and Kang both debuted in the series ' third episode.
Following production of the pilot earlier in the year, filming for the first season began on July 23, 2018 with a traditional Hawaiian blessing.
Magnum P.I. has been met with mixed reviews. On review aggregation Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 53 % with an average rating of 5.88 / 10, based on 15 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The rebooted Magnum P.I. may not be quite distinctive enough to hold up to comparisons with its source material, but a charismatic star, slickly staged action, and a handful of modern twists hint at greater potential. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 47 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
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what is the full form of u n f p a | United Nations Population Fund - Wikipedia
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), formerly the United Nations Fund for Population Activities, is a UN organization. The UNFPA says it "is the lead UN agency for delivering a world where every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe and every young person 's potential is fulfilled ''. Their work involves the improvement of reproductive health; including creation of national strategies and protocols, and providing supplies and services. The organization has recently been known for its worldwide campaign against child marriage, obstetric fistula and female genital mutilation.
The UNFPA supports programs in more than 150 countries and areas spread across four geographic regions: Arab States and Europe, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, and sub-Saharan Africa. Around three quarters of the staff work in the field. It is a member of the United Nations Development Fund and part of its Executive Committee.
UNFPA began operations in 1969 as the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (the name was changed in 1987) under the administration of the United Nations Development Fund. In 1971 it was placed under the authority of the United Nations General Assembly.
In September 2015, the 193 member states of the United Nations unanimously adopted the Sustainable Development Goals, a set of 17 goals aiming to transform the world over the next 15 years. These goals are designed to eliminate poverty, discrimination, abuse and preventable deaths, address environmental destruction, and usher in an era of development for all people, everywhere.
The Sustainable Development Goals are ambitious, and they will require enormous efforts across countries, continents, industries and disciplines, but they are achievable. UNFPA works with governments, partners and other UN agencies to directly tackle many of these goals -- in particular Goal 3 on health, Goal 4 on education and Goal 5 on gender equality -- and contributes in a variety of ways to achieving many of the other goals.
Executive Directors and Under - Secretaries - General of the UN
2017 --: Dr Natalia Kanem (Panama) 2011 -- 2017: Dr Babatunde Osotimehin (Nigeria) (Deceased 4 June 2017) 2000 -- 2010: Ms Thoraya Ahmed Obaid (Saudi Arabia) 1987 -- 2000: Dr Nafis Sadik (Pakistan) 1969 -- 1987: Mr Rafael M. Salas (Philippines)
The Fund 's Patron is Crown Princess Mary of Denmark.
Its goodwill ambassadors are:
UNFPA is the world 's largest multilateral source of funding for population and reproductive health programs. The Fund works with governments and non-governmental organizations in over 150 countries with the support of the international community, supporting programs that help women, men and young people:
According to UNFPA these elements promote the right of "reproductive health '', that is physical, mental, and social health in matters related to reproduction and the reproductive system.
The Fund raises awareness of and supports efforts to meet these needs, advocates close attention to population concerns and helps developing nations formulate policies and strategies in support of sustainable development. Dr. Osotimehin assumed leadership in January 2011. The Fund is also represented by UNFPA Goodwill Ambassadors and a Patron.
UNFPA works in partnership with governments, along with other United Nations agencies, communities, NGOs, foundations and the private sector, to raise awareness and mobilize the support and resources needed to achieve its mission to promote the rights and health of women and young people.
Contributions from governments and the private sector to UNFPA in 2016 totaled $848 million. The amount includes $353 million to the organization 's core resources and $495 million earmarked for specific programs and initiatives.
UNFPA has been accused by groups opposed to abortion of providing support for government programs which have promoted forced - abortions and coercive sterilizations. UNFPA says it "does not provide support for abortion services ''. Its charter includes a strong statement condemning coercion. Controversies regarding these claims have resulted in a sometimes shaky relationship between the organization and three presidential administrations, that of Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush, withholding funding from the UNFPA.
UNFPA provided aid to Peru 's reproductive health program in the mid-to - late 1990s. When it was discovered a Peruvian program had been engaged in carrying out coercive sterilizations, UNFPA called for reforms and protocols to protect the rights of women seeking assistance. UNFPA continued work with the country after the abuses had become public to help end the abuses and reform laws and practices.
From 2002 through 2008, the Bush Administration denied funding to UNFPA that had already been allocated by the US Congress, on the grounds that the UNFPA supported Chinese government programs which include forced abortions and coercive sterilizations. In a letter from the Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs Nicholas Burns to Congress, the administration said it had determined that UNFPA 's support for China 's population program "facilitates (its) government 's coercive abortion program '', thus violating the Kemp - Kasten Amendment, which bans the use of United States aid to finance organizations that support or take part in managing a program of coercive abortion of sterilization.
The notion that UNFPA had any connection to China 's administration of forced abortions was deemed to be unsubstantiated by investigations carried out by various US, UK, and UN teams sent to examine UNFPA activities in China. Specifically, a three - person U.S State Department fact - finding team was sent on a two - week tour throughout China. It wrote in a report to the State Department that it found "no evidence that UNFPA has supported or participated in the management of a program of coercive abortion or involuntary sterilization in China, '' as has been charged by critics.
However, according to then - Secretary of State Colin Powell, the UNFPA contributed vehicles and computers to the Chinese to carry out their population planning policies. However, both the Washington Post and the Washington Times reported that Powell simply fell in line, signing a brief written by someone else.
Rep. Chris Smith (R - NJ), criticized the State Department investigation, saying the investigators were shown "Potemkin Villages '' where residents had been intimidated into lying about the family - planning program. Dr. Nafis Sadik, former director of UNFPA said her agency had been pivotal in reversing China 's coercive population planning methods, but a 2005 report by Amnesty International and a separate report by the United States State Department found that coercive techniques were still regularly employed by the Chinese, casting doubt upon Sadik 's statements.
But Amnesty International found no evidence that UNFPA had supported the coercion. A 2001 study conducted by the pro-life Population Research Institute (PRI) claimed that the UNFPA shared an office with the Chinese family planning officials who were carrying out forced abortions. "We located the family planning offices, and in that family planning office, we located the UNFPA office, and we confirmed from family planning officials there that there is no distinction between what the UNFPA does and what the Chinese Family Planning Office does, '' said Scott Weinberg, a spokesman for PRI. However, United Nations Members disagreed and approved UNFPA 's new country program me in January 2006. The more than 130 members of the "Group of 77 '' developing countries in the United Nations expressed support for the UNFPA programmes. In addition, speaking for European democracies -- Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Switzerland and Germany -- the United Kingdom stated, '' UNFPA 's activities in China, as in the rest of the world, are in strict conformity with the unanimously adopted Programme of Action of the ICPD, and play a key role in supporting our common endeavor, the promotion and protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. ''
President Bush denied funding to the UNFPA. Over the course of the Bush Administration, a total of $244 million in Congressionally approved funding was blocked by the Executive Branch.
In response, the EU decided to fill the gap left behind by the US under the Sandbaek report. According to its Annual Report for 2008, the UNFPA received its funding mainly from European Governments: Of the total income of M845. 3 M, $118 was donated by the Netherlands, $67 M by Sweden, $62 M by Norway, $54 M by Denmark, $53 M by the UK, $52 M by Spain, $19 M by Luxembourg. The European Commission donated further $36 M. The most important non-European donor State was Japan ($36 M). The number of donors exceeded 180 in one year.
In the United States, nonprofit organizations like Friends of UNFPA (formerly Americans for UNFPA) worked to compensate for the loss of United States federal funding by raising private donations.
In January 2009 President Barack Obama restored US funding to UNFPA, saying in a public statement that he would "look forward to working with Congress to restore US financial support for the UN Population Fund. By resuming funding to UNFPA, the US will be joining 180 other donor nations working collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries. ''
In April 2017, the U.S. announced that it will cut off funding to UNFPA, on the grounds that it "supports, or participates in the management of, a program of coercive abortion or involuntary sterilization. '' UNFPA refuted this claim, as all of its work promotes the human rights of individuals and couples to make their own decisions, free of coercion or discrimination. In addition, this is what the United States said during the UNDP / UNFPA / UNOPS Executive Board meeting that considered the China programme in 2015:
"During its recent visit, the U.S. delegation observed the positive impact of UNFPA 's rights - based programming in China. We commend the Fund 's adherence to demonstrating the advantages of a voluntary approach to family planning and were pleased to see -- in support of its ICPD commitments -- increased provider emphasis on patient rights. ''
Entities with competencies about population in the United Nations:
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who founded colonies in the region between virginia and new england | History of the Thirteen colonies - wikipedia
The history of the Thirteen Colonies began in 1607 with the founding Jamestown. British colonization of the Americas continued in the following decades with the establishment of more colonies on the present - day East Coast of the United States. By 1740, there were thirteen contiguous colonies, each administered separately as part of the British Empire. The Thirteen Colonies collectively declared independence in 1776 and formed a union which they named the United States of America. This led to the American Revolutionary War, which formally ended with the signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
North America was inhabited prior to 1492, but European exploration began after Christopher Columbus 's 1492 expedition across the Atlantic Ocean. English explorer Sir Walter Raleigh established Roanoke Colony in 1585, and the settlement of Jamestown on the Chesapeake Bay was established in 1607 -- the first successful, permanent English colony in North America, which became known as the Colony of Virginia. In 1620, a group of Puritans established the permanent colony of Plymouth, and the success of these colonies inspired further English colonization. The Province of Maryland was established to the north of Virginia and the Province of Carolina was established to Virginia 's south. The Puritans founded several more colonies that became part of New England, including Connecticut Colony and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.
In the Anglo - Dutch Wars, the English took control of the Dutch settlement at New Netherland. The former territories of New Netherland became known as the Middle Colonies, consisting of the Province of New York, the Province of Pennsylvania, Delaware Colony, and the Province of New Jersey. King James II of England later attempted to centralize control of the New England and New York colonies, establishing the Dominion of New England, but the dominion was abolished after James II was overthrown in England 's Glorious Revolution. After the Glorious Revolution, the English continued to enforce many of their centralizing policies, including the mercantilist Navigation Acts, though the colonies nonetheless retained a large degree of independence.
The last of the Thirteen Colonies were established in the early 18th century, as the Province of Georgia was established and Carolina was split into the Province of North Carolina and the Province of South Carolina.
After the Glorious Revolution, England came into repeated conflict with France, which had established colonies to the west and north of the English domain in North America. In a series of wars, the two empires fought for control of the North American continent. The British Empire eventually defeated France and won control of North America east of the Mississippi River in the French and Indian War, the North American component of the global Seven Years ' War.
Following the French and Indian War, the British imposed new taxes and other unpopular policies on the Thirteen Colonies, leading to dissent against British rule. The American Revolution began in 1775 when colonists and British soldiers came into conflict, and the Thirteen Colonies jointly declared their independence in 1776. They established a new government under the Articles of Confederation which provided for a loose coalition of sovereign states, and the Thirteen Colonies became the United States. The United States won independence with the aid of France in the American Revolutionary War and took autonomous control over the former British territories extending to the Mississippi River.
The expedition of Christopher Columbus set sail from Spain in 1492, inspired by the writings of Marco Polo. Columbus sought a western route between Europe and Asia, but he instead discovered the Americas. Spain and Portugal quickly established colonies in the New World after Columbus returned from his voyage, beginning the European colonization of the Americas. Spanish explorers such as Hernando de Soto and Juan Ponce de León led expeditions through parts of the present - day United States, but the lack of readily apparent precious metals or other valuable materials made settlement undesirable north of the Caribbean Sea. A group of French Huguenots established the colony of Fort Caroline in Northeast Florida in 1564, but the Spanish destroyed the colony and established Fort Augustine nearby. This episode reflected the growing European appreciation for the riches that Spain and Portugal had acquired from the New World.
France and England employed explorers soon after Columbus 's first voyage. In 1497, King Henry VII of England dispatched an expedition led by John Cabot to explore the coast of North America. The lack of precious metals or other riches discouraged English settlement, just as it had with Spain, but the European powers continued to show some interest in the land north of the Caribbean Sea. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano mapped the coast of North America between South Carolina and Maine, while Jacques Cartier explored part of the Saint Lawrence River. Explorers such as Martin Frobisher and Henry Hudson sailed to the New World in an unsuccessful search for a Northwest Passage between the Atlantic Ocean and Asia. Indigenous tribes east of the Mississippi River became somewhat familiar with European culture through direct and indirect trade, while Europeans established fisheries in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Europeans active in this region traded metal, glass, and cloth for food and fur, beginning the North American fur trade. The local tribes acquired goods such as firearms and alcohol that had little or no precedent in North America, as well as less revolutionary items such as metal tools and weapons. This European contact spurred major cultural changes in North America even before the presence of the first permanent European settlements.
In the late sixteenth century, Protestant England became embroiled in a religious war with Catholic Spain. English privateers such as Francis Drake and Humphrey Gilbert sought to weaken Spain 's economic and military power by harassing Spanish shipping. Gilbert proposed the colonization of North America on the Spanish model, with the goal of creating a profitable English empire that could also serve as a base for the privateers. After Gilbert 's death, Walter Raleigh took up the cause of North American colonization. He named the proposed English colony "Virginia '' after his patron Queen Elizabeth I of England. Raleigh dispatched an expedition of 500 men to Roanoke Island, establishing the first permanent English colony in North America in 1584. The colonists were poorly prepared for life in the New World, and the Roanoke Colony quickly alienated nearby Indians. By 1590, its colonists had disappeared. Despite the failure of the colony, the English remained interested in the colonization of North America for economic and military reasons.
In 1606, King James I of England granted charters to both the Plymouth Company and the London Company for the purpose of establishing permanent settlements in North America. In 1607, the London Company established a colony at Jamestown on the Chesapeake Bay, while the Plymouth Company founded the short - lived Popham Colony on the Kennebec River. The colonists at Jamestown faced extreme adversity, and by 1617 there were only 351 survivors out of the 1,700 colonists who had been transported there. In 1608, the English attempted to make the paramount chief of the nearby Powhatan Confederacy a vassal of King James, but the chief refused the offer. The colonial leaders hoped to replicate the English conquest of Ireland, where English lords presided over the native population, but the American Indians did not prove amenable to the idea. After the ouster of English leader John Smith in 1609, the English and the Indians engaged in a war which lasted until 1614, when settler John Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of the paramount chief. At roughly the same time, the Virginians discovered the profitability of growing tobacco, and the settlement 's population boomed from 400 settlers in 1617 to 1,240 settlers in 1622. That same year, war resumed between the settlers and Indians, and Jamestown faced Indian hostility for the next decade. The London Company was bankrupted by the frequent warring, and the English crown took direct control of the Colony of Virginia, as Jamestown and its environs became known. Overproduction of tobacco after 1630 led to economic difficulties, but Virginia continued to attract English immigrants eager to settle new lands.
Ferdinando Gorges was the lead investor of the failed Plymouth Company, and he established another joint - stock company to oversee English settlement of the region north of Jamestown. The Plymouth Council for New England sponsored several colonization projects, culminating with Plymouth Colony settled by the English Puritans who are known today as the Pilgrims. The Pilgrims embraced Calvinist Protestantism and sought independence from the Church of England. In 1620, the Mayflower transported them across the Atlantic and they established Plymouth Colony on the coast of Cape Cod. The Pilgrims endured an extremely hard first winter, with roughly 50 of the 100 colonists dying. In 1621, Plymouth Colony established an alliance with the nearby Wampanoag tribe with the help of Squanto, an English - speaking member of that tribe. The Wampanoags proved to be invaluable trading partners and allies to the colonists, helping the Pilgrims survive in the new land. Plymouth Colony established effective agricultural practices with their help, and thrived on trade of fur and other materials with them.
The Netherlands, Sweden, and France established their first successful North American colonies at roughly the same time as the English. These powers, as well as Spain, competed with the English for economic and political success in the New World. Eventually, parts or all of the French, Dutch, Swedish, and Spanish colonies were absorbed into the English colonial empire.
Beginning in 1609, Dutch traders explored and established fur trading posts on the Hudson River, Delaware River, and Connecticut River, seeking to protect their interests in the fur trade. The Dutch West India Company established permanent settlements on the Hudson River, creating the Dutch colony of New Netherland. In 1626, Peter Minuit, the director of the colony, purchased the island of Manhattan from a group of Lenape and established the outpost of New Amsterdam. Relatively few Dutch settled in New Netherland, but the colony came to dominate the regional fur trade. It also served as the base for extensive trade with the English colonies, and many products from New England and Virginia were carried to Europe on Dutch ships. The Dutch also engaged in the burgeoning Atlantic slave trade, supplying enslaved Africans to the English colonies in North America and Barbados. Many English colonists supported Dutch commerce, whereas government officials in England resented the loss of revenue from customs duties on English imports. The West India Company desired to grow New Netherland as it became commercially successful, yet the colony failed to attract the same level of settlement as the English colonies did. Many of those who did immigrate to the colony were English, German, Walloon, or Sephardim.
In 1638, Sweden established the colony of New Sweden in the Delaware Valley. Though chartered by Sweden, the operation was led by former members of the Dutch West India Company, including Minuit. New Sweden established extensive trading contacts with English colonies to the south, and shipped much of the tobacco produced in Virginia. New Sweden was conquered by the Dutch in 1655, while Sweden was engaged in the Second Northern War.
Beginning in the 1650s, the English and Dutch engaged in a series of wars, and the English sought to conquer New Netherland. With the aid of the New England colonies, Richard Nicolls captured the lightly - defended New Amsterdam in 1664. His subordinates quickly captured the remainder of New Netherland. The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo - Dutch War and confirmed English control of the region. The Dutch briefly re-gained control of parts of New Netherland in the Third Anglo - Dutch War, but surrendered claim to the territory in the 1674 Treaty of Westminster, ending the Dutch colonial presence in North America.
King Henry IV of France granted a royal charter to Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons, and de Mons dispatched Samuel de Champlain to establish a permanent settlement with the goal of controlling the fur trade. Champlain established Quebec City on the St. Lawrence River in 1608. Though the colony faced conflicts with Native Americans and was briefly conquered by Virginia privateers, it became the center of the French colony of Canada. While settlers flocked to the English colonies in the first half of the 17th century, Canada experienced slow growth. King Louis XIV of France and chief minister Jean - Baptiste Colbert reinvigorated French colonization efforts in the mid-17th century, and France extended its influence into the Great Lakes region. In 1682, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle traveled from the Great Lakes down the Mississippi River, claiming the territory of Louisiana for France. From its colonies in Louisiana and Canada, the French subsidized their Native American allies in the hope of containing the Thirteen Colonies to the Atlantic Coast. The French and Spanish colonies would serve as a foil in the development of a cultural identity in the Thirteen Colonies, as the colonists defined themselves in opposition to the supposedly decadent and despotic French and Spanish cultures.
As the European empires established their first permanent settlements in North America, Native Americans suffered from the diseases brought from the Old World in the Columbian Exchange. The societies of the Eastern Hemisphere had lived among domesticated animals for millennia, providing a fertile ground for the development of deadly viral diseases such as smallpox, measles, and chicken pox. The extent to which these diseases affected North America before the 1600 is uncertain, but the Roanoke colonists noted the striking impact of diseases in nearby Native American societies. After 1600, the Native Americans suffered numerous epidemics, with whole villages destroyed by smallpox and other diseases. These epidemics weakened the ability of the Native Americans to resist European colonization, but also provoked widespread resentment against the newcomers who were (correctly) assumed to have brought the diseases. Though weakened by disease and often interested in trade, many Native Americans proved to be deadly foes to European settlers. Acquiring and adapting to European weaponry, the Iroquois and other tribes conquered their neighbors and frequently raided European settlements, creating a formidable obstacle to further European settlement. Many Native Americans would eventually come to favor the French, whose less densely - populated settlements posed less of a threat to Native American lands.
In 1632, Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore founded the Province of Maryland to the north of Virginia. Maryland was briefly governed as part of Virginia in the 1650s, but reasserted its independence in 1657. Maryland and Virginia became known as the Chesapeake Colonies, and experienced similar immigration and economic activities. Though Baltimore and his descendants intended for the colony to be a refuge for Catholics, it attracted more Protestant immigrants, who scorned the Calvert family 's policy of religious toleration. Nonetheless, the Calverts would continue to exercise control over Maryland for decades, serving as a model for other proprietary colonies.
While early settlers in New England often settled as families, the population of the Chesapeake Colonies was overwhelmingly male. The Chesapeake Colonies also hosted a large population of indentured servants who paid for their trip across the Atlantic by promising their labor for several years. Aided by this free labor, a planter elite came to dominate Virginia politically and economically. In the mid-17th century, the Chesapeake Colonies, inspired by the success of slavery in the English colony of Barbados, began the mass importation of African slaves. Though many early slaves eventually gained their freedom, after 1662 Virginia adopted policies that passed enslaved status from mother to child and granted slave owners near - total domination of their human property.
In 1646, the Virginia Colony under Governor William Berkeley defeated the Powhatan Confederacy, forcing it to cede most of its territory and requiring an annual tribute. Tensions continued with other tribes, and in 1676, Bacon 's Rebellion broke out against the rule of Governor Berkeley. The rebellion began with Nathaniel Bacon 's demand for more aggressive policies against the Native Americans, but it became a civil war that engulfed the colony. Bacon mobilized resentment against the mercantilist policies of England and the economic and political power of the elite planter class. The rebellion ended with Bacon 's death, but it also ended the rule of Governor Berkeley.
The Spanish established dominance over the Native American tribes in Florida but attracted few European settlers to the colony. They sponsored a series of missions led by Franciscan friars to create a buffer zone of loyal Native American subjects, but the colony frequently suffered raids from rival tribes. Encouraged by the apparent weakness of Spanish rule in Florida, Barbadian planter John Colleton and seven other supporters of Charles II of England established the Province of Carolina in 1663. Though a previous royal charter for the colony had been granted, the lands south of Virginia were sparsely settled prior to the 1660s. Settlers in the Carolina Colony established two main population centers, with many Virginians settling in the north of the province and many English Barbadians settling in the southern port city of Charles Town. The Carolina Colony allied with the Yamassee Indians to conquer other Native Americans in conflicts such as the Tuscarora War, but eventually destroyed the Yamassee in the Yamasee War of 1715 - 1717.
Following the success of the Jamestown and Plymouth Colonies, several more English groups established colonies in the region that became known as New England. In 1629, another group of Puritans led by John Winthrop established the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and created an economic and military alliance with the Narragansett tribe. By 1635, roughly ten thousand English settlers lived in the region between the Connecticut River and the Kennebec River. Between 1636 and 1638, the English settlers and their Native American allies fought the Pequot War against the Pequot tribe, which had played an important role in the fur trade. The English settlers prevailed in the war, destroying the Pequots as a polity and establishing their dominance over the remaining local tribes with the Treaty of Hartford. Puritan settlers established the Connecticut Colony in the region the Pequots had formerly controlled, and established an alliance with a group of former Pequots known as the Mohegan. Another group of settlers established the New Haven Colony to the west of the Connecticut Colony.
In 1643, the five Puritan colonies founded the New England Confederation to provide for mutual defense against the Dutch and hostile Native Americans. Two other English colonies, the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations and Saybrook Colony, did not join the confederation, although Saybrook was incorporated into the Connecticut Colony in 1644. Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams, a Puritan leader who was expelled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony after he advocated for a formal split with the Church of England. Rhode Island was granted an unprecedented parliamentary charter in 1644, and experienced tensions with its neighboring colonies. Aside from Rhode Island, the New England colonies developed a religious practice known as Congregationalism, with individual churches acting autonomously. As New England was a relatively cold and infertile region, the New England colonies relied on fishing and long - distance trade to sustain the economy.
England sought to assert more centralized control of the New England colonies in the second half of the 17th century, but the expense of the war with the Dutch ensured only limited English control of the colonies, especially in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1662, Charles II of England granted charters to Connecticut Colony and Rhode Island Colony. Connecticut 's participation in the capture of New Netherland was rewarded with a generous western border set at the midpoint between the Connecticut and Hudson rivers, thus setting the western border of New England. Throughout New England, the colonists opposed Charles II 's policies of religious toleration, which they feared would eventually lead to the establishment of a neo-feudal system in the New World. In the 1690s, as the New England colonies became increasingly fearful about threats from Catholics and Native Americans, the small New England town of Salem held a series of witch trials which resulted in the executions of twenty people. The trials were disbanded by royal governor William Phips in 1693.
In the 1664, the Duke of York, later known as James II of England, was granted control of the English colonies north of the Delaware River. After his forces captured New Netherland that same year, James created the Province of New York out of the former Dutch territory, and New Amsterdam was renamed to New York City. He also created the provinces of West Jersey and East Jersey out of former Dutch land situated to the west of New York City, giving the territories to John Berkeley and George Carteret. East Jersey and West Jersey would later be unified as the Province of New Jersey in 1702. On behalf of Duke of York, Governor Richard Nicolls pursued a policy of centralized control and religious toleration in New York and the other colonies. His eventual successor, Governor Edmund Andros, extended New York 's control of the Hudson River and lured the Native Americans of Mohawk Valley out of the French sphere of influence.
Admiral William Penn played a key role in the restoration of the Stuart Dynasty and loaned Charles II large sums of money. After the admiral 's death, Charles rewarded Penn 's son, also named William Penn, with the land situated between Maryland and the Jerseys. Penn named this land the Province of Pennsylvania. Charles 's grant relied on an inaccurate map, causing a border dispute between Maryland and Pennsylvania that would endure until the drawing of the Mason -- Dixon line in the 1760s. Penn was also granted a lease to the Delaware Colony, which gained its own legislature in 1701. A devout Quaker, Penn sought to create a haven of religious toleration in the New World. Pennsylvania attracted Quakers and other settlers from across Europe, who joined the Swedish and Dutch already living in the colony. The city of Philadelphia quickly emerged as a thriving port city. With its fertile and cheap land, Pennsylvania became one of the most attractive destinations for immigrants in the late 17th century, and the colony would continue to grow in the 18th century.
In 1675, as English colonists increasingly came to dominate New England, King Philip 's War broke out between the colonists and Native Americans. Wampanoag chieftain Metacomet (who the English called "King Philip '') recruited several Native American tribes in the war against the colonists, and his forces had destroyed thirteen of the roughly ninety English towns by the end of 1675. With the aid of New York Governor Andros, the New England colonies defeated Metacomet 's forces in 1676. The war damaged the English colonies, but proved even more disastrous for the local Native American population, which fell by half. After the war, Andros convinced the crown to send Edward Randolph reassert royal control over Massachusetts Bay. The crown detached the region north of the Merrimack River from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1679, creating the Province of New Hampshire. In the late 1680s, James incorporated the eight English colonies to the east of Pennsylvania into the Dominion of New England, and Andros served as the colonial governor. The new arrangement, designed to strengthen royal control, proved unpopular in the colonies. During the Glorious Revolution, the colonists rose up against and quickly captured Andros, and the New England colonies re-established their former governments. In New York, Jacob Leisler led Dutch colonists and others dissatisfied with Andros 's rule in Leisler 's Rebellion.
After deposing Andros, the colonists declared their allegiance to the new joint monarchy of William and Mary, but feared that the new monarchs would impose similar centralizing policies to those of James II. William and Mary quickly confirmed these fears, reinstating many of the James 's policies, including the mercantalist Navigation Acts and the Board of Trade. The joint monarchy sent an expedition led by Richard Ingoldesby and Henry Sloughter to assert royal control of New York, and after a skirmish Sloughter captured and executed Leisler. Installed as the governor of New York, Sloughter sought to inaugurate a new model of colonial government that shifted power to royal representatives and the Board of Trade. Like New York, Massachusetts Bay Colony was reorganized as a royal colony with a governor appointed by the king. Plymouth Colony and the Province of Maine were incorporated into the Province of Massachusetts Bay. Maryland, which had experienced a revolution against the Calvert family, also became a royal colony, though the Calverts retained much of their land and revenue in the colony. Even those colonies that retained their charters or proprietors were forced to assent to much greater royal control than had existed before the 1690s.
Between 1630 and 1660, over 50,000 English settlers migrated from England to North America. These settlers were driven largely by demographic pressures, as England 's population had doubled in the century preceding 1635. England also suffered from the effects of the Little Ice Age, a period of cooling that led to poor agricultural conditions. Large landowners sought to enclose lands for their own benefit, limiting the amount of land available for individual farming. Real wages of average English people fell dramatically, and many fell into poverty. Even many younger sons of the lesser gentry were lured to emigrate to North America by the prospect of new lands to settle.
Aside from these demographic and economic pressures, the political and religious situation in England also encouraged migration. King Charles I, who reigned in England and Scotland from 1625 to 1649, alienated his predominantly - Protestant subjects with his religious policies and flirtation with the Catholic powers of Spain and France. Like his father, Charles espoused an absolutist vision of monarchy that sought to minimize the role of elected officials and local leaders. His taxation policies proved especially unpopular. The rejection of Calvinist doctrine by Charles and Archbishop William Laud aroused disaffection among the Puritans and other groups, and many decided to emigrate to New England, Virginia, and the West Indies.
Scottish opposition to Charles 's religious policies led to the Bishops ' Wars, the cost of which force Charles to summon the Parliament of England in 1642. The Long Parliament began passing laws contrary to the king 's wishes, and the struggle for control of England developed into the English Civil War. Parliamentary forces triumphed in 1649, and Charles was executed and succeeded by Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell. After Cromwell 's death, the Stuart Dynasty was returned to the throne in the form of Charles II, who reigned from 1660 to 1685. England under Charles II passed a stronger version of the 1651 Navigation Act, a mercantilist policy that sought to restrict colonial trade with countries other than England. Charles II sought to raise crown revenue by competing with and warring against the Dutch Empire, whose Atlantic trading activities sapped customs revenue. At the same time, Parliament passed a series of laws known as the Clarendon Code, which sought to impose religious uniformity and indirectly encouraged immigration among dissenting Protestant groups. Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II, in 1685. James lost the support of his subjects after the birth of his Catholic heir, and he was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 by his daughter, Mary II, and her husband, William III.
The Glorious Revolution and its aftermath saw the passage of 1689 Bill of Rights, which promised increased power to Parliament and the protection of certain individual rights, as well as the Act of Toleration, which promised religious freedoms to non-Anglican Protestants. These religiously tolerant policies would be enforced in the colonies as well as in England. The succession of William III, who had long resisted French hegemony as the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, ensured that England and its colonies would come into conflict with the French empire of Louis XIV. England became involved in the Nine Years ' War against French expansionism in Europe, and England would fight several subsequent wars against France in the 18th century.
In the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, the Parliament and the monarchy forged an effective governing alliance, with the monarch acting as the executive and Parliament providing oversight and controlling funds. After the death of Mary II and William III, Mary 's sister, Anne, acceded to the throne. In 1707, the English and Scottish parliaments passed the Acts of Union, combining the two polities into the Kingdom of Great Britain. Britain experienced an economic boom in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, and Britain and its colonies both experienced newfound material wealth in a phenomenon known as the consumer revolution.
The Carolina Colony suffered from a lack of unified leadership, as the descendants of the colony 's proprietors fought over the direction of the colony. After the Yamasee War devastated the local economy and depopulated the region, the colonists of Charles Town deposed their governor and elected their own government. This marked the start of separate governments in the Province of North Carolina and the Province of South Carolina. In 1729, the king formally revoked Carolina 's colonial charter and established both North Carolina and South Carolina as crown colonies.
In the 1730s, James Oglethorpe, a philanthropist and Member of Parliament, proposed that the area south of the Carolinas be colonized to provide a buffer against Spanish Florida. More importantly for Oglethorpe, the area could serve as a place for impoverished Britons to settle. Parliament granted Oglethorpe and a group of other trustees temporary proprietorship over the Province of Georgia and provided the proprietors with financial support to establish the colony. Oglethorpe and his compatriots hoped to establish a utopian colony that banned slavery and recruited only the most worthy settlers, but by 1750 the colony remained sparsely populated. The proprietors gave up their charter in 1752, at which point Georgia became a crown colony.
Between immigration, the importation of slaves, and natural population growth, the colonial population of Thirteen Colonies grew immensely in the 18th century. According to historian Alan Taylor, the population of the Thirteen Colonies stood at 1.5 million in 1750, which represented four - fifths of the population of British North America. More than ninety percent of the colonists lived as farmers, though some seaports flourished. By 1760, the cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Boston had a population in excess of 16,000, which was small by European standards. By 1770, the economic output of the Thirteen Colonies made up forty percent of the gross domestic product of the British Empire.
As the 18th century progressed, colonists began to settle far from the Atlantic coast. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Connecticut, and Maryland all lay claim to the land in the Ohio River valley. The colonies engaged in a scramble to purchase land from Native Americans, as the British insisted that claims to land should rest on such acquisitions. Many of these purchases were from tribes with little claim to the land they were selling. Virginia was particularly intent on western expansion, and most of the elite Virginia families invested in the Ohio Company to promote the settlement of Ohio Country.
With the defeat of the Dutch and the imposition of the Navigation Acts, the British colonies in North America became part of global British trading network. The value of exports from British North America to Britain tripled between 1700 and 1754. Though the colonists were restricted in trading with other European powers, they found profitable trade partners in the other British colonies, particularly in the Caribbean. The colonists traded foodstuffs, wood, tobacco, and various other resources for Asian tea, West Indian coffee, and West Indian sugar, among other items. Native Americans far from the Atlantic coast supplied the Atlantic market with beaver fur and deerskins, and sought to preserve their independence by maintaining a balance of power between the French and English. With an advantage in natural resources, British North America established its own thriving shipbuilding industry and many North American merchants engaged in the transatlantic trade. Wealthy North Americans adopted the opulent Georgian architecture that had become popular in Britain, and many outside of the wealthy elite enjoyed increased material wealth.
Improved economic conditions and an easing of religious persecution in Europe made it more difficult to recruit labor to the colonies. Many colonies, particularly in the South, became increasingly reliant on slave labor. The population of slaves in British North America grew dramatically between 1680 and 1750, and the growth was driven by a mixture of forced immigration and the reproduction of slaves. In the South, the slaves supported vast plantation economies lorded over by increasingly wealthy elites, while slaves in the North worked in a variety of occupations. By 1775, slaves made up one - fifth of the population, though the enslaved proportion of the population int the Middle Colonies and New England was under ten percent. These slaves suffered under worse conditions than those of French and Spanish colonies, and very few were freed; free blacks made up just one percent of the African American population in the 18th century and endured harsh restrictions. The slaves rebelled in major revolts such as the Stono Rebellion and the New York Conspiracy of 1741, but these uprisings were suppressed. The fear of slave revolt softened class divisions among whites while hardening racial divisions.
Though a smaller proportion of the English population migrated to British North America after 1700, the colonies attracted new immigrants from other European countries. These immigrants traveled to all of the colonies, but the Middle Colonies attracted the most immigrants and continued to be more ethically diverse than the other colonies. Despite continuing anti-Catholic settlement, numerous Catholic settlers migrated from Ireland. Protestant Irish also migrated to the colonies, particularly "New Light '' Ulster Presbyterians. Protestant Germans also migrated in large numbers, particularly to Pennsylvania, where those of English descent were outnumbered by the other colonists. Many of these immigrants came to despise the established churches that prevailed in nine of the Thirteen Colonies, but a spirit of religious pluralism slowly came into existence during the 18th century. In the 1740s, the Thirteen Colonies underwent the First Great Awakening, which further added to the religious diversity of the Thirteen Colonies.
After the Glorious Revolution, France and England (and its successor state of Britain) engaged in a series of wars, beginning with the Nine Years ' War. To win these wars, England drastically expanded the size of its armies and navies. To fund this military expansion, England expanded its administrative state, employing more individuals to collect taxes and duties. As even this expanded administrative state did not provide enough funds to cover the military expenses, England became increasingly reliant on borrowed money. The British desire to pay for the debt incurred in these wars would later provide the spark for the American Revolution.
The Nine Years ' War between France and England extended to North America, where it became known as King William 's War. In 1689, King Louis XIV of France approved of an expedition from New France designed to crush Iroquois resistance, and the French raided Iroquois and American territory. In retaliation, New York and the New England colonies launched a two - pronged invasion of Quebec which ended in disaster. France and England engaged in a proxy war via Native American allies during and after the war, while the Iroquois declared their neutrality. In Queen Anne 's War, the North American component of the War of the Spanish Succession, British colonists again launched a failed expedition capture to Quebec, though British forces did take control of the French town of Port - Royal. In the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of Spanish Succession, the British won possession of the French territories of Newfoundland and Acadia, the latter of which was renamed Nova Scotia.
In 1738, an incident involving a Welsh mariner named Robert Jenkins sparked the War of Jenkins ' Ear between Britain and Spain. Hundreds of North Americans volunteered for Admiral Edward Vernon 's assault on Cartegena de Indias, a Spanish city in South America. The expedition ended in disaster, but the war against Spain merged into a broader conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. In North America, most colonists called the conflict, which also included France, King George 's War. In 1745, British and colonial forces led by Vernon captured the town of Louisbourg. The war came to an end with the 1748 Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle, and many colonists were angered when Britain returned Louisbourg to France in return for Madras and other territories. In the aftermath of the war, both the British and French sought to expand their influence among the Native Americans of the Ohio River valley.
In 1754 the Ohio Company started to build a fort at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River. A larger French force chased the Virginians away but encountered at the Battle of Jumonville Glen, which resulted in a French retreat. After reports of the battle reached the French and British capitals, the Seven Years ' War broke out in 1756; the North American component of this war is known as the French and Indian War. At the 1754 Albany Congress, Pennsylvania colonist Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union, which would have created a unified government of Thirteen Colonies to coordinate defense and other matters. The plan was rejected by the leaders of most colonies and the colonists struggled to coordinate a military response to the French. As the Thirteen Colonies failed to take charge of their own defense, the British dispatched General Edward Braddock to North America to oversee the war effort. Braddock led an expedition into the Ohio country, suffering a rout at the Battle of the Monongahela. British forces suffered further defeats in the following years, losing the Battle of Fort Oswego and the Siege of Fort William Henry.
After the Duke of Newcastle returned to power as Prime Minister in 1757, he shifted British military forces to North America. Newcastle 's foreign minister, William Pitt, devoted unprecedented financial resources to the transoceanic conflict. At roughly the same time that Newcastle came to power, the colonists reached accommodation with many of the tribes that had allied with the French. The British won a series of victories after 1758, conquering much of New France by the end of 1760. Spain entered the war on France 's side in 1762 and promptly last several territories to Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the war, and France surrendered much of New France to the British. Spain ceded Florida to Britain, while France separately ceded its lands west of the Mississippi River to Spain. With the newly acquired territories, the British created the provinces of East Florida, West Florida, and Quebec, all of which were placed under military governments.
The British were saddled with huge debts following the French and Indian War. During the mid-1760s, over half of the British budget was devoted to debt service. Immediately after the war, British colonists in North America paid less than one tenth of the taxes paid by Britons on a per capita basis. As much of the British debt had been generated by the defense of the colonies, British leaders felt that the Thirteen Colonies should pay more in taxes. In the aftermath of the war, the British decided to increase their control over and taxation of the Thirteen Colonies. Beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764, the British imposed several new taxes. Later acts include the Currency Act of 1764, the Stamp Act of 1765, and the Townshend Acts of 1767.
Seeking to avoid another expensive war, the British also sought to maintain peaceful relations with the Indian tribes by keeping them separated from the American frontiersmen. To this end, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, with the area designated as an Indian Reserve. Some groups of settlers disregarded the proclamation, continuing to move west and establish farms. The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but the proclamation had nonetheless angered the colonists as it had been promulgated without their prior consultation. Many colonists also thought that the proclamation unfairly rewarded the perpetrators of Pontiac 's War, a Native American uprising against the newly established British rule. The British further incensed the Thirteen Colonies with the Quebec Act, which extended the province of Quebec to the Ohio River. Quebec had been placed under a more authoritarian form of government that tolerated the Catholic faith of its subjects, and many in the Thirteen Colonies continued to view Quebec as a foreign threat.
The British subjects of North America believed that the unwritten British constitution protected their rights, and were firmly devoted to the belief in the superiority of British liberties. They believed that the governmental system, with the House of Commons the House of Lords, and the monarch sharing power found an ideal balance among democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny. The British rarely sent soldiers to North America prior to 1750 and thus were forced to negotiate for colonial support in conducting military operations against the French and the Native Americans. Though royal governors continued to hold a great amount of power in theory, most colonial assemblies gained power over appropriations and the appointment of officials, including sheriffs and judges. Increased British control of the Thirteen Colonies upset the colonists who had had enjoyed their independence, and upended the notion many colonist held that they were equal partners in the British Empire.
Americans insisted on the principle of "no taxation without representation '' beginning with the intense protests over the Stamp Act, representation being understood in the context of Parliament directly levying the duty or excise tax, and thus by - passing the colonial legislatures, which had levied taxes on the colonies in the monarch 's stead prior to 1763. They argued that the colonies had no representation in the British Parliament, so it was a violation of their rights as Englishmen for taxes to be imposed upon them. In the British colonies bordering the Thirteen Colonies, protests were muted, as most colonists accepted the new tax. These provinces had smaller populations, were more dependent on the British military, and had less of a tradition of self - rule.
In protest of the Townshend Acts, the colonies imposed a boycott of British imports. In 1770, newly installed Prime Minister Lord North repealed the Townshend Acts, with the exception of a duty on tea. Though some colonists remained upset about the tea tax, most colonists were mollified, and the boycott ended. Colonial discontent resumed with the passage of the 1773 Tea Act, which reduced taxes on tea sold by the East India Company in an effort to undercut smugglers. North 's ministry hoped that this would establish a precedent of colonists accepting British taxation policies. In 1773, a secret society known as the Sons of Liberty dumped thousands of pounds of tea into the water, in event known as the Boston Tea Party. The event outraged members of Parliament, many of whom felt that they had attempted to reach a compromise with the Thirteen Colonies by repealing the Townshend Acts. In 1774, Parliament the Coercive Acts, which became known as the "Intolerable Acts '' in the colonies. These laws allowed British military commanders to claim colonial homes for the quartering of soldiers, transferred trials involving soldiers or crown officials outside of the jurisdiction of the colonists, and reformed the government of Massachusetts. Parliament also sent Thomas Gage to serve as Governor of Massachusetts and as the commander of British forces in North America.
By 1774, most colonists still hoped to remain part of the British Empire, but discontent at British rule was widespread. Throughout the Thirteen Colonies, colonists elected delegates to the First Continental Congress, which convened in Philadelphia in September 1774. In the aftermath of the Intolerable Acts, the delegates of the First Continental Congress asserted that the colonies only owed allegiance to the king. They would accept royal governors as agents of the king, but they were no longer willing to recognize Parliament 's right to pass legislation affecting the colonies. Most delegates opposed an attack on the British position in Boston, and the Continental Congress instead agreed to the imposition of another boycott, known as the Continental Association. The boycott proved effective and the value of British imports dropped dramatically. The Thirteen Colonies became increasingly divided between Patriots opposed to British rule and Loyalists who supported it.
Fearing an impending conflict, Gage requested reinforcements from Britain, but the British government was not willing to pay for the expense of stationing tens of thousands of soldiers in the Thirteen Colonies. Gage was instead ordered to seize Patriot arsenals. He dispatched a force to march on the arsenal at Concord, Massachusetts, but the Patriots learned about this troop movement and sought to block their advance. The Patriots repulsed the British force at the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, then lay siege to Boston. The Second Continental Congress assembled in May 1775 and sought to coordinate armed resistance to Britain. It established an impromptu government that recruited soldiers and printed its own money. George Washington, a Virginian who had fought in the French and Indian War, was selected to lead the newly established Continental Army. Washington took command of rebel soldiers in New England and forced the British soldiers to withdraw from the city. The war spread into new theaters, and the Thirteen Colonies launched a failed invasion of Quebec.
By 1775, some delegates wanted to fully sever ties with Britain, but most still saw the king as their legitimate ruler. However, King George III refused to read the Continental Congress 's Olive Branch Petition, which beseeched the king to broker a cease fire. He instead proclaimed the colonists to be in rebellion in August 1775. In January 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a pamphlet advocating independence from Britain and the establishment of republican governments in each of the Thirteen Colonies. The pamphlet mobilized popular support for independence, and the delegates of the Second Continental Congress became increasingly willing to consider independence. Seeking a final break with Britain, the delegates adopted a Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Though they feared dependence on another foreign power, the delegates dispatched ambassadors to seek French and Spanish aid in the war against Britain.
In the 1776 New York and New Jersey campaign, General William Howe led a British army that drove Washington 's army from New York City into Pennsylvania. Washington rallied his army after retreating across the Delaware River, and his victory at the Battle of Trenton significantly boosted Patriot morale. In 1777, the British pursued two major campaigns, with the force led by Howe marching on Philadelphia in the Philadelphia campaign, and a force stationed in Quebec and led by John Burgoyne seeking to take control of the Hudson River in the Saratoga campaign. With the aid of reinforcements sent by Washington, General Horatio Gates led the Continental Army to victory at the Battles of Saratoga, forcing Burgoyne 's surrender. Howe captured Philadelphia after the September 1777 Battle of Brandywine, forcing Congress temporarily relocate its meeting place.
Following the American victory at the Battle Saratoga, the French became convinced that the Americans could defeat the British. The French entered the war and French and American representatives signed the Treaty of Alliance, in which both parties agreed not to seek a separate peace. In hopes of gaining back their former territories, especially Gibraltar, the Spanish entered the war in 1779. The British sought their own European alliance to counterbalance the French and Spanish, but British success in the Seven Years ' War had left the British too powerful in the view of the other European powers. Instead, these powers created the League of Armed Neutrality to defy the British attempts to blockade trade. The British faced a global war without allies, and were forced to divert soldiers from North America. Now in a tenuous position, Prime Minister North sent the Carlisle Peace Commission to offer to rescind the Coercive Acts and accept Congress as a legitimate legislature under the authority of the crown, but Congress rejected any reincorporation into the British Empire. By the end of 1781, each of the colonies had ratified a constitution for a new nation, known as the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a decentralized confederation of state governments and a weak national government. The first article of the new constitution established a name for the former Thirteen Colonies: the United States of America.
In order to consolidate British forces, the British retreated from Philadelphia back to New York. The war in the north became a stalemate, as the British conducted no major campaigns and Washington did not attempt to capture the British position in New York. The British shifted their focus to the southern theater of the war, where they hoped to recruit Native American and Loyalist allies. British forces captured Savannah, Georgia in December 1778 and consolidated their control over Georgia in the following months. The British captured Charleston in May 1780 and engaged in several operations in North Carolina and Virginia under General Charles Cornwallis. In April 1781, Cornwallis led his army into Virginia in the Yorktown campaign, seeking to force a decisive battle. Despite the string of British victories starting 1778, Patriot forces under Nathanael Greene resisted British rule, and the British were unable to exercise effective authority over the hinterland of Virginia and the Carolinas. A combined Franco - American operation trapped Cornwallis 's force at Yorktown, and Washington led his men in a hurried march from New York to Virginia. He laid siege to Yorktown, forcing Cornwallis 's surrender in October 1781. His force had made up one quarter of the British force in North America, and conflicts in other theaters meant that the British were unable to replace those forces. The surrender shocked Britons, who lost the public will to continue the war in North America, and the British opened peace negotiations.
In the negotiations leading to a peace deal, the Patriots hoped to gain control of all of the British territories on the continent of North America, though their actual control was confined to the Thirteen Colonies, parts of which remained occupied by the British. The French hoped to keep the United States as a weak client state, while the Spanish feared the rise of an expansive empire bordering their colonial holdings, so both sought to limit American gains in a treaty with the British. The British Prime Minister, Lord Shelburne, hoped to reconcile with the United States and reestablish trade relations. The British offered generous terms to the United States if they agreed to seek a separate peace from France. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the United States won control of all British North American territory south of the Great Lakes, except for the two Florida colonies. Though Parliament ratified the treaty, discontent at its generosity to the United States led to the fall of Lord Shelburne 's government and the defeat of a proposed commercial treaty between the United States and Britain.
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who does turtle marry in the westing game | The Westing game - wikipedia
The Westing Game is a mystery novel written by Ellen Raskin and published by Dutton in 1978. It won the Newbery Medal recognizing the year 's most distinguished contribution to American children 's literature. The story involves 16 seemingly unrelated heirs of reclusive businessman Sam Westing and his challenge to figure out the secret of his death. The heirs must figure out who killed Mr. Westing by clues in Mr. Westing 's will.
The Westing Game was ranked number nine among all - time children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal in 2012. It has been adapted as the 1997 feature film Get a Clue (also distributed as The Westing Game).
Sunset Towers is a new apartment building on Lake Michigan, north of Milwaukee and just down the shore from the mansion owned by reclusive self - made millionaire Samuel W. Westing. (Despite the name, Sunset Towers faces east -- into the sunrise.)
As the story opens, a man named Barney Northrup is selling apartments to a carefully selected group of tenants. It soon emerges that most of the tenants -- regardless of age or occupation -- are named as heirs in Westing 's will. The will is structured as a puzzle, with the 16 heirs challenged to find the solution. Each of the eight pairs, assigned seemingly at random, is given $10,000 cash and a different set of baffling clues. The pair that solves the mystery will inherit Westing 's entire $200 million fortune and control of his company.
Windy Windkloppel was an extremely rich businessman who made his fortune in paper products. He was very patriotic and never smoked, drank, or gambled. He was also Barney Northrup, Sam Westing, Sandy McSouthers, and Julian Eastman.
The epilogue of the story is told in the book 's last three chapters, which depicts the heirs growing older and more successful, many of them changing their lives as a result of the game.
The Westing Game, adapted by Darian Lindle and directed by Terry Brino - Dean, was first produced at Prime Stage Theatre in Pittsburgh in 2009. The script is published by Dramatic Publishing.
Get A Clue, adapted by Dylan Kelsey Hadley and directed by Terence H. Winkless was produced for television in 1997.
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who established the first workable crime laboratory | Crime lab - wikipedia
A crime laboratory - often shortened to crime lab - is a scientific laboratory, using primarily forensic science for the purpose of examining evidence from criminal cases.
A typical crime lab has two sets of personnel:
In the United States, crime labs may be publicly or privately operated, although private laboratories typically do not respond to crime scenes to collect evidence. Public crime labs are organized at the city, county, state, or national level. A law enforcement agency that does not operate its own crime lab usually has free access to a higher level laboratory for analysis of their evidence. Most states have their own crime labs, for instance Oklahoma has the OSBI, many other places have smaller yet still sufficient crime labs.
The Los Angeles Police Department founded the first crime laboratory in the United States (1923), followed by the Bureau of Investigation (1926), forerunner to the Federal Bureau of Investigation. (Every Contact Leaves a Trace, Connie Fletcher, St. Martin 's Press, New York, 2006, interview with crime lab director)
The term "crime lab '' has become a part of popular culture, largely due to the TV dramas. Some of the more famous shows are:
Several non-fiction television programs, document the resolution of criminal cases based on the scientific analysis of the evidence:
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so this is how it ends not with a bang | The Hollow Men - wikipedia
"The Hollow Men '' (1925) is a poem by T.S. Eliot. Its themes are, like many of Eliot 's poems, overlapping and fragmentary, but it is recognized to be concerned most with post -- World War I Europe under the Treaty of Versailles (which Eliot despised: compare "Gerontion ''), the difficulty of hope and religious conversion, and, as some critics argue, Eliot 's own failed marriage (Vivienne Haigh - Wood Eliot might have been having an affair with Bertrand Russell). The poem is divided into five parts and consists of 98 lines of which the last four are "probably the most quoted lines of any 20th - century poet writing in English ''.
Eliot 's characters often undergo a journey - either physical or spiritual or both. The Hollow Men seems to follow the otherworldly journey of the spiritually dead. These "hollow men '' have the realization, humility and acknowledgement of their guilt and their status as broken, lost souls.
The "hollow men '' fail to transform their motions into actions, conception to creation, desire to fulfillment. This awareness of the split between thought and action coupled with their awareness of "death 's various kingdoms '' and acute diagnosis of their hollowness, makes it hard for them to go forward and break through their spiritual sterility. And as the poem and their journey ends, they see "the horror, the horror '' that Kurtz sees in The Heart of Darkness. There is a complete breakdown of language, prayer and the spirit as "the world ends / Not with a bang but a whimper ''.
Eliot wrote that he produced the title "The Hollow Men '' by combining the titles of the romance "The Hollow Land '' by William Morris with the poem "The Broken Men '' by Rudyard Kipling: but it is possible that this is one of Eliot 's many constructed allusions, and that the title originates more transparently from Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar or from the character Kurtz in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness who is referred to as a "hollow sham '' and "hollow at the core ''.
The two epigraphs to the poem, "Mistah Kurtz -- he dead '' and "A penny for the Old Guy '', are allusions to Conrad 's character and to Guy Fawkes, attempted arsonist of the English house of Parliament, and his straw - man effigy that is burned each year in the United Kingdom on Guy Fawkes Night.
Some critics read the poem as told from three perspectives, each representing a phase of the passing of a soul into one of death 's kingdoms ("death 's dream kingdom '', "death 's twilight kingdom '', and "death 's other kingdom ''). Eliot describes how we, the living, wish to be seen by "Those who have crossed / With direct eyes (...) not as lost / Violent souls, but only / As the hollow men / The stuffed men. '' The image of eyes figures prominently in the poem, notably in one of Eliot 's most famous lines "Eyes I dare not meet in dreams ''. Such eyes are also generally accepted to be in reference to Dante 's Beatrice (see below).
The poet depicts figures "Gathered on this beach of the tumid river '' -- drawing considerable influence from Dante 's third and fourth cantos of the Inferno which describes Limbo, the first circle of Hell -- showing man in his inability to cross into Hell itself or to even beg redemption, unable to speak with God. Dancing "round the prickly pear, '' the figures worship false gods, recalling children and reflecting Eliot 's interpretation of Western culture after World War I.
The final stanza may be the most quoted of all of Eliot 's poetry:
This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends Not with a bang but a whimper.
When asked if he would write these lines again, Eliot responded with a ' no ':
One reason is that while the association of the H - bomb is irrelevant to it, it would today come to everyone 's mind. Another is that he is not sure the world will end with either. People whose houses were bombed have told him they do n't remember hearing anything.
Other significant references include the Lord 's Prayer, Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar, and Conrad 's An Outcast of the Islands ("Life is very long '').
The poem was first published as now known on 23 November 1925, in Eliot 's Poems: 1909 -- 1925. Eliot was known to collect poems and fragments of poems to produce new works. This is clearest to see in his poems The Hollow Men and "Ash - Wednesday '' where he incorporated previously published poems to become sections of a larger work. In the case of The Hollow Men four of the five sections of the poem were previously published:
(Publication information from Gallup)
The Hollow Men has had a profound effect on the Anglo - American cultural lexicon -- and by a relatively recent extension, world culture -- since it was published in 1925. One source states that the last four lines of the poem are "probably the most quoted lines of any 20th - century poet writing in English. '' The sheer variety of references moves some of the questions concerning the poem 's significance outside the traditional domain of literary criticism and into the much broader category of cultural studies. Examples of such influences include:
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what did snow do to the evil queen | Evil Queen - wikipedia
The Evil Queen, also called the Wicked Queen, is a fictional character and the main antagonist in "Snow White '', a German fairy tale recorded by the Brothers Grimm; similar stories are also known to exist in other countries. Other versions of the Queen appear in "Snow White '' derivative works, and the character has also become an archetype for unrelated works of fiction.
The Queen is Snow White 's evil and vindictive stepmother who is obsessed with being "the fairest in the land ''. The beautiful young princess Snow White evokes the Queen 's sense of envy, so the Queen designs a number of plans to kill Snow White through the use of witchcraft. A driving force in the story is the Queen 's Magic Mirror. In the traditional resolution of the story, the Queen is grotesquely executed for her crimes. The tale is meant as a lesson for young children warning them against narcissism and pride.
Various other versions of the Queen appear in subsequent adaptations and continuations of the fairy tale, including novels and films. In these, the Queen is often re-imagined and sometimes portrayed more sympathetically, such as being morally conflicted or suffering from madness instead of being simply evil. In some of the revisionist stories she has even been portrayed as an antihero or a tragic hero. In some instances, she serves as the protagonist or narrator of the story; one such particularly notable version is Disney 's, sometimes known as Queen Grimhilde. The Queen has also become an archetype that inspired several characters featured in the works that are not directly based on the original tale.
The Evil Queen is a very beautiful but proud and arrogant woman who is secretly dabbling in dark arts. When the King 's first wife, the Good Queen passes away, Snow White 's father marries again. The King 's new and second wife is very beautiful, but she is also a wicked and vain woman who becomes the new and second Queen, and Snow White 's stepmother. She owns a magic mirror, which one day informs her that her young stepdaughter Princess Snow White has surpassed her in beauty. After deciding to eliminate Snow White, the Queen orders her Huntsman to take the princess into the forest and kill her. The Queen tells him to bring back Snow White 's lungs and liver, as proof that the princess is dead. However, the Huntsman takes pity on Snow White, and instead, brings the Queen the lungs and liver of a wild boar. The Queen then eats what she believes are Snow White 's organs.
While questioning her mirror, the Queen discovers that Snow White has survived. Intending to kill Snow White herself, she uses witchcraft to prepare poison and take the disguise of an old peddler woman. She visits the dwarfs ' house and sells Snow White laces for a corset that she laces too tight in an attempt to asphyxiate the girl. When that fails, the Queen returns, as a different old woman, and tricks Snow White into using a poisoned comb. When the comb fails to kill Snow White, the Queen again visits Snow White, this time disguised as a farmer 's wife, and gives Snow White a poisoned apple.
Eventually, Snow White and the Prince from another kingdom reveal the Queen 's true nature and invite her to their wedding, where she is forced to put on red - hot iron shoes and "dance '' until she drops dead.
In the classic ending of "Snow White '', the Evil Queen is tricked into attending Snow White 's wedding and put to death by torment; this is often considered to be too dark and potentially horrifying for children in modern society. Sara Maitland wrote that "we do not tell this part of the story any more; we say it is too cruel and will break children 's soft hearts. '' Therefore, many (especially modern) revisions of the fairy tale often change the gruesome classic ending in order to make it seem less violent. In some versions, instead of dying, the Queen is even just merely prevented from committing further wrongdoings. However, in the same 2014 nationwide UK poll that considered the Queen from "Snow White '' the scariest fairy tale character of all time (as cited by 32.21 % of responding adults), around two thirds opined that today 's stories are too "sanitised '' for children.
Already the first English translation of the Grimms ' tale, written by Edgar Taylor in 1823, has the Queen choke on her own envy upon the sight of Snow White alive. Another early (1871) English translation by Susannah Mary Paull "replaces the Queen 's death by cruel physical punishment with death by self - inflicted pain and self - destruction '' when it was her own shoes that became hot due to her anger. Other alternative endings can have the Queen just instantly drop dead "of anger '' at the wedding or in front of her mirror upon learning about it, die from her own designs going awry (such as from touching her own poisoned rose) or by nature (such as falling into quicksands while crossing a swamp on her way back after poisoning Snow White), be killed by the dwarfs during a chase, be destroyed by her own mirror, run away into the forest never to be seen again, or simply being banished from the kingdom forever.
The Evil Queen 's origins can be traced to the character of Silver - Tree, a jealous queen who threatens her daughter, in the Celtic oral tale "Gold - Tree and Silver - Tree ''. According to Kenny Klein, the enchantress Ceridwen of the Welsh mythology was "the quintissential evil stepmother, the origin of that character in the two tales of Snow White and Cinderella ''. Oliver Madox Hueffer noted that the wicked stepmother with magical powers threatening a young princess is a recurring theme in fairy tales; one similar character is the witch - queen in "The Wild Swans '' as told by Hans Christian Andersen.
Rosemary Ellen Guiley suggests that the Queen uses an apple because it recalls the temptation of Eve; this creation story from the Bible led the Christian Church to view apples as a symbol of sin. Many people feared that apples could carry evil spirits, and that witches used them for poisoning. Robert G. Brown of Duke University also makes a connection with the story of Adam and Eve, seeing the Queen as a representation of the archetype of Lilith. The symbol of an apple has long had traditional associations with enchantment and witchcraft in some European cultures, as in case of Morgan le Fay 's Avalon ("Isle of the Apples '').
In some Scottish versions of "Snow White '' - type fairy tales, a talking trout takes the place of the Queen 's mirror, the Queen is the princess ' biological mother, rather than her stepmother, the huntsman figure is the princess ' own father, and the Queen 's fate remains unresolved. The tale varies widely from place to place, with the Queen using various tricks against the princess. For example, in Italy, the Queen uses a toxic comb, a contaminated cake, or a suffocating braid. The Queen 's demands of proof from the huntsman (often her lover in non-Grimm versions) also vary: a bottle of blood stoppered with the princess ' toe in Spain, or the princess ' intestines and blood - soaked shirt in Italy. In France, a local tale features a poisoned tomato. One of the early variations of the tale was Giambattista Basile 's "The Young Slave ''.
The Grimm brothers invented the motif of the Queen 's execution at Snow White 's wedding; the original story sees her punished by the King. The Grimms noted on the margin of their 1810 manuscript: "The ending is not quite right and is lacking something. '' Diane Purkiss attributes the Queen 's fiery death to "the folkbelief that burning a witch 's body ended her power, a belief which subtended (but did not cause) the practice of burning witches in Germany '', while the American Folklore Society noted that the use of iron shoes "recalls folk practices of destroying a witch through the magic agency of iron ''.
The Brothers Grimm collected the German fairy tale in their 1812 Kinder - und Hausmärchen ("Children 's and Household Tales '', more commonly known in English as Grimms ' Fairy Tales). In the first edition of the Brothers Grimm story, the Queen is Snow White 's biological mother, not her stepmother. This motif changed in subsequent versions, after 1819. The earliest version was known as "Snow Drop ''. Jack Zipes said "the change from ' evil mother ' to ' evil stepmother ' for example, was because the brothers ' held motherhood sacred '. According to Sheldon Cashdan, Professor of Psychology at the University of Massachusetts, a "cardinal rule of fairy tales '' mandates that the "heroes and heroines are allowed to kill witches, sorceresses, even stepmothers, but never their own mothers ''. Zipes ' 2014 collection of Grimm fairy tales in their original forms reinstated the Queen as Snow White 's mother.
According to some scholars, the story is constructed and characters are presented with ageist undertones. The University of Hawaii professor Cristina Bacchilega said, "I think there is still very much an attachment to vilifying the older, more powerful woman. '' Roger Sale opined that "the term ' narcissism ' seems altogether too slippery to be the only one we want here. There is, for instance, no suggestion that the queen 's absorption in her beauty ever gives her pleasure, or that the desire for power through sexual attractiveness is itself a sexual feeling. What is stressed is the anger and fear that attend the queen 's realization that as she and Snow White both get older, she must lose. This is why the major feeling involved is not jealousy but envy: to make beauty that important is to reduce the world to one in which only two people count. '' Terri Windling wrote that the Queen is "a woman whose power is derived from her beauty; it is this, the tale implies, that provides her place in the castle 's hierarchy. If the king 's attention turns from his wife to another, what power is left to an aging woman? Witchcraft, the tale answers. Potions, poisons, and self - protection. '' According to Zipes, "the queen 's actions are determined by the mirror 's representations of her as exemplifying beauty and evil, or associating evil and vanity with beauty, and these mirror representations are taken as the truth by the queen. Had she perhaps doubted and cracked the mirror, cracked the meaning of the mirror, she might still be alive today. '' Deborah Lipp, discussing the character 's archetype, stated that "in fact Western culture had, for hundreds of years, associated the idea of powerful, commanding women with witchcraft and evil. That 's why, I think, the most interesting women in stories have been villainesses. '' Zipes opined that the Queen character is much more complex and "as a figure she is much more fascinating than this dumb, innocent, naïve Snow White. So why not focus on this figure who is tragic in many, many ways. We really do n't know too much about her - where she gets her powers. She 's mysterious. ''
Bruno Bettelheim
Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar regard Snow White and her mother / stepmother as two female stereotypes, the angel and the monster. The fact that the Queen was Snow White 's biological mother in the first version of the Grimms ' story has led several psychoanalytic critics to interpret "Snow White '' as a story about repressed Oedipus complex, or about Snow White 's Electra complex. Harold Bloom opined that the three "temptations '' all "testify to a mutual sexual attraction between Snow White and her stepmother. '' According to Bruno Bettelheim, the story 's main motif is "the clash of sexual innocence and sexual desire '' and Cashdan wrote that the Queen 's "incessant query, ' Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who is the fairest of them all? ' literally reflects her fear that the king will find Snow White more appealing than her. It thus is the implicit sexual struggle between the young girl and the queen. '' This struggle is so dominating the psychological landscape of the tale, that Gilber and Gubar even proposed renaming the story "Snow White and Her Wicked Stepmother ''.
According to Bettelheim, "only the death of the jealous queen (the elimination of all outer and inner turbulence) can make for a happy world. '' Cashdan opined "the death of the witch signals a victory of virtue over vice, a sign that positive forces in the self have prevailed, '' and "the active involvement of heroine in the witch 's demise communicates to readers that they must take an active role in overcoming their own errant tendencies. '' The evil queen "embodies narcissism, and the young princess, with whom readers identify, embodies parts of the child struggling to overcome this tendency. Vanquishing the queen represents a triumph of positive forces in the self over vain impulses. '' According to Cashdan, "her death constitutes the emotional core of the tale '' as the story could easily end with the resurrection of Snow White, "but there is one detail that needs to be resolved: the wicked queen is still alive. Her continued existence means not only that Snow White 's life remains in jeopardy, but that the princess is apt to be plagued by vain temptations for the rest of her days. Unless the evil woman is eliminated once and for all, Snow White will never be free. '' Similarly, the psychologist Betsy Cohen wrote that "in order to avoid becoming a wicked queen herself, Snow White needs to separate from and kill off this destructive force inside of her. The death of the wicked queen allows Snow White to truly celebrate her marriage, the bringing together of herself. '' Cohen further wrote that "the queen was forced to face her own mortality, the inevitability of death. As Snow White rids herself of her envious stepmother, she is, at the same time, next in line to become a mother herself -- more able, we hope, to deal with envy than her stepmother had been. ''
Regarding the manner of the Queen 's execution, Jo Eldridge Carney, Professor of English at The College of New Jersey, wrote: "Again, the fairy tale 's system of punishment is horrific but apt: a woman so actively consumed with seeking affirmation from others and with violently undoing her rival is forced to enact her own physical destruction as a public spectacle. '' According to Sheldon Donald Haase, Professor of German, and Associate Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Wayne State University, "a measure of justice is achieved '' with "the sadistic punishment to some extent fitting the crime. The glowing shoes, an appropriate symbol for her own unbridled envy, bring about her final demise. '' Likewise, Mary Ayers of the Stanford University School of Medicine wrote that the red - hot shoes symbolise that the Queen was "subjected to the effects of her own inflamed, searing hot envy and hatred. '' It was also noted that this ending echoes the fairy tale of "The Red Shoes '', which similarly "warns of the danger of attachment to appearances. ''
Maria Tatar
John Hanson Saunders of the Pennsylvania State University wrote that the Queen 's "rather barbaric... torture and death gives closure to the reader and the death seems more fitting... Her death can provide justice and allows the audience to see good triumph over evil. '' Cashdan argued that, from a psychological viewpoint, the Queen could not flee or get merely locked up in a dungeon or exiled, as the story has portrayed her "as a thoroughly despicable creature who deserves the worst conceivable punishment. '' Furthermore, he claims "such a horrible death '' is necessary because, like in several other fairy tales, "if the witch is to die -- and remain dead -- she must die in a way that makes her return highly unlikely, '' and so "the reader needs to know that the death of the witch is thorough and complete, even if it means exposing young readers to acts of violence that are extreme by contemporary standards. '' On the other hand, Oliver Madox Hueffer wrote that "it is impossible not to feel a certain sympathy with this unfortunate royal lady in her subsequent fate. '' According to Sharna Olfman, Professor of Psychology at the Point Park University, "when reading or listening to stories, children are n't assaulted with precreated graphic visual imagery. They do n't have to see close - ups of... the agony of pain in the queen 's eyes as she dances to her death. '' Nevertheless, Olfman 's personal preference is to "skip the torture scenes when I read these stories to kids. '' Anthony Burgess commented: "Reading that, how seriously can we take it? It is fairy - tale violence, which is not like real mugging, terrorism and Argentinean torture. ''
The character was portrayed in a variety of ways in the subsequent adaptations and reimaginations of the classic fairy tale. According to Lana Berkowitz of the Houston Chronicle, "Today stereotypes of the evil queen and innocent Snow White often are challenged. Rewrites may show the queen is reacting to extenuating circumstances. '' Scott Meslow of The Atlantic noted that "Disney 's decision to throw out the Grimms 's appropriately grim ending -- which sentences the evil queen to dance in heated iron shoes until her death -- has meant that ending is all but forgotten. ''
Actresses who have played the Wicked Queen in "Snow White '' stage productions (usually pantomime plays) have included Stephanie Beacham, Lucy Benjamin, Andrée Bernard (as Queen Lacretia), Jennifer Ellison, Jade Goody, Jerry Hall, Lesley Joseph, Patsy Kensit, Josie Lawrence (as Morgiana the Wicked Queen), Joanne Malin, Vicki Michelle, Denise Nolan, Su Pollard, Priscilla Presley, Liz Robertson, and Toyah Willcox. The role was also played by "Lily Savage '' (Paul O'Grady) and Craig Revel Horwood.
The Disney version of the characters also appears in variety of other Disney media, also making some cameo appearances in other works such as the 1977 film Annie Hall.
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who sings the song i'm so lonely | I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry - wikipedia
"I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry '' is a song recorded by American country music singer - songwriter Hank Williams in 1949. Williams said he wrote the song originally intending that the words be spoken, rather than sung, as he had done on several of his Luke the Drifter recordings. Ostensibly, the song about loneliness was largely inspired by his troubled relationship with wife Audrey Sheppard. With evocative lyrics, such as the opening lines "Hear that lonesome whip - poor - will / He sounds too blue to fly, '' the song has been covered by a wide range of musicians. During his Aloha from Hawaii TV - special, Elvis Presley introduced it by saying, "I 'd like to sing a song that 's... probably the saddest song I 've ever heard. ''
According to "Paul Gilley: Ghost Writer in the Sky, '' by Kentucky historian W. Lynn Nickell, Gilley sold the song to Williams with all the rights, allowing Williams to take credit for it.
According to Colin Escott 's 2004 book Hank Williams: A Biography, Williams was inspired to write the song when he found it on a schedule of upcoming MGM releases. (Note: perhaps this was supposed to say, "inspired to record it ''? How could it be on a schedule of coming releases if it had n't been written yet?) The song was recorded on August 30, 1949 at Herzog Studio in Cincinnati, Ohio. Williams is backed by members of the Pleasant Valley Boys - Zeke Turner (lead guitar), Jerry Byrd (steel guitar), and Louis Innis (rhythm guitar) - as well as Tommy Jackson (fiddle) and Ernie Newton (bass). As Escott observes, the plaintive despair in Williams ' voice on the recording is echoed by the backing of the musicians:
Remarkably, the song was released as the B - side to the blues "My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '' because up - tempo numbers were deemed more appropriate for the jukebox trade than melancholy ballads. The single reached No. 4 on the country chart in 1949. The song has become closely identified with Williams ' legend and musical legacy and has been widely praised. In the 2003 documentary The Road to Nashville, singer k.d. lang states, "I think ' I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry ' is one of the most classic American songs ever written, truly. Beautiful song. '' In his autobiography, Bob Dylan recalls, "Even at a young age, I identified with him. I did n't have to experience anything that Hank did to know what he was singing about. I 'd never heard a robin weep, but could imagine it and it made me sad. '' In its online biography of the singer, Rolling Stone notes, "In tracks like ' I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry ' Williams expressed intense, personal emotions with country 's traditional plainspoken directness, a then - revolutionary approach that has come to define the genre through the works of subsequent artists from George Jones and Willie Nelson to Gram Parsons and Dwight Yoakam. '' Rolling Stone ranked it No. 111 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the oldest song on the list, and No. 3 on its 100 Greatest Country Songs of All Time.
Williams ' version ranked No. 29 in CMT 's 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music in 2003.
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i wanna go back i wanna go back weezer | The Good Life (Weezer song) - wikipedia
"The Good Life '' is a song by American alternative rock band Weezer. It was released in October 1996 as the second single from the band 's second album Pinkerton as well as an EP in Australia. It was rush - released by the record company to try to save the commercially failing album, but was not successful.
In 1996, Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo underwent a corrective operation for his leg and was in a leg brace. The brace was debilitatingly painful and inspired the lyrics to the title song. It can also be noted that the inside picture in the CD 's booklet is an X-ray of Rivers ' leg brace.
The B - sides of this single / EP are notable as they are derived from the unreleased Weezer concept album, Songs from the Black Hole. The release includes two live acoustic tracks and the song "I Just Threw Out the Love of My Dreams '', a collaboration with Rachel Haden of that dog. on lead vocals. The live songs were taken from a set played by the band at Shorecrest High School near Seattle. The school had won a contest and got Weezer to play during lunch in 1997. A very young Daniel Brummel of Ozma can be seen in the upper right side of the EP 's cover.
The song 's music video, directed by Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris, features a pizza delivery girl (played by Mary Lynn Rajskub) on her route, highlighting the monotony of her job. The music video is noted for its use of simultaneous camera angles appearing on screen as a fractured full image in a technique jokingly described by Weezer bassist Scott Shriner on the band 's March 2004 DVD Video Capture Device as being "so innovative, I 've never seen it since. '' Blink - 182 's video for their November 2004 single "Always '' used a similar technique. The video 's directors would go on to cast Mary Lynn Rajskub as Pageant Assistant Pam in their first feature - length motion picture Little Miss Sunshine.
"The Good Life '' single and EP was released in the spring of 1997 at the behest of the band 's label DGC. Pinkerton had not received the same response that the group 's first eponymous album did, and the single / EP was issued in an attempt to score a hit, but was not successful.
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where does the lowest amount of rainfall in africa occur | Climate of Africa - wikipedia
Owing to Africa 's position across equatorial and subtropical latitudes in both the northern and southern hemisphere, several different climate types can be found within it. The continent mainly lies within the intertropical zone between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Hence, it 's interesting density of humidity intensity is always high, and it is a hot continent. Warm and hot climates prevail all over Africa, but the northern part is that most marked by aridity and high temperatures. Only the northernmost and the southernmost fringes of the continent have a Mediterranean climate. The equator in the middle of Africa running through making it the most tropical continents of all continents. The 23.5 ° north tropic of cancer and 23.5 ° south tropic of Capricorn runs through Africa.
The climate of Africa is a range of climates such as the equatorial climate, the tropical wet and dry climate, the tropical monsoon climate, the semi-desert climate (semi-arid), the desert climate (hyper - arid and arid), the subtropical highland climate etc. Temperate climates are rare across the continent except at very high elevations and along the fringes. In fact, the climate of Africa is more variable by rainfall amount than by temperatures, which are consistently high. African deserts are the sunniest and the driest parts of the continent, owing to the prevailing presence of the subtropical ridge with subsiding, hot, dry air masses. Africa holds many heat - related records: the continent has the hottest extended region year - round, the areas with the hottest summer climate, the highest sunshine duration etc.
Globally, heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the monsoon trough or Intertropical Convergence Zone. The divergence over the near - equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft. As it moves towards the Mid-Latitudes, the air cools and sinks, which leads to subsidence near the 30th parallel of both hemispheres. This circulation is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge. Many of the world 's deserts are caused by these climatological high - pressure areas, including the Sahara Desert.
Temperatures are hottest within the Sahara regions of Algeria and Mali, and coolest across the south and at elevation within the topography across the eastern and northwest sections of the continent. The hottest average temperature on Earth is at Dallol, Ethiopia, which averages a temperature of 33.9 ° C (93.0 ° F) throughout the year. The hottest temperature recorded within Africa, which was also the world record, was 57.8 ° C (136.0 ° F) at ' Aziziya, Libya on September 13, 1922. This was later proven to be false, and to derive from an inaccurate reading of a thermometer. The world 's hottest place is in fact Death Valley, in California. Apparent temperatures, combining the effect of the temperature and humidity, along the Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia range between 57 ° C (135 ° F) and 63 ° C (145 ° F) during the afternoon hours. The lowest temperature measured within Africa was − 24 ° C (− 11 ° F) at Ifrane, Morocco on February 11, 1935. Nevertheless, the major part of Africa experiences extreme heat during much of the year, especially the deserts, steppes and savannas. The African deserts are arguably the hottest places on Earth, especially the Sahara Desert and the Danakil Desert, located in the Horn of Africa.
The low - level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the southwest monsoon of Africa, and helps form the tropical waves which march across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season. The jet exhibits both barotropic and baroclinic instability, which produces synoptic - scale, westward - propagating disturbances in the jet known as African easterly waves, or tropical waves. A small number of mesoscale storm systems embedded in these waves develop into tropical cyclones after they move from west Africa into the tropical Atlantic, mainly during August and September. When the jet lies south of normal during the peak months of the Atlantic hurricane season, tropical cyclone formation is suppressed.
Great parts of North Africa and Southern Africa as well as the whole Horn of Africa mainly have a hot desert climate, or a hot semi-arid climate for the wetter locations. The Sahara Desert in North Africa is the largest hot desert in the world and is one of the hottest, driest and sunniest places on Earth. Located just south of the Sahara is a narrow steppe (a semi-arid region) called the Sahel, while Africa 's most southern areas contain both savanna plains, and its central portion contains very dense jungle (rainforest) regions. The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone is the wettest portion of the continent. Annually, the rain belt across the country moves northward into Sub-Saharan Africa by August, then passes back southward into south - central Africa by March. Areas with a savannah climate in Sub-Saharan Africa, such as Ghana, Burkina Faso, Darfur, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Botswana have a distinct rainy season. El Nino results in drier - than - normal conditions in Southern Africa from December to February, and wetter - than - normal conditions in equatorial East Africa over the same period.
In Madagascar, trade winds bring moisture up the eastern slopes of the island, which is deposited as rainfall, and bring drier downsloped winds to areas south and west, leaving the western sections of the island in a rain shadow. This leads to significantly more rainfall over northeast sections of Madagascar than its southwestern portions. Southern Africa receives most of its rainfall from summer convective storms and with extratropical cyclones moving through the Westerlies. Once a decade, tropical cyclones lead to excessive rainfall across the region.
Snow is an almost annual occurrence on some of the mountains of South Africa, including those of the Cedarberg and around Ceres in the South - Western Cape, and on the Drakensberg in Natal and Lesotho. Tiffendell Resort in the Drakensberg is the only commercial skiing that takes place in South Africa, and has "advanced snow - making capability '' allowing skiing for three months of the year. The Mountain Club of South Africa (MCSA) and the Mountain and Ski Club (MSC) of the University of Cape Town both have equipped ski huts in the Hex River mountains. Skiing including snowboarding in the Cape is a hit - and - miss affair, both in terms of timing of snowfalls, and whether there is sufficient snow to cover the rocks.
Table Mountain gets a light dusting of snow on the Front Table and also at Devil 's Peak every few years. Snowfalls on Table Mountain took place on 20 September 2013; 30 Aug 2013; 5 August 2011; and on 15 June 2010.
Snow is a rare occurrence in Johannesburg; it fell in May 1956, August 1962, June 1964, September 1981, August 2006, and on 27 June 2007, accumulating up to 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in the southern suburbs.
Additionally, snow regularly falls in the Atlas Mountains in the Maghreb. Snowfall is also a regular occurrence at Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
There have been permanent glaciers on the Rwenzori Mountains, on the border of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. However, by the 2010s, the glaciers were in retreat, and they are under threat of disappearing through rising temperatures.
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who is james in charlie and the chocolate factory | List of Charlie and the Chocolate factory characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters in the Roald Dahl book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the former 's film adaptations, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.
In the novels and films, Willy Wonka is the odd owner of an extremely prosperous chocolates factory. The inciting action of the story occurs when Wonka holds a contest, hiding five Golden Tickets within the wrappers of confectionery bars, promising their discoverers a tour of his factory and a lifelong supply of his creations. Implications stand in all three versions that he allows four of his five finalists to disgrace themselves, in hope that one does not.
In the book, Wonka is described by Roald Dahl as having a goatee and "marvelously '' bright eyes, a high and "flutey '' voice, a face "alight of fun and laughter '', and quick little jerky movements "like a squirrel ''. He is enthusiastic, eccentric, charming, talkative, and friendly, but at times insensitive, and has been given to glossing criticisms of himself.
In the 1971 film Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Gene Wilder. While his personality remains generally the same as in the original, he is more melancholy here, and frequently quotes books and poems, including William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet ("Is it my soul that calls upon my name? '') or John Masefield 's "Sea Fever '' ("All I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by ''), and the famous "Candy is dandy, but liquor is quicker '' from "Reflections on Ice Breaking '' by Ogden Nash, among many others. Toward the end of the film, he tests protagonist Charlie 's conscience by pretending to deny him any reward, but assumes an almost paternal role when Charlie proves honest. And as Charlie places the gobstopper on Wonka 's desk, Wonka declares Charlie the winner and apologies for his anger and tell him to meet his assistant Mr. Wilkinson (known earlier as "Slugworth ''). He explains they had to test him and Charlie passed. As they go to the Wonkavator, Wonka tells Charlie that the real grand prize is the entire chocolate factory and makes Charlie Bucket the new owner of the Willy Wonka Chocolate factory (as Willy Wonka retires), and the entire family can move in and live there. Wonka also reminds Charlie not to forget about the man who suddenly gets everything he ever wanted: he lives happily ever after.
In the 2005 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Johnny Depp. In this version, a back - story was added that Willy Wonka 's father (being a dentist) would not let him eat sweets because of the potential risk to his teeth, and that the young Wonka left home to become a chocolatier. The conflict was so bad on young Wonka (portrayed by Blair Dunlop), that he took no interest in the kids when they arrived and could n't even say the word "parent ''. He later gains a soft spot for Charlie and offers him a spoon from the chocolate river. Toward the end of the film, Charlie reconciles the two.
Charlie Bucket is a title character and the protagonist of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, its sequel Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the film adaptations of these books. He is depicted as a kind - hearted, nice, selfless, sweet, brave, but poor boy that lives with his mother, father and his four grandparents. In 1971, he has a newspaper route after school. He and his family follow the progress of the hunt for the Golden Tickets in newspapers, in films, and on television. Unlike the first four finalists, Charlie is honest and generous. In the 1971 film, Charlie was portrayed by Peter Ostrum, in his only film appearance. His nationality is never explicitly stated, but in the 1971 film, he speaks with an American accent, and in the 2005 film, he speaks with an English accent. The filmmakers have stated that it was their intention that Charlie 's hometown be kept ambiguous.
In the novel, at the end of the tour, Wonka declares Charlie heir to the factory for his refusal of vice, and Charlie 's family are permitted to move into the factory. In the 1971 film, Charlie wins the factory when he returns an Everlasting Gobstopper given to him by Wonka, thereby passing Wonka 's moral test. In the 2005 film, Wonka initially refuses to allow Charlie 's family to join them in the factory, and Charlie rejects Wonka 's offer. When Charlie helps Wonka reconcile with his father, the family move into the factory and Charlie becomes Wonka 's partner.
Grandpa Joe is one of Charlie 's four bed - ridden grandparents. He is usually stubborn, senile, and paranoid, but still kind, caring, grandfatherly, excitable, and supportive. He tells Charlie (and the reader) the story of Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory and the mystery of the secret workers. When Charlie finds the Golden Ticket, Grandpa Joe leaps out of bed in joy, and later accompanies Charlie on the factory tour. In the sequel book, Grandpa Joe accompanies Charlie, Willy Wonka, and all members of Charlie 's family in the Great Glass Elevator and assists the rescue of the Commuter Capsule from the Vermicious Knids. Grandpa Joe 's age is given as "ninety - six and a half '' in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory '', making him the eldest of Charlie 's grandparents, but in the musical, it is stated he is almost ninety and a half.
The character was played by Jack Albertson in the 1971 film adaptation Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. In this film, he is often excitable, paranoid, stubborn and appears anxious that Charlie won the contest, and becomes angry when Charlie is dismissed without reward, despite the fact that they both violated the rules by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and not following the tour, which indicated that Charlie violated the contract, unaware that Wonka had found out what they had done. He tells Charlie that he expects him to find all five Golden Tickets and most certainly expects Charlie to find one when he receives a Wonka Bar for his birthday.
The character was played by David Kelly in the 2005 film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Veteran actor Gregory Peck was originally selected to play the role, but he died in 2003 before filming began. This version of the character is written as more calm than the 1971 version. An original backstory to Grandpa Joe 's past was added to Tim Burton 's film, wherein it is said that Joe worked for Wonka until the latter fired all his workers from his factory due to constant corporate espionage by rival confectionery manufacturers. When he returns to the factory with Charlie for the tour, Wonka asks if he was a spy working for a competing factory before he humbly welcomes him back.
Augustus Gloop, also known as ' Cody G ' is an obese, greedy, gluttonous boy, the first person to find a Golden Ticket and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He hails from fictitious Dusselheim, Germany in the 1971 film, and Düsseldorf, Germany in the 2005 film. His mother takes great pride in his gluttonous eating and seems to enjoy the attention of the media. In the novel and both films, he is portrayed as "enormously fat ''. Augustus is the first to be removed from the tour: while drinking from the Chocolate Room 's Chocolate River, he accidentally falls into the river and is drawn through a pipe to the factory 's Fudge Room. His parents are summoned to retrieve him from the mixing - machine. In the book, he is depicted leaving the factory, having lost most of his weight, and covered in melted chocolate.
In the 1971 film, despite eating constantly, he has decent table manners, is not as obese as he is in the book, and is polite to Charlie and the other finalists. He is portrayed by Michael Bollner in this film. Since Bollner could not speak fluent English at the time of the film 's production, the 1971 Augustus has fewer lines and less screen time.
In the 2005 film, Augustus is always shown consuming chocolate. He has a binge eating disorder and often has food smeared on his face. He is a bully towards Charlie in the one instance when they interact, as Augustus offers Charlie a bite of his Wonka Bar and then retracts it, saying Charlie should have brought some himself. As in the book, he is shown leaving the factory toward the end of the story; but in this version, he is his normal size, licking his fingers to remove the adherent chocolate he is still coated in. The actor, Philip Wiegratz, wore a fat suit for the production.
In the book, both of Augustus 's parents accompany him to the factory. Both film versions contradict this, however, and have only his mother go with him.
In the 2013 London musical, Augustus Gloop is known as "the Bavarian Beefcake '' in his Alpine community. His mother and father indulge his eating habits with sweets and pieces of sausage of which they (and sometimes Augustus) butcher themselves. In his number, "More of Him to Love '', Frau Gloop reveals that she had vital organs removed to retrieve Augustus from the womb. They arrive at the factory wearing traditional Eastern European clothing, with Augustus in a red, argyle sweater and green shorts. When Augustus falls into the chocolate river Wonka summons the diversionary pumping system to divert the flow, while Oompa Loompas dressed in red boiler suits sing, "Auf Wiedersehen Augustus Gloop '', as they prepare the chocolate, while Augustus travels through the main industrial pipe, occasionally getting stuck.
Violet Beauregarde is the third person to find a Golden Ticket, and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. She is the vain, self - centered, snobby, and gum - obsessed child. Violet chews gum obsessively and boasts that she has been chewing the same piece "for three months solid '', a world record which Violet proclaims was previously held by her best friend Cornelia Prinzmetel. She is also aggressively competitive, prideful and has won trophies for gum chewing. In the 1971 film, she is shown to be from Miles City, Montana, while in the 2005 film, she is from Atlanta, Georgia.
When Wonka shows the group around the Inventing Room, he stops to display a new type of gum he is working on. The gum doubles as a three - course meal which is composed of tomato soup, roast beef and baked potato, and blueberry pie and ice cream. Violet is intrigued and, despite Wonka 's protests, snatches and chews the gum. She is delighted by its effects but, when she reaches the dessert, blueberry pie, her skin starts turning a somewhat blue color and her body begins to swell up, filling with juice. Eventually, Violet 's head, legs, and arms get sucked into her gigantic body, but she is still mobile and is able to waddle. When her swelling stops, she resembles a round blueberry, causing Wonka to have the Oompa - Loompas roll her to the Juicing Room to have the juice squeezed out of her in fear she may explode. She is last seen leaving the factory with the other children, restored to her normal size but with indigo skin like of a blueberry. Wonka says there is nothing that can be done to change Violet 's skin back to its original pigment.
In the 1971 film, Violet is impatient, arrogant, self - centered, vain, and impulsive. She is accompanied by her father, Sam Beauregarde, a fast - talking car salesman who tries to advertise his business during Violet 's television interview. She demeans Cornelia Prinzmetel more than she did in the book. She was polite to everyone, except for Veruca. She has a notable rivalry with Veruca Salt, with whom she persistently argues. Her blueberry form is relatively small, and her hair color remains unchanged. Violet is informed that she must be juiced immediately before she explodes and is last seen en route to the Juicing Room, with her father following her.
In the 2005 film, Violet has a rude, impatient and competitive personality. Aside from gum - chewing, she also has many other interests that reflect her obsession with always winning, such as karate. She is accompanied by her single mother, Scarlett Beauregarde (a former baton champion herself) whose own competitive personality appears to have had an influence on her daughter, as Scarlett expresses pride over Violet 's 263 trophies and medals. Cornelia Prinzmetel was not mentioned in this film. Violet is also shown to be anti-social and bullying when she briefly insults Charlie, snatching a piece of confectionery from his hand and calling him a loser when he tries to interact with her. She turns blue, although her lips remain red, and swells up into a 10 - foot blueberry before being rolled off to the Juicing Room by the Oompa Loompas to prevent her from bursting. Violet is shown leaving the factory gymnastically cartwheeling as a consequence of her increased flexibility, which she is actually happy about, although her mother is less than pleased with her daughter 's permanently indigo color.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Violet Beauregarde is portrayed as an African - American, Californian fame - hungry wan na - be, with her agent / father Eugene Beauregarde parlaying her mundane talent of gum chewing into celebrity status, with multitude of endorsements including her own TV show, line of perfume, and a clothing boutique franchise. Her theme is called "The Double - Bubble Duchess ''. It is revealed that Violet 's chewing "skill '' was picked up when she was a baby and her mom tried to get her to stop talking all the time. Violet and her father are escorted by an entourage to the factory entrance. Violet comes dressed in a sparkly purple and pink disco jumper and a pink backpack. Upon swelling in the influence of the experimental gum (which consisted of tomato soup, roast chicken, potatoes and gravy, Fizzy Orange, cheese and crackers and blueberry pie), she panics and runs away as the Oompa Loompas break into an disco number, "Juicy '', and roller skate along the stage as Violet lifts into the air, resembling a giant purple disco - ball. Mr. Beauregarde phones his lawyer excitedly, with intent to profit from Violet 's new size, until Violet explodes. Wonka 's only reassurance of her survival is the prospect of rescuing the pieces and de-juicing them. In the Broadway version, the song "Juicy '' is cut out (the only child - exit song to be cut from the London version), and Violet instead becomes a blueberry and explodes in the background while Wonka explains how he met the Ooompa - Loompas to the group.
Veruca Salt is a greedy, demanding, manipulative and stingy brat and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. She demands every single thing she wants (and more), the second person to find a Golden Ticket, the third eliminated from the tour. A selfish, rotten brat who shows her wealthy family no mercy and has absolutely no regard for other people 's property, Veruca frequently pesters her parents to purchase a variety of different objects for her. In the 2005 film, it is revealed that she owns a pony, two dogs, four cats, six rabbits, two parakeets, three canaries, a parrot, a turtle, and a hamster, totalling up to 21 pets. But when she interferes with the trained squirrels used by Willy Wonka to select the best nuts to bake into chocolate bars, she is judged as a "bad nut '' by the squirrels and discarded into the adjacent ' garbage chute ' and her parents follow. All three are later seen leaving the factory "covered in garbage ''. Her nationality was never specified in Dahl 's novel, but she hails from an upper - class family in the United Kingdom in both films.
In the 1971 film adaptation, Veruca has a fiery temper, rudely demands various desires nonstop, brags about her wealth, and chastises anyone who questions her. In this film it is not squirrels but geese that lay special golden chocolate - filled eggs for Easter, one of which she demands as a new pet. She and Violet, in this film, bicker on two occasions. Veruca is eliminated at the end of her musical number in the film ("I Want it Now '') after climbing a machine designed to tell whether or not the geese 's eggs are "good '' or "bad '' eggs, and it judges her as a bad one. Her father then follows and is also deemed bad. In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Veruca and her father manage to escape the furnace right before it ignites while trapping Tom inside. Veruca demands to be taken home and have her father make her a different chocolate factory, but Mr. Salt, having had enough of Veruca 's spoiled and selfish behavior, finally decides to discipline her as the near - death experience seems to have finally gotten to him.
In the 2005 film adaptation, Veruca 's elimination remains virtually the same as in the book, with only a few changes made. Her demeanor is less vehement, but more obnoxious, compared to the 1971 version. When she leaves the factory (covered in trash), she demands a facsimile of the Great Glass Elevator. However, her father, having learned a good parenting lesson from the Oompa - Loompas and finally realizing how much he has spoiled her, sternly tells her that she will only be getting a bath that day instead, and shoots her a fierce glare for trying to argue any further.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Veruca Salt is a British billionaire 's daughter, dressed in a pink ballerina tutu and baby seal fur coat - "clubbed and tickled pink ''. Her father, Sir Robert Salt, is portrayed as a spineless dolt for giving his daughter her wishes. In the Nut Sorting Room, Veruca runs foul of the nut - testing squirrels who deem her a ' bad nut ' when she tries to steal one. This summons oversized squirrels with Oompa Loompas riding on their backs. They sing a nightmarish ballet "Veruca 's Nutcracker Sweet '' that concludes with Veruca and her father sent down the garbage chute. In the Broadway version, Veruca 's nationality is changed to Russian, and the squirrels tear her apart limb by limb, but Wonka assures the group that the Ooompa - Loompas will be able to put her back together.
Mike Teavee, a boy that does nothing but watch television, the fourth Golden Ticket finder, and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He was described as adorned with eighteen toy pistols that he ' fires ' while watching gangsters on TV. He is bad - tempered, slothful but also intelligent. How he found his Golden Ticket is never explained in the book or 1971 film as he is too absorbed in his television viewing to talk to the press about it. In the 2005 film, he does have an explanation on how he found the Golden Ticket: he used an algorithm to find it as an intellectual exercise. In the book, both of Mike 's parents tour the factory with him. During a display of miniaturization technology, used to transport chocolate, Mike shrinks himself to a tiny size, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take the Teavee family to the Gum - Stretcher Room to get Mike stretched back to normal. Mike is last seen exiting the factory, now 10 ft (3 m) tall because the Oompa - Loompas overstretched him. After he got shrunk when his parents lament that he wo n't be able to attend school, Mike happily says he can continue watching TV. His angry father then blames the TV for Mike 's poor behavior and decides to unplug it and throw it out the window when they get home, much to Mike 's displeasure.
In the 1971 film, Mike is played by Paris Themmen and his surname is spelled "Teevee '' in the credits. Mike is nine years old and accompanied to the factory by his high - strung mother. He is from Arizona, enjoys Western films and wears cowboy attire. He makes constant references to television shows throughout the factory tour and comes across as somewhat of a know - it - all. Although easily annoyed, he does not have any major anger issues and gets along relatively well with the other kids.
In the 2005 film, 13 - year - old Mike is (portrayed by Jordan Fry) interests are updated to the Internet and video games (especially gory first - person shooters), in addition to television viewing. In this version, he is from Denver, Colorado, and is portrayed as more disrespectful. Whenever he says something critical of Wonka 's company, or his ideas, Wonka reacts as if Mike is mumbling, even though he does not. He is able to find the Golden Ticket by using math and logic, though he admits he does not even like chocolate. When Mike demands to know why candy is pointless, Charlie tries to reason with him, saying candy does n't have to have a point. When they arrive in the Television Chocolate Room, Mike points that Wonka could use his teleportation device to revolutionize mankind, as opposed to distributing his products. When Mr. Teavee tries to reason with Mike, the boy insults Wonka. After the incident in the Television Chocolate room, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take Mr. Teavee and Mike to the Taffy - Puller Room to have Mike stretched back to normal. When Mike and his father are later seen leaving the factory, Mike is 10 ft (3 m) tall as well as incredibly thin and flat.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Mike Teavee (now age 10) lives in a suburban neighborhood with his disinterested father Norman Teavee and neurotic, alcoholic mother, Doris Teavee. Their opening number, "It 's Teavee Time! '' has Mrs. Teavee presenting her family as a normal, functioning household, downplaying Mike 's violent tendencies like setting a cat on fire, chloroforming a nurse, and stealing a German tank. In the Department of the Future, where Wonka transmits chocolate by television, Mike anxiously jumps into the machine and transmits himself, much to his mother 's horror. Wonka summons the monitors to see on which channel Mike has ended, as the Oompa Loompas rave around the room, singing, ' Vidiots '. Near the end, Mrs. Teavee joins the rave, as they conclude that Mike still has a future on ' Mike.com '. When Mike is shrunk as a result of the transporter, Mrs. Teavee happily takes him home as he can no longer cause trouble and she can take care of him like when he was a baby. In the Broadway version of the musical, lyrics in Mike 's song and some of Mike 's mannerisms reference president Donald Trump.
In the book, Arthur Slugworth is one of Willy Wonka 's rival chocolatiers. Slugworth, along with Wonka 's other rivals Mr. Fickelgruber and Mr. Prodnose, sent in spies to steal the secret recipes to Wonka 's treats, which he plagiarized, nearly ruining Wonka 's factory. After Wonka re-opens his factory (operated exclusively by Oompa - Loompas), Slugworth is never heard from again, but it is stated that Fickelgruber would give each of his front teeth to enter Wonka 's inventing room (laboratory / chocolate room in the book) for three minutes.
Slugworth has a much larger role as an enigmatic villain in the 1971 film. Inside Bill 's Candy Shop, Wonka 's products and signs are the most visible; but Slugworth 's Sizzlers are also prominent, and one is even sold to a child. Also seen are signs for Fickelgruber 's candy. Grandpa Joe describes Slugworth as the worst of Wonka 's rivals. As each Golden Ticket is found, a sinister man approaches the finder and whispers something into his or her ear. After Charlie finds the last ticket, the same man approaches Charlie as well, introduces himself as Arthur Slugworth, and bribes the child to bring him one piece of the newly invented ' Everlasting Gobstopper ', allowing him to plagiarize the formula and prevent the future invention from ruining his business. Two of the children (Veruca and Mike) respond to Slugworth 's bribe; but Charlie, when tempted, returns the Everlasting Gobstopper to Wonka. Wonka eventually reveals that the tempter is not Slugworth, but his own employee Mr. Wilkinson, and that his offer was a moral test of character. Slugworth / Wilkinson was played by Günter Meisner, a West German actor.
Slugworth only makes a split - second appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory where he alongside Mr. Ficklegruber and Mr. Prodnose are sending spies to steal ingredients from Wonka 's factory. He is here played by Philip Philmar.
In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Slugworth is the main antagonist, instead of an enigmatic villain. When he first meets Charlie, he sings a cover of Veruca 's song, "I Want it Now! '' and also sings it as a duet with Veruca during her downfall. He teams up with Spike to steal a Gobstopper from the factory, but the two are thwarted by Charlie, Tom, and Jerry. Despite being more emphasized as a villain, he is still revealed to be Wonka 's employee Mr. Wilkinson much to Tom & Jerry 's dismay. Nevertheless, the cat and mouse get the last word on Slugworth / Wilkinson (and Spike) by shrinking them with the Wonkavision tech.
Mr. Turkentine is Charlie Bucket 's school teacher and appears in the first film in 1971, but not in the book or the 2005 film. He has an odd sense of humor, which he uses to express knowledge. He asks Charlie to assist him in making a medicine using several scientific elements for the class but the project is interrupted due to the frantic golden ticket search for Willy Wonka. Mr. Turkentine when hearing the news about the golden tickets during the project dismisses the class and runs out. Later when it is revealed that all the tickets have supposedly been found ending with a Paraguayan millionaire he decides to use Wonka bars as an example to teach his class about percentages. He uses a few students as examples for the class, including Charlie. Charlie however reveals that he only opened two Wonka bars during the search and so to help make it easier for his class, he decides to pretend Charlie opened 200. Mr. Turkentine is played by British actor David Battley.
Prince Pondicherry is a prince who lives in India. He appears in the third chapter of the novel when Grandpa Joe is telling Charlie a story. In the story, Willy Wonka makes him a chocolate palace in India, that melts in the hot weather, as he had rejected Willy Wonka 's advice to eat it before it melted in the heat. His name derives from the city of Pondicherry (officially spelled Puducherry since 2006) in southeastern India.
He is absent from the 1971 film version, but makes a brief appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, where he is played by Nitin Ganatra. His story here matches that in the book, except in depicting his wife (Shelley Conn) and stating that the Prince demanded a second palace, but was refused.
Oompa - Loompas are small humans who would end up being preyed upon by the various predators that also reside in Loompaland before Wonka invited them to work at his factory. They are paid in their favorite food, cocoa beans, which were extremely rare on their island. The Oompa - Loompas are also mischievous, loving practical jokes and singing songs which, according to Wonka, they are very good at improvising. They sing at the end of each child 's demise.
In early editions of the novel, the Oompa - Loompas (originally called "Whipple - Scrumpets '' before publication) are shown as African pygmies before Dahl rewrote them to be white - skinned and golden haired. In both editions, despite working in the factory, Oompa - Loompas insist on maintaining their native clothing: men wear skins, women wear leaves, and children wear nothing.
In the 1971 film, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, they were written to be played by actors with dwarfism and are portrayed as orange - skinned, green - haired men in striped shirts and baggy lederhosen - like pants. Prominent portrayers included Angelo Muscat, Rusty Goffe, George Claydon, Rudy Borgstaller, Jo Kilkenny, Andy Wilday, Malcolm Dixon, Ismed Hassan, Norman Mcglen, Pepe Poupee, Marcus Powell, and Albert Wilkinson.
In the 2005 film, the Oompa - Loompas are all played by Deep Roy and are virtually identical. They wear their tribal clothing during their time in Loompaland, and typical factory worker uniforms in Wonka 's Factory. Some of the female Oompa - Loompas, like Doris, work in the administration offices.
Vermicious Knids are a fictional species of amorphous aliens that invade the Space Hotel "U.S.A. '' in Roald Dahl 's Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator.
They are also mentioned in the 1971 feature film adaptation, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, but here are mentioned only as predators of the Oompa - Loompas.
In the book, Vermicious Knids are huge, dark, egg - shaped predators who swallow their victims whole, and are capable of surviving, operating, and traveling faster than light, in the vacuum of space. Although normally oviform, they can assume any shape at will, while retaining their native texture and features. They originate (according to Mr. Wonka) on the planet Vermes, a fictional planet located (in dialogue) 184,270,000,000 miles (2.9655 × 10 kilometres) from Earth (52 times Pluto 's distance). In the presence of victims, they can not resist shaping themselves to spell the word "SCRAM '' (the only word they know) before they attack.
In Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, a swarm of Knids take possession of the new Space Hotel "U.S.A. ''. When the transport capsule brings the staff to the Space Hotel, the Knids consume some of the staff, and the survivors retreat to the capsule. There, the Knids bludgeon the capsule with their own bodies, until its retro - rockets are useless; whereupon Wonka, Charlie, and Grandpa Joe connect the capsule to the Elevator, in hope of towing it to Earth, and one Knid wraps itself around the Elevator while the others form a chain, intending to draw the Elevator and capsule to their home planet. The Elevator then returns to Earth, and the Knids are incinerated in Earth 's atmosphere.
When Nestlé created its interpretation of Wonka 's world to sell chocolate bars under the name "Wonka '', they released a number of downloadable flash games, wherein Knids seemed to have entered the factory and had the appearance of flying green blobs with single red eyes.
The etymology of the name was not provided by Dahl. Pronunciation of Knid is said in the book to approximate adding a schwa between the "K '' and "nid '', or in Dahl 's words, "K'nid ''. Cnidaria is the name of the taxonomic phylum containing stinging aquatic invertebrates such as jellyfish and coral, itself derived from the classical Greek word for nettle, κνίδη. Vermicious is a real word, meaning "worm like ''.
The Vermicious Knids are also mentioned in other Dahl stories, including James and the Giant Peach (where the New York Police Department misidentify Miss Spider as one) and The Minpins.
Charlie Bucket, Grandpa Joe
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the outermost layer of the kidney is called the | Renal capsule - wikipedia
The renal capsule is a tough fibrous layer surrounding the kidney, and covered in a layer of perirenal fat known as the adipose capsule of kidney. The adipose capsule is sometimes included in the structure of the renal capsule. It provides some protection from trauma and damage. The renal capsule is surrounded by the renal fascia. Overlying the renal fascia and between this and the transverse fascia is a region of pararenal fat.
The renal capsule relates to the other layers in the following order (moving from innermost to outermost):
The adipose capsule of the kidney also known as the perirenal fat, may be regarded as a part of the renal capsule.
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where is separation of powers located in the constitution | Separation of powers under the United States Constitution - wikipedia
Separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws, in which he argued for a constitutional government with three separate branches, each of which would have defined abilities to check the powers of the others. This philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the United States Constitution, according to which the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of the United States government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of power. This United States form of separation of powers is associated with a system of checks and balances.
During the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers such as Montesquieu advocated the principle in their writings, whereas others, such as Thomas Hobbes, strongly opposed it. Montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. His writings considerably influenced the opinions of the framers of the United States Constitution.
Strict separation of powers did not operate in the United Kingdom, the political structure of which served in most instances as a model for the government created by the U.S. Constitution.
Some U.S. states did not observe a strict separation of powers in the 18th century. In New Jersey, the Governor also functioned as a member of the state 's highest court and as the presiding officer of one house of the New Jersey Legislature. The President of Delaware was a member of the Court of Appeals; the presiding officers of the two houses of the state legislature also served in the executive department as Vice Presidents. In both Delaware and Pennsylvania, members of the executive council served at the same time as judges. On the other hand, many southern states explicitly required separation of powers. Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia all kept the branches of government "separate and distinct. ''
Congress has the sole power to legislate for the United States. Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency. In this vein, the Supreme Court held in the 1998 case Clinton v. The city of New York that Congress could not delegate a "line - item veto '' to the President, by powers vested in the government by the Constitution.
Where Congress does not make great and sweeping delegations of its authority, the Supreme Court has been less stringent. One of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was Wayman v. Southard 23 U.S. (10 Wet.) 1, 42 (1825). Congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial procedure; it was contended that Congress had thereby unconstitutionally clothed the judiciary with legislative powers. While Chief Justice John Marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function, he distinguished between "important '' subjects and mere details. Marshall wrote that "a general provision may be made, and power is given to those who are to act under such general provisions, to fill up the details. ''
Marshall 's words and future court decisions gave Congress much latitude in delegating powers. It was not until the 1930s that the Supreme Court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional. In a case involving the creation of the National Recovery Administration called A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. The United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), Congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of "fair competition. '' It was held that Congress must set some standards governing the actions of executive officers. The Court, however, has deemed that phrases such as "just and reasonable, '' "public interest '' and "public convenience '' suffice.
Executive power is vested, with exceptions and qualifications, in the President. By law (Section 2.) the president becomes the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, Militia of several states when called into service, has power to make treaties and appointments to office "with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, '' receive Ambassadors and Public Ministers, and "take care that the laws be faithfully executed '' (Section 3.) By using these words, the Constitution does not require the president to personally enforce the law; rather, officers subordinate to the president may perform such duties. The Constitution empowers the president to ensure the faithful execution of the laws made by Congress and approved by the President. Congress may itself terminate such appointments, by impeachment, and restrict the president. Bodies such as the War Claims Commission (created by the War Claims Act of 1948), the Interstate Commerce Commission, and the Federal Trade Commission -- all quasi-judicial -- often have direct Congressional oversight.
Congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1 -- requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives -- and § 7 -- requiring every bill passed by the House and Senate, before becoming law, to be presented to the president, and, if he disapproves, to be repassed by two - thirds of the Senate and House -- represents the Framers ' decision that the legislative power of the Federal Government be exercised in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered procedure. This procedure is an integral part of the constitutional design for the separation of powers. Further rulings clarified the case; even both Houses acting together can not override Executive vetos without a ⁄ majority. Legislation may always prescribe regulations governing executive officers.
Judicial power -- the power to decide cases and controversies -- is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts established by Congress. The judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office. If a court 's judges do not have such attributes, the court may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. Courts exercising the judicial power are called "constitutional courts. ''
Congress may establish "legislative courts, '' which do not take the form of judicial agencies or commissions, whose members do not have the same security of tenure or compensation as the constitutional court judges. Legislative courts may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. In Murray 's Lessee v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. (1856), the Supreme Court held that a legislative court may not decide "a suit at the common law, or in equity, or admiralty, '' as such a suit is inherently judicial. Legislative courts may only adjudicate "public rights '' questions (cases between the government and an individual and political determinations).
The president exercises a check over Congress through his power to veto bills, but Congress may override any veto (excluding the so - called "pocket veto '') by a two - thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress can not agree on a date for adjournment, the president may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the president. The Vice President serves as president of the Senate, but he may only vote to break a tie.
The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate 's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient. The President is not mandated to carry out the orders of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court does not have any enforcement power; the enforcement power lies solely with the executive branch. Thus, the executive branch can place a check on the Supreme Court through refusal to execute the orders of the court. For example, in Worcester v. Georgia, President Jackson refused to execute the orders of the Supreme Court.
The president is the civilian Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has the authority to command them to take appropriate military action in the event of a sudden crisis. However, only the Congress is explicitly granted the power to declare war per se, as well as to raise, fund and maintain the armed forces. Congress also has the duty and authority to prescribe the laws and regulations under which the armed forces operate, such as the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and requires that all Generals and Admirals appointed by the president be confirmed by a majority vote of the Senate before they can assume their office.
Courts check both the executive branch and the legislative branch through judicial review. This concept is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the Constitution 's Framers (for example, The Federalist Papers mention it). The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. There were protests by some at this decision, born chiefly of political expediency, but political realities in the particular case paradoxically restrained opposing views from asserting themselves. For this reason, precedent alone established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional.
A common misperception is that the Supreme Court is the only court that may determine constitutionality; the power is exercised even by the inferior courts. But only Supreme Court decisions are binding across the nation. Decisions of a Court of Appeals, for instance, are binding only in the circuit over which the court has jurisdiction.
The power to review the constitutionality of laws may be limited by Congress, which has the power to set the jurisdiction of the courts. The only constitutional limit on Congress ' power to set the jurisdiction of the judiciary relates to the Supreme Court; the Supreme Court may exercise only appellate jurisdiction except in cases involving states and cases affecting foreign ambassadors, ministers or consuls.
The Chief Justice presides in the Senate during a president 's impeachment trial. The rules of the Senate, however, generally do not grant much authority to the presiding officer. Thus, the Chief Justice 's role in this regard is a limited one.
The Constitution does not explicitly indicate the pre-eminence of any particular branch of government. However, James Madison wrote in Federalist 51, regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others, that "it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self - defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates. ''
One may claim that the judiciary has historically been the weakest of the three branches. In fact, its power to exercise judicial review -- its sole meaningful check on the other two branches -- is not explicitly granted by the U.S Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court exercised its power to strike down congressional acts as unconstitutional only twice prior to the Civil War: in Marbury v. Madison (1803) and Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). The Supreme Court has since then made more extensive use of judicial review.
Throughout America 's history dominance of one of the three branches has essentially been a see - saw struggle between Congress and the president. Both have had periods of great power and weakness such as immediately after the Civil War when republicans had a majority in Congress and were able to pass major legislation and shoot down most of the president 's vetoes. They also passed acts to essentially make the president subordinate to Congress, such as the Tenure of Office Act. Johnson 's later impeachment also cost the presidency much political power. However the president has also exercised greater power largely during the 20th century. Both Roosevelts greatly expanded the powers of the president and wielded great power during their terms.
The first six presidents of the United States did not make extensive use of the veto power: George Washington only vetoed two bills, James Monroe one, and John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and John Quincy Adams none. James Madison, a firm believer in a strong executive, vetoed seven bills. None of the first six Presidents, however, used the veto to direct national policy. It was Andrew Jackson, the seventh President, who was the first to use the veto as a political weapon. During his two terms in office, he vetoed 12 bills -- more than all of his predecessors combined. Furthermore, he defied the Supreme Court in enforcing the policy of ethnically cleansing Native American tribes ("Indian Removal ''); he stated (perhaps apocryphally), "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it! ''
Some of Jackson 's successors made no use of the veto power, while others used it intermittently. It was only after the Civil War that presidents began to use the power to truly counterbalance Congress. Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, vetoed several Reconstruction bills passed by the "Radical Republicans. '' Congress, however, managed to override fifteen of Johnson 's twenty - nine vetoes. Furthermore, it attempted to curb the power of the presidency by passing the Tenure of Office Act. The Act required Senate approval for the dismissal of senior Cabinet officials. When Johnson deliberately violated the Act, which he felt was unconstitutional (Supreme Court decisions later vindicated such a position), the House of Representatives impeached him; he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote.
Johnson 's impeachment was perceived to have done great damage to the presidency, which came to be almost subordinate to Congress. Some believed that the president would become a mere figurehead, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming a de facto prime minister. Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic President following Johnson, attempted to restore the power of his office. During his first term, he vetoed over 400 bills -- twice as many bills as his 21 predecessors combined. He also began to suspend bureaucrats who were appointed as a result of the patronage system, replacing them with more "deserving '' individuals. The Senate, however, refused to confirm many new nominations, instead demanding that Cleveland turn over the confidential records relating to the suspensions. Cleveland steadfastly refused, asserting, "These suspensions are my executive acts... I am not responsible to the Senate, and I am unwilling to submit my actions to them for judgment. '' Cleveland 's popular support forced the Senate to back down and confirm the nominees. Furthermore, Congress finally repealed the controversial Tenure of Office Act that had been passed during the Johnson Administration. Overall, this meant that Cleveland 's Administration marked the end of presidential subordination.
Several 20th - century presidents have attempted to greatly expand the power of the presidency. Theodore Roosevelt, for instance, claimed that the president was permitted to do whatever was not explicitly prohibited by the law -- in direct contrast to his immediate successor, William Howard Taft. Franklin Delano Roosevelt held considerable power during the Great Depression. Congress had granted Franklin Roosevelt sweeping authority; in Panama Refining v. Ryan, the Court for the first time struck down a Congressional delegation of power as violative of the doctrine of separation of powers. The aforementioned Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, another separation of powers case, was also decided during Franklin Roosevelt 's presidency. In response to many unfavorable Supreme Court decisions, Roosevelt introduced a "Court Packing '' plan, under which more seats would be added to the Supreme Court for the president to fill. Such a plan (which was defeated in Congress) would have seriously undermined the judiciary 's independence and power.
Richard Nixon used national security as a basis for his expansion of power. He asserted, for example, that "the inherent power of the President to safeguard the security of the nation '' authorized him to order a wiretap without a judge 's warrant. Nixon also asserted that "executive privilege '' shielded him from all legislative oversight; furthermore, he impounded federal funds (that is to say, he refused to spend money that Congress had appropriated for government programs). In the specific cases aforementioned, however, the Supreme Court ruled against Nixon. This was also because of an ongoing criminal investigation into the Watergate tapes, even though they acknowledged the general need for executive privilege. Since then, Nixon 's successors have sometimes asserted that they may act in the interests of national security or that executive privilege shields them from Congressional oversight. Though such claims have in general been more limited than Nixon 's, one may still conclude that the presidency 's power has been greatly augmented since the 18th and 19th centuries.
Many political scientists believe that separation of powers is a decisive factor in what they see as a limited degree of American exceptionalism. In particular, John W. Kingdon made this argument, claiming that separation of powers contributed to the development of a unique political structure in the United States. He attributes the unusually large number of interest groups active in the United States, in part, to the separation of powers; it gives groups more places to try to influence, and creates more potential group activity. He also cites its complexity as one of the reasons for lower citizen participation.
Separation of powers has again become a current issue of some controversy concerning debates about judicial independence and political efforts to increase the accountability of judges for the quality of their work, avoiding conflicts of interest, and charges that some judges allegedly disregard procedural rules, statutes, and higher court precedents.
Many legislators hold the view that separation of powers means that powers are shared among different branches; no one branch may act unilaterally on issues (other than perhaps minor questions), but must obtain some form of agreement across branches. That is, it is argued that "checks and balances '' apply to the Judicial branch as well as to the other branches -- for example, in the regulation of attorneys and judges, and the establishment by Congress of rules for the conduct of federal courts, and by state legislatures for state courts. Although in practice these matters are delegated to the Supreme Court, the Congress holds these powers and delegates them to the Supreme Court only for convenience in light of the Supreme Court 's expertise, but can withdraw that delegation at any time.
On the other side of this debate, many judges hold the view that separation of powers means that the Judiciary is independent and untouchable within the judicial sphere. In this view, separation of powers means that the Judiciary alone holds all powers relative to the judicial function and that the Legislative and Executive branches may not interfere in any aspect of the Judicial branch. An example of the second view at the state level is found in the Florida Supreme Court holding that only the Florida Supreme Court may license and regulate attorneys appearing before the courts of Florida, and only the Florida Supreme Court may set rules for procedures in the Florida courts. The State of New Hampshire also follows this system.
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name four saints of pakistan and mention where do they belong | List of Sufi saints - wikipedia
Sufi saints or Wali (Arabic: ولي , plural ʾawliyāʾ أولياء) played an instrumental role in spreading Islam throughout the world. In the traditional Islamic view, a saint is portrayed as someone "marked by (special) divine favor... (and) holiness '', and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work miracles. ''
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when was the first season of the office filmed | The Office (U.S. season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of the American television comedy The Office premiered in the United States on NBC on March 24, 2005, concluded on April 26, 2005, and consists of six episodes. The Office is an American adaptation of the British TV series of the same name, and is presented in a mockumentary format, portraying the daily lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictitious Dunder Mifflin Paper Company.
This season introduced the main characters, and established the general plot, which revolves around Michael Scott (Steve Carell), regional manager of the Scranton branch office, trying to convince the filmmakers of the documentary that he presides over a happy, well - running office. Meanwhile, sales rep Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) finds methods to undermine his cube - mate, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson); receptionist Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) tries to deal with Michael 's insensitivities and flubs; and temporary employee Ryan Howard (B.J. Novak) is acting mostly as an observer of the insanity around him.
Season one of The Office aired on Tuesdays in the United States at 9: 30 p.m. The season debuted to high numbers, and garnered moderately positive reviews from critics aside from a poorly received pilot episode. While some enjoyed the pilot, others opined that it was a mere copy of the original British version. Universal Studios Home Entertainment released season one in a single DVD on August 16, 2005. The DVD contained all six episodes, along with commentaries from creators, writers, actors, and directors on most of the episodes, as well as deleted scenes from all of the episodes.
The first season of the show was produced by Reveille Productions and Deedle - Dee Productions, both in association with NBC Universal Television Studios. The show is based upon the British series created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who are executive producers on the show, and it is produced by Greg Daniels, also an executive producer, along with consulting producers Larry Wilmore and Lester Lewis. The show 's writers include Daniels, Gervais, Merchant, and Michael Schur, while Mindy Kaling, Paul Lieberstein, and B.J. Novak double as writers as well as actors in the show, and between them, wrote three episodes on the season. For this season, Schur was a co-producer, Kaling was a staff writer, Lieberstein was a consulting producer, and Novak was an executive story editor. The first episode, "Pilot '', was written by Daniels, but the majority of the episode was adapted from "Episode One '' of the British series, with many scenes being transferred almost verbatim.
Season one featured episodes directed by five different directors. The Office features both a "team of directors '' as well as several directors who are freelanced. Ken Kwapis, directed the first two episodes "Pilot '' and "Diversity Day '', and would go on to direct another eleven episodes in total, including the final episode of the series. Ken Whittingham, who directed "Health Care '' would go on to direct another eight episodes in total. Daniels both produced and directed the episode "Basketball ''. The Office was almost entirely filmed in an actual office building in Los Angeles, California for its first season. Aside from Los Angeles, the city of Scranton, Pennsylvania, where the show is set, was also used for shots for the opening theme.
Many characters portrayed by The Office cast are based on the British version of the show. While these characters normally have the same attitude and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show. The show is known for its generally large cast size, many of whom are known particularly for their improvisational work. Steve Carell stars as Michael Scott, Regional Manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton Branch. Loosely based on David Brent, Gervais ' character in the British version, Scott is a dim - witted and lonely man, who attempts to win friends as the office comedian, usually making himself look bad in the process. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, who, based upon Gareth Keenan, is the Assistant to the Regional Manager, although the character frequently intentionally omits the "to the '' in his title. John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a sales representative and prankster, who is based upon Tim Canterbury, and is in love with Pam Beesly, the receptionist. Pam, who is based on Dawn Tinsley, is shy, but is often a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight. B.J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard, who is a temporary worker.
The show includes many supporting characters playing roles of office workers, working in various positions around the office. Angela Martin, Oscar Martinez, and Kevin Malone are the office 's accountants, and are portrayed by Angela Kinsey, Oscar Nunez, and Brian Baumgartner, respectively. Schrute, Halpert, Phyllis Lapin (portrayed by Phyllis Smith), and Stanley Hudson (portrayed by Leslie David Baker), compose the sales division of Dunder Mifflin Scranton. Kate Flannery portrays Meredith Palmer, the promiscuous Supplier Relations Representative, writer - actress Mindy Kaling portrays Kelly Kapoor, the pop culture - obsessed Customer Service Representative, writer - actor Paul Lieberstein portrays Toby Flenderson, the sad - eyed Human Resources Representative, and Creed Bratton plays a fictionalized version of himself as the office 's Quality Assurance Officer. Other characters include Roy Anderson, Pam 's fiance played by David Denman, Warehouse Supervisor Darryl Philbin, played by Craig Robinson, and Jan Levinson, Michael 's main love interest, who is portrayed by Melora Hardin.
The first episode of The Office scored well in ratings, gaining over eleven million viewers, as well as ranking third in its timeslot on the night of its airing. But the episode aired on a Thursday evening, and between the change from the first episode and the second episode, The Office moved to its regular time slot on Tuesday evenings. The Office tumbled in the ratings, averaging under 6.0 million viewers, just over half that of the previous episode. The first - season finale "Hot Girl '' received one of the lowest rating in the show 's history, earning just a 2.2 rating with a 10 share. After the lackluster reception of the episode, many critics erroneously predicted that "Hot Girl '' would also serve as the de facto series finale. The Office averaged 5.4 million viewers for its entire season, ranking it # 102 for the 2004 -- 2005 U.S. television season.
The series premiere, "Pilot '', received largely mixed reviews from critics. After the first episodes, critics thought The Office would be another failed remake of a British comedy, much like how the American version of Coupling was in relation to the original British series. The Deseret Morning News believed The Office was a failed remake, and said "Maybe, after The Office dies a quick death on NBC, the network will decide that trying to Americanize British TV comedies is n't such a great idea. '' The New York Daily News said the show was "neither daring nor funny '', adding that "NBC 's version is so diluted there 's little left but muddy water ''. The Los Angeles Times complained that Steve Carell, who portrays Scott and also appeared in the movie Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy, was "too cartoon '' and said: "Lost in translation is the sadness behind the characters. ''
Despite these criticisms, the remainder of the season earned mostly positive reviews among critics. The season scored 62 out of 100 on Metacritic (a website that assigns a weighted average score for media), which translates to "generally favorable reviews. '' Time magazine wrote that "It 's ironic that NBC 's most original sitcom in years is a remake, but who cares? The Office is a daring, unflinching take on very American workplace tensions. '' Boston.com felt that the first season of The Office was good, and the differences between the characters of the American and the original series added to the popularity of the series. Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette felt that The Office succeeded in its first season, and that although NBC had failed in the past with television shows such as Coupling, it had found achievement with The Office. Entertainment Weekly awarded the season a "B + '' and wrote that The Office "is clever and insular, capturing all the drudgery, awkwardness, and rivalry of cubicle living '' and that the last five episodes help to illustrate that the series has "crossed the pond handily. ''
In addition, "Diversity Day, '' the season 's second episode, has been regarded as one of the best episodes of the entire show. TV Guide named it the nineteenth greatest episode of any television show in 2009. Rolling Stone magazine named the scene wherein Michael shows the office his diversity video the third greatest moment from The Office.
In its first year, The Office was nominated for several awards, including three Writers Guild of America Award nods. These included nominations for Best Comedy Series and Best New Series. In addition, for his work on this episode, B.J. Novak was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay -- Episodic Comedy.
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basilica of the assumption of our lady prague | Basilica of the Assumption (Prague) - Wikipedia
The Basilica of the Assumption of Our Lady is a church in the Strahov Monastery, Prague. It was originally constructed as a Romanesque basilica and later rebuilt in Baroque style.
Coordinates: 50 ° 5 ′ 11.04 '' N 14 ° 23 ′ 21.12 '' E / 50.0864000 ° N 14.3892000 ° E / 50.0864000; 14.3892000
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who does toby end up with the office | Toby Flenderson - wikipedia
Toby Flenderson, M.S.W. (born in 1971) is a fictional character on the U.S. comedy television series, The Office. He is portrayed by the show 's writer, director, producer and showrunner Paul Lieberstein, and is an original character with no equivalent in The Office (UK TV series).
Toby Flenderson is the human resources representative for the Scranton branch of paper distributor Dunder Mifflin / Sabre. Mild - mannered to the point of being physically incapable to voice his opinions or assert himself, Toby can be somewhat mournful about his life choices (he fell into the field of Human Resources after leaving his training at seminary in order to pursue the woman he 'd later marry and painfully divorce). He likes his colleagues, although he is sometimes exasperated by the excessively chatty Kelly Kapoor. He also has a long - standing crush on Pam Halpert, which he almost reveals at the end of Season 4 when he resigns from his position to move to Costa Rica. Toby was intensely despised by branch manager Michael Scott, largely because Michael had no authority over him as Toby reported to corporate headquarters, and because Toby frequently tried to dissuade Michael from many of his ill - conceived and impulsive ideas. Michael sums up his feelings for Toby in the episode "Casino Night, '' asking, "Why are you the way that you are? Honestly every time I try to do something fun or exciting, you make it not that way. I hate so much about the things that you choose to be. '' For Toby 's going away party in "Goodbye Toby, '' Michael gives him as a gift a rock with a note attached reading "Suck on This! '' Shortly after arriving in Costa Rica, Toby suffers a zip - line accident and midway through season 5, he returns to his old job at Dunder Mifflin, much to Michael 's fury.
In his childhood, Toby was forced to testify against both of his parents when the two got divorced. He attended Bishop O'Hara High School and is a Penn State University alumnus. In the Season 5 episode "Casual Friday, '' a diploma at his cubicle reveals Toby also has a B.S. in Psychology from California Coastal College. The Season 7 episode "Counseling '' reveals that he has a degree in social work from Temple University. Toby was in a seminary for a year but dropped out because he wanted to have sex with a girl. He followed her back to Scranton, married her and had a young daughter named Sasha. Toby is also divorced (a fact which Michael constantly and unkindly mentions). Toby loves his daughter and went the extra mile in "Moroccan Christmas '' to buy her one of Dwight 's Princess Unicorn dolls, noting that his ex-wife "will be so pissed '' and that "for once, Daddy 's going to be a hero. '' He went to Amsterdam for a week (or a month) after his divorce.
Toby claims to have no "passion for HR '' and was only hired at Dunder Mifflin as it was the first job he could find. He joins the others occasionally but only for business matters, such as reviewing the company 's sexual harassment policy and mediating conflict between employees. Toby prefers to let angry employees vent to him, after which they feel better and the conflict eventually settles down and solves itself. This strategy worked virtually trouble - free for years until Michael Scott publicly reads off all listed complaints.
Toby is in the unfortunate position of needing to try (but usually failing) to enforce corporate policies and rules when Michael disregards them, typified by an incident in which he quashes Michael 's plan to invite Boy Scouts to a Casino Night party:
Toby avoids office activities whenever possible and, like most of the staff, only tolerates Michael. He has reached out to Michael several times despite Michael 's continued abuse. However, he gets along with the rest of the staff and even attends Jim 's barbecue party, playing video games while Michael sings karaoke. When Dwight approached Michael about missing a gift bag during "A Benihana Christmas, '' Michael immediately suggested stealing it from Toby, much to Toby 's later chagrin, as all the office staff had new robes except for him (Pam later gave her robe to Toby, and this increased Toby 's unrequited crush on her). In addition Michael on numerous occasions attempts to blame Toby for problems that are clearly his own fault such as in "The Merger '' in which he questions Tony Gardner if the reason he is quitting is because of Toby, though Tony says Toby was in fact kind and helpful and it 's Michael 's management that is the reason. This occurs again notably in "Classy Christmas '' where Michael himself vandalizes Holly 's Woody doll (A gift from her boyfriend) and tries to convince her Toby did it, though Toby fights back, denies it and says the vandalism is something Michael would do. This is evidence that Michael uses Toby as an excuse to hide from the consequences of his own actions.
He seems to have plain bad luck in many instances in his life. It seems to be a recurring theme that some sort of tragedy befalls him frequently, if only in a minor sense. He sadly accepts his misfortunes, seeming to accept this way of life as inescapable, which may be the cause of his sad disposition. On some occasions, Toby enjoys some rewards and good fortune, much to his satisfaction (and to Michael 's annoyance).
Toby 's favorite movies are Say Anything, The Shining, Annie Hall, and Toy Story 2. He also likes short stories, mystery novels, and "old hard - boiled detective '' movies. One of his favorite TV shows is Damages.
He once lived in Honolulu for a year and stated in "Branch Closing '' that he would take severance from the closing, sell his house, and move to Costa Rica. In "Local Ad, '' it is revealed that he worked in advertising for three years before coming to Dunder Mifflin. Also, according to a deleted scene from the episode "Launch Party, '' it is stated while Toby is taking a driver 's test that he is colorblind. Toby is also allergic to mushrooms ("Survivor Man '').
Toby has an ongoing concern about the air quality at the office that borders on an obsession. He worked a recommendation that the air be tested into his goodbye toast in a deleted scene from "Goodbye, Toby; '' he ignored the two factions that wanted to use an unexpected surplus for new chairs or a new copier and said the money should go to air testing (which he called the "silent killer, '' leading to Michael saying "You are the silent killer. Go back to the annex. ''); and he put together a meeting to discuss the radon testing kits he was dispersing in "The Chump. ''
Toby is seen as an awkward and quiet guy in the office. He is often passive when he is teased or when he gets picked on and does not appear to know how to stand up for himself. While members of the office have shown disgust at Michael 's treatment of Toby, for unknown reasons, nobody has ever stood up for Toby when Michael insults him or excludes him from events, but he is generally liked in the office. The others possibly avoid standing up for him as Michael has authority over them (unlike Toby) and could potentially punish them for speaking up (certain episodes have shown that Michael is indeed quick to take offense such as in "Did I Stutter? '') or possibly because they do not want to suffer the same treatment Toby suffers from Michael. Toby, however, has never asked anyone for help when Michael mistreats him, which is possibly the reason why no one ever stands up for him.
Besides Michael, the other staff members treat Toby with respect, for example, after Toby conducts a brief sexual harassment seminar, the staff is left in a good mood and laughing, until Michael comes in and takes over, however there have been others who occasionally like Michael treat him poorly and insult him such as Kevin, Dwight and Jim and in later seasons, Andy and Nellie. Toby himself is occasionally an annoyance to some, such as Jim, but despite this he is considered one of the few intelligent people in the office, being in the "Finer Things Club '' with Pam and Oscar. His behavior does change somewhat when he meets Nellie (whom he develops a romance for), and he is shown to become somewhat of nuisance to her by being socially awkward and not handling his crush on her with any subtlety (and also an annoyance to Andy, though this is more of a Michael Scott - like situation where Andy gets angry and frustrated at Toby for doing his HR job at the expense of Andy 's weirder / less legal ideas).
Michael intensely despised Toby because, according to Michael, his job was to "make the office fun, while (Toby 's) job is to make the office lame ''. Michael 's often - successful self - delusions that he is the life of the party frequently have a light shined on them by Toby 's interactions with him. This is usually not Toby 's intention, but his inability to go along with Michael 's vibe is like a mirror being held up to Michael. It shows him the truth that he is constantly hiding from. In their bitter relationship, Michael is clearly the antagonist and Toby the victim. Michael seems to be completely blind to how harsh his treatment of Toby is and claims that Toby is the bad guy and that he tortures him (he points this out to Holly in "Goodbye Toby ''), completely ignoring that he verbally puts Toby down on a daily basis while the latter simply does his job and voices his own opinion and attempts to dissuade Michael from ideas that are truly reckless and impulsive and unethical in the office. Even on occasions where Toby offers kindness to Michael such as in "The Deposition '' and "Niagara '', Michael shows nothing but rudeness and hatred.
Michael viewed Toby as his sworn enemy and took every opportunity to demean him. As Michael sneers, "Toby is in HR, which technically means he works for corporate, so he 's really not a part of our family. Also, he 's divorced, so he 's really not a part of his family '' and says that "Toby Flenderson is everything that is wrong with the paper industry. '' He also stated, "I hate so much about the things that you choose to be '' (immediately following the above quote from Toby regarding the Casino Night). At various times, Michael has referred to Toby as "the worst human being ever, '' a "convicted rapist, '' "evil snail, '' "animal rapist, '' "Satan '' and "the Antichrist. '' Michael once says that if he "had a gun with two bullets and was in a room with Hitler, Bin Laden and Toby, (he) would shoot Toby twice. '' Michael has physically hurt Toby on a few occasions as well such as throwing a pen at his forehead and checking him while skating.
Michael frequently threatened to fire Toby, which he could not do because Toby is not considered a local branch employee, having been hired by the corporate office and then assigned to Scranton. The majority of Michael 's techniques that are questionable bring Toby by his own obligation to confront Michael about how corporate would like him to do his job. Ultimately Toby and Michael represent the conflict between employees and upper management. While Toby is mainly a passive victim to Michael 's abuse who tries his best to remain calm, Toby himself has shown on a few occasions in the series that he enjoys seeing Michael in misery such as when he injures his foot and collapses and struggles in the restroom (where Michael is disgusted by the idea of Toby helping him instead of Ryan, and Toby gets to mock Michael 's wimpiness and notes with disdain "you only grilled your foot '') and when Toby viciously beats Michael in a game of poker, in which he says he will chase the feeling of taking Michael 's money. Toby has also laughed at Michael 's misfortune on occasion such as in "The Deposition '' when Toby learns that Michael thinks Ryan is hot and also in "Koi Pond '' when he learns Michael has fallen into two fountains. Toby once even instructed Pam on how to hit Michael harder after he gave her the opportunity to do so for dating and dumping her mother, showing that he enjoys seeing Michael suffer to a degree. Toby has on occasion stood up to Michael such as in "Classy Christmas '' when Michael tries to accuse Toby of destroying Holly 's beloved Woody doll to which Toby immediately responds that the vandalism is something that Michael would do, to which everyone agrees. Toby seems to have a strong ability to absorb Michael 's abuse as seen in "Goodbye Toby '' where he is given a potential opportunity to complain about Michael 's antics and after Michael threatens to kill him (though he does so in a situation where Holly and Pam would be able to listen to Toby 's issues if he wanted to present them, as they either do n't know how awful Michael has been to him or, in Pam 's case, know it very well), Toby claims that everything in the office is fine, and later shrugs to the camera that he has survived Michael 's abuse long enough and that disclosing it is pointless. Toby has never attempted in any way to get Michael punished for his harsh treatment of him (despite having the power to do so) and has never gotten angry with him for unknown reasons. This stands in direct contrast to other members of the Office who get angered at Michael for his stupidity and rudeness such as Jim, Pam and notably Stanley. Toby also somewhat seems to be in denial that Michael hates him as seen in "New Guys '' in which after shooting down his impulsive idea, Andy says to Toby: "Now I know why Michael hated you so much, '' to which Toby responds "No, he did n't '', possibly signifying that Toby does not view Michael 's abuse as hatred.
Toby seems to want Michael 's friendship but is too shy to talk to him about it. In "The Lover, '' Michael opens up to Toby, asking him to keep Pam under control, by giving Toby a hug and calling him a "good guy. '' Toby says that he is delighted and "Michael would like me once he got to know me, '' but as soon as Toby fails to keep Pam under control, Michael starts to hate him again. Michael, though, ended up being appreciative of Toby 's efforts to actually help him during their Sabre - mandated counseling sessions (even if he spent much of the time hurling harsh statements at the HR rep), to the point where he decided to talk to Toby instead of simply signing off on a few corrected forms at the sessions ' end. While in "Take Your Daughter to Work Day, '' Michael ends up bonding with Toby 's daughter Sasha when the employees bring their children into the office. However, later on, Michael becomes withdrawn and sad that he has n't had any children, which Toby senses and ends up being confidant to Michael. Michael inquires about being Sasha 's godfather. Toby simply tells him that she already has one. Michael has on a few occasions realized when his mistreatment of Toby has gone too far such as in "Women 's Appreciation '' in which he literally asked him to expose his genitals and also in "Frame Toby '' after attempting to get Toby arrested and fired, possibly showing that Michael 's hatred of Toby has limits.
In "Goodbye, Michael, '' when Michael wants to give everyone in the office a proper goodbye, he somewhat makes up for all the times he has berated and insulted Toby by listening to him without insulting him once, possibly showing that he will miss Toby somewhat. However, his face betrays both his difficulty in doing so and his horror when an appreciative Toby suggests that Michael look up Toby 's brother Rory in Boulder once he 's settled himself in Colorado. This can be viewed as Michael 's final comeuppance for his treatment of Toby as even though he is moving away to Colorado, he will still not escape Toby and will have to endure annoyance from Toby 's brother Rory (who seems to be virtually identical to him and whom Toby encourages to be friends with Michael).
Pam and Toby are shown to have a good relationship. Pam has shown much displeasure at Michael 's harsh treatment of Toby. Toby has had a crush on Pam ever since she called off her wedding with Roy and Jim went to Stamford, but he is too shy to tell her his feelings. In "Cocktails '' Toby spends his whole evening trying to win a stuffed animal duck at a claw machine for her. When he finally wins, Pam gives back the stuffed animal and says "Do n't you have a daughter? ''. In "Dunder Mifflin Infinity '' Toby is the first to find out about Jim and Pam 's relationship, by seeing her kiss him on the cheek in the break room. Upset about Pam 's new relationship, he sends out a memo asking for no "PDA '' in the office. In the episode "Business School, '' Pam asks Toby to come to her art show, and he says he ca n't make it because of his daughter 's play. He then gets really upset and yells, "Damn it! '' and questions if maybe he does n't have to go to see his daughter 's play and instead could go see Pam 's art show.
In "Night Out, '' Pam thinks that a joke that Toby told was funny, and he gets really excited and touches her awkwardly on the leg. She did not appear to be angered at this. After an awkward silence, Toby announces his move to Costa Rica. In "Goodbye, Toby '' Pam gives to Toby an office picture of the staff that excludes her (because she took the picture herself) for when he leaves for Costa Rica. Toby, unsatisfied by the lack of her presence, shouts at the office staff asking for a camera (possibly the loudest he 's ever spoken). When no one responds, he runs off for an extended amount of time just to find a camera to have a picture of her and him together. Pam also helps Toby take revenge against Michael in this episode after his insulting farewell gift is exposed during a meeting and she gets him to unwillingly give up his watch to Toby, which he does (Pam potentially may have disclosed Michael 's abuse of Toby if he did n't do what she said). At the end of the episode, Pam comments (though not to Toby) that she always thought he was kind of cute and that she will miss him a lot. In "Niagara '' Toby appears to still have feelings for Pam and is happy when they run out on their wedding. He is later disappointed when the wedding is called back on but is seen smiling and clapping after they 're married and run down the aisle. During "Roy 's Wedding '', while Jim and Pam are trying to find out if there 's anything they do n't know about each other, Toby correctly answers facts about Pam. Everyone notices him, and Toby, clearly embarrassed, attempts to cover it up. There have been a few occasions when Pam has mistreated Toby somewhat such as hanging up on him on the phone after Toby offered his help and notably in "Paper Airplane '' after hitting him in the eye with a paper airplane and getting angry at him for crossing (to which Toby apologizes). Pam in response does not apologize and simply asks whether she is still in the contest despite injuring and temporally blinding Toby. In the series finale, while dancing with Pam, Toby began sobbing. Pam questions Toby with "Is it me? Is it Nellie? '' Toby shakes his head, and responds with "It 's everything. '' Pam then hugs Toby as he weeps.
Jim mentions that when he first started working at Dunder Mifflin, he shared a cubicle with Toby and that the two of them got along well. Michael moved them apart because he thought that the two talked too much. In deleted scenes from The Fire and Take Your Daughter to Work Day it 's implied that Toby and Jim are friends and Jim babysits Toby 's daughter on occasion. When Jim becomes Co-Regional Manager with Michael in season six, however, Jim almost begins to mirror Michael 's treatment of Toby somewhat. In "The Lover '', when Toby casually says "Hey Jim '', a stressed Jim snaps "Not now Toby! My God! '' leaving Toby bewildered and hurt, though it is more likely Jim did this due to being angered upon learning that Michael is dating Pam 's mother behind their backs and also snapped at Michael in the conversation shortly after. In the earlier "Survivor Man '', Jim also says about Toby "He 's great, but sometimes he can be a little bit much, '' showing that he sees Toby as being annoying sometimes. Jim was aware of Toby 's crush on Pam but never seemed very bothered by it. However, Toby would occasionally be bitter towards Jim, as seen in "Did I Stutter? '' where he assists Ryan (now Vice President) in giving Jim a formal warning for his job performance. During "Stairmageddon '', Jim turns to Toby for advice on marriage counselling due to Toby 's past of going to such counselling. Jim is left thoughtful and concerned when Toby notes that Pam is in a very difficult situation of short - term vs. long - term issues with Jim 's work at Athleap. Despite the moments mentioned above, Jim and Toby have a decent relationship.
Toby shares the Annex with Kelly, and he is exasperated at being in the close proximity of Kelly and Ryan 's juvenile romantic escapades. Using the excuse that he was allergic to his desk, Toby moved locations to escape Kelly 's constant talking, moving out of the cubicle, albeit only to a desk adjacent to it. Toby later wonders if Michael intentionally moved Ryan to his former area in order to torture him via Ryan and Kelly 's endless fighting, commenting that "If he did... genius. '' Kelly stated in a deleted scene from Goodbye, Toby that she was attracted to Toby but could not stand "his stupid kid '' and was visibly downcast when he announced his plans to leave the office and move to Costa Rica. Toby overall has a good relationship with both Kelly and Ryan and the two have never mistreated him in any way and once even attempted to encourage him to punch Michael in "Frame Toby '', possibly showing that they are disgusted at Michael 's harsh treatment of Toby.
In a deleted scene from "Ben Franklin, '' when warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin is told that Michael has sent Toby home to prevent him from interfering with the hiring of a stripper, Darryl refers to Toby ("that red - haired guy with the sad eyes '') as a cool guy. While on a trip to the Corporate offices with Darryl and Michael in "The Negotiation, '' Darryl also offers to let Toby crash for the night at a relative 's house in New York, denying Michael the same opportunity. He also had a nickname for Toby ("T - dog '') at one point, though their relationship soured when Dwight 's plan to expose Darryl 's worker 's compensation fraud led to embarrassment for all of them and Toby insulted Darryl and his sister. Despite this, the two seem to have a good relationship and Darryl once kindly gave Toby his Christmas doll to give to his daughter Sasha.
Toby and Andy did not appear to have any major disputes when Andy was a salesman or during his first year as manager and seemed to have a good relationship. In "New Guys '', when Toby shoots down Andy 's intention to make up a cause to fire Nellie Bertram, Andy responds "now I know why Michael hated you so much ''. Toby appeared dismayed at this. Andy later ridiculed both Toby and Nellie during the slack - lining later in the episode. Andy continued his irritability in "Work Bus '' when asking Toby "how are you not murdered every hour '', suggesting he, like Michael and Jim before him, has inherited the typical manager 's disdain for Toby. Andy was occasionally nasty to Toby on a few other occasions as well and even groped Toby before quitting Dunder Mifflin.
Toby appeared aware of Andy 's poor treatment of Erin as a girlfriend, which he pointed out to Nellie in "Customer Loyalty ''. In the finale, however, after Andy returns with a more positive and friendly attitude, Toby is pleased to hear him (and several other staff members) encourage him to join them at the after party in the warehouse, implying the two are now on good terms.
Toby and Dwight appear to have a stable relationship and Dwight does not appear to hate Toby like Michael does, though on a few occasions Dwight has helped Michael make Toby miserable such as trying to get him arrested and fired once he returned from his vacation from Costa Rica (even more enthusiastically than Micheal) and stealing a Christmas present from him on Michael 's orders. Dwight also made no attempt to help Toby when he was selling Christmas dolls and ran out just as Toby asked for one for his daughter. Dwight has also on a few occasions laughed at Michael 's insults towards Toby but has also shown some displeasure when Michael takes it too far such as in "Goodbye Toby, '' where he himself admits that he thought Michael 's idea to give Toby a rock as a goodbye present was over the line. It is likely that Dwight makes Toby miserable due to his loyalty to Michael, however even after Micheal left Dwight would occasionally still mistreat Toby and insult him, once even calling him "the most forgettable man in the known world ''. The two have gotten along on a few occasions and it is revealed that Dwight complains to Toby all the time about Jim 's pranks against him and once made a deal with him to sign a petition of his in exchange for cookies from Toby 's daughter. Toby and Dwight also share an interest in trains during a conversation while spying on Darryl and Dwight says he is welcome anytime to come to his farm. Toby has on occasion been stern with Dwight such as in "Casual Friday, '' in which he threatened to write him up if he did n't sit down and has foiled some of Dwight 's dangerous schemes such as leaving weapons in the office and stopping Dwight from wearing dangerous costumes to Halloween (for which Dwight threatens to kill him). In the final episode of the series, Dwight fires Toby alongside Kevin, possibly indicating that he dislikes Toby and that he annoys him to a degree, like his predecessors Michael, Jim, and Andy (or possibly on orders from Corporate or to prevent him from interfering in his firing of Kevin). While Dwight states that he misses Kevin after firing him, he never states the same for Toby. Dwight does, however, invite him to his wedding, possibly showing that he does consider him a friend.
In "Get the Girl '' Toby introduces himself to Nellie as Tony, to which Pam replies "You messed up saying your name? '' He answers her by saying, "It happens, okay? ''
In "Dwight Christmas '', at the office Christmas party, Nellie expressed interest upon hearing that Toby had been a juror in the Scranton Strangler case. He proceeds to bore her, however, with a long, drawn - out account that is implied to have lasted for several hours. Nellie finally leans in close and shushes him. A puzzled Toby then asks if she is about to kiss him. Attempting to save face, Nellie gives him a small kiss, which causes an emboldened Toby to give her a much more passionate kiss.
Toby does not appear in the two subsequent episodes, during which the events of the party are not referenced. In "Customer Loyalty '', however, he appears very tactile and affectionate towards Nellie, apparently under the impression that the two are now in a relationship. Nellie, for her part, had forgotten the kiss until that point and finds Toby 's affection somewhat awkward.
In "Moving On '', Nellie gets fed up with Toby 's constant hand - wringing over the possible non-guilt of the convicted Scranton Strangler and pushes him to visit the man in prison; when the Strangler proves he is the killer and nearly kills Toby himself, Nellie admits Toby was brave and a speechless Toby (his larynx was injured by the Strangler) looks happy. However, Nellie later firmly establishes her contempt for Toby and there is no further romantic story - line between them. She is also somewhat rude and insulting to him on a few occasions notably in "Paper Airplane '' in which she speaks of him as being a loser, however, Nellie 's poor treatment of him could stem from Toby 's awkward and annoying behaviour towards her.
When Toby returns to Scranton for the reunion and Angela & Dwight 's wedding, Nellie (also returning to Scranton from her new home in Poland) lets the camera crew know she is n't thrilled about seeing Toby again. At the airport, Nellie rebuffs an attempted hug from Toby, snidely brushes aside his comment about a relationship she ended by saying she un-followed him on Facebook and questions him of how long he 's been stalking her (Toby quietly says anyone can read non-protected tweets) and declines his offer to share a cab into town. After that point, Toby has no further interactions of any kind with Nellie.
After the departure of Kelly and Ryan, Toby appears more excited with the arrival of the two twenty - somethings who are single like himself. He appears to see them as closer friends than they see him but neither of them treats him meanly either. He convinced both of them, along with Kevin and Darryl, to grow moustaches from "Movember '', believing this was a bonding activity. He was disappointed when Pete shaved his moustache off after Erin found it off - putting.
Toby appears to consider Pete a better fit for Erin than Andy, largely because he does n't appreciate Andy 's belittling treatment of him and also because he never had any romantic interest in Erin. At the documentary reunion, Pete is nice to Toby and is visibly happy when Toby decides to attend an after - party he had been planning to skip.
Toby only appears in a few episodes, showing up first in a scene in "Diversity Day, '' in which he jokes about sitting in an Indian Circle (to which everyone else laughs). Michael, having told many more offensive jokes, is offended by Toby 's joke and tells him that "This is an environment of welcoming, and you should just get the hell out of here. '' Toby does so and the staff suddenly goes very quiet. This is the first instance in the relationship between the two, Toby trying to be responsible, and Michael trying to demean and undermine him as much as possible. In "Hot Girl, '' Toby is introduced by Michael to Katy the purse saleswoman; after Toby and Katy begin talking happily about their high school days, Michael deliberately humiliates Toby by mentioning his divorce and how he once briefly had to live in his car. He also notices the picture of Toby 's daughter on his desk, and refers to her as "cute ''; however, this is probably a further attempt to portray Toby, a divorced father, as undesirable.
One of Toby 's major appearances was in "Sexual Harassment, '' where he holds a Sexual Harassment Meeting for the staff, only to be interrupted by Michael and a blow - up doll. Michael then states that everyone is still "generally quite happy, '' which he thinks is because Toby has not yet had the meeting. In fact, Toby did have the meeting and everyone clapped after he was done, leaving them in a good mood.
In a deleted scene of "Halloween, '' Toby tries to persuade Michael to make a decision as to which employee he must fire. When Michael chooses Toby, Toby replies that he does not report to Michael. When Michael then tries to get Toby to quit, Toby replies that someone else will just take his place. Michael then claims that if he had the authority, he would immediately fire Toby, to which Toby calmly replies, "I know, Michael. ''
In "Booze Cruise, '' Toby is late arriving at the dock for a company cruise. When Michael orders the ship to leave without him, Toby grins broadly, implying he had planned things in order to miss the event.
In "Take Your Daughter to Work Day, '' Toby 's daughter, Sasha, distracts Michael; the two actually get along, showing Michael 's friendly side. Toby and Michael have a good conversation about Michael 's desire to have a family: Michael wants to have a biological child, and Toby hints that he should seek out alternatives. When Michael asks if Sasha already has a godfather, Toby quickly replies, "Yes. ''
"Conflict Resolution '' is by far Toby 's biggest role in the season. Toby shows that he handles inter-office complaints calmly and efficiently, only to see his work undone by Michael 's stupidity. When Dwight threatens to quit unless Michael fires Jim (because of Jim 's history of pranks against Dwight), Michael attempts to resolve the conflict by making vague promises of future action, an approach similar to one Toby had used successfully in the past. Toby covertly shows that he files Dwight 's complaints against Jim in a trash box and that he puts the huge number of complaints against Michael in unmarked boxes that are filed into the vast space of the warehouse.
In "Casino Night, '' Toby tries to convince Michael not to invite Boy Scouts to a company Casino Night. Michael 's response is to demean him in front of everybody. Toby just lets him finish. That night, however, Toby viciously beats Michael at no - limit Texas Hold ' Em, to Michael 's visible irritation. Later, Toby says to the camera, "I 'm not gon na lie -- it felt good to take money from Michael. I 'm gon na chase that feeling. ''
In "The Convention, '' after finding out that Pam is no longer engaged, Toby makes a couple of attempts to ask her out but ca n't say the words. Michael trashes Toby to Jim and eagerly asks Jim if the HR rep is the reason he left for Stamford. Michael is visibly stung when Jim says no (he later tells Michael about his declaration of love for Pam).
In "The Convict, '' Michael jokingly refers to Toby as a rapist, much to the dismay of those present. Later, Toby convinces Michael to release the office employees from the conference room, whom he had locked in there as punishment for unfavorably comparing Dunder Mifflin to a prison.
In "A Benihana Christmas, '' Michael has Dwight take Toby 's gift bag present of an expensive robe when they run out of enough of them for everyone. Pam later comes over and kindly gives her robe to Toby.
In "Back from Vacation, '' Toby asks Michael about the "Jamaica Jan Sun Princess '' photo. Michael tries to accuse Toby of stealing the file from him, but Toby says "nine different people sent it to me, including my ex-wife, and, well, we do n't talk. '' Michael then insults Toby 's divorce again and calls him a perv, but does state for the record that he and Jan do not have a relationship.
In "Phyllis ' Wedding '' Toby is seen with a beautiful woman whom he says he met in the gym, although Kevin believes she is a paid escort. When Phyllis tosses her bouquet, it is Toby 's date that catches it, and then excitedly runs back to Toby and the two share a brief embrace and kiss. Toby is then shown in a talking head as very ecstatic towards the outcome. It is implied that Toby and his date eventually broke up afterwards as this is the only episode where she is seen.
In "Business School '' he tells Pam he can not make it to her art show because his daughter has a play. He then offers to miss his daughter 's play because "what they do is not art. ''
In "Cocktails '' Toby spends the whole evening trying to win Pam a duck from a claw machine after she comments on how cute it is. When he finally wins it, Pam suggests that he give it to his daughter instead.
In "The Negotiation, '' Toby is forced to listen to Ryan and Kelly bickering nonstop when Michael moves Ryan back to the annex. Toby wonders if Michael did this to punish Toby and that if he did, it was a genius move. Toby goes with Michael and Darryl to New York after Jan says she will not do the contract negotiation unless Toby is there. When Michael repeatedly mentions his and Jan 's relationship at that point, Toby takes notes and Michael insults him, but Toby just says he 's "preparing for the deposition '' that he thinks will inevitably occur because Michael threatened to withhold sex from a female superior in order to get a modest, scheduled raise, commenting, "It will be a groundbreaking case when it inevitably goes to trial. '' Additionally, when Darryl says he will stay in New York for the night, he tells Toby he can join him and stay at his relative 's house, pointedly not extending the same offer to Michael.
In "Women 's Appreciation, '' Toby is out of the office at a parent - teacher conference when Phyllis is flashed. When he returns, Michael scoffs at his alibi and seriously asks to see his penis to rule him out as a suspect. Toby turns towards Michael and looks like he 's about to get angry; Michael then seems to catch himself and admits what he said to Toby was wrong.
In "Beach Games, '' Michael bans Toby from attending the beach event because he wants it to be fun and says it will not be if Toby is there. Toby is visibly upset that he will not get to see Pam in a bikini (which she ends up not wearing there) and is seen despondently doing paper work in a deleted scene from the episode.
On the Season 3 DVD, Toby gives a series of wraparound interviews. Among other things:
In "Fun Run '' Toby goes against Michael 's theory of an office curse by mentioning he won a drawing at a local pizza place, but Michael insults him and later ignores his statement that you can not ask employees about their religions. Before the race, Dwight puts Imodium in Toby 's drink instead of Ex-Lax and Michael pulls Toby 's shorts down right before the starting gun is fired. Toby later wins the race to cure rabies, beating Michael and accomplishing something noteworthy; however, no one notices his win, and Kelly does not even bother looking up when he crosses the finish line. Toby then wonders why the 5K course was a straight line instead of a circle that would have returned everyone to the Dunder Mifflin building.
In "Dunder Mifflin Infinity '' after Toby sees Pam kiss Jim he sends out a memo about Public Display of Affection. When Michael accosts Toby about the memo (thinking it 's about him and Jan having sex in the office), Toby tells him, in front of everyone, that it is about Jim and Pam. When they confirm that they are dating everyone is happy, except Toby. Later Pam and Jim visit him to see if they have to sign a "Love Contract, '' but he tells them to wait and see. In a scene that was added to the episode 's repeat airing on NBC, Toby comes into work with a woman he says is his girlfriend and makes out with her right in front of the reception desk and Pam.
In "Money '' Toby shows that he uses very good grammar when he corrects Michael and clears up a confusion between the usages of the words "whoever '' and "whomever '' ("who '' is used as a subject, while "whom '' is used as an object). Michael responds by telling Toby to shove a letter opener in his skull.
In a deleted scene of "Local Ad, '' Toby pitches an idea of having a stop motion ad that Michael, of course, puts down although the rest of the office seems to like the idea. When the local ad is being played at the bar, Toby is in the ad, but only briefly. While Michael was shooting the scene of the paper airplane flying out of the hand of Creed towards the conference room window, you see Toby in the conference room packing up whatever work he was finishing. Michael did not want Toby in the video; however, for a fleeting moment, Toby had managed to unintentionally get a part in the ad.
Toby 's distaste for Pam 's relationship with Jim is again brought up in "Branch Wars '' when Jim is allowed to join "The Finer Things Club, '' an exclusive organization built up by Pam, Toby, and Oscar, dedicated to discussing civilized culture. During the episode 's final scene, after Jim contributes his ideas on the book being discussed, Toby scrutinizes him very bitterly, hinting again at his disdain for Jim 's success with Pam. His irritation is attributed to the fact that Jim did not read the book, though Oscar and even Pam are also annoyed with Jim 's wisecracking, uninformed behavior. Also in this episode Michael tells Karen she can have Toby instead of Stanley; when Karen says Toby is not a salesperson, Michael briefly tries to talk up Toby 's ability to learn before saying he ca n't fake it and insulting the HR rep anew.
In the episode "Survivor Man, '' Toby ends up getting on Jim 's nerves. When Jim is named Acting Manager while Michael is off on his "wilderness adventure '' and starts altering the office 's birthday schedule, Toby asks Jim if he can have a birthday celebration, explaining that Michael deliberately held a party for Toby at 4: 58 PM on a Friday so no one would attend. Jim agrees but comments that he likes Toby but that the guy is really annoying him, claiming that sometimes Toby can sometimes be a little bit much. Jim 's dismissive, disgusted attitude toward Toby (whom he has always gotten along with before) very closely mirrors how Michael treats Toby. It is not clear whether Jim is genuinely fed up with Toby or whether this interplay showed that Jim was beginning to act like Michael. It is also possible that Jim was not annoyed at Toby specifically but at the general reaction to his plan. Jim 's disgusted attitude can also be attributed to the fact that Toby has been treating Jim fairly poorly in previous episodes due to his jealousy of his relationship with Pam.
Michael 's hatred for Toby is brought up again in "The Deposition '' when Michael says he does not want Toby in the deposition and nastily asks if the HR rep is there "to renew your divorce vows '' (Toby is also sitting a conspicuous distance from Michael in the uncrowded room being used for the proceedings). When the two happen to sit next to each other at lunch, Toby kindly tells Michael that he can relate to Michael 's situation, of Toby 's parents ' divorce. While Toby is talking, Michael pushes Toby 's lunch tray on the floor, then gets up and leaves. Later in the episode, Toby begins to laugh at Michael after learning Michael thinks Ryan is "hot. '' Also, after Jan 's attorney brings out Michael 's diary, and the head of the deposition says "Okay, we 'll need ten copies of that diary, '' to which Toby says, "Make that eleven. '' In a deleted scene, Michael asks Toby if he will tell Meredith that the car accident from Fun Run was Michael 's fault, and Toby nods.
In the episode "Night Out, '' he puts his hand on Pam 's leg and caresses it for a long, awkward moment, which everyone standing around seems to notice, making this the first time the employees see Toby 's possible crush on Pam. Immediately thereafter, realizing what he had just done, he abruptly announces that he is moving to Costa Rica, runs outside to the security fence, scales it, and disappears into the night. This scene was done by a stunt double, as Lieberstein wanted to do it himself but it was decided for insurance reasons to let the stuntman do his work.
In "Did I Stutter?, '' Toby and Ryan together (who both have a problem with Jim; Toby dislikes him for dating Pam and Ryan dislikes him for going over his head) warn Jim on his job performance, citing specifically his indifference toward his job and use of time (namely "goofing off with Dwight '' and "time spent at Reception '' with Pam). Toby then says to the camera that Jim 's time spent with Pam "has finally caught up to him, '' but he repeats Pam 's name several times when unnecessary. Toby later says, though, that he agrees that Jim has good numbers but Ryan thinks they are not good enough. In the same episode, Toby convinces Michael he needs to deal with Stanley for his open insubordination during a staff meeting, though Michael goes about it a different way because Toby 's method "did not work because it was stupid. '' Michael also says Toby does not have any friends, but Michael does so in the context of stating that Stanley is Michael 's friend, which is later shown to be completely inaccurate as Stanley despises him for his stupidity and is not afraid to confront Michael about it. It is also shown that Dwight thinks Toby may be Jewish, as Dwight 's org chart shows a blue Star of David with a question mark next to Toby 's name; Toby did not say what (if any) religion he practiced when Michael prodded the staffers to talk about their religious practices in Fun Run. As Toby spent time in a seminary (as revealed in season five episode "Casual Friday, '') he is most likely a Roman Catholic.
In "Goodbye, Toby '', he follows through on his earlier plans and quits his job as HR representative to move to Costa Rica. Michael is overjoyed at his departure and plans to throw a lavish goodbye party that reflects this. Both Kelly and Pam say they are sorry he is leaving, with Pam saying in an interview that she thinks he 's kind of cute. Toby also ends up annoying Holly, his replacement, to a degree while showing her around the office and she is somewhat rude to him and claims that he almost bored her to sleep, something which Michael enjoys hearing (Holly remains oblivious that Michael, in fact, abuses Toby and Michael claims that Toby tortures him). Toby faces a cruel exit interview from Michael but the tables are turned when Holly and Pam join the interview. Michael is unable to berate Toby at length as Holly takes over. When Toby is asked; "What would you improve about Dunder Mifflin?, '' Toby claims he has a few ideas. Realizing that Toby has a potential opportunity to reveal and complain about his unethical work behavior and abusive treatment, Michael hides his face and angrily glares at Toby, silently threatening to kill him if he answers the question. Toby does not seem afraid but simply gives a "things are OK as they are '' answer. Toby later tells the camera that he has survived Michael 's abuse long enough and that disclosing it is pointless.
Toby gets revenge when Michael 's insulting farewell gift to him is exposed (a rock with a note reading: "Suck on this! '') and Pam gets Michael to unwillingly give up his watch to Toby, which he does, clearly upset. Toby 's main concern on his last day is getting pictures of himself alone with Pam, which he finally does as his party is ending. Michael gets a last dig in by having Hank the security guard escort Toby out of the office as he leaves for his new life in Costa Rica and is still shown to be upset when Toby looks at his new watch. In a deleted scene at his farewell party, Toby refers to an undefined incident involving his sister; this marks the first time Toby has mentioned having any siblings, although late in season 7 he reveals also having a brother Rory.
In season five, Toby is revealed to be in traction in a Costa Rican hospital, with a broken neck, after a zip - line accident on his third day in Costa Rica. He explains that he has yet to see the beach, but expresses some happiness with the camera crew for visiting. He also implies in an earlier talk with Oscar that he is attracted to a woman who is visiting a nearby resort with her husband, thus continuing his tendency to fall for unavailable women à la Pam. In a deleted scene from Baby Shower, Toby can be heard on the speakerphone with Holly, noting that he enjoys his stay at the hospital more than his treatment from Michael at the office.
In "Frame Toby '' it is revealed that Toby had returned to the office for a week without Michael noticing. When the staff tells Michael that Toby is back, Michael thinks it 's a joke until he sees Toby and screams "No God! Please No! No! '' Michael asks David Wallace to get rid of Toby but the CFO says he can not fire Toby without cause. Michael then attempts to get Toby fired by giving Pam a fake letter to give to Toby, asking him to hug and kiss her no matter how much she resisted, and taunting the HR rep into punching him, but both plans fail. Michael then tries out Dwight 's idea of planting drugs in Toby 's desk (unknowingly buying basil from a caprese salad from warehouse workers who he thinks sold him marijuana). However, he does feel guilty about what he has done and, when the police are investigating the "drugs, '' Michael tells the police that it 's a mistake and tries to stop them from arresting Toby. This suggests that, while Michael does hate Toby, there are limits to his hatred. Then again, Toby 's reaction to the setup -- that it wasted the cops ' time that could have been used to deal with law enforcement -- inspires more shock and disgust from Michael.
He is seen on occasion in the background in the "Annex '' of the office. When Michael gives his two weeks notice, Toby shows he 's not as resentful towards Michael as Michael is to him in a talking head, referring to him as a movie on an airplane, which is nothing special but something to watch. He was seen breaking up a jam session in the lunch room up between Dwight and Andy who were attempting to impress the new receptionist with guitar and banjo to the song "Take Me Home, Country Roads '' by John Denver. Toby simply says, "You have to stop. ''
In "Stress Relief '', Toby is seen attempting to help the others escape Dwight 's fire drill. In the second part of the episode, during the roasting of Michael, Toby begins to walk to the mike but Michael stops him declaring that only friends are allowed to roast him and Toby agrees and sits back down and laughs with the rest of the audience at Michael being roasted. It is possible Michael stopped Toby from roasting him not only because they are not friends but because Toby would have the worst things to say about him.
He is also involved in the episode "Casual Friday '' where he has a talking head about his beginnings at Dunder Mifflin. He used to be in seminary, but he left because he wanted to have sex with a girl named Kathy and took the HR job at Dunder Mifflin so he could be with her. Kathy is revealed to be the name of his ex-wife, and he does not appear to have a passion for HR. In the same episode, he has to deal with complaints about a too relaxed dress code by Oscar and Meredith. For the first time, he is stern with his employees and enforces HR policy by cancelling Casual Fridays at the office.
In the episode "Gossip '' Michael spreads rumors about various people throughout the Office, including that Toby is a virgin, even though he has a daughter.
In the episode "The Meeting '', Dwight and Toby investigate a dishonest workman 's compensation claim filed by Darryl, an event which results in Dwight and Darryl filing complaints against each other, leaving Toby to "drown in a sea of paperwork. '' During the episode, Toby ends up bonding with Dwight when they share an interest in trains, and finds that Dwight is restoring a life size one in his slaughterhouse.
Although he does not appear, directly, in the episode The Promotion, Michael and Jim put baked beans on pictures of the employees as a way to decide the raises. Jim then sees a drawn picture of what looks to be a clown with a caption saying "I 'm an idiot '' and asks Michael who it is, Michael answers, saying it is Toby. Jim reminds Michael that Toby is not part of this and Michael answers "I just wanted to draw a picture of him ''.
In the episode "Niagara '', Toby kindly offers Michael the second bed he has in his room but Michael insults him by telling him he will be sleeping alone for the rest of his life and walks away. Toby seems to at least have some feelings left for Pam, as he seems to be happy when reacting to a possibility of Jim and Pam 's wedding being called off. When the wedding does go on, however, he is seen dancing with the others and cheering Jim and Pam on as they walk down the aisle at the ceremony 's end.
In the following episode, "Mafia '', Oscar comments that with Jim and Pam off on their honeymoon and Toby having "mentally checked out in June '' he is the only person left to counter insane antics with rational thinking. When hearing of Oscar 's comments Toby casually agrees with him.
In the episode "The Lover '', Toby is yelled at by both Michael and Jim when he walks in on them just after Michael has told Jim he 's dating Pam 's mom. Later, after Pam blew up at Michael in the conference during an office meeting, Michael comes to Toby desperate to make Pam happy about his relationship with her mother. Toby offers to talk to Pam for Michael and Michael even goes as far as hugging Toby and calls him a good good - guy. Toby is extremely happy at the hope that things will finally change between them that he says "you know I always knew that if Michael just took the time to get to know me, we would be friends. '' But once Toby is unable to smooth things over, Michael dismisses Toby as a jackass and goes right back to hating him.
In the episode "Koi Pond '', Toby is present in the meeting where Michael wants to talk about insults in the office and as usual when Toby simply makes a point Michael insults him by calling him a waste of life, though corrects himself claiming that 's what he would like to say but the meeting is an insult free zone. However, when Michael reveals he has fallen into two fountains Toby appears to find this funny and laughs at Michael. After this, he asks for Michael to kick him out of the meeting and Michael tells him to go.
In the episode "Double Date '', Toby talks to Pam to make sure she plans on hitting Michael off grounds. He then gives Pam some tips on how to punch harder, even going through motions with her on how to do it as Michael watches on from his office, visibly afraid.
In the episode "Secret Santa ', Toby is called "Antichrist '' for calling Michael 's Jesus costume inappropriate. In "The Banker '' Toby is interviewed by an investment banker as he evaluates the branch. Michael tries to have Toby distracted while Dwight impersonates him but Toby appears and makes Dwight leave. Despite knowing of several questionable incidents that have taken place in the office, he does not say anything to the banker. He expresses his torn feelings about this in a talking head.
In "Whistleblower '', Toby is revealed to have written a few chapters of a mystery novel and receives advice on the plot from Jo Bennett to which he replies in an interview, "Write your own damn novel! ''
In "Nepotism '', as a punishment for physically injuring an employee, Michael is sent to a 6 - hour counselling with Toby. In a deleted scene, Toby tells the camera crew that he finished writing his book over the summer and got four sales out of his self - publishing but is being sued for plagiarism.
In "Counseling '', Toby does counselling for Michael. They briefly become friends as Michael talks to Toby about his life, but when Michael realizes that Toby is, in fact, counselling him, Michael yells at him. Toby reveals that he has a degree in social work. At the end of the episode, however, he seems to be communicating with Toby civilly, as most of his anger is fixed on Gabe Lewis.
In "Costume Contest '', Toby dresses up as a hobo. In a deleted scene, while using a Ouija board at the office Hallowe'en party, he mumbles that "being dead is going to be so relaxing '', disturbing his co-workers.
In "Christening '', Toby has trouble entering the church where Jim and Pam 's baby is being christened. After many false starts, he finally enters the chapel and can be seen in front of the altar asking "Why do you have to be so mean to me? ''
In a deleted scene from WUPHF.com, he 's talking with his daughter via web chat, where he finds out through her that his ex-wife has a new boyfriend. Michael shuts off Toby 's laptop and then proceeds to talk with him about the situation he 's in with Ryan. Toby tries to offer the best advice he can, but as usual, Michael brushes off what he says and then pokes fun at the fact that someone else is banging his wife.
In "Classy Christmas '' Toby has to go on leave so he can report for jury duty. The case turns out to be that of the Scranton Strangler, a fact Toby lets slip out despite his not supposed to be talking about the case. He later says to the camera crew he likes the attention. Michael is visibly disgusted when Toby returns on jury recess to attend the Christmas party and tells the staff to not ask Toby any questions as he will not leave and this will prevent Holly from returning. In the second part of the episode, Michael attempts to frame Toby for vandalizing Holly 's beloved Woody Doll but Toby immediately denies it and flips it around on Michael claiming the vandalism is something he would do, to which everyone agrees to eventually.
Toby has a minor role in Michael Scott 's film "Threat Level Midnight '' as a hostage. When the villain Goldenface (played by Jim), decides to show the hero (played by Michael Scott) how serious he is, he decides to kill a hostage, naturally picking Toby. When Goldface shoots Toby 's character, his head explodes in an overly dramatic fashion. However, Michael tells Goldenface that the joke is on him, saying that Toby was a "wanted animal rapist ''.
Toby returns in "Michael 's Last Dundies '', where he appears to have lost a considerable amount of weight. In the beginning of the episode, Michael eggs his house in the morning and drives away. Toby is later seen at the Dundies sitting with Jim and Pam. Michael awards Toby with the "Extreme Repulsiveness '' award (with Deangelo commenting how mean that is). Toby refuses to accept it but is told he has to by the other employees because Michael is leaving. Toby then reluctantly accepts it, but tells Michael he finds the award hateful. He then goes on to say that he 's taking advantage of being up on the platform, and lets everyone know that the jury found The Scranton Strangler guilty and that he is being put to death. However, Toby is now having doubts about the verdict, saying he thinks the Strangler might be innocent, but is interrupted by an "Oh Yeah '' sound effect from Dwight 's synthesizer.
In "Goodbye, Michael '', Michael is seen saying goodbye to Toby without insulting him, possibly indicating that he will miss Toby on some level. However, Michael is visibly disgusted when he learns that Toby has a brother, Rory (played by Paul Lieberstein 's real - life brother Warren), who lives in Boulder, Colorado as well. Later, Toby is seen talking to Rory via Skype and tells him he thinks his brother and Michael would "hit it off in an odd way ''. Rory suggests that he could bring Michael a welcome basket, and asks Toby if Michael likes Jams, but Toby informs him that Michael hates them.
In the beginning of "The Inner Circle '', Deangelo informs Toby that he is getting a new chair, but Deangelo, trying to be confusing so the staff wo n't "figure him out '', tells Toby he does n't care if he likes it. Toby is still grateful.
In "Dwight K. Schrute, (Acting) Manager '', he gets to fill out the gun violence accident form, much to his excitement. After Jo demotes Dwight upon learning of his gun accident, she appoints Toby as one of the search committee members who would be in charge of interviewing candidates for the manager position (along with Jim and Gabe).
In "The List '', new CEO Robert California makes a list of the people in the office, dividing them between perceived "winners '' and "losers ''; he takes the winners out to lunch. Although Toby is on the list of "winners '', he concludes that it must be a mistake, and excuses himself in the middle of lunch.
In "Lotto '', Toby says in a talking - head interview that if he won the lottery, he would n't change his life at all, except for quitting his job, moving away, and maybe re-entering the dating world. He also says he would spend a lot of time launching his true - crime podcast, "The Flenderson Files ''.
In "Garden Party '', Toby arrives at "Schrute Farms '' and asks Dwight 's cousin, Mose, where to park. Mose states that he is the valet and that Toby has to give him his car. Reluctantly, and after much pressure, Toby lets Mose park his car. It proves to be a bad choice, however, as Mose drives his car straight into a cornfield (though it is n't damaged, and becomes the first of many cars parked there in odd, Mose - chosen order).
In "Spooked '', Dwight and Robert California 's son Bert hearken back to the days when Toby was continuously mistreated by Michael when they "prank '' Toby by telling him he 's fired. Toby finds Bert 's treatment of him hurtful -- especially Bert saying he can have Toby fired because he 's the CEO 's kid -- and Dwight finds the whole bit hilarious.
In "Test the Store '', Toby has a rare substantial role in a Season 8 episode, where he leads a self - defense lecture for the employees after they believe Andy was attacked by a gang and left with a black eye (Toby and everyone else later find out Andy was punched by a rude 4th - grade girl when he defended Pam from a barrage of tossed pine cones). When Toby is n't aggressive enough for Kelly Kapoor 's taste, she stands up and begins threatening and swinging at him, after which Andy defends Toby and gets punched in his other eye.
In "New Guys '', Andy returns from Outward Bound manager training, making him become more "decisive and confident ''. When Andy tells Toby that he plans to fabricate an excuse to fire Nellie, Toby shoots down the idea as a violation of corporate policy, prompting Andy to tell Toby "I understand why Michael did n't like you. '' When Andy hosts a motivational exercise involving a tightrope, he insults Toby and Nellie in front of the staff. Since that time, Andy has been rude towards Toby in a manner that echoes Michael Scott 's hatred of his harmless HR rep, though Toby seems much less affected by Andy 's behavior than he was by Michael 's. When Andy went off on his long boat trip, Toby 's time in the last season was devoted to his unrequited romantic interest in Nellie Bertram and his belief that he 'd convicted an innocent man during his jury time on the Scranton Strangler case (a theory he put to rest when he went to visit the convict in prison and was, in fact, strangled and nearly killed by him). In the series finale, it 's revealed that Toby was fired immediately after Dwight fired Kevin Malone (it 's likely that the Corporate office fired Toby and Dwight simply had the burden of telling him) and Toby then moved to New York where he 's trying to become a novelist and has six roommates. Toby surprises his former co-workers at the reunion panel when he says that his life feels meaningless now that he 's not being filmed for the documentary anymore. He breaks down in tears while dancing with Pam at Dwight and Angela 's wedding, saying of what 's bad in his life that "It 's everything! '', but he seems cheered a little when the group insists he join them for post-wedding festivities. In a photo gallery NBC released of "where are they now? '' info - bits for the characters, it 's revealed that Toby has returned to his destiny by taking on an HR position at a TJ Maxx store.
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what color is the hot air balloon in the wizard of oz | Emerald City - wikipedia
The Emerald City (sometimes called the City of Emeralds) is the capital city of the fictional Land of Oz in L. Frank Baum 's Oz books, first described in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900).
Located in the center of the Land of Oz, the Emerald City is the end of the famous yellow brick road, which starts in Munchkin Country. In the center of the Emerald City is the Royal Palace of Oz.
In the first book, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), the walls are green, but the city itself is not. However, when they enter, everyone in the Emerald City is made to wear green - tinted eyeglasses; this is explained as an effort to protect their eyes from the "brightness and glory '' of the city, but in effect makes everything appear green when it is, in fact, "no more green than any other city ''. This is yet another "humbug '' created by the Wizard. In this book, the Wizard also describes the city as having been built for him within a few years after he arrived. It was he who decreed that everyone in the Emerald City must wear green eyeglasses, since the first thing he noticed about Oz after he landed in his hot air balloon was how green and pleasant the country was.
In the second book, The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904), however, the characters are required to wear the glasses at first, but halfway through the book, no more eyeglasses appear and no more mention is made of the brilliance, but the city is still described as green. This is continued throughout the series. The only allusions to the earlier conception appeared in The Road to Oz (1909), where the Little Guardian of the Gates wears green spectacles, the only character to do so. Furthermore, although at one point the character Tip describes it as being built by the Wizard, at another the Scarecrow explains that the Wizard had usurped the crown of Pastoria, the former king of the city, and from the Wizard the crown had passed to him. The book quickly concerns itself with finding the rightful heir to the crown of the city. Ozma remained the king 's heir, though both she and the original king were transformed to the ruler of all Oz. However, the story reverted to the Wizard 's having built the city in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz (1908), with the four wicked witches having usurped the king 's power before the Wizard 's arrival.
The Oz books describe the Emerald City as being built of green glass, emeralds, and other jewels. In the earlier books, it was described as completely green, but in later ones, green was merely the predominating color; the buildings were decorated with gold as well, and people added other colors to their costumes.
In the first book, one scene of the Emerald City is of particular note in the development of Oz: Dorothy sees rows of shops, selling green articles of every variety, and a vendor who sells green lemonade, from whom children bought it with green pennies. This contrasts with the later description of Oz, in which money does not feature. Interpreters have argued that the Wizard may have introduced money into the city, but this is not in the text itself.
The Emerald City of Oz (1910), the sixth book in the Oz series, describes the city as having exactly 9654 buildings and 57,318 citizens.
Baum may have been partly inspired in his creation of the Emerald City by the White City of the World Columbian Exposition of 1893, which he visited frequently, having moved to Chicago in anticipation of the event. W.W. Denslow, the illustrator of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, was also familiar with the White City, as he had been hired to sketch and document the exposition for the Chicago Times; Denslow 's illustrations of the Emerald City incorporate elements that may have been inspired by the White City. The quick building of the White City, in less than a year, may have been an element in the quick construction of the Emerald City in the first book.
It is also likely that Baum 's favored haunt, the Hotel Del Coronado, influenced its description in later books.
Scholars who interpret The Wizard of Oz as a political allegory see the Emerald City as a metaphor for Washington, D.C. and unsecured "greenback '' paper money. In this reading of the book, the city 's illusory splendor and value are compared with the value of paper money, which also has value only because of a shared illusion or convention. It is highly likely that the Hotel del Coronado influenced its description in later books, as well as in the artwork by John R. Neill.
David Williamson (whose brother - in - law wrote the Oz - inspired musical Oz (1976)) wrote a play called Emerald City (1987). The term is used as a metaphor by the character Elaine Ross, who describes Sydney as "the Emerald City of Oz '', where people go expecting their dreams to be fulfilled only to end up with superficial substitutes and broken dreams. (Note that "Oz '' can refer to "Australia '' in colloquial Australian speech.) The 2006 Sydney New Year 's Eve Festivities were entitled "A Diamond Night in Emerald City '' also in reference to Williamson 's play, and the "Diamond Night '' alluded to the 75th anniversary of the opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 2007. (The bridge was the centerpiece of the celebrations). Subsequently, "Emerald City '' has occasionally been used as an unofficial nickname for the city of Sydney. The head office of the Sydney - based merchant banking and private equity firm Emerald Partners is located on top of the Museum of Contemporary Art building on the Sydney Harbour foreshore, at Circular Quay. The firm was named after Baum 's book and the David Williamson play.
The American city of Seattle, Washington has used "The Emerald City '' as its official nickname since 1982. There is also a drink known as "Emerald City '' that is associated with the city of Seattle. Eugene, Oregon is also referred to as the Emerald City, and the region has been known as the Emerald Empire as early as 1928.
Muntinlupa City is nicknamed as the Emerald City of the Philippines by the Department of Tourism.
In Gregory Maguire 's revisionist Oz novels, Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (1995) and Son of a Witch (2005), the Emerald City is a much darker place than in Baum 's novels. It does have splendid palaces and gardens, but sections are also beset by crime and poverty. Son of a Witch introduces Southstairs, an extensive political prison located in the caves below the Emerald City. The green glasses worn by the citizens are often used as a way to stop them from seeing what is going on around them.
The video game Emerald City Confidential (2009) portrays the Emerald City as a film noir place with private detectives, widespread corruption, mob bosses, smugglers, and crooked lawyers. Set 40 years after the events of The Wizard of Oz, its described as "Oz, seen through the eyes of Raymond Chandler ''.
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where is the location of the declaration of independence | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the Thirteen Colonies then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states no longer under British rule. With the Declaration, these new states took a collective first step toward forming the United States of America. The declaration was signed by representatives from New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The Lee Resolution for independence was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. The Committee of Five had drafted the Declaration to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress edited to produce the final version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America '' -- although Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft is preserved at the Library of Congress, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as well as Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Its original purpose was to announce independence, and references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his policies and his rhetoric, as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The Declaration of Independence inspired many similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands. It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence in Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense made a persuasive and impassioned case for independence, which had not yet been given serious intellectual consideration in the American colonies. Paine connected independence with Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity, thereby stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss, and public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after its publication.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by 13 different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue; consequently, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for it, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
-- John Adams, May 15, 1776
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1, and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
"When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. ''
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
"We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
"That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. ''
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
"Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
"He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
"He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
"He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
"He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
"He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
"He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
"He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
"He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
"He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
"He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
"He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
"He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
"He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
"For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
"For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
"For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
"For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
"For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
"For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
"For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
"For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
"For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
"He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
"He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
"He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
"He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
"He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
"In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. ''
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
"Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. ''
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
"We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. ''
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, it was being read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the 13 states. The first formal public readings of the document took place on July 8, in Philadelphia (by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall), Trenton, New Jersey, and Easton, Pennsylvania; the first newspaper to publish it was the Pennsylvania Evening Post on July 6. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among Creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776, under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017, it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in the archives at West Sussex County Council in Chichester, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was given little attention in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804, during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
John Trumbull 's painting Declaration of Independence has played a significant role in popular conceptions of the Declaration of Independence. The painting is 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size and was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817; it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It is sometimes described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence, but it actually shows the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
Trumbull painted the figures from life whenever possible, but some had died and images could not be located; hence, the painting does not include all the signers of the Declaration. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact, the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time. It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Trumbull 's painting has been depicted multiple times on U.S. currency and postage stamps. Its first use was on the reverse side of the $100 National Bank Note issued in 1863. A few years later, the steel engraving used in printing the bank notes was used to produce a 24 - cent stamp, issued as part of the 1869 Pictorial Issue. An engraving of the signing scene has been featured on the reverse side of the United States two - dollar bill since 1976.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Abraham Lincoln, 1858
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The Declaration was chosen to be the first digitized text (1971).
The Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence was dedicated in 1984 in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776 and the 1972 film version, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams. In 1970, The 5th Dimension recorded the opening of the Declaration on their album Portrait in the song "Declaration ''. It was first performed on the Ed Sullivan Show on December 7, 1969, and it was taken as a song of protest against the Vietnam War. The Declaration of Independence is also a plot device in the 2004 American film National Treasure.
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who elects the non permanent members of the security council | List of members of the United Nations Security Council - wikipedia
Membership of the United Nations Security Council is held by the five permanent members and ten elected, non-permanent members. Prior to 1966, there were six elected members, while the permanent members have in essence not changed since the creation of the United Nations in 1945, apart from the representation of China. Elected members hold their place on the Council for a two - year term, and half of these places are contested each year. To ensure geographical continuity, a certain number of members is allocated for each of the five UN regional groupings.
* During the 2016 Security Council elections, Italy and the Netherlands agreed to split a two - year term, in which Italy would serve from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2017 and the Netherlands would subsequently serve from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2018.
In addition, one of the non-permanent members of the council is an Arab country, alternately from the African or Asia - Pacific groups. This rule was added to the system in 1967 for it to be applied beginning with 1968.
Each year the UN General Assembly elects five new members for a two - year term; these elections always begin in October of the year, and continue until the two - thirds majority for the number of countries for each region has been reached. Re-election is allowed, but the term must not be consecutive.
* The representative of Arab nations alternates between these two elected spaces.
From 1946 to 1965, the security council included six non-permanent members. The regional grouping at that time was:
There were some exceptions to this grouping: Liberia took the place of a Western European country in 1961; the Ivory Coast substituted a member of the Commonwealth in 1964 -- 1965; and the Eastern Europe group included Asian countries from 1956.
As part of a proposed expansion of the Security Council, Brazil, Germany, India and Japan, collectively the Group of 4 or G4 nations, are seeking permanent representation on this body. Italy opposed the expansion of the Security Council through the establishment of the group Uniting for Consensus.
This list contains the 130 United Nations member states so far elected to the United Nations Security Council, including the five permanent members, all listed by number of years each country has so far spent on the UNSC. Of all the members, 6 have so far ceased to exist, leaving the list with 124 modern nations. These, combined with the 69 modern nations that have never been elected to the UNSC to date (see Non-members, below), make up the entirety of the 193 current members of the UN.
Years on the Security Council, as of 2016, including current year where relevant:
The following countries have made known their applications for future United Nations Security Council membership:
Serbia as a member of the Eastern European Group has also expressed their wish to apply for United Nations Security Council membership in the future, but did not specify any term.
As of July 2011, there are currently 193 members of the United Nations and five permanent members of the Security Council. The other ten seats are assigned amongst the remaining 188 members. As a result, many members have never been on the Security Council. The following list is a summary of all countries, currently 68 modern nations and three historical ones, that have never been a member of the United Nations Security Council. The three historical UN members listed are Tanganyika, Zanzibar, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
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how many episodes are there in heartland season 11 | List of Heartland episodes - wikipedia
Heartland is a Canadian family drama television series which debuted on CBC on October 14, 2007. Heartland follows sisters Amy and Lou Fleming, their grandfather Jack Bartlett, and Ty Borden, through the highs and lows of life at the ranch.
Heartland airs in Canada on the regional CBC channels at 7 pm (7: 30 pm in Newfoundland) on Sundays. Beginning April 23, 2017, the 10th season of Heartland airs in the United States on the Up TV network on Sunday evenings at 8: 00 pm Eastern. From its first episode the plot focuses on Amy, who inherited her mother 's gift of being able to heal abused and damaged horses, after a tragic accident that led to big changes in everyone 's lives.
The show became the longest - running one - hour scripted drama in the history of Canadian television, when it surpassed the 124 episodes of Street Legal on October 19, 2014. As of February 4, 2018, 189 episodes of Heartland have aired. Season 11 began on Sunday, September 24, 2017 at its usual time. Filming for Season 12 began on May 31, 2018.
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b2 visa maximum stay 6 months or 180 days | B visa - wikipedia
A B visa is one of a category of non-immigrant visas issued by the United States government to foreign citizens seeking entry for a temporary period. The two types of B visa are the B - 1 visa, issued to those seeking entry for business purposes, and the B - 2 visa, issued to those seeking entry for tourism or other non-business purposes. In practice, the two visa categories are usually combined together and issued as a "B - 1 / B - 2 visa '' valid for a temporary visit for either business or pleasure, or a combination of the two. Visitors from some countries do not need to obtain a visa for these purposes (see United States visas).
The cost of a B visa consists of the application fee, which all applicants must pay (currently 160 USD), and the issuance fee, which varies by nation based on reciprocity, and is only paid if the visa is approved.
As of October 2017, only nationals of the following countries have to pay the issuance fee.
Before 1994, there was no application fee, and only the issuance fee was charged, varying by nationality based on reciprocity. In 1994, the application fee was introduced for all applicants, in addition to the reciprocal issuance fee, to pay for the more costly machine - readable visas, which replaced the older stamped visas around that time. The application fee was initially 20 USD, and has increased several times since then.
As with other non-immigrant U.S. visas, a B - 1 / B - 2 visa has a validity period (from 1 month to 10 years), allows for one, two or multiple entries into the U.S., and elicits a period of stay (maximum 6 months) recorded by the Customs and Border Protection officer at the port of entry on the individual 's form I - 94. The validity period determines how long the visa may be used to enter the U.S., while the period of stay determines how long the person may stay in the U.S. after each entry.
Validity periods per country are listed in the U.S. Department of State Visa Reciprocity Tables and vary from 1 month for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (with lower issuance fee), 1 year for Vietnam, 3 years for Russia, and 5 years for Pakistan, to 10 years for China, India, Israel, Malaysia, Morocco, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, Tunisia, and most countries in the Americas and Europe. For some countries, longer validity periods are available for higher issuance fees or specific visa types (B - 1 or B - 2).
Periods of stay for B - 1 visas may be granted initially for a duration long enough to allow the visitor to conduct their business, up to a maximum of 6 months, and can be extended for another 6 months; stays with B - 1 visas are usually granted for three months or less, while stays with B - 2 visas are generally granted for six months. Extensions are possible, provided the individual has not violated the conditions of admission.
A Border Crossing Card (BCC), also called a laser visa, has a 10 - year validity and functions as both a BCC and a B - 1 / B - 2 visitor 's visa. The BCC is only issued to nationals of Mexico who apply for a visa inside Mexico.
Validity of B visas by nationality, as of October 2017:
On March 15, 2016, the U.S. Custom and Border Protection (CBP) announced that, starting from 29 November 2016, all holders of Chinese passports who also hold 10 - year B visas are required to enroll in the Electronic Visa Update System (EVUS) before travelling to the United States via land, air or sea. The EVUS is designed for visa holders to update any changes to their basic biographic and employment information at the time of their visa applications. Similar to the ESTA, each EVUS registration is valid for a period of 2 years or until the holder 's passport expiration date, whichever comes first, and each user of EVUS must pay a cost recovery fee of US $8 to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Holders of EVUS can travel to the U.S. for unlimited times providing that their EVUS registration and visa remain valid.
The requirement applies to any holder of Chinese passport and B visa with a 10 - year validity. It also applies to holders of non-citizen travel documents issued by other countries, such as refugee travel document and certificate of identity, whose nationality is Chinese. It does not apply, however, to holders of HKSAR passports and MSAR passports, holders of B visas with a validity shorter than 10 years, and holders of other types of visas. The CBP and DHS are seeking to expand the EVUS to other nationalities in the future.
EVUS was officially launched on 31 October 2016 for early enrollments. Upon launch, CBP announced that the enrollment fee will be suspended until further notice.
Most B - 1, 2 visas are issued to the nationals of the following countries (listed over 40,000 visas):
In fiscal 2014 most reasons to refuse a visa were cited as "failure to establish entitlement to nonimmigrant status '', "incompatible application '' (most overcome), "unlawful presence '', "misrepresentation '', "criminal convictions '', "smugglers '' and "controlled substance violators ''. Smaller number of applications were rejected for "physical or mental disorder '', "prostitution '', "espionage '', "terrorist activities '', "falsely claiming citizenship '' and other grounds for refusal including "presidential proclamation '', "money laundering '', "communicable disease '' and "commission of acts of torture or extrajudicial killings ''.
Highest number of non-immigrant admissions for tourists and for business purposes into the United States in fiscal year 2014, 2015 and 2016 was from the following countries (listed over 700,000 admissions):
A number of visitors with B - 1 / B - 2 visa overstayed the maximum duration allowed for their visits. The Department of Homeland Security published a report for Fiscal Year 2015 that lists the number of suspected violations made by passengers who arrived via air or sea. The statistics below exclude persons who left the United States later than their allowed stay or legalized their status and shows only suspected overstays who remained in the country.
Among Mexicans who were admitted via air or sea, 42,114 persons are suspected to overstay their non-immigrant visits for business or pleasure. More than 95 % of visitors from Mexico arrive to the U.S. by land rather than by air and sea. Statistics for suspected overstays of the land visitors are yet to be released.
Excluding Mexico, the top 20 countries of nationality by the number of suspected in - country B - 1 / B - 2 visa overstays (out of total 210,825) are:
The top 10 countries of nationality by in - country B - 1 / B - 2 visa overstay rate are:
There were also 153,166 persons admitted from the Visa Waiver Program countries who are suspected to overstay their permitted stay in the United States. See Visa Waiver Program # Overstay rate for detailed statistics across such countries.
US tourist visas that are valid for further travel are accepted as substitute visas for national visas in following countries:
Under section 214 (b) of the Immigration and Nationality Act, a foreigner must prove to the satisfaction of the Consular officer his or her intent to return to his home country after visiting the United States. The act specifically states:
Every alien (other than a nonimmigrant described in subparagraph (L) or (V) of section 101 (a) (15), and other than a nonimmigrant described in any provision of section 101 (a) (15) (H) (i) except subclause (b1) of such section) shall be presumed to be an immigrant until he establishes to the satisfaction of the consular officer, at the time of application for a visa, and the immigration officers, at the time of application for admission, that he is entitled to a nonimmigrant status under section 101 (a) (15).
In practice, this means that consular officers have wide discretion to deny a visa application. Once refused, there is no judicial or other means to challenge a visa decision. The foreigner, however, is free to apply for a visa again, particularly if circumstances have changed that might show to the consular officer that the applicant overcomes the presumption of being an intending immigrant.
Business or pleasure cover a wide variety of possible reasons to visit the United States.
Under the category of temporary visitor for business, a B - 1 visa can be used to:
expenses incidental to the temporary stay
Under the category of temporary visitor for pleasure, a B - 2 visa can be used to:
Holders of B - 1 / B - 2 visas are prohibited from engaging in any of the following activities:
The Adjusted Visa Refusal Rate for B visas were:
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who has thrown the most interceptions in one game | List of National Football League records (individual) - wikipedia
This is a list of records in the National Football League (NFL) set by individual players.
All - purpose yardage (or combined net yards gained) encompasses rushing, receiving, interception returns, punt returns, kickoff returns and fumble returns.
Net average has been compiled since 1976.
Punts inside the 20 have been compiled since 1976.
Note: These records are not listed in the NFL Record and Fact Book.
Note: These records are not listed in NFL Record and Fact Book
Note: These records are not listed in NFL Record and Fact Book
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explain the causes of the religious wars in the netherlands | European wars of religion - wikipedia
The European wars of religion were a series of religious wars waged in Central, Western and Northern Europe from 1524 to 1648 following the onset of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. The conflicts ended with the Peace of Westphalia recognizing three separate Christian traditions in the Holy Roman Empire: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism, otherwise known as the Reformed tradition.
The wars were strongly influenced by the religious change of the period and the conflict and rivalry that it produced. Nevertheless, the combatants can not be neatly categorised by religion, nor were they divided by religion alone, and in most cases religion was only a part of the causes of the wars.
Individual conflicts that may be distinguished within this topic include:
Although later wars such as the Nine Years ' War (1688 -- 1697) had a religious component that was important locally in some arenas, they were more fundamentally undertaken for political reasons, with coalitions forming across religious divisions. Purely political motivations and cross-religious alliances were also significant in many of the earlier wars.
The Holy Roman Empire, encompassing present - day Germany and surrounding territory, was the area most devastated by the wars of religion. The Empire was a fragmented collection of semi-independent states with an elected Holy Roman Emperor as its head; after the 14th century, this position was usually held by a Habsburg. The Austrian House of Habsburg was a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects in present - day Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Hungary. The Empire also contained regional powers, such as Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, the Landgraviate of Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier, and Württemberg. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free imperial cities, abbeys, bishoprics, and small lordships of sovereign families rounded out the Empire.
Lutheranism, from its inception at Wittenberg in 1519, found a ready reception in Germany, as well as in formerly Hussite Bohemia (where the Hussite Wars took place from 1419 to 1434). The preaching of Martin Luther and his many followers raised tensions across Europe. In Northern Germany, Luther adopted the stratagem of gaining the support of the local princes in his struggle to take over and re-establish the church along Lutheran lines. The Elector of Saxony, the Landgrave of Hesse and other North German princes not only protected Luther from retaliation from the edict of outlawry issued by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, but also used state power to enforce the establishment of Lutheran worship in their lands. Church property was seized, and Catholic worship was forbidden in most lands that adopted the Lutheran Reformation. The political conflicts thus engendered within the Empire led almost inevitably to war.
The Knights ' Revolt of 1522 was a revolt by a number of Protestant and religious humanist German knights led by Franz von Sickingen, against the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Emperor. It has also been called the "Poor Barons ' Rebellion. '' The revolt was short - lived but would inspire the bloody German Peasants ' War of 1524 -- 1526.
The first large - scale violence was engendered by the more radical of Luther 's followers, who wished to extend wholesale reform of the Church to a similar wholesale reform of society in general. This was a step that the princes supporting Luther were not willing to countenance. The German Peasants ' War of 1524 / 1525 was a popular revolt inspired by the teachings of the radical reformers. It consisted of a series of economic as well as religious revolts by peasants, townsfolk and nobles. The conflict took place mostly in southern, western and central areas of modern Germany but also affected areas in neighboring modern Switzerland and Austria. At its height, in the spring and summer of 1525, it involved an estimated 300,000 peasant insurgents. Contemporary estimates put the dead at 100,000. It was Europe 's largest and most widespread popular uprising before the 1789 French Revolution.
Because of their revolutionary political ideas, radical reformers like Thomas Müntzer were compelled to leave the Lutheran cities of North Germany in the early 1520s. They spread their revolutionary religious and political doctrines into the countryside of Bohemia, Southern Germany, and Switzerland. Starting as a revolt against feudal oppression, the peasants ' uprising became a war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by force an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and community of goods. The total defeat of the insurgents at Frankenhausen on May 15, 1525 was followed by the execution in Müntzer of thousands of peasant followers. Martin Luther rejected the demands of the insurgents and upheld the right of Germany 's rulers to suppress the uprisings. This played a major part in the rejection of his teachings by many German peasants, particularly in the south.
After the Peasants ' War, a second and more determined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Münster, in Westphalia (1532 -- 1535). Here a group of prominent citizens, including the Lutheran pastor Bernhard Rothmann, Jan Matthys, and Jan Bockelson ("John of Leiden '') had little difficulty in obtaining possession of the town on January 5, 1534. Matthys identified Münster as the "New Jerusalem '', and preparations were made to not only hold what had been gained, but to proceed from Münster toward the conquest of the world.
Claiming to be the successor of David, John of Leiden was installed as king. He legalized polygamy and took sixteen wives, one of whom he personally beheaded in the marketplace. Community of goods was also established. After obstinate resistance, the town was taken by the besiegers on June 24, 1535, and then Leiden and some of his more prominent followers were executed in the marketplace.
In 1529 under the lead of Huldrych Zwingli, the Protestant canton and city of Zürich had concluded with other Protestant cantons a defence alliance, the Christliches Burgrecht, which also included the cities of Konstanz and Strasbourg. The Catholic cantons in response had formed an alliance with Ferdinand of Austria.
After numerous minor incidents and provocations from both sides, a Catholic priest was executed in the Thurgau in May 1528, and the Protestant pastor J. Keyser was burned at the stake in Schwyz in 1529. The last straw was the installation of a Catholic reeve at Baden, and Zürich declared war on 8 June (First War of Kappel), occupied the Thurgau and the territories of the Abbey of St. Gall, and marched to Kappel at the border to Zug. Open war was avoided by means of a peace agreement (Erster Landfriede) that was not exactly favourable to the Catholic side, which had to dissolve its alliance with the Austrian Habsburgs. Tensions remained essentially unresolved.
On October 11, 1531, the Catholic cantons decisively defeated the forces of Zürich in the Second War of Kappel. The Zürich troops had little support from allied Protestant cantons, and Huldrych Zwingli was killed on the battlefield, along with twenty - four other pastors. After the defeat, the forces of Zürich regrouped and attempted to occupy the Zugerberg, and some of them camped on the Gubel hill near Menzingen. A small force of Aegeri succeeded in routing the camp, and the demoralized Zürich force had to retreat, forcing the Protestants to agree to a peace treaty to their disadvantage. Switzerland was to be divided into a patchwork of Protestant and Catholic cantons, with the Protestants tending to dominate the larger cities, and the Catholics the more rural areas.
In 1656, tensions between Protestants and Catholics re-emerged and led to the outbreak of the First War of Villmergen. The Catholics were victorious and able to maintain their political dominance. The Toggenburg War in 1712 was a conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons. According to the Peace of Aarau of 11 August 1712 and the Peace of Baden of 16 June 1718, the war ended with the end of Catholic hegemony. The Sonderbund War of 1847 was also based on religion.
Following the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, the Emperor demanded that all religious innovations not authorized by the Diet be abandoned by 15 April 1531. Failure to comply would result in prosecution by the Imperial Court. In response, the Lutheran princes who had set up Protestant churches in their own realms met in the town of Schmalkalden in December 1530. Here they banded together to form the Schmalkaldic League (German: Schmalkaldischer Bund), an alliance designed to protect themselves from the Imperial action. Its members eventually intended the League to replace the Holy Roman Empire itself, and each state was to provide 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalries for mutual defense. In 1532 the Emperor, pressed by external troubles, stepped back from confrontation, offering the "Peace of Nuremberg '', which suspended all action against the Protestant states pending a General Council of the Church. The moratorium kept peace in the German lands for over a decade, yet Protestantism became further entrenched, and spread, during its term.
The peace finally ended in the Schmalkaldic War (German: Schmalkaldischer Krieg), a brief conflict between 1546 and 1547 between the forces of Charles V and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. The conflict ended with the advantage of the Catholics, and the Emperor was able to impose the Augsburg Interim, a compromise allowing slightly modified worship, and supposed to remain in force until the conclusion of a General Council of the Church. However various Protestant elements rejected the Interim, and the Second Schmalkaldic war broke out in 1552.
The Peace of Augsburg (1555), signed by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, confirmed the result of the 1526 Diet of Speyer and ended the violence between the Lutherans and the Catholics in Germany. It stated that:
Religious tensions remained strong throughout the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg began to unravel as some bishops converting to Protestantism refused to give up their bishoprics. This was evident from the Cologne War (1582 -- 83), a conflict initiated when the prince - archbishop of the city converted to Calvinism. Religious tensions also broke into violence in the German free city of Donauwörth in 1606, when the Lutheran majority barred the Catholic residents from holding a procession, provoking a riot. This prompted intervention by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria on behalf of the Catholics.
By the end of the 16th century the Rhine lands and those of southern Germany remained largely Catholic, while Lutherans predominated in the north, and Calvinists dominated in west - central Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The latter formed the League of Evangelical Union in 1608.
By 1617 Germany was bitterly divided, and it was clear that Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia, would die without an heir. His lands would therefore fall to his nearest male relative, his cousin Ferdinand of Styria. Ferdinand, having been educated by the Jesuits, was a staunch Catholic. The rejection of Ferdinand as Crown Prince by primarily Hussite Bohemia triggered the Thirty Years ' War in 1618, when his representatives were defenestrated in Prague.
The Thirty Years ' War was fought between 1618 and 1648, principally on the territory of today 's Germany, and involved most of the major European powers. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a general war involving much of Europe, for reasons not necessarily related to religion. The war marked a continuation of the France - Habsburg rivalry for pre-eminence in Europe, which led later to direct war between France and Spain. Military intervention by external powers such as Denmark and Sweden on the Protestant side increased the duration of the war and the extent of its devastation. In the latter stages of the war, Catholic France, fearful of an increase in Habsburg power, also intervened on the Protestant side.
The major impact of the Thirty Years ' War, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries and Italy, while bankrupting many of the powers involved. The war ended with the Treaty of Münster, a part of the wider Peace of Westphalia.
During the war, Germany 's population was reduced by 30 % on average. In the territory of Brandenburg, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two thirds of the population died. The population of the Czech lands declined by a third. The Swedish armies alone destroyed 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one - third of all German towns. Huge damage was done to monasteries, churches and other religious institutions. The war had proved disastrous for the German "Holy Roman Empire ''. Germany lost population and territory, and was henceforth divided into hundreds of largely impotent semi-independent states. The Imperial power retreated to Austria and the Habsburg lands. The Netherlands and Switzerland were confirmed in independence. The peace institutionalised the Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist religious divide in Germany, with populations either converting, or moving to areas controlled by rulers of their own faith.
The Low Countries have a particular history of religious conflict with roots in the Calvinist reformation movement of the 1530s. These conflicts became known as the Dutch Revolt or the Eighty Years ' War. By dynastic inheritance the whole of the Netherlands (the modern day Netherlands and Belgium) had come to be ruled by the kings of Spain. Following aggressive Calvinist preaching in and around the rich merchant cities of the southern Netherlands, organized anti-catholic religious protests grew in violence and frequency. In 1566, a league of about 400 members of the high nobility, themselves disgruntled at Spanish rule, presented a petition to the governor Margaret of Parma to suspend punitive actions against the Calvinists.
In early August 1566, a mob stormed the church of Hondschoote in Flanders (now in Northern France). News of this relatively small incident spread north and led to the Beeldenstorm, a massive iconoclastic movement by Calvinists, who stormed churches and other religious buildings to desecrate and destroy statues and images of Catholic saints all over the Netherlands. According to the Calvinists, these statues represented worship of idols. The number of actual image - breakers appears to have been relatively small. Limm (1989) notes that "there were few cases of more than 200 people being involved at any one time '' even in the northern provinces, where large crowds often attended these iconoclastic events. In the case of the southern provinces, he speaks of a relatively small, orderly group moving along the country. Spaans (1999) argues that iconoclasm was actually organized by local elites for political reasons. In general, local authorities did not step in to rein in the vandalism. The actions of the iconoclasts drove the nobility into two camps, with William of Orange and other grandees supporting the iconoclasts, and others, notably Henry of Brederode, opposing them.
In 1568, William returned to try to drive the highly unpopular Duke of Alba from Brussels. A co-ordinated Protestant attempt was made to take over the Netherlands from four different directions, with armies led by William 's brothers invading from Germany and French Huguenots invading from the south. The Battle of Rheindalen near Roermond on 23 April 1568 was won by the Spanish, but the Battle of Heiligerlee, fought on 23 May 1568, resulted in victory for the rebel army. The rebel campaign ended in failure, however, as William ran out of money to pay his army, and his allies were destroyed by Alba.
In its battle to maintain Catholic control of the Low Countries, Spain was severely hampered because it was also fighting a war against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean. Even so, by 1570 the Spanish had mostly suppressed the rebellion throughout the Netherlands. However, on April 1, 1572, Dutch Calvinist raiders, known as Sea Beggars, forced from sanctuary in England, unexpectedly captured the almost undefended northern Netherlands town of Brielle. Most of the important cities in the provinces of Holland and Zeeland immediately declared loyalty to the rebels. Notable exceptions were Amsterdam and Middelburg, which remained loyal to the Catholic cause until capture in 1578. William of Orange was put at the head of the revolt, entering the Netherlands with an army 20,000 strong, and with forces of French Huguenots in support.
The new revolt led to increasing discord amongst the Dutch. On one side was a militant Calvinist minority that wanted to continue fighting the Catholic King Philip II, and convert all Dutch citizens to Calvinism. On the other was a minority of Catholics that wanted to remain loyal to the Landholder (Dutch: landvoogd) and the Spanish - backed government below him. In between was the majority of historically Catholic citizens who had no particular allegiance, but shared a desire to restore Dutch privileges and to get rid of the Spanish mercenary armies. Alba was replaced in 1573 by Luis de Requesens and a new policy of moderation was attempted. However, Spain 's inability to pay its mercenary armies led to numerous mutinies, and in November 1576 troops sacked Antwerp at the cost of some 8,000 lives. This so - called "Spanish Fury '' strengthened the resolve of the rebels in the seventeen provinces. William of Orange took advantage of the anarchy to establish wider control of virtually the whole Netherlands in alliance with the States - General, entering Brussels in September 1577.
On January 6, 1579, upset by Calvinist outrages in Oudenarde, Kortrijk, Bruges and Ieper, and the continued aggressive Calvinism of the Northern States, some of the Southern States signed the Union of Arras (Atrecht), declaring their loyalty to the Spanish king. In response, William united the northern states of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and the province of Groningen in the Union of Utrecht on January 23, 1579. Some southern cities like Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and Antwerp joined the Union of Utrecht, and effectively, the 17 provinces were now divided into two warring states.
Over the following years, the new Spanish governor Alexander Farnese (Duke of Parma) reconquered the major part of Flanders and Brabant, as well as large parts of the northeastern provinces. The Roman Catholic religion was restored in much of this area. In 1585, Antwerp -- the largest city in the Low Countries at the time -- fell into his hands, which caused over half its population to flee to the north (see also Siege of Antwerp).
The Netherlands were split into an independent northern part and a southern part still under Spanish control. Due to the almost uninterrupted rule of the Calvinist - dominated separatists, most of the population of the northern provinces became converted to Protestantism over the next decades. The south, under Spanish rule, remained a Catholic stronghold; most of its Protestants fled to the north. Spain retained a large military presence in the south, where it could also be used against France. After a period of peace, war took up again in 1622, to be finally ended on January 30, 1648, with the Treaty of Münster between Spain and the independent Netherlands. This treaty was part of the European scale Peace of Westphalia that also ended the Thirty Years ' War.
In 1532, King Francis I intervened politically and militarily in support of Protestant German princes against the Habsburgs, as did King Henry II in 1551. However, both kings firmly repressed attempts to spread Lutheran ideas within France. An organised influx of Calvinist preachers from Geneva and elsewhere during the 1550s succeeded in setting up hundreds of underground Calvinist congregations in France.
In a pattern soon to become familiar in the Netherlands and Scotland, underground Calvinist preaching and the formation of covert alliances with members of the nobility quickly led to more direct action to gain political and religious control. The prospect of taking over rich church properties and monastic lands had led nobles in many parts of Europe to support a "princely '' Reformation. Added to this was the Calvinist teaching that leading citizens had the duty to overthrow an "ungodly '' ruler (i.e. one who was not supportive of Calvinism). In March 1560, the "Amboise conspiracy '', or "Tumult of Amboise '', was an attempt on the part of a group of disaffected nobles to abduct the young king Francis II and eliminate the Catholic House of Guise. It was foiled when their plans were discovered. The first major instances of systematic Protestant destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches occurred in Rouen and La Rochelle in 1560. The following year, the attacks extended to over 20 cities and towns, and would, in turn, incite Catholic urban groups to massacres and riots in Sens, Cahors, Carcassonne, Tours and other cities.
In December 1560, Francis II died, and Catherine de ' Medici became regent for her young son Charles IX. Although a Roman Catholic, she was prepared to deal favourably with the Huguenot House of Bourbon. She therefore supported religious toleration in the shape of the Edict of Saint - Germain (January 1562), which allowed the Huguenots to worship publicly outside of towns and privately inside of them. On March 1, however, a faction of the Guise family 's retainers attacked an illegal Calvinist service in Wassy - sur - Blaise in Champagne. As hostilities broke out, the Edict was revoked.
This provoked the First War. The Bourbons, with English support, and led by Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, and Admiral Coligny began to seize and garrison strategic towns along the Loire. The Battle of Dreux and the battle of Orléans were the first major engagements of the conflict. In February 1563, at Orléans, Francis, Duke of Guise was assassinated, and Catherine 's fears that the war might drag on led her to mediate a truce and the Edict of Amboise (1563), which again provided for a controlled religious toleration of Protestant worship.
However, this was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by both Catholics and Protestants. The political temperature of the surrounding lands was rising, as religious unrest grew in the Netherlands. The Huguenots tried to gain French government support for intervention against the Spanish forces arriving in the Netherlands. Failing this, Protestant troops then made an unsuccessful attempt to capture and take control of King Charles IX at Meaux in 1567. This provoked a further outbreak of hostilities (the Second War), which ended in another unsatisfactory truce, the Peace of Longjumeau (March 1568).
In September of that year, war again broke out (the Third War). Catherine and Charles decided this time to ally themselves with the House of Guise. The Huguenot army was under the command of Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé, and aided by forces from south - eastern France and a contingent of Protestant militias from Germany -- including 14,000 mercenary reiters led by the Calvinist Duke of Zweibrücken. After the Duke was killed in action, he was succeeded by the Count of Mansfeld and the Dutch William of Orange and his brothers Louis and Henry. Much of the Huguenots ' financing came from Queen Elizabeth I of England. The Catholics were commanded by the Duke d'Anjou (later King Henry III) and assisted by troops from Spain, the Papal States and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the Poitou and Saintonge regions (to protect La Rochelle), and then Angoulême and Cognac. At the Battle of Jarnac (16 March 1569), the Prince de Condé was killed, forcing Admiral de Coligny to take command of the Protestant forces. Coligny and his troops retreated to the south - west and regrouped with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, and in spring of 1570 they pillaged Toulouse, cut a path through the south of France and went up the Rhone valley to La Charité - sur - Loire. The staggering royal debt and Charles IX 's desire to seek a peaceful solution led to the Peace of Saint - Germain - en - Laye (8 August 1570), which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots. In 1572, rising tensions between local Catholics and Protestant forces attending the wedding of the Protestant Henry of Navarre, and the King 's sister, Marguerite de Valois, culminated in the Saint Bartholomew 's Day Massacre. This led to the Fourth and Fifth Civil wars in 1572 and 1573 - 1576.
Henry of Anjou was crowned King Henry III of France in 1575, at Reims, but hostilities -- the Fifth War -- had already flared up again. Henry soon found himself in the difficult position of trying to maintain royal authority in the face of feuding warlords who refused to compromise. In 1576, the King signed the Edict of Beaulieu, granting minor concessions to the Calvinists, but a brief Sixth Civil War took place in 1577. Henry I, Duke of Guise, formed the Catholic League to protect the Catholic cause in France. Further hostilities -- the Seventh War (1579 -- 1580) -- ended in the stalemate of the Treaty of Fleix.
The fragile compromise came to an end in 1584, when the King 's youngest brother and heir presumptive, François, Duke of Anjou, died. As Henry III had no son, under Salic Law, the next heir to the throne was the Calvinist Prince Henry of Navarre. Under pressure from the Duke of Guise, Henry III reluctantly issued an edict suppressing Protestantism and annulling Henry of Navarre 's right to the throne.
In December 1584, the Duke of Guise signed the Treaty of Joinville on behalf of the Catholic League with Philip II of Spain, who supplied a considerable annual grant to the League. The situation degenerated into the Eighth War (1585 -- 1589). Henry of Navarre again sought foreign aid from the German princes and Elizabeth I of England. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the Committee of Sixteen, were becoming dissatisfied with Henry III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On 12 May 1588, a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris, and Henry III fled the city. The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government and welcomed the Duke of Guise to Paris. The Guises then proposed a settlement with a cipher as heir and demanded a meeting of the Estates - General, which was to be held in Blois.
King Henry decided to strike first. On December 23, 1588, at the Château de Blois, Henry of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal de Guise, were lured into a trap and were murdered. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the league declared open war against King Henry. The Parlement of Paris instituted criminal charges against the King, who now joined forces with his cousin, Henry of Navarre, to war against the League.
Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne, then became the leader of the Catholic League. League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of pseudonyms, while the Sorbonne proclaimed that it was just and necessary to depose Henry III. In July 1589, in the royal camp at Saint - Cloud, a monk named Jacques Clément gained an audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clément was executed on the spot, taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henry III called for Henry of Navarre and begged him, in the name of Statecraft, to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused. In keeping with Salic Law, he named Henry as his heir.
The situation on the ground in 1589 was that King Henry IV of France, as Navarre had become, held the south and west, and the Catholic League the north and east. The leadership of the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed Lieutenant - General of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in September 1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the Battle of Arques. Henry 's army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter.
The King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France. This, however, was no easy task. The Catholic League 's presses and supporters continued to spread stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England (see Forty Martyrs of England and Wales). The city prepared to fight to the death rather than accept a Calvinist king. The Battle of Ivry, fought on March 14, 1590, was another victory for the king, and Henry 's forces went on to lay siege to Paris, but the siege was broken by Spanish support. Realising that his predecessor had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in Catholic Paris, Henry reputedly uttered the famous phrase Paris vaut bien une messe (Paris is well worth a mass). He was formally received into the Roman Catholic Church in 1593 and was crowned at Chartres in 1594.
Some members of the League fought on, but enough Catholics were won over by the King 's conversion to increasingly isolate the diehards. The Spanish withdrew from France under the terms of the Peace of Vervins. Henry was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished Kingdom and reuniting France under a single authority. The wars concluded in 1598 when Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted a degree of religious toleration to Protestants.
France, although always ruled by a Catholic monarch, had played a major part in supporting the Protestants in Germany and the Netherlands against their dynastic rivals, the Habsburgs. The period of the French Wars of Religion effectively removed France 's influence as a major European power, allowing the Catholic forces in the Holy Roman Empire to regroup and recover.
In 1524, King Christian II converted to Lutheranism and encouraged Lutheran preachers to enter Denmark despite the opposition of the Danish diet of 1524. Following the death of King Frederick I in 1533, war broke out between Catholic followers of Count Christoph of Oldenburg and the firmly Lutheran Count Christian of Holstein. After losing his main support in Lübeck, Christoph quickly fell to defeat, finally losing his last stronghold of Copenhagen in 1536. Lutheranism was immediately established, the Catholic bishops were imprisoned, and monastic and church lands were soon confiscated to pay for the armies that had brought Christian to power. In Denmark this increased royal revenues by 300 %.
Count 's Feud, from 1534 to 1536, was a civil war over the Reformation of Denmark.
In 1625, as part of the Thirty Years ' War, Christian IV of Denmark, who was also the Duke of Holstein, agreed to help the Lutheran rulers of neighbouring Lower Saxony against the forces of the Holy Roman Empire by intervening militarily. Denmark 's cause was aided by France, which, together with England, had agreed to help subsidize the war. Christian had himself appointed war leader of the Lower Saxon Alliance and raised an army of 20,000 -- 35,000 mercenaries. Christian, however, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Imperial generals Albrecht von Wallenstein and Tilly. Wallenstein 's army marched north, occupying Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and ultimately Jutland. However, lacking a fleet, he was unable to take the Danish capital on the island of Zealand. Peace negotiations were concluded in the Treaty of Lübeck in 1629, which stated that Christian IV could keep his control over Denmark if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states.
The Reformation came to Britain and Ireland with King Henry VIII of England 's breach with the Catholic Church in 1533. At this time there were only a limited number of Protestants among the general population, and these were mostly living in the towns of the South and the East of England. With the state - ordered break with the Pope in Rome, the Church in England, Wales and Ireland was placed under the rule of the King and Parliament.
The first major changes to doctrine and practice took place under Vicar - General Thomas Cromwell, and the newly appointed Protestant - leaning Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. The first challenge to the institution of these reforms came from Ireland, where ' Silken ' Thomas Fitzgerald cited the controversy to justify his armed uprising of 1534. The young Fitzgerald failed to gain much local support, however, and in October a 1,600 strong army of English and Welshmen arrived in Ireland, along with four modern siege - guns. The following year Fitzgerald was blasted into submission, and in August he was induced to surrender.
Shortly after this episode, local resistance to the reforms emerged in England. The Dissolution of the Monasteries, which began in 1536, provoked a violent northern Catholic rebellion in the Pilgrimage of Grace, which was eventually put down with much bloodshed. The reformation continued to be imposed on an often unwilling population with the aid of stern laws that made it treason, punishable by death, to oppose the King 's actions with respect to religion. The next major armed resistance took place in the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, which was an unsuccessful rising in western England against the enforced substitution of Cranmer 's English language service for the Latin Catholic Mass.
In 1549 it came to the Prayer Book Rebellion.
Following the restoration of Catholicism under Queen Mary I of England in 1553, there was a brief unsuccessful Protestant rising in the south - east of England.
The Reformation in Scotland began in conflict. Fiery Calvinist preacher John Knox returned to Scotland in 1560, having been exiled for his part in the assassination of Cardinal Beaton. He proceeded to Dundee where a large number of Protestant sympathisers and noblemen had gathered. Knox was declared an outlaw by the Queen Regent, Mary of Guise, but the Protestants went at once to Perth, a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege. At the church of St John the Baptist, Knox preached a fiery sermon that provoked an iconoclastic riot. A mob poured into the church and it was entirely gutted. In the pattern of Calvinist riots in France and the Netherlands, the mob then attacked two friaries in the town, looting their gold and silver and smashing images. Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and a small French army.
However, with Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties, the queen regent retreated to Dunbar. By now Calvinist mobs had overrun much of central Scotland, destroying monasteries and catholic churches as they went. On 30 June, the Protestants occupied Edinburgh, though they were only able to hold it for a month. But even before their arrival, the mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries. On 1 July, Knox preached from the pulpit of St Giles ', the most influential in the capital.
Knox negotiated by letter with William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, Elizabeth 's chief advisor, for English support. When additional French troops arrived in Leith, Edinburgh 's seaport, the Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh. This time, on 24 October 1559, the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency. Her secretary, William Maitland of Lethington, defected to the Protestant side, bringing his administrative skills. For the final stage of the revolution, Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination. Support from England finally arrived and by the end of March, a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces. The sudden death of Mary of Guise in Edinburgh Castle on 10 June 1560 paved the way for the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh, and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland, leaving the Scottish Calvinists in control on the ground. Catholicism was forcibly suppressed.
The return of Mary, Queen of Scots, to Scotland in 1560, led to further tension between her and the Protestant Lords of the Congregation. Mary claimed to favour religious toleration on the French model, however the Protestant establishment feared a reestablishment of Catholicism, and sought with English help to neutralise or depose Mary. Mary 's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary 's half - brother, the Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant Lords in open rebellion. Mary set out for Stirling on 26 August 1565 to confront them. Moray and the rebellious lords were routed and fled into exile; the decisive military action becoming known as the Chaseabout Raid. In 1567, Mary was captured by another rebellious force at the Battle of Carberry Hill and imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle, where she was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in favour of her one - year - old son James. Mary escaped from Loch Leven the following year, and once again managed to raise a small army. After her army 's defeat at the Battle of Langside on May 13, she fled to England, where she was imprisoned by Queen Elizabeth. Her son James VI was raised as a Protestant, later becoming King of England as well as Scotland.
The Rising of the North, 1569 to 1570, was an unsuccessful attempt by Catholic nobles from Northern England to depose Queen Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots.
England, Scotland and Ireland, in personal union under the Stuart king, James I & VI, continued Elizabeth I 's policy of providing military support to European Protestants in the Netherlands and France. King Charles I decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve the French Huguenots whom Royal French forces held besieged in La Rochelle. However tax - raising authority for these wars was getting harder and harder to raise from parliament.
In 1638 the Scottish National Covenant was signed by aggrieved presbyterian lords and commoners. A Scottish rebellion, known as the Bishops War, soon followed, leading to the defeat of a weak royalist counter-force in 1640. The rebels went on to capture Newcastle upon Tyne, further weakening King Charles ' authority.
In October 1641, a major rebellion broke out in Ireland. Charles soon needed to raise more money to suppress this Irish Rebellion. Meanwhile, English Puritans and Scottish Calvinists intensely opposed the king 's main religious policy of unifying the Church of England and the Church of Scotland under a form of High Church Anglicanism. This, its opponents believed, was far too catholic in form, and based on the authority of bishops.
The English parliament refused to vote enough money for Charles to defeat the Scots without the King giving up much of his authority and reforming the English church along more Calvinist lines. This the king refused, and deteriorating relations led to the out break of war in 1642. The first pitched battle of the war, fought at Edgehill on 23 October 1642, proved inconclusive, and both the Royalists and Parliamentarians claimed it as a victory. The second field action of the war was a stand - off at Turnham Green, and Charles was forced to withdraw to Oxford, which would serve as his base for the remainder of the war.
In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning - point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex 's army forced the king to raise the siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalist army aside at the First Battle of Newbury on 20 September 1643. In an attempt to gain an advantage in numbers Charles negotiated a ceasefire with the Catholic rebels in Ireland, freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England. Simultaneously Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for their aid and assistance.
With the help of the Scots, Parliament won at Marston Moor (2 July 1644), gaining York and much of the north of England. Oliver Cromwell 's conduct in this battle proved decisive, and demonstrated his leadership potential. In 1645 Parliament passed the Self - denying Ordinance, by which all members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands, allowing the re-organization of its main forces into the New Model Army. By 1646 Charles had been forced to surrender himself to the Scots, and the parliamentary forces were in control of England. Charles was executed in 1649, and the monarchy was not restored until 1660. Even then, religious strife continued through the Glorious Revolution and even thereafter.
The Silken Thomas Rebellion was an Irish rebellion in 1534. The Séan Ó Néill 's Rebellion occurred from 1558 to 1567, and the Desmond Rebellions occurred in 1569 -- 1573 and 1579 -- 1583 in the Irish province of Munster.
Ireland entered into a continuous state of war with the rebellion of 1641, with most of the island controlled by the Irish Confederates. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I 's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under the Duke of Ormonde attempted to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding Dublin, but their opponents routed them at the Battle of Rathmines (2 August 1649). As the former Member of Parliament Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Prince Rupert 's fleet in Kinsale, Oliver Cromwell could land at Dublin on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance in Ireland.
Cromwell 's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. The siege of Drogheda and massacre of nearly 3,500 people -- comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests -- became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish - English and Catholic - Protestant strife during the last three centuries. However, the massacre has significance mainly as a symbol of the Irish perception of Cromwellian cruelty, as far more people died in the subsequent guerrilla warfare and scorched - earth fighting in the country than at infamous massacres such as Drogheda and Wexford. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered. Historians have estimated that up to 30 % of Ireland 's population either died or had gone into exile by the end of the wars. The victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic - owned land in the wake of the conquest and distributed it to the Parliament 's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war.
The execution of Charles I altered the dynamics of the Civil War in Scotland, which had raged between Royalists and Covenanters since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray, and their erstwhile leader, the Marquess of Montrose, had gone into exile. However, Montrose, who had raised a mercenary force in Norway, later returned but did not succeed in raising many Highland clans, and the Covenanters defeated his army at the Battle of Carbisdale in Ross - shire on 27 April 1650. The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to Edinburgh. On 20 May the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day.
Charles II landed in Scotland at Garmouth in Moray on 23 June 1650 and signed the 1638 National Covenant and the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant immediately after coming ashore. With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, King Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England.
Cromwell arrived in Scotland on 22 July 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at Dunbar. A Scottish army, assembled under the command of David Leslie, tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the Battle of Dunbar on September 3. Cromwell 's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland.
In July 1651, Cromwell 's forces crossed the Firth of Forth into Fife and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Inverkeithing (20 July 1651). The New Model Army advanced towards Perth, which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving George Monck to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took Stirling on 14 August and Dundee on 1 September. In 1652, the army finished off the remnants of Royalist resistance, under the terms of the "Tender of Union ''.
Despite the triumph of Calvinist forces in the south and lowlands of Scotland, many Scottish Highland clans remained either Catholic or Episcopalian in sympathy. The Catholic Clan MacDonald was subject to the Glencoe Massacre for being late in pledging loyalty to the Protestant King William III in 1691. And Highland clans rallied to the support of Catholic claimants to the British throne in the failed Jacobite Risings of the erstwhile Stuart King James III in 1715 and Charles Edward Stuart in 1745.
The Pilgrimage of Grace was a popular rising in Yorkshire in 1536 -- 37 against Henry VIII 's break with the Roman Catholic Church.
The Bigod 's rebellion was an armed rebellion by English Roman Catholics in Cumberland and Westmorland against King Henry VIII of England and the English Parliament.
These figures include the deaths of civilians from diseases, famine, etc., as well as deaths of soldiers in battle and possible massacres and genocide.
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what is the average height of a golden retriever | Golden Retriever - wikipedia
The Golden Retriever is a large - sized breed of dog bred as gun dogs to retrieve shot waterfowl such as ducks and upland game birds during hunting and shooting parties, and were named ' retriever ' because of their ability to retrieve shot game undamaged (soft mouth). Golden Retrievers have an instinctive love of water, and are easy to train to basic or advanced obedience standards. They are a long - coated breed, with a dense inner coat that provides them with adequate warmth in the outdoors, and an outer coat that lies flat against their bodies and repels water. Golden Retrievers are well suited to residency in suburban or country environments. Although they need substantial outdoor exercise, they should be housed in a fenced area because of their instinctual tendency to roam. They shed copiously, particularly at the change of seasons, and require fairly regular grooming.
The breed is a prominent participant in conformation shows for purebred dogs. The Golden Retriever is popular as a disability assistance dog such as being a guide dog for the blind and a hearing dog for the deaf. In addition, they are trained to be a hunting dog, a detection dog, and a search and rescue participant. The breed 's friendly, gentle temperament means it is unsuited to being a professional guard dog, but its temperament has also made it the third-most popular family dog breed (by registration) in the United States, the fifth-most popular in Brazil and Australia, and the eighth-most popular in the United Kingdom. Golden Retrievers are rarely choosy eaters, but require ample exercise (of two or more hours a day). The breed is fond of play but also highly trainable.
The Golden Retriever is a large, strongly built breed with a dense, water - repellant wavy coat. As a dog with origins in pedigree breeding, and due to its widespread historical popularity, some regional variations have emerged in the breed; therefore, the three subtypes of the Golden Retriever reflect the typical variations in dimensions and coat. However, all Golden Retrievers are blonde, yellow, or gold in colour and all subtypes are susceptible to the same health problems.
British - type Golden Retrievers are prevalent throughout Europe and Australia. The skull is broader and the forequarters are more muscular than in other types. The muzzle is balanced and well chiseled. The coat is generally lighter in color than in the American types. Males stand between 22 to 24 in (56 to 61 cm) at the withers; females are between 20 to 22 in (51 to 56 cm). Acceptable or expected weights are not specified in the UK standard, but the Kennel Club standard calls for a level topline and straight hindquarters without the slight rear angulation found in American lines.
The eyes are round and dark, which is in contrast to the triangular or slanted composition of their American counterparts. British Golden Retrievers can have a coat colour of any shade of gold or cream; red or mahogany are not permitted. Originally, cream was an unacceptable colour in the UK standard, but the standard was revised in 1936 to include cream. At the time of this revision, the exclusion of cream as a colour was agreed to as a mistake, as the original "yellow '' retrievers of the 19th century were actually lighter in colour than was permitted by the standards used before 1936. As with American lines, white is an unacceptable colour in the show ring. The British Kennel Club standard is used in all countries except the USA and Canada. Golden Retrievers have muscular bodies with great endurance, owing to their origins as hunting and gundogs.
American types are lankier and less muscular than other types, males stand between 23 and 24 in (58 and 61 cm) in height at the withers; females are 21.5 to 22.5 in (55 to 57 cm) tall. Their coats are darker in color and occur in various shades of lustrous gold with moderate feathering. When trotting, they have a free, smooth, powerful, and well - coordinated gait; as the dog runs, its feet converge towards the center of the line of balance. The American standard also makes requirements about the proportion, substance, head and skull, neck, body, topline, forequarters, and hindquarters; in these respects, the American - type Retriever is the same as Golden Retrievers that conform to other national standards. American breeders of Golden Retrievers sometimes import their dogs from Britain to take advantage of the temperament and appearance of the British types.
The Canadian Golden Retriever has a thinner and darker coat and stands taller than other types. Males stand 23 and 24 in (58 and 61 cm) in height at withers; and females 21.5 to 22.5 in (55 to 57 cm). Weight for males is between 29 -- 34 kg (65 - 75 lb); and females between 27 -- 32 kg (60 - 70 lb).
As indicated by their name, their coats occur in light golden to dark golden colours. The topcoat is water - resistant and slightly wavy, and sheds in small amounts throughout the year. The undercoat is soft and keeps the retriever cool in summer and warm in winter; it sheds in the spring and fall. It usually lies flat against the belly. The Golden 's coat should never be too long, as this may prove to be a disservice to it in the field, especially when retrieving game. Golden Retrievers have mild feathering on the backs of their fore legs and heavier feathering on the fronts of their necks, backs of their thighs and the bottoms of their tails.
The American Kennel Club (AKC) standard states the coat is a "rich, lustrous golden of various shades '', disallowing extremely light or extremely dark coats. This leaves the outer ranges of coat colour up to a judge 's discretion when competing in conformation shows. Therefore, "pure white '' and "red '' are unacceptable, as is black. The Kennel Club (UK) also permits cream as an acceptable coat colour. Judges may also disallow Goldens with pink noses, or those lacking pigment. The Golden 's coat can also be mahogany, referred to as "redhead '', although this is not accepted in the British show ring. As a Golden grows older, its coat can become darker or lighter, along with a noticeable whitening of the fur on and around the muzzle. Puppy coats are usually much lighter than their adult coats, but a puppy with darker ear tips may indicate a darker adult color.
Golden Retrievers vary in colour, with a fair - haired dog shown here beside a mahogany one
The coat is "rich, lustrous golden of various shades ''
A four - month - old white golden retriever
A light golden puppy
A dark golden coat
Golden Retrievers (left) are often confused with yellow Labs (right). One key difference is the much shorter hair of the yellow Lab.
The temperament of the Golden Retriever is a hallmark of the breed, and is described in the standard as "kindly, friendly and confident ''. Golden Retrievers make good family pets, particularly as they are patient with children. They are not "one - man dogs '' and are generally equally amiable with both strangers and those familiar to them. Their trusting, gentle disposition makes them a poor guard dog. Any form of unprovoked aggression or hostility towards either people, dogs or other animals, whether in the show ring or community, is considered unacceptable in a Golden Retriever and is not in keeping with the character of the breed, nor should a Golden Retriever be unduly timid or nervous. The typical Golden Retriever is calm, naturally intelligent and biddable, and with an exceptional eagerness to please.
Golden Retrievers are also noted for their intelligence. The breed ranks fourth in Stanley Coren 's The Intelligence of Dogs -- following the Border Collie, Poodle, and German Shepherd -- as one of the brightest dogs ranked by obedience - command trainability.
Typical Golden Retrievers are active and fun - loving animals with the exceptionally patient demeanour befitting a dog bred to sit quietly for hours in a hunting blind. Adult Goldens love to work, and have a keen ability to focus on a given task. They will work until they collapse, so care should be taken to avoid overworking them.
Other characteristics related to their hunting heritage are a size suited for scrambling in and out of boats and an inordinate love for water. Golden Retrievers are exceptionally trainable -- due to their intelligence, athleticism and desire to please their handlers -- and excel in obedience trials. They are also very competitive in agility and other performance events. Harsh training methods are unnecessary, as Golden Retrievers often respond very well to positive and upbeat training styles.
Golden Retrievers are compatible with other dogs, cats, and most livestock. They are particularly valued for their high level of sociability towards people, calmness, and willingness to learn. Because of this, they are commonly used as guide dogs, mobility assistance dogs, and search and rescue dogs.
The average lifespan for a Golden Retriever is about 11 to 12 years. They are susceptible to specific ailments, so should be taken to a veterinarian for yearly checkups.
Golden Retrievers are known to have genetic disorders and other diseases. Hip dysplasia is common in the breed; when buying a puppy, the pedigree should be known and be examined by the OFA or by PennHIP for hip disease. Obesity is also common in the breed because Golden Retrievers love to eat. Puppies should eat about three cups of food a day and adults three to five cups, depending on the food and how active the dog is.
Cancer, the most common being hemangiosarcoma, followed by lymphosarcoma, mast cell tumour, and osteosarcoma, was the cause of death for 61.4 % of American Goldens according to a 1998 health study conducted by the Golden Retriever Club of America, making it the breed 's biggest killer. A 2004 survey by the UK Kennel Club puts this number at 38.8 %. Although most puppies are screened for the disorders before being sold (by reputable breeders), hip and elbow dysplasia afflict one - fifth of dogs. Eye diseases are also possible in the breed; cataracts are the most common eye disease, but they can also be afflicted with progressive retinal atrophy, glaucoma, distichiasis, entropion, corneal dystrophy, and retinal dysplasia.
They may suffer from heart disease, especially subvalvular aortic stenosis, and cardiomyopathy and joint diseases, including patella luxation, osteochondritis, panosteitis, and cruciate ligament rupture. In addition to the heavy shedding they experience (and their constant lighter shedding throughout the year), Golden Retrievers can suffer from skin diseases; the most prevalent skin problem is allergies (often leading to acute moist dermatitis or "hot spots ''), with the most common allergy being to fleas. They can also suffer from seborrhoea, sebaceous adenitis, self - inflicted lick granuloma, and haemophilia.
Golden Retrievers require regular grooming and occasional baths. Their coats shed somewhat during the year, but are known to shed profusely twice a year. They also need to have their ears cleaned regularly, or ear infections might occur. While shedding is unavoidable, frequent grooming (daily to weekly) lessens the amount of hair shed by the animal. Severe shedding resulting in bald patches can be indicative of stress or sickness.
The Golden Retriever 's eagerness to please has made it a consistent, top performer in the obedience and agility rings. Its excellent swimming ability makes it proficient at dock jumping. A natural retrieving ability means it is also competitive in flyball and field trials.
The first three dogs ever to achieve the AKC Obedience Champion title were Golden Retrievers; the first of the three was a female named ' Ch. Moreland 's Golden Tonka '.
Since Golden Retrievers are so trainable, they are used for many important jobs, such as guide dogs for blind people, drug or bomb sniffing at airports, or helping to rescuing people from earthquakes and other natural disasters. This breed is also used in water rescue / lifesaving, along with the Leonberger, Newfoundland and Labrador Retriever dogs.
The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century. At that time, wildfowl hunting was a popular sport for the wealthy Scottish elite, but the existing retriever breeds were inadequate for retrieving downed game from both water and land. Retrieving from both land and water was necessary because the hunting grounds of the time were pocketed with marshy ponds and rivers. Consequently, the best water spaniels were crossed with the existing retrievers, resulting in the establishment of the breed today known as the Golden Retriever. The Golden Retriever was first developed near Glen Affric in Scotland, at "Guisachan '', the highland estate of Dudley Marjoribanks, 1st Baron Tweedmouth. For many years, what breeds were originally crossed was disputed, but in 1952, the publication of Marjoribanks ' breeding records from 1835 to 1890 dispelled the myth concerning the purchase of a whole troupe of Russian tracker sheepdogs from a visiting circus, instead it details a careful line - breeding program. Commonly, the breed is said to have originated from the Russian tracker.
Improvements in guns during the 1800s resulted in more fowl being downed during hunts at greater distances and over increasingly difficult terrain, leading to more birds being lost in the field. Because of this improvement in firearms, a need for a specialist retriever arose, as training setter and pointer breeds in retrievals was found to be ineffective. Thus, work began on the breeding of the dog to fill this much - needed role.
The original cross was of a yellow - coloured retriever, ' Nous ', with a Tweed Water Spaniel female dog, ' Belle '. The Tweed Water Spaniel is now extinct, but was then common in the border country. Marjoribanks had purchased Nous in 1865 from an unregistered litter of otherwise black wavy - coated retriever pups. In 1868, this cross produced a litter that included four pups; these four became the basis of a breeding program which included the Irish Setter, the sandy - coloured Bloodhound, the St. John 's water dog of Newfoundland, and two more wavy - coated black retrievers. The bloodline was also inbred and selected for trueness to Marjoribanks ' idea of the ultimate hunting dog. His vision included a more vigorous and powerful dog than previous retrievers, one that would still be gentle and trainable. Russian sheepdogs are not mentioned in these records, nor are any other working dog breeds. The ancestry of the Golden Retriever is all sporting dogs, in line with Marjoribanks ' goals. The Golden Retriever was active and powerful and had a gentle mouth for retrieving games while on hunts.
Organisations other than clubs are dedicated to Golden Retrievers, such as breed - specific adoption sites. One such organisation is the Golden Retriever Club of Scotland, which in August 2013 assembled 222 Golden Retrievers at the historical home of the first Golden Retrievers.
Golden Retrievers were first accepted for registration by The Kennel Club of England in 1903, as Flat Coats -- Golden. They were first exhibited in 1908, and in 1911 were recognized as a breed referred to as Retriever (Golden and Yellow).
It took another 14 years for the breed to be recognized in America, and in 1925, the American Kennel Club did so. In 1938, the Golden Retriever Club of America was founded. Golden Retrievers are ranked number two for American Kennel Club Registrations. As of the year 1999, 62,652 have been registered and the only breed above them is the Labrador Retriever. According to the purebred dog guide recognized by the American Kennel Club, Golden Retrievers are judged based on a variety of traits: color, coat, ears, feet, nose, body, etc.
The Honourable Archie Marjoribanks took a Golden Retriever to Canada in 1881, and registered ' Lady ' with the AKC in 1894. These are the first records of the breed in these two countries. The breed was first registered in Canada in 1927, and the Golden Retriever Club of Ontario (GRCO) was formed in 1958. The cofounders of the GRCO were Cliff Drysdale, an Englishman who had brought over an English Golden, and Jutta Baker, daughter - in - law of Louis Baker, who owned Northland Kennels. The GCRO in later years expanded to become the Golden Retriever Club of Canada.
In July 2006, the Golden Retriever Club of Scotland organized a gathering of Golden Retriever enthusiasts at the ancestral home, Guisachan House. A photograph taken by photographer Lynn Kipps to commemorate the occasion captured 188 Golden Retrievers, and so holds the record for the most Golden Retrievers in one image.
Liberty, the presidential pet of President Gerald R. Ford, and Victory, the presidential pet of Ronald Reagan, were Golden Retrievers. The breed has also featured in a number of films and TV series, including the Air Bud film series, Full House, Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey and Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco, Fluke, Napoleon, Up, Pushing Daisies, You 've Got Mail, The Drew Carey Show, and Cats & Dogs. Cash from The Fox and the Hound 2 was also a mix of this breed, as was Whopper from Pound Puppies.
A female Golden Retriever named Goldie appeared on the UK BBC One children 's programme Blue Peter from 1978 to 1986. Monty Don, a presenter of the UK BBC Two gardening programme Gardeners ' World has a male Golden Retriever called Nigel who appears with him most of the time on the programme. A Golden Retriever portrayed the role of Levi, the hearing dog of the titular deaf FBI agent in Sue Thomas: F.B. Eye, based on the life of the real Sue Thomas.
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do you have to be canadian to be prime minister | Prime minister of Canada - Wikipedia
Provincial and territorial executive councils
Constitution
The Prime Minister of Canada (French: Premier ministre du Canada) is the primary minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus Canada 's head of government, charged with advising the Canadian monarch or Governor General of Canada on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by the constitution. Not outlined in any constitutional document, the office exists only as per long - established convention (originating in Canada 's former colonial power, the United Kingdom) that stipulates the monarch 's representative, the governor general, must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable (French: Le Très Honorable), a privilege maintained for life.
The current, and 23rd, Prime Minister of Canada is the Liberal Party 's Justin Trudeau, who was appointed on November 4, 2015, by Governor General David Johnston, following the general election that took place that year.
The position of prime minister is not outlined in any Canadian constitutional document and is mentioned only in passing in the Constitution Act, 1982, and the Letters Patent, 1947 issued by King George VI. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions and modelled on the same office in the United Kingdom.
The prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. However, by the conventions of responsible government, designed to maintain administrative stability, the governor general will call to form a government the individual most likely to receive the support, or confidence, of a majority of the directly elected members of the House of Commons; as a practical matter, this is often the leader of a party whose members form a majority, or a very large plurality, of Members of Parliament (MPs).
While there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister. Two former prime ministers -- Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell -- served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office -- John A. Macdonald in 1891 and John Sparrow David Thompson in 1894. That convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario.
Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment (or who lose their seats while in office) have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election (that his party won), briefly "governed from the hallway '' before winning a by - election a few weeks later. Similarly, John Turner replaced Pierre Trudeau as leader of the Liberal Party in 1984 and subsequently was appointed prime minister while not holding a seat in the House of Commons; Turner won a riding in the next election but the Liberal Party was swept from power. Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat.
Should a serving prime minister today lose his or her seat in the legislature, or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a seat, the typical process that follows is that a junior member in the governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in the resulting by - election. A safe seat is usually chosen; while the Liberal and Conservative parties traditionally observed a convention of not running a candidate against another party 's new leader in the by - election, the New Democrats and smaller political parties typically do not follow the same convention. However, if the governing party selects a new leader shortly before an election is due, and that new leader is not a member of the legislature, he or she will normally await the upcoming election before running for a seat in parliament.
In a poll conducted by Ipsos - Reid following the first prorogation of the 40th parliament on December 4, 2008, it was found that 51 % of the sample group thought the prime minister was directly elected by Canadians.
The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majesty 's pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term. Once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. The lifespan of parliament was limited by the constitution to five years and, though the governor general may still, on the advice of the prime minister, dissolve parliament and issue the writs of election prior to the date mandated by the Canada Elections Act; the King -- Byng Affair was the only time since Confederation that the governor general deemed it necessary to refuse his prime minister 's request for a general vote. As of 2007, with an amendment to the Elections Act, Section 56.1 (2) was changed to limit the term of a majority government to four years, with election day being set as the third Monday in October of the fourth calendar year after the previous polling date.
Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the resulting general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime minister 's party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, it is unnecessary to re-appoint the prime minister or again swear him or her into office. If, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. Should the prime minister 's party achieve a minority while an opposition party wins a plurality (i.e., more seats than any other party but less than a majority), the prime minister can attempt to maintain the confidence of the House by forming a coalition with other minority parties. This option was last entertained in 1925.
Because the prime minister is, in practice, the most politically powerful member of the Canadian government, he or she is sometimes erroneously referred to as Canada 's head of state, when, in fact, that post is held by the Canadian monarch, represented by the governor general. The prime minister is, instead, the head of government and is responsible for advising the Crown on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative and its executive powers, which are governed by the constitution and its conventions. However, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Today, as per the doctrines of constitutional monarchy, the advice given by the prime minister is ordinarily binding, meaning the prime minister effectively carries out those duties ascribed to the sovereign or governor general, leaving the latter to act in predominantly ceremonial fashions. As such, the prime minister, supported by the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), controls the appointments of many key figures in Canada 's system of governance, including the governor general, the Cabinet, justices of the Supreme Court, senators, heads of crown corporations, ambassadors to foreign countries, the provincial lieutenant governors, and approximately 3,100 other positions. Further, the prime minister plays a prominent role in the legislative process -- with the majority of bills put before parliament originating in the Cabinet -- and the leadership of the Canadian Armed Forces.
Pierre Trudeau is credited with, throughout his tenure as prime minister between 1968 and 1984, consolidating power in the PMO, which is itself filled by political and administrative staff selected at the prime minister 's discretion and unaccountable to parliament. At the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, analysts -- such as Jeffrey Simpson, Donald Savoie, Andrew Coyne, and John Gomery -- argued that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power; Savoie wrote: "The Canadian prime minister has little in the way of institutional check, at least inside government, to inhibit his ability to have his way. '' Indeed, the position has been described as undergoing a "presidentialisation '', to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state (and prime minister 's spouses are sometimes called the "First Lady of Canada ''). Former governor general Adrienne Clarkson alluded to what she saw as "an unspoken rivalry '' that had developed between the prime minister and the Crown. It has been theorized that such is the case in Canada as its parliament is less influential on the executive than in other countries with Westminster parliamentary systems; particularly, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover rate of MPs after each election, and an Americanised system for selecting political party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom.
There do exist checks on the prime minister 's power: the commons may revoke its confidence in an incumbent prime minister and Cabinet or caucus revolts can quickly bring down a serving premier and even mere threats of such action can persuade or compel a prime minister to resign his post, as happened with Jean Chrétien. The Reform Act, 2014, codifies the process by which a caucus may trigger a party leadership review and, if necessary, chose an interim leader, thereby making a prime minister more accountable to the MPs in his or her party. Caucuses may choose to follow these rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote, thereby subjecting the party 's choice to public scrutiny.
The Senate may delay or impede legislation put forward by the Cabinet, such as when Brian Mulroney 's bill creating the Goods and Services Tax (GST) came before the upper chamber and, given Canada 's federal nature, the jurisdiction of the federal government is limited to areas prescribed by the constitution. Further, as executive power is constitutionally vested in the monarch, meaning the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of its ministers, the sovereign 's supremacy over the prime minister in the constitutional order is thus seen as a "rebuff to the pretensions of the elected: As it has been said, when the Prime Minister bows before the Queen, he bows before us (the Canadian people). '' Either the sovereign or his or her governor general may therefore oppose the prime minister 's will in extreme, crisis situations. Near the end of her time as governor general, Adrienne Clarkson stated: "My constitutional role has lain in what are called ' reserve powers ': making sure that there is a prime minister and a government in place, and exercising the right ' to encourage, to advise, and to warn ' (...) Without really revealing any secrets, I can tell you that I have done all three. ''
Two official residences are provided to the prime minister -- 24 Sussex Drive in Ottawa and Harrington Lake, a country retreat in Gatineau Park -- as well an office in the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council (formerly known as Langevin Block), across from Parliament Hill. For transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft -- a CC - 150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister and his or her family. All of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen - in - Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime minister 's total annual compensation of CAD $347,400. The Prime Minister 's total compensation consists of the Member of the House of Commons Basic Sessional Indemnity of CAD $172,400, the Prime Minister Salary of CAD $172,400, and the Prime Minister Car Allowance of CAD $2000.
Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, wherein their casket lies in state in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill. Only Bowell and the Viscount Bennett were given private funerals, Bennett also being the only former Prime Minister of Canada to die and be buried outside the country and Bowell the only whose funeral was not attended by politicians. John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying - in - state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax.
In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name; of the first eight premiers of Canada, only Alexander Mackenzie refused the honour of a knighthood from Queen Victoria. Following the 1919 Nickle Resolution, however, it was against non-binding policy for the sovereign to grant such honorific titles to Canadians; the last prime minister to be knighted was Sir Robert Borden, who was premier at the time the Nickle Resolution was debated in the House of Commons. Still, Bennett was in 1941, six years after he stepped down as prime minister, elevated to the peerage by King George VI as Viscount Bennett, of Mickleham in the County of Surrey and of Calgary and Hopewell in the Dominion of Canada.
The Canadian Heraldic Authority (CHA) has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. The heraldic badge, referred to by the CHA as the mark of the Prime Ministership of Canada, consists of four red maple leaves joined at the stem on a white field ("Argent four maple leaves conjoined in cross at the stem Gules ''); the augmentation has, so far, been granted either as a canton sinister or centred in the chief. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, and Kim Campbell were granted arms with the augmentation.
Canada continues the Westminster tradition of using the title Prime Minister when one is speaking to the federal head of government directly; this is in contrast to the United States protocol of addressing the federal head of government as mister (as in, Mister President); the Department of Canadian Heritage advises that it is incorrect to use the term Mr Prime Minister. The written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title: The Right Honourable (name), (post-nominal letters), Prime Minister of Canada. However, while in the House of Commons during Question Period, other members of parliament may address the prime minister as The Right Honourable, Member for (prime minister 's riding) or simply The Right Honourable Prime Minister. Former prime ministers retain the prefix The Right Honourable for the remainder of their lives; should they remain sitting MPs, they may be referred as The Right Honourable Member for (member 's riding) or by their portfolio title (if appointed to one), as in The Right Honourable Minister of National Defence.
In the decades following Confederation, it was common practice to refer to the prime minister as Premier of Canada, a custom that continued until the First World War, around the time of Robert Borden 's premiership. While contemporary sources will still speak of early prime ministers of Canada as premier, the modern practice is such that the federal head of government is known almost exclusively as the prime minister, while the provincial and territorial heads of government are termed premiers (save for within Quebec and New Brunswick, where the premiers are addressed in French as Premier ministre du (province), literally translated as Prime Minister of (province)).
The Prime Minister -- designate of Canada refers to the person who has been designated as the future prime minister by the Governor General, after either winning a general election, forming a confidence and supply government, or forming an coalition government. The term does not apply to incumbent prime ministers.
After exiting office, former prime ministers of Canada have engaged in various pursuits. Some remained in politics: Bowell continued to serve as a senator, Stephen Harper returned to the House of Commons as a backbench Member of Parliament, and Bennett moved to the United Kingdom after being elevated to the House of Lords. A number led Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition in the Canadian parliament: John A. Macdonald, Arthur Meighen, Mackenzie King, and Pierre Trudeau, all before being re-appointed as prime minister (Mackenzie King twice); Alexander Mackenzie and John Diefenbaker, both prior to sitting as regular Members of Parliament until their deaths; Wilfrid Laurier dying while still in the post; and Charles Tupper, Louis St. Laurent, and John Turner, each before they returned to private business. Meighen was also appointed to the Senate following his second period as prime minister, but resigned his seat to seek re-election and moved to private enterprise after failing to win a riding. Following Meighen into civilian life were: Robert Borden, who served as Chancellor of Queen 's and McGill Universities, as well as working in the financial sector; Lester B. Pearson, who acted as Chancellor of Carleton University; Joe Clark and Kim Campbell, who became university professors, Clark also consultant and Campbell working in international diplomacy and as the director of private companies and chairperson of interest groups; while Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien returned to legal practice. Former prime ministers also commonly penned autobiographies -- Tupper, for example -- or published their memoirs -- such as Diefenbaker and Paul Martin.
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how many episodes did season 1 of this is us have | This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. It is about the family lives and connections of several people who all share the same birthday and the ways in which they are similar and different.
The series has received positive reviews since its premiere, receiving nominations for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. The cast has received accolades, with Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz receiving Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress, and Sterling K. Brown receiving a SAG nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017.
The series follows siblings Kate, Kevin and Randall as their lives intertwine. Kate and Kevin were originally part of a triplet pregnancy, conceived in the bathroom of Froggy 's, a bar, during Super Bowl XIV. Their due date was October 12, 1980, but they were born six weeks early on August 31; their biological brother was stillborn. Their parents, Jack and Rebecca, having expected to bring home three babies, decide to adopt another newborn: Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station.
Episodes weave through the stories of the past and present of the characters, with most scenes taking place in 1980, 1989 -- 1995, and the present day (2016 -- 2017). Flashback scenes take place in Pittsburgh, while current scenes are typically split between Los Angeles, New Jersey, and New York City.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.7 / 10 based on 56 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 94 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 16 reviews.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
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where does habitat for humanity get its funding | Habitat for Humanity - wikipedia
Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI), generally referred to as Habitat for Humanity or simply Habitat, is an international, non-governmental, and nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1976. Habitat has been devoted to building "simple, decent, and affordable '' housing, a self - described "Christian housing ministry, '' and has addressed the issues of poverty housing all over the world. The international operational headquarters are located in Americus, Georgia, United States, with the administrative headquarters located in Atlanta. There are five area offices located around the world: United States and Canada; Africa and the Middle East (located in Pretoria, South Africa); Asia - Pacific (Bangkok, Thailand); Europe and Central Asia (Bratislava, Slovakia); and Latin America and the Caribbean (San Jose, Costa Rica).
Community - level Habitat offices act in partnership with and on behalf of Habitat for Humanity International. In the United States, these local offices are called Habitat affiliates; outside the United States, Habitat operations are managed by national offices. Each affiliate and national office is an independently run, nonprofit organization. Affiliates and national offices coordinate all aspects of Habitat home building in their local area, including fundraising, building site selection, partner family selection and support, house construction, and mortgage servicing.
The mission statement of Habitat for Humanity is "Seeking to put God 's love into action, Habitat for Humanity brings people together to build homes, communities and hope ''. Homes are built using volunteer labor and Habitat makes no profit on the sales. In some locations outside the United States, Habitat for Humanity charges interest to protect against inflation. This policy has been in place since 1986. Habitat has helped more than 4 million people construct, rehabilitate or preserve more than 800,000 homes since its founding in 1976, making Habitat the largest not - for - profit builder in the world.
Habitat for Humanity traces its origins to the time Millard Fuller spent at Koinonia Farm in 1965.
According to the official website,
The affiliate 's family selection committee chooses homeowners based on their level of need, their willingness to become partners in the program and their ability to repay the loan. Every affiliate follows a nondiscriminatory policy of family selection. Neither race nor religion is a factor in choosing the families who receive Habitat houses.
There are several checks and balances in place to protect both Habitat and the potential homeowner:
Habitat for Humanity performs an extensive background check on potential homeowners, including character references, employer interviews, and audit of finances. The applicants are required to sign release forms authorizing Habitat for Humanity to perform this background check. This ensures that Habitat 's risk is reasonable when selling a home and that the applicant family is in a suitable financial position to take on the responsibility of a mortgage.
There are typically a First and a Second Mortgage. The Second Mortgage is put in place to protect any equity that is left that is not captured in the first mortgage. The homeowners pay down the first mortgage, and after a stated period of time (which varies from affiliate to affiliate) of living in the same home, the Second Mortgage is forgiven (however, it is not always forgiven). However, The Right of First Refusal stays in force until the mortgage is paid in full.
Homeowners are usually expected to put approximately 500 hours of "sweat equity '' into their own or other project homes, although this amount may vary by location, the number of wage - earning adults in each family, and the recipients ' health issues. This sweat equity acts as the down payment on the home. Every hour spent earning this sweat equity must be approved and signed off on by an official Habitat for Humanity representative. Sweat equity has no monetary value and can not be ' refunded '.
Once construction on the home is finished and the sweat equity is completed in full, the homeowner purchases the home with a 0 % to 2 % interest mortgage (in the United States). With monthly payments (including taxes and insurance) that do not exceed 30 % of the household 's monthly income.
Mortgage payments from homeowners are deposited into a locally administered "Fund for Humanity '', the proceeds of which go toward future construction. In an effort to discourage predatory lenders from targeting Habitat homeowner families, mortgage agreements require the Habitat for Humanity affiliate the right of first refusal. Until the mortgage is paid in full, a Habitat home has no equity and can only be sold back to Habitat for Humanity. Should a homeowner family decide to sell their home during the period of their mortgage, the affiliate will buy it back at market value. Often affiliates will have a shared appreciation model that will allow the affiliate to recapture a portion of the equity in the home depending on the time the family lived in the home and paid on the mortgage.
The typically no interest mortgage payments permit a family the freedom to manage their finances more effectively, the end goal being to provide a ' hand up ' and not a ' hand out ' as it were. In some locations, attendance at money management courses is mandatory for potential homeowners.
Habitat relies on volunteer labor in order to construct simple and affordable homes with its partner families, as well as to build community and civil society in the areas in which it works. Many churches and other houses of worship (synagogues, temples, mosques etc.) sponsor houses and provide a large amount of the volunteers from their congregations. Some corporations and businesses who value good corporate citizenship provide financial support to the projects and / or donate materials for use in construction. Many politicians and celebrities have volunteered with Habitat, reflecting its profile as a highly regarded non-profit.
Habitat builds simple houses with locally appropriate materials. In many communities, Habitat affiliates and national offices are exploring areas of green building, including energy efficiency and sustainability. In the United States, many affiliates are building homes that are LEED certified. In 2010, Habitat for Humanity Tajikistan won a national Global Energy Award for their resource - saving bio-sand water filter project.
Habitat affiliates and national offices contribute a percentage of the unrestricted funds they raise locally to be used in building homes by a Habitat national office overseas. For instance, Habitat New Zealand 's tithe helps to support an equal number of housing outcomes abroad, predominantly in the Pacific region.
Habitat homeowners in the United States and Canada pay no interest on their no - profit mortgages. Some Habitat for Humanity affiliates outside the United States adjust the no - profit loans to compensate for the inflation rate in their area, with the goal that "the repayments from one house should ideally build another house of the same design ''.
Habitat ReStores are retail outlets that sell new and used building and household materials donated by small businesses, large companies, job sites, and individuals. Proceeds from ReStores help local affiliates fund the construction of Habitat houses within the community. Many affiliates across the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand operate successful ReStores -- some of which raise enough funds to build an additional 10 or more houses per year. Many ReStores cover the administrative costs of the Habitat affiliate so that 100 % of donor funds can be put toward home construction and rehabilitation projects.
Habitat for Humanity International develops and supports special programs to engage volunteers from all walks of life in Habitat 's mission and work.
Habitat for Humanity 's A Brush With Kindness is a locally operated program serving low - income homeowners who struggle to maintain the exterior of their homes. The program is a holistic approach to providing affordable housing and assisting communities as well as families. Groups of volunteers help homeowners with exterior maintenance. This typically includes painting, minor exterior repairs, landscaping, weatherization and exterior clean - up.
As suggested by the name, Habitat for Humanity International places a strong emphasis on building homes around the world. Volunteers today can build with Habitat affiliates in many locations on Global Village Trips. After having gone through training, trip leaders organize travel plans with the support of the Americus - headquartered Global Village Department, first formally established in 1988. Participants from all over are then able to register for trips to their destination of choice. Teams generally number between eight and fifteen, with trips usually lasting between nine and fourteen days.
According to the website, Global Village Trips offer volunteers the opportunity:
to experience another culture while making a difference in the lives of others... work alongside members of the host community in building decent, affordable housing... (and) help raise awareness of the burden of poverty housing and create a true global village of love, community, homes and hope.
National Service refers to national service programs that are funded by the Corporation for National and Community Service. The goal of the Habitat for Humanity National Service program is to help local Habitat affiliates operate more efficiently and effectively by maximizing existing volunteers, increasing capacity for new volunteers and most importantly, meeting the housing needs of communities by building more houses for low - income families.
AmeriCorps is a network of national service programs that engage more than 75,000 Americans each year in intensive service to meet critical needs in education, public safety, health and the environment. Habitat for Humanity International was one of the first nonprofits contacted by the Corporation for National and Community Service when AmeriCorps was being formed in 1993. In the 2008 -- 2009 program year, over 500 AmeriCorps members at affiliates all over the country will help build nearly 2,000 houses and recruit and retain nearly 200,000 community volunteers. Those volunteers will provide an estimated 1,600,000 volunteer hours. The members themselves will contribute 850,000 hours.
RV Care - A-Vanners is a volunteer program in which volunteers travel in their personal recreational vehicles, making stops at local Habitat affiliates to assist in house construction and renovations. RV Care - A-Vanner volunteers each pay their own expenses, which may be tax deductible.
Many RV Care - A-Vanners help local Habitat affiliates raise the awareness of poverty housing and homelessness by speaking to churches, civic groups and local media. Individual Care - A-Vanners often make donations to their local Habitat affiliate and some even organize fund - raising teams and sponsor entire houses.
Originating in 1991 with a Charlotte, North Carolina home built entirely by a crew of female volunteers, Habitat 's Women Build program encourages women to make a difference by building homes and communities. Women Build projects provide an environment in which women can feel comfortable learning construction skills they might not otherwise have the opportunity to learn. Globally, more than 1,400 homes have been completed by Women Build volunteers.
Women all over the United States participate in National Women Build Week. The week - long build leading up to Mother 's Day is designed to showcase the skills of Women Build volunteers and to motivate new volunteers to help families and change communities.
Lowe 's is a major sponsor and underwriter of Women Build, and has generously supported each National Women Build Week. In addition to competitive grant opportunities, Lowe 's offers a series of free how - to clinics for U.S. Women Build affiliates.
Habitat for Humanity 's Youth Programs seek to involve young people, ages 5 to 25, in Habitat 's mission and work. In accordance with U.S. federal guidelines, youth must be at least 16 years old to be on an active construction site, and must be 18 years old to engage in certain build activities.
Habitat 's Youth Programs include programs such as:
A campus chapter is a student - led, student - initiated organization on a high school or college campus that partners with the local Habitat affiliate to fulfill the four functions of a campus chapter. The four functions of a campus chapter are: building, fundraising, advocating and educating.
Habitat for Humanity runs a year - round alternative break program known as Collegiate Challenge for student groups age 16 to 25. Although summer, fall, and winter break trips are available, most participants go during their spring break. Collegiate Challenge participants travel to host sites throughout the United States and spend one week working in partnership with the local Habitat affiliate, the local community, and partner families to help eliminate poverty housing in the area. Host affiliates provide housing for the groups, as well as a place to shower and cook meals for the week. More than 14,000 volunteers took part in Collegiate Challenge in 2011, making it one of the world 's largest alternative break programs. Since its inception in 1989, nearly 240,000 students have participated in Collegiate Challenge and have donated more than $25 million to Habitat for Humanity affiliates.
For one week during the summer, students ages 16 to 18 can experience Habitat 's work outside of their communities. In addition to a week of building, students also learn about the need for Habitat through educational activities.
Youth United is a Habitat for Humanity program run by youth and for youth ages 5 to 25. It brings young people together from all walks of life to play active roles in transforming their communities. Youth United mobilizes young people to sponsor and build a house with their local Habitat affiliate.
Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter became involved with Habitat for Humanity in 1984 and has since become its highest profile proponent. He has been involved in fund - raising and publicity as well as actual homebuilding, taking part in the annual Jimmy Carter Work Project "blitz build ''.
In 2008, Habitat for Humanity celebrated the 25th annual building project with the Carters and renamed it to include Mrs. Carter. The Jimmy & Rosalynn Carter Work Project focused on supporting the Gulf Coast community seeking to rebuild after hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Despite periodic downpours, volunteers got most of the work done during one week in June to finish building and fixing 60 houses and frame 48 more.
In November 2009, volunteers joined Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter in the Mekong River region of Southeast Asia. Houses were built in the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Yunnan Province in China. The week - long project served nearly 166 families. It also began a five - year Habitat for Humanity initiative to work with 50,000 families across the five countries.
During Home Builders Blitz 2008, more than 1,000 building industry professionals in 110 Habitat for Humanity affiliates built 263 new homes across the United States. This was the second national Home Builders Blitz program, which was begun on the local level in 2002 in Raleigh, North Carolina. Since then, the professional homebuilders industry has supported Habitat by building more than 800 homes.
Tom Gipson, a Habitat volunteer and professional homebuilder who started the Home Builder 's Blitz program, was named the "Ultimate Volunteer '' in a 2009 contest by ABC 's "The View ''.
The AmeriCorps Build - a-Thon is an annual signature event that brings together AmeriCorps members and alumni in a week long blitz build. The Build - a-Thon provides the host affiliate an opportunity to advance and highlight local house - building efforts. It also serves as an annual meeting of AmeriCorps volunteers who might otherwise lack any opportunity to meet.
The event is held across the United States and highlights a different Habitat affiliate each year. In the past, Build - a-Thons have occurred in Cedar Rapids, Iowa; the Gulf Coast; Dallas, Texas; Mobile County, Alabama; and Jacksonville, Florida.
The 2010, Habitat AmeriCorps Build - a-Thon was held in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, hosted by Cedar Valley Habitat for Humanity. This was the second consecutive year that Cedar Valley Habitat hosted the event. More than 500 Habitat for Humanity AmeriCorps National and AmeriCorps VISTA members from across the country came together to build, rehabilitate and repair more than 20 homes. In 2015, the Build - a-Thon was held in New Orleans in remembrance of Hurricane Katrina.
Habitat initiated a special program to help restore housing to the areas affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. The effort was focused on getting local affiliates in the area back on their feet and prepared to build for their communities. It also became a catalyst for other organizations, like the St. Bernard Project, corporations and the government to provide help and support in rebuilding the area and has received considerable national media attention. Habitat restored around 300 homes for Katrina efforts.
As part of Operation Home Delivery, housing components were assembled in nearby less - affected locations such as Jackson, Mississippi, allowing much of the construction to be accomplished while basic infrastructure was being restored. Pre-constructed components were then shipped to the affected areas and built at a faster rate. Within two months of the time of the disaster, construction had begun on houses in the Louisiana cities of Covington and Slidell, near New Orleans.
Harry Connick Jr., and Branford Marsalis served as honorary chairs of Habitat 's hurricane rebuilding program, and one of the many projects along the Gulf Coast is the Musicians ' Village at New Orleans Habitat for Humanity.
On 12 January 2010, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti just 10 miles west of the capital, Port - au - Prince. The earthquake damaged almost 190,000 houses, of which 105,000 were entirely devastated. Of the more than two million affected survivors, 500,000 are still displaced today. Soon after the earthquake, Habitat set a goal of serving 50,000 families over five years, helping them move toward safe, secure and permanent places to call home.
Habitat has reached numerous milestones after the earthquake including over 155 houses as well as another 100 houses planned to be built starting 23 November of this year. Aside from direct building of housing, more than 4,000 families received transitional or upgraded shelters, more than 350 houses were repaired and rehabilitated, more than 24,500 emergency shelter kits were distributed, and more than 12,000 damage assessments were conducted (Habitat For Humanity International). During this time, an entire community was transformed and lives were changed. More than 4,450 Haiti citizens were trained in construction techniques, financial literacy, disaster risk reduction and business development, which resulted in job opportunities for over 700 Haitians (Habitat For Humanity International).
Habitat played an integral in the restoration of Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr devastated 31 districts. A partnership with Japan Platform to help build transitional shelters was on - going when the disaster hit in November 2007. All phases of this project completed at the end of February 2009.
Habitat responded to the cyclone by pledging $250000 to provide technical assistance. Prior to the construction of transitional homes, immediate necessities such as food, water and medicine were distributed to affected families.
A Habitat Resource Center was built in phase one for technical planning, coordination and management of the entire project. It also served as the manufacturing and storage center for construction materials. A total of 480 houses were built at the end of a 3 phase construction process. Each house was provided with proper sanitation using contributions from UNICEF Bangladesh and HFH Great Britain. These transitional shelters were designed to be built by volunteers and unskilled workers in about eight hours on an area that had been prepared by families. This shelter provides a strong and cyclone - resistant core structure to protect residents from severe weather. Extensions to the home when the family has the financial means can be done by adding walling to the existing structure.
In bid to raise the local awareness of these transitional homes, HFH Bangladesh organized a series of training and familiarisation workshops for locals. 16 sessions were held between March and December 2008.
In total, 12 communities were worked on by HFH Bangladesh. Structures had been built in the regions of Ghotoker Andua, Andua, Kalagachiya, Pipra Khali and Mirzaganj villages in Mirzaganj Union. In the Amragachia Union the regions of Uttar Amragachia, Dakkhin Amragachia, Shoilabunia, Kismat Shoilabunia and Amragachi villages also had structures built there.
There are many projects that go hand in hand with the house building projects that allow these homes to supply their own electricity through the use of Solar energy. U.S. companies such as Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) have partnered with Habitat for Humanity to provide complete solar grids for a few homes. Other solar projects, mostly in the U.S., like one in San Francisco, as well as efforts of individual citizens are trying to make a difference by raising funds to get more solar homes built.
The video for rock band Bon Jovi 's song "Who Says You Ca n't Go Home '' features Habitat for Humanity volunteers as well as the band building homes as part of Habitat for Humanity in Philadelphia, close to Bon Jovi 's native New Jersey. It reflects Jon Bon Jovi 's dedication to the organization and highlights the importance of community unity, faith, and involvement. The popularity of Bon Jovi increased Habitat 's exposure and influenced new volunteers to donate their time and money to Habitat.
The Habitat Bicycle Challenge (HBC), a nine - week, coast - to - coast bicycle trip undertaken to raise funds for Habitat for Humanity of Greater New Haven and to increase awareness of Habitat for Humanity in general, took place annually from 1995 to 2007. Prior to embarking in June on the 4,000 - mile (6,400 km) trek, participants engaged in a seven - month fundraising campaign for Habitat for Humanity of Greater New Haven. Once on the road, they served as roaming advertisements for Habitat and gave nightly presentations explaining Habitat 's mission to their hosts, usually church congregations. They also took part in builds with local Habitat chapters along the way. At its height, HBC attracted about 90 participants a year, all aged 18 to 24 and about half coming from Yale University. Each rider traveled one of three routes: New Haven to San Francisco, New Haven to Portland, or New Haven to Seattle. By 2004 HBC had become the single largest yearly fundraiser for any Habitat affiliate in the world, raising about $400,000 a year. However, amid growing safety concerns, Habitat for Humanity of Greater New Haven was forced to announce the cancellation of HBC in September 2007.
Bike and Build, a similar program, was founded in 2002 by a former HBC rider. Though not directly affiliated with Habitat for Humanity, it carries on the legacy of the Habitat Bicycle Challenge.
In the fall of 2007, alternative rock bands Switchfoot and Relient K went on the Appetite for Construction Tour, partnering with Habitat while raising awareness for the organization and donating a dollar per ticket sold. The tour was highly successful, raising over US $ 100,000 for donation to the cause.
Wesley College, Melbourne is carrying out a joint fundraising and awareness program through theatrical production and is aiming to raise money to build education facilities in Afghanistan.
Like much construction activity, which carries inherent risk, Habitat for Humanity construction has led to some serious injuries or deaths to volunteers. Consequently, safety is a priority and important consideration on Habitat construction sites, and volunteers are given safety orientations and they are required to work with skilled construction supervisors on the build sites. Depending on the type of operation, OSHA rules may be generally applicable to Habitat construction sites, similar to for - profit builders. In some cases, Habitat affiliates have local partnerships with OSHA on safety programs.
An article in the Weekly Standard, an American conservative opinion magazine, questioned the cost - effectiveness of Habitat building projects. To estimate cost effectiveness, all costs associated with building a Habitat home must be used, including the cost of volunteer time and training. For houses constructed by foreign volunteers, travel and associated costs paid by the volunteers are also significant. Including these costs raises the question whether building a house this way is an efficient use of resources. Particularly in developing countries where labor is relatively inexpensive, unemployment is high, and local currency is cheap, purchasing local labor and supplies may result in an increase in the number of houses built.
Cost - effectiveness, however, is not Habitat for Humanity 's only concern, and additional benefits arise from the Habitat model that differentiate it from other low - cost housing. For example, involving volunteers in the construction of houses not only makes the homes more affordable, but it also builds community understanding, awareness and support for affordable housing and generates revenue for local Habitat organizations. Focusing solely on cost effectiveness also does not address another important aspect -- the education and training of the homebuyers. Habitat 's homebuyers are also involved in the construction of their home and the homes of others in the program. Many Habitat organizations also provide training in budget management and other skills. These requirements, known as "sweat equity, '' teach low - income homebuyers valuable construction and other skills that help them to maintain their home over the long - term. Another major aspect of Habitat 's program is Habitat 's revolving "Fund for Humanity. '' Habitat does not give homes away; rather, in addition to contributing sweat equity, Habitat homebuyers pay an affordable no - profit mortgage based on their ability to pay. These mortgage payments are used to support building additional homes in partnership with low - income families, thus contributing to the sustainability of Habitat 's homebuilding program.
Habitat has been criticized for its slow and inefficient rebuilding efforts along the Gulf Coast after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. After 18 months, Habitat had completed under 500 homes. A major factor was Habitat 's reliance on working through local affiliates, who are not equipped to undertake large - scale rebuilding efforts.
Work continued and Habitat completed its 1,000 th hurricane - response home by May 2007. By the fifth anniversary of Katrina, more than 2,716 homes had been completed. In total, Habitat 's Gulf Coast affiliates built, repaired or rehabbed more than 5,400 houses as part of the hurricanes Katrina and Rita effort.
Habitat affiliates in the region have remained some of the largest homebuilders in their areas and have received numerous awards and acknowledgements for their work in building quality homes.
Families are required to show an ability to pay for their home in addition to the need for housing. With these requirements, homeless and low - income families may fail to qualify for a Habitat home. Most American Habitat affiliates perform credit checks and criminal record checks on applicants before partnering with them for the construction of a home. Some critics therefore allege that Habitat misrepresents the nature of its work by partnering with families that might be considered nearly "middle - income. '' To address this, many Habitat affiliates in the United States partner only with families that fall below the government - set "poverty line '' for their area. The current poverty rate is measured according to the United States Department of Health and Human Services Poverty Guidelines.
The credit and income requirements help ensure that Habitat applicants are able to maintain their houses. Foreclosure rates on Habitat houses are hard to measure. While Habitat claims a foreclosure rate of less than 2 %, this number is unsubstantiated due to the fact that Habitat properties are not initially deeded to the buyer, and revert to the local Habitat chapter if a buyer defaults. The homeowners ' monthly mortgage payments are used to build more Habitat homes.
Habitat 's founder, Millard Fuller, and his wife were dismissed by the Habitat board of directors on 31 January 2005, citing "a pattern of ongoing public comments and communications by the Fullers that have been divisive and disruptive to the organization 's work '' after Fuller was accused by a former female employee of "suggestive comments and inappropriate touching '' during a ride to the Atlanta airport in 2003. The Habitat board investigated Fuller for sexual harassment but found "insufficient proof of inappropriate conduct ''. Some Fuller supporters claim that the firing was due to a change in corporate culture.
Before Fuller 's termination, attempts were made by former President Jimmy Carter to broker an agreement that would allow Fuller to retire with his $79,000 salary intact; when Fuller was found to have violated the non-disclosure portion of this agreement, he was subsequently fired.
In January 2008 a dispute arose between the parent organization and an unspecified number of local Habitat for Humanity affiliate organizations over the terms of their cooperation agreement. These local affiliates contended that the agreement gave the international organization too much power over the assets and operations of the local chapters. One of the affiliates, Habitat for Humanity of San Antonio, reached an agreement with HFHI in July 2008 to "continue working together in their efforts to make affordable housing possible ''.
By the end of 2008, the overwhelming majority of Habitat 's U.S. affiliates had signed the agreement.
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who sings let it go in the credits | Let It Go (Disney song) - Wikipedia
"Let It Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2013 animated feature film Frozen, whose music and lyrics were composed by husband - and - wife songwriting team Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez. The song was performed in its original show - tune version in the film by American actress and singer Idina Menzel in her vocal role as Queen Elsa. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez also composed a simplified pop version (with shorter lyrics and background chorus) which was performed by actress and singer Demi Lovato over the start of the film 's closing credits. A music video was separately released for the pop version.
The song presents the ostracized Queen Elsa, who abandons her kingdom when her magical ability to create and control ice and snow is discovered by the public. Up in the mountains, away from confused and suspicious onlookers, Elsa realizes that she no longer needs to hide her abilities, and so declares herself free from the restrictions she has had to endure since childhood. She rejoices in being able to use her power without fear or limit, to let her past go, and manipulate snow to create a living snowman and a magnificent ice castle for herself. The song also includes discarding items, most notably her glove which her parents gave her to hold back her powers, and taking her tiara off her head and throwing it over her shoulder, afterwards unraveling her braided hairstyle.
"Let It Go '' reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and won both the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2014 and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media in 2015. The song gained international recognition, becoming one of the most globally recorded Disney songs, with numerous covers being recorded in different languages.
According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, "Let It Go '' sold 10.9 million copies in 2014, becoming the year 's fifth best - selling song.
The Daily Telegraph explained that instead of the villain originally envisioned by the producers, the songwriters saw Elsa as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift. '' When interviewed in January 2014 by John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Frozen director Jennifer Lee gave her recollection of the song 's conception: "Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like (to be Elsa). Forget villain. Just what it would feel like. And this concept of letting out who she is (,) that she 's kept to herself for so long (,) and she 's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact (sic) that the last moment is she 's alone. It 's not a perfect thing, but it 's powerful. ''
"Let It Go '' was the first song written by Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez for the film that made it in, since songs composed earlier were eventually cut. The story outline they were given had a place reserved for "Elsa 's Badass Song '', which was what they were trying to write. The duo took inspiration from the songs of the Disney Renaissance such as The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast and various artists including Adele, Aimee Mann, Avril Lavigne (whose 2002 debut album was titled Let Go), Lady Gaga, and Carole King. The song finally began to gel one day as the couple walked together from their home in Park Slope to nearby Prospect Park while they were "thinking from an emo kind of place. '' Anderson - Lopez explained what happened next: "We went for a walk in Prospect Park and threw phrases at each other. What does it feel like to be the perfect exalted person, but only because you 've held back this secret? Bobby came up with ' kingdom of isolation, ' and it worked. '' Lopez was able to improvise the song 's first four lines on the spot. Back at their home studio, they composed the rest of the song by alternating between improvising melodies on a piano and brainstorming lyrics on a whiteboard, and finished it within a single day.
"Let It Go '' is a power ballad in the key of A-flat major overall, but begins in the relative minor (F minor). The song is in quadruple meter, and has a fast tempo of around 137 beats per minute (allegro). The song 's vocal range spans from F to E ♭. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez specifically wrote the song for Idina Menzel, referring to her as "one of the most glorious voices of Broadway and an icon in musical theater. '' Menzel 's vocal range was taken under consideration during the music 's composition.
For each song they created, including "Let It Go '', Anderson - Lopez and Lopez recorded a demo in their studio, then emailed it to the Disney Animation production team in Burbank for discussion at their next videoconference. After the film 's release, Anderson - Lopez was shown an "explicitly honest '' fan version of the song with very colorful lyrics, and in response, she noted that in the videoconferences she herself had used similarly candid language to describe Elsa 's mindset at that point in the plot: "After a while, Chris Montan, the head of music at Disney, would be like, ' Whoa, language! ' '' She also disclosed that Disney Animation 's Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter (who served as executive producer for Frozen) was so taken with "Let It Go '' that he played her original demo of the song in his car for months.
Once approved, the song 's piano - vocal score, along with the rest of their work for Frozen, was eventually forwarded to arranger Dave Metzger at his home studio in Salem, Oregon, who orchestrated their work into a lush sound suitable for recording by a full orchestra at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank at the end of July 2013. The song 's vocal track was recorded separately prior to orchestration at Sunset Sound in Hollywood, with the piano track from the demo playing into Menzel 's headphones. That piano track, played by Lopez himself, was not re-recorded by a session musician at the orchestral recording session; it is the same piano track heard in the final mix of the song.
Although unintentional, the song 's composition was pivotal in the film 's characterization of Elsa. Although Elsa was originally written as a villain, co-directors Chris Buck and Lee gradually rewrote Elsa into one of the film 's protagonists after "Let It Go '' was composed. About that, Lee later explained, "the minute we heard the song the first time, I knew that I had to rewrite the whole movie. '' Buck further clarified: "Jen had to go back and rewrite some pages in the first act to build up to that scene... You have to set it up well enough in advance so that when the song comes, the audience is ready for it and there 's an emotional payoff. ''
When it came to animating Elsa 's scenes for the song, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez insisted on the particular detail that Elsa should slam the palace doors on the audience at the song 's end, which they acknowledged was similar to the ending of the Broadway musical Sweeney Todd. Lopez explained that they wanted that feeling of how "this character does n't need us anymore, '' because he had always loved that feeling "when a character just kind of malevolently looks at you and slams a door in your face, '' although in the final version, Elsa 's facial expression ended up as more of a "sly smile ''. According to Lopez, it was the last line at the end, "the cold never bothered me anyway, '' that was "our little Avril Lavigne line ''.
On December 6, 2013, Walt Disney Animation Studios released a video of the entire "Let It Go '' sequence as seen in the movie, which has over 600 million views as of December 2017 on YouTube. On January 30, 2014, a sing - along version of the sequence was released and has received more than 1.3 billion views on YouTube as of December 2017.
Besides the original English version, Disney Character Voices International arranged for Frozen to be dubbed into another 47 languages and dialects worldwide. A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, senior executive at Disney Character Voices International regarded the process as "exceptionally challenging '', explaining, "It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! (It)... requires a lot of patience and precision. ''
On January 22, 2014, Disney released a multi-language version of the "Let It Go '' musical sequence, which featured vocal performances of 25 different voice actresses who portrayed Elsa in their respective dubbing versions of the film. At the annual meeting of the shareholders of the Walt Disney Company on March 18, 2014 in Portland, Oregon, chairman and chief executive officer Bob Iger praised the team who did "an incredible job casting fantastic international talent so that Frozen truly belongs to the world, '' then showed the entire multi-language video clip of "Let It Go '' to the assembled shareholders. On March 31, 2014, an in - studio multi-language video of the song was released, showing singers of 25 different languages recording their versions of "Let It Go ''. On April 15, 2014 a studio recording of the multi-language version was released via digital download.
In 2015, a Hindi and an Indonesian version of the movie were aired on Disney Channel. The Indonesian version features a translated pop version of "Let It Go '', sung by the ensemble of Indonesian singers Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette. The pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
On April 15, 2014, Walt Disney Records released a compilation album titled Let It Go: The Complete Set, with all 42 foreign - language film versions of "Let It Go '' and nine end credit versions.
In South Korea, the pop version of the song by Hyolyn reached number six on the Gaon Music Chart in February, followed by the film version performed by Hye Na Park (ko) charting at number 80 in March. The Japanese versions of the song, performed in the film by Takako Matsu and in the end roll by May J., reached number 2 and 8 respectively on the Japan Hot 100 after the film 's Japanese release in March 2014. Matsu 's version was certified million for digital downloads in Japan in May 2014, and May J. 's version platinum for 250,000 downloads. May J. recorded a rearranged version of the song on her album Heartful Song Covers, which was released on March 26, 2014.
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages. Namely: Albanian, Arabic, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette (credits)
"Let It Go '' received widespread acclaim from film critics, music critics, and audiences, with some comparing it favorably to "Defying Gravity '' (also performed by Idina Menzel) from the Broadway musical Wicked. The Rochester City Newspaper called it the best song of the film 's soundtrack, writing; "Performed with belty gusto by Idina Menzel, it 's got every element needed to be a lasting favorite. (...) Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker described the song as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' while Joe Dziemianowicz of New York Daily News called it "a stirring tribute to girl power and the need to ' let go ' of fear and shame ''.
On the other hand, Jim DeRogatis and Greg Kot of the radio show Sound Opinions criticized the song; DeRogatis labeled it "schlock '', and Kot described it as a "clichéd piece of fluff that you would have heard on a Broadway soundtrack from maybe the fifties or the sixties ''.
By spring 2014, many journalists had observed that after watching Frozen, numerous young children in the United States were becoming unusually obsessed with the film 's music, and with "Let It Go '' in particular. Columnist Yvonne Abraham of The Boston Globe called the song "musical crack '' which "sends kids into altered states. '' A similar phenomenon was described in the United Kingdom, where Lorraine Candy, editor - in - chief of Elle UK, wrote of a "musical epidemic sweeping the nation, relentlessly gathering up every child... in its cult - like grip ''.
Passenger, the singer - songwriter who rose to fame with the 2012 hit single "Let Her Go '', admitted in an August 2016 interview on The Project that his single is frequently confused with "Let It Go. '' As a result, he "always '' receives song requests for the latter, even though it is not his song.
In November 2017, Chilean pop singer Jaime Ciero sued Disney, Idina Menzel, and Demi Lovato, claiming that "Let It Go '' was extremely similar to his 2008 song "Volar ''.
Some viewers outside the film industry, including one evangelical pastor and commentators, believe that the film is a promotion for the normalization of homosexuality, while others have argued that the character of Elsa is a representation of positive LGBT youth and the song is a metaphor for coming out. The LGBT community, however, had a mixed reaction to these claims. When Frozen co-director Jennifer Lee was asked about the purported gay undertones, she stated that the film 's meaning was open to interpretation "I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I do n't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it 's up to them. '' Lee added that the film 's meaning was also inevitably going to be interpreted within the cultural context of being made in the year 2013.
Another interpretation for the song and the movie is that they promote self - affirmation for people on the autism spectrum. Co-writer Kristen Andersen - Lopez has stated that her younger brother has autistic traits and that inspired the song insofar as it deals with the concept of having a "special sibling. ''
"Let It Go '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 86th Academy Awards, where a shortened rendition of the show - tune version was performed live by Menzel; with the award, Robert Lopez became the 12th person, and by far the quickest (10 years), to win an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony in their career.
The decision to release a single for "Let It Go '' was made after the song was written and was presented to Disney. Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez selected American singer and former Disney Channel star Demi Lovato, who also appears on Disney 's Hollywood Records roster, to cover the song on the soundtrack album. It was included in the deluxe edition of Demi. Lovato 's version was officially covered in nine other languages, eight of which are included into "Let It Go the Complete Set '': French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Mandarin Chinese (China 's version), Spanish (Latin American version) and Russian. The Indonesian pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
Anderson - Lopez said that Lovato was chosen because of the singer 's own personal life; "She had a past that she 's pretty open about that is similar to Elsa 's journey of letting a dark past and fear behind and moving forward with your power. '' Lovato indeed identified herself with the song 's context, stating "It 's so relatable. Elsa is finding her identity; she 's growing into who she is and she 's finally accepting her own strength and magical powers. Instead of hiding it, like she 's done all her life, she 's letting it go and embracing it. ''
Lovato 's cover version was released as a single by Walt Disney Records on October 21, 2013. While Menzel 's version is performed in the key of A-flat major and a tempo of 137 beats per minute, Lovato 's version is performed in the key of G major and a tempo of 140 beats per minute, with her vocal range spanning between G and E. In this version, the line "Let the storm rage on '' is omitted from the chorus, along with its unusual accompanying chord progression, and an extra "Let it go '' is substituted in its place.
The music video was released on November 1, 2013. It was directed by Declan Whitebloom. The video opens with Lovato sitting on the floor of an abandoned mansion lined with marble floors and dotted with furniture covered with white sheets. During the video she is wearing a black period - inspired cloak dress. She can then be seen playing a grand piano. The scenes inside the mansion are interwoven with images and clips from Frozen. Towards the end of the song, Lovato re-emerges wearing a cream - colored gown and the room seems to be new again, with the sheets thrown away revealing brightly embellished furniture.
Lovato performed the song on several occasions. Lovato first performed the track at the 2013 Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade. On November 13, 2014, she performed the song at the 2014 Royal Variety Performance. The song was also a part of Lovato 's setlist for The Neon Lights Tour and the Demi World Tour. On May 2015, she performed the song for 2nd Indonesian Choice Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Menzel 's version was a single release, being promoted to adult contemporary radio by Walt Disney Records in January 2014. Disney 's music division planned to release Lovato 's version of the song before Menzel 's, as they did not consider Menzel 's version a traditional pop song.
It is the first song from a Disney animated musical to reach the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 since 1995, when Vanessa L. Williams ' "Colors of the Wind '' from Pocahontas peaked at number four on the chart. The song is also Menzel 's first single to reach the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, making her the first Tony Award winner for acting to ever reach the top 10. The song was the ninth best - selling song of 2014 in the United States with 3.37 million copies sold in that year. As of December 2014, the song has sold 3.5 million copies in the US. It is now the biggest - selling foreign song from any original soundtrack in South Korea as of March 12, 2014.
A remix EP was released digitally by Walt Disney Records on May 19, 2014. The EP features four remixes by Dave Audé, Papercha $ er, DJ Escape & Tony Coluccio and Corbin Hayes. Armin van Buuren produced another remix of the song for the remix album, Dconstructed.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Many cover versions have been recorded internationally. In February 2014, Alex Boyé recorded a light Africanized tribal cover of the song, featuring the One Voice Children 's Choir and Lexi Walker as Elsa.
The Piano Guys ' cover version mixes parts of Antonio Vivaldi 's Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno '' (Winter) from The Four Seasons into the original. The music videos of both covers were filmed in the ice castles in Midway, Utah.
In March 2014, Brian Hull recorded a cover of the song while impersonating various Disney characters such as Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and Goofy.
Norwegian YouTube singer Per Fredrik Pellek Asly or "PelleK '', covered a power metal version of the Lovato version of the song on December 16, 2013, collecting more than 4 million views.
In February 2014, a parody YouTuber by the name of Malinda Kathleen Reese used Google Translate to translate the song 's lyrics from multiple languages to English, revealing expected humorous mistranslations, with lines such as "Let us very angry '' and "Give up, tune in, slam the door. ''
It has been alleged by some commentators that one of the promotional songs for the 2022 Winter Olympics, "The Snow and Ice Dance, '' has suspicious similarities with "Let It Go. '' A Chinese media outlet cited technical analysis of the two songs: Both songs employ a piano as the major instrument, have similar prelude chords and an eight - beat introduction, and they run at almost exactly the same tempo.
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actress who played angel in home and away | Melissa George - Wikipedia
Melissa Suzanne George (born 6 August 1976) is an Australian - American actress. A former national rollerskating champion and model in Australia, George began her acting career playing Angel Parrish on the Australian soap opera Home and Away from 1993 to 1996. After moving to the United States, George made her film debut in the neo-noir science fiction feature Dark City (1998) and later appeared in supporting roles in Steven Soderbergh 's crime film The Limey (1999) and David Lynch 's Mulholland Drive (2001).
She also appeared in television, on series such as Friends (2003), Alias (2003 -- 04), In Treatment (2008), Grey 's Anatomy (2008 -- 09) and Lie to Me (2010), earning a nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film for In Treatment. In 2005, George transitioned into leading roles in films, starring as Kathy Lutz in the remake of The Amityville Horror (2005), followed by the thriller Turistas (2006) and the vampire horror film 30 Days of Night (2007). She garnered critical acclaim for her starring role in Triangle (2009).
George 's subsequent work includes the thriller A Lonely Place to Die (2011), the Australian drama series The Slap (2011), for which she won a Logie Award for Most Outstanding Actress, the British - American spy drama series Hunted (2012) and the drama series The Good Wife (2013 -- 14). In 2015, she starred in the American adaptation of The Slap, playing the same character, Rosie, that she had played in the Australian version. She also played the lead role in the American medical drama series Heartbeat (2016).
George was born on 6 August 1976 in Perth, Western Australia, to a "middle class '' family, the daughter of Pamela, a nurse, and Glenn George, a construction worker. She is of Scottish descent. William Ward, a grandfather on her mother 's side, worked as a prison warden at Rottnest Island, offshore from Perth. The second of four children, she is also a cousin of the opera singer Taryn Fiebig.
George attended Warwick Senior High School and developed an interest in dancing and began studying jazz, tap, ballet, and modern dance at the age of seven. Her enthusiasm for dance eventually evolved into a passion for artistic roller skating. She is an Australian national roller skating champion and won bronze medals in the National Championships in 1989 and 1990. She won a silver medal at the Junior World Championship in 1991.
George began modeling in her early teens, and in 1992 she was named Western Australia 's Teenage Model of the Year. At the age of sixteen, George and a friend, Cara Mitchinson, both acted in a mock episode of the popular Australian soap Home and Away with a video camera, playing Bobby and Sophie Simpson, respectively. When the offer of a role on the serial came, George 's parents convinced her to relocate from her native Perth to Sydney and she began lodging with families. George met with casting director Liz Mullinar and was subsequently cast in the role of Angel Parrish. She made her first on - screen appearance on 30 March 1993, arriving as a teenage runaway. While playing the role, George made property investments and wrote advice columns for two English teen magazines.
Her role earned her five consecutive Logie Award nominations, of which she won two. The character became popular among viewers when she was paired up with Shane Parrish, and to this day they remain one of the soap 's most loved couples. George departed Home and Away on 30 August 1996. She then made a health and fitness video, Mind, Body and Soul (1996), created a sleepwear line called "An Angel at My Bedside '', and had a recurring role on the short - lived 1997 Fox Broadcasting Company television fantasy drama series Roar, which was filmed in Queensland, opposite Heath Ledger. Her fearlessness in performing the show 's stunts endeared her to the show 's creator, Shaun Cassidy, who subsequently cast her as the female lead in the pilot Hollyweird. A show about "the adventures of an intrepid pair of friends from Ohio who take their love for the macabre and use it to solve crimes plaguing Los Angeles '', she was to star alongside Bodhi Elfman and Fab Filippo. The pilot was ordered to series, however, the Fox Network 's tinkering and delays frustrated Cassidy, who pulled out of the project, saying that Fox had forced him to spend "much of the last year trying to fix something I never viewed as broken in the first place. '' Ultimately, production never went ahead on the show. George then appeared on the cover and in a nude pictorial for the March 1997 issue of Australian Playboy.
In late 1997, George decided to relocate from Australia to the United States, hoping to establish a career in Hollywood. She recalled her first day arriving in Los Angeles: "I saw Jennifer Jason Leigh in a parking garage, and (later) the same night, I went to a restaurant and I walked into the toilet and opened the door, and Courtney Love was sitting on the loo. '' Within a year after relocating, George made her film debut in the critically acclaimed neo-noir science fiction film Dark City (1998).
After a supporting role in Steven Soderbergh 's 1999 neo-noir crime film The Limey, she was cast in a supporting role, Cleo Miller, in the 2001 black comedy Sugar & Spice and had a minor role in David Lynch 's critically acclaimed Mulholland Drive, which opened at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival. She starred in several unaired TV pilots, including the lead role in Lost in Oz, an original sequel to The Wizard of Oz, inspired by the Oz books of L. Frank Baum. After pilot was filmed, a significant amount of time passed before the decision was made to film a second episode. However, by then George 's contract had lapsed and, as she had just moved to America, she did n't want to move back to Australia to shoot it. Ultimately, a second episode was never shot and the show was never picked up.
She starred in the short - lived ABC drama - comedy Thieves, co-starring John Stamos. She starred in the sixth season premiere of the WB series Charmed, had a minor role opposite Renée Zellweger and Ewan McGregor in the 2003 romantic comedy Down with Love and was originally cast as Susan Freeman in the American series Coupling based on the British series of the same name. After "an audition from hell '', George was cast and filmed the pilot, but the network (NBC) then fired the writers and replaced George and her fellow castmembers Breckin Meyer and Emily Rutherfurd with Rena Sofer, Colin Ferguson and Sonya Walger, respectively. The series lasted only four episodes and show creator Steven Moffat blamed NBC 's meddling as the reason for the show 's failure, saying that they "fucked it up because they intervened endlessly. '' George later commented that she "dodged a bullet '' by being replaced before the show aired.
In 2003, she landed the role of Lauren Reed on the ABC television series Alias. She had auditioned to play lead character Sydney Bristow, but lost out to Jennifer Garner. When that happened, ABC cast her on Thieves instead. It was originally planned that George would guest - star for several episodes but she was quickly upgraded to regular. To explain her character 's accent (George is Australian), the writers wrote that she was born in the United States but grew up in London. George left the show at the end of the third season, saying that "I got offered a couple of films so I decided to kind 've (sic) move on. ''
Her first starring role in a feature film was Kathy Lutz in the 2005 remake of the 1979 horror film, The Amityville Horror. The film was not well received by critics, but was a major success at the worldwide box office, grossing over $108 million. Despite unfavorable reviews, Film Threat praised George and her co-star Ryan Reynolds 's performances, stating that they "make a striking couple. Both young and extremely attractive '' and that she "does an impeccable American accent, but otherwise she is unremarkable as Kathy Lutz. Her physical beauty is sometimes distracting, but not enough to keep the audience awed by her acting. '' That same year, she played Deanna Schine in the thriller Derailed, co-starring Clive Owen and Jennifer Aniston, playing the wife of a man embroiled in an affair.
In March 2006, it was announced that she had been cast in the NBC comedy - drama series Lipstick Jungle, based on the novel of the same name by Candace Bushnell. George was to play Nico Reilly, the editor - in - chief of Bonfire Magazine. However, the show underwent significant changes with George and other castmates being replaced and with executive producers DeAnn Heline and Eileen Heisler, writers Rand Ravich and Jill Gordon and director Nigel Cole all fired. George had been personally cast by Bushnell, but left in early 2007 when she was offered the HBO series In Treatment. Also in 2006, she travelled to Brazil to film the horror - thriller Turistas (released in the UK and Ireland as Paradise Lost) with Josh Duhamel and Olivia Wilde. Shooting lasted three months on what was the first Hollywood film to be shot entirely on location in Brazil and George, who learned to speak Spanish and Portuguese for the role, said that the experience "made me a better actress, more resilient, tougher. ''
In 2007, she landed the lead role, Christine, in the biographical drama Music Within, opposite Ron Livingston, which focused on a disability rights activist in Portland, Oregon. The film had a limited release. In an interview, she said that she "knew that Christine 's a true character, and the woman responsible for Richard Pimentel 's sort of success in a way. She was the driving force behind him and behind every good man is a good woman, and Christine was that woman. '' She starred in the British horror thriller WΔZ, and had a prominent role in the film adaptation of 30 Days of Night, directed by David Slade and co-starring Josh Hartnett. The film was a modest success with an over $75 million worldwide gross.
George returned to television in 2008 in the HBO half - hour drama In Treatment, co-starring Gabriel Byrne and Dianne Wiest, receiving a 2009 Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, and also received a nomination for "Best Actress '' at the 2009 Australian Film Institute Awards.
In September 2008, George joined the cast of Grey 's Anatomy for eleven episodes as Sadie Harris, a bisexual intern, but in January 2009 it was released that she was leaving the show in a mutual agreement with the producers. Also in 2008, she starred in the film The Betrayed, which was released at the San Diego Film Festival, and was released direct - to - video in the United States on 30 June 2009.
On 9 November 2009, it was announced that George would guest - star in at least two episodes of Fox 's Lie to Me playing Clara Musso. George also received the lead role in the Australian - British mystery thriller by Chris Smith titled Triangle, which opened to positive reviews. George also starred in the British thriller film A Lonely Place to Die (2010), directed by Julian Gilbey. She climbed Ben Nevis mountain for her role in the film, later telling The Sun: "It was tough because it 's a pretty dangerous location, and it was n't fit for a large crew, but we did it, we made it... I was climbing with Di Gilbert who has climbed Everest many times so that was incredible. And when you get up there, it 's just a huge sense of achievement. ''
In November 2010, George was named the new face of L'Oréal Melbourne Fashion Festival. In 2012, George appeared as Rosie in the Australian TV series The Slap and as Sam Hunter in the British TV series Hunted, which was filmed over seven months in London, Scotland and Morocco. An American adaptation of the series, in which George again played the character Rosie, premièred on the NBC network in February 2015. A review of the U.S. series in The New York Times noted George 's performance as "particularly beguiling... As Rosie she is absurd, infuriating, sad and very funny. ''
In 2017, she was cast opposite Sean Penn in the television series The First (2018), created by Beau Willimon and filmed in New Orleans, Louisiana.
George is credited as the inventor of Style Snaps, a device intended to allow changing pant hem length without sewing. The product is marketed via direct response TV. She has stated that the invention earns her more money than her acting career.
In November 2012, while promoting the television series Hunted for the Sun - Herald television magazine in Australia, George was quoted as saying: "I do n't need credibility from my country any more, I just need them all to be quiet. If they have nothing intelligent to say, please do n't speak to me anymore. I 'd rather be having a croissant and a little espresso in Paris or walking my French bulldog in New York City. '' The response was purportedly spurred by George being tired of repeated questions about her role as Angel Parrish on Home and Away -- the role that had originally garnered her fame in Australia -- as opposed to questions about her more recent projects. The publication of the article drew significant criticism, specifically from Australian publications. George would later claim that she was misquoted in the piece, and that the phrases had been "swapped around and put out of context '': "I never said that at all. We were laughing and I never said anything negative about my country, '' she contested.
In light of a publicised domestic violence dispute between George and her partner Jean - David Blanc in 2016, journalist Christine Sams, who had originally published the Sun - Herald article, wrote a public apology, in which she noted: "Many of those people attacking George have directly used those inane comments from my original interview (published years ago) to somehow justify her not receiving sympathy or help now. I just wanted to say sorry Melissa, you do n't deserve it. ''
In 1998, George met Chilean furniture designer and film director Claudio Dabed in Bali. They married two years later. In 2011, they announced their divorce. George then began dating hip hop mogul Russell Simmons.
In 2011, George met French entrepreneur Jean David Blanc, the founder of AlloCiné, at a BAFTA awards party. Together they have two sons, Raphaël (b. 2014) and Solal (b. 2015). In September 2016, George separated from Blanc following allegations of domestic abuse which purportedly occurred at their home in Paris. George was hospitalised with head and neck injuries, and both Blanc and George received domestic assault charges over the incident, with Blanc claiming George instigated the confrontation. Blanc was ordered to pay George € 1,000 in damages, and she, € 1 to him.
Shortly after the incident, George attempted to fly to the United States with the couple 's two sons for a work arrangement, but was prevented from doing so by French authorities after Blanc alleged she was attempting to kidnap their children. George denied this, and claimed she intended on returning to France with the children after finishing the work engagement. In a 2017 interview on Sunday Night, George revealed that she and Blanc had shared custody of the children, but expressed that she felt trapped in France, unable to move freely between countries with her children; the custody arrangement made between the parties requires that Blanc provide written consent before the couple 's children are allowed to leave the country. She also alleged during the program that she believed Blanc had private detectives hired to follow her around Paris. Blanc denied George 's allegations. In 2017, she stated she had resumed working in the United States on the series The First, and flew between both countries to "spend the maximum time '' with her children.
George became a naturalized American citizen in 2008.
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what is the first city in the us | List of North American settlements by year of Foundation - wikipedia
This is a list of settlements in North America by founding year and present - day country.
Founded as Fort Hoop by the Dutch, renamed by English in 1637, by Thomas Hooker
Became a borough of Trois - Rivières in January, 2002.
Ohio United States
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impact strength of material is an index of its | Strength of materials - wikipedia
Strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, is a subject which deals with the behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with the consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young 's modulus, and Poisson 's ratio; in addition the mechanical element 's macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as its length, width, thickness, boundary constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various manners including breaking them completely. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or rotational (strength shear). The stresses and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection criteria that is based on the member 's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to calculate the member 's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stress -- strain curve (yield stress) beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed upon removal of the loading and as a result the member will have a permanent deflection. The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stress -- strain curve corresponding to the stress that produces fracture.
Uniaxial stress is expressed by
where F is the force (N) acting on an area A (m). The area can be the undeformed area or the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.
Mechanical properties of materials include the yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength, crack resistance, and other characteristics.
The slope of this line is known as Young 's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity. '' The modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stress -- strain relationship in the linear - elastic portion of the stress -- strain curve. The linear - elastic region is either below the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress -- strain plot it is defined to be between 0 and 0.2 % strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area (N / m). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it breaks or weakens. For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is 440 MN / m. In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N / m. In Imperial units, the unit of stress is given as lbf / in2 or pounds - force per square inch. This unit is often abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
A factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve. F S = U T S / R (\ displaystyle FS = UTS / R), where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate stress (psi or N / m)
Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure Load / (Factor of Safety × Predicted Load) − 1.
For example, to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel component can be calculated to be R = U T S / F S (\ displaystyle R = UTS / FS) = 440 / 4 = 110 MPa, or R (\ displaystyle R) = 110 × 10 N / m. Such allowable stresses are also known as "design stresses '' or "working stresses. ''
Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the materials give safe and reliable results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts fail when subjected to a non steady and continuously varying loads even though the developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding. However, when the stress is kept below "fatigue stress '' or "endurance limit stress '', the part will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress is one that alternates between equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as stress range (Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range is below the material 's yield strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for failure.
There are four failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the latter three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poisson 's ratio of the part material, which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories will give the same result.
A material 's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a material is subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms that alter the strength of a material includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening, precipitation hardening, and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantitatively and qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material 's mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting values of the compressive stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials, especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress concentrations, especially changes in cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far lower than those quoted for the strength of the material.
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who was the commander chosen to lead the colony | Arthur Phillip - wikipedia
Admiral Arthur Phillip (11 October 1738 -- 31 August 1814) was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney, Australia.
After much experience at sea, Phillip sailed with the First Fleet as Governor - designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales. In January 1788, he selected its location to be Port Jackson (encompassing Sydney Harbour).
Phillip was a far - sighted governor who soon saw that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating the convicts. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the voyage had been rejected, and he faced immense problems of labour, discipline and supply. His friendly attitude towards the aborigines was also sorely tested when they killed his gamekeeper, and he was not able to assert a clear policy about them.
The arrival of the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on the scarce local resources, but by the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land - grants and systematic farming and water - supply.
Phillip retired in 1805, but continued to correspond with his friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony 's interests.
Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, the younger of two children to Jacob Phillip and Elizabeth Breach. His father Jacob was born in Frankfurt, Germany. He was a languages teacher who may also have served in the Royal Navy as an able seaman and purser 's steward. His mother Elizabeth was the widow of an ordinary seaman, John Herbert, who had served in Jamaica aboard HMS Tartar and died of disease on 13 August 1732. At the time of Arthur Phillip 's birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.
There are no surviving records of Phillip 's early childhood. His father Jacob died in 1739, after which the Phillip family may have fallen on hard times. On 22 June 1751 he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In keeping with the school 's curriculum, his education was focused on literacy, arithmetic and navigational skills, including cartography. He was a competent student and something of a perfectionist. His headmaster, Rev. Francis Swinden observed that in personality, Phillip was "unassuming, reasonable, business - like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes ''.
Phillip remained at the Greenwich School for two and a half years, considerably longer than the average student stay of twelve months. At the end of 1753 he was granted a seven - year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune, a 210 - ton whaling boat commanded by merchant mariner Wiliam Readhead. He left the Greenwich School on 1 December and spent the winter aboard Fortune awaiting the commencement of the 1754 whaling season.
Phillip spent the summer of 1754 hunting whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. As an apprentice, his responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce and Fortune 's thirty crew members supplemented their diet with bird 's eggs, scurvy grass and where possible, reindeer. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754. The whaling crew were paid off and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. As an apprentice, Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year 's whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew, but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July. On 16 October he enlisted in the Royal Navy and was assigned the rank of ordinary seaman aboard the 68 - gun HMS Buckingham.
As a member of Buckingham 's crew, Phillip saw action in the Seven Years ' War, including the Battle of Minorca in 1756. By 1762 he had transferred to HMS Stirling Castle, and was promoted to Lieutenant in recognition of active service in the Battle of Havana. The War ended in 1763 and Phillip returned to England on half pay. In July 1763 he married Margaret Denison, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy. The following year he was posted as second lieutenant aboard HMS Egmont, a newly built 74 - gun ship of the line.
In 1774 Phillip joined the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the War against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a frigate, the Nossa Senhora do Pilar. On this ship he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Rio de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. This voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship and, on arrival at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this eventually found its way into the English press when Phillip was appointed in 1786 to lead the expedition to Sydney. Phillip played a leading part in the capture of the Spanish ship San Agustín, on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina. The San Agustin was commissioned into the Portuguese Navy as the Santo Agostinho, and command of her was given to Phillip. The action was reported in the English press:
Madrid, Aug. 28. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.
In 1778 Britain was again at war, and Phillip was recalled to active service, and in 1779 obtained his first command, HMS Basilisk. He was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of HMS Europa.
In July 1782, in a change of government, Thomas Townshend became Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like his predecessor, Lord Germain, he turned for advice to Arthur Phillip. A letter from Phillip to Sandwich of 17 January 1781 records Phillip 's loan to Sandwich of his charts of the Plata and Brazilian coasts for use in organising the expedition. Phillip 's plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy 's East India squadron for an attack on Manila. The expedition, consisting of the Grafton, 70 guns, Elizabeth, 74 guns, Europe, 64 guns, and the frigate Iphigenia, sailed on 16 January 1783, under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill. Phillip was given command of the 64 - gun HMS Europa, or Europe. Shortly after sailing, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.
After his return to England from India in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and the Home Office Under Secretary, Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786 he was employed by Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France and Spain, to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports. There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands.
Portraits of the time depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion, dark eyes and a "smooth pear of a skull. '' His features were dominated by a large and fleshy nose, and by a pronounced lower lip.
At this time, Lord Sandwich, together with the President of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, was advocating establishment of a British colony in New South Wales. A colony there would be of great assistance to the British Navy in facilitating attacks on the Spanish possessions in Chile and Peru, as Banks 's collaborators, James Matra, Captain Sir George Young and Sir John Call pointed out in written proposals on the subject. The British Government took the decision to settle what is now Australia and found the Botany Bay colony in mid-1786. Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office, was the minister in charge, and in September 1786 he appointed Phillip commodore of the fleet which was to transport the convicts and soldiers who were to be the new settlers to Botany Bay. Upon arrival there, Phillip was to assume the powers of Captain General and Governor in Chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call, to take advantage for naval purposes of that island 's native flax and timber.
In October 1786, Phillip was appointed captain of HMS Sirius and named Governor - designate of New South Wales, the proposed British colony on the east coast of Australia, by Lord Sydney, the Home Secretary.
Phillip had a very difficult time assembling the fleet which was to make the eight - month sea voyage to Australia. Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there. There were few funds available for equipping the expedition. His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building and crafts be included was rejected. Most of the 772 convicts (of whom 732 survived the voyage) were petty thieves from the London slums. Phillip was accompanied by a contingent of marines and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony.
The 11 ships of the First Fleet set sail on 13 May 1787. The leading ship, HMS Supply reached Botany Bay setting up camp on the Kurnell Peninsula, on 18 January 1788. Phillip soon decided that this site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage and no reliable water source. After some exploration Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January the marines and convicts landed at Sydney Cove, which Phillip named after Lord Sydney.
Shortly after landing and establishing the settlement at Port Jackson, on 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with 8 free men and a number of convicts to establish the second British colony in the Pacific at Norfolk Island. This was partly in response to a perceived threat of losing Norfolk Island to the French and partly to establish an alternative food source for the new colony.
The early days of the settlement were chaotic and difficult. With limited supplies, the cultivation of food was imperative, but the soils around Sydney were poor, the climate was unfamiliar, and moreover very few of the convicts had any knowledge of agriculture. The colony was on the verge of outright starvation for an extended period. The marines, poorly disciplined themselves in many cases, were not interested in convict discipline. Almost at once, therefore, Phillip had to appoint overseers from among the ranks of the convicts to get the others working. This was the beginning of the process of convict emancipation which was to culminate in the reforms of Lachlan Macquarie after 1811.
Phillip showed in other ways that he recognised that New South Wales could not be run simply as a prison camp. Lord Sydney, often criticised as an ineffectual incompetent, had made one fundamental decision about the settlement that was to influence it from the start. Instead of just establishing it as a military prison, he provided for a civil administration, with courts of law. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of Alexander, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Convicts in Britain had no right to sue, and Sinclair had boasted that he could not be sued by them. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the loss of their possessions.
Further, soon after Lord Sydney appointed him governor of New South Wales Arthur Phillip drew up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: "The laws of this country (England) will of course, be introduced in (New) South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty 's forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves. '' Nevertheless, Phillip believed in discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Philip commuted many death sentences.
Phillip also had to adopt a policy towards the Eora Aboriginal people, who lived around the waters of Sydney Harbour. Phillip ordered that they must be well - treated, and that anyone killing Aboriginal people would be hanged. Phillip befriended an Eora man called Bennelong, and later took him to England. On the beach at Manly, a misunderstanding arose and Phillip was speared in the shoulder: but he ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip went some way towards winning the trust of the Eora, although they remained wary of the settlers. Soon, a virulent disease, smallpox that was believed to be on account of the white settlers, and other European - introduced epidemics, ravaged the Eora population.
The Governor 's main problem was with his own military officers, who wanted large grants of land, which Phillip had not been authorised to grant. Scurvy broke out, and in October 1788 Phillip had to send Sirius to Cape Town for supplies, and strict rationing was introduced, with thefts of food punished by hanging. Arthur Phillip quoted "The living conditions need to improve or my men wo n't work as hard, so I have come to a conclusion that I must hire surgeons to fix the convicts. ''
Phillip insisted that no retaliation be taken to avenge his own non-fatal spearing. Convict John MacIntyre had been fatally speared during a hunting expedition by unknown aborigines apparently without provocation. MacIntyre swore on his death bed that he had done them no harm, but marine officer Watkin Tench was suspicious of the claim. Tench was sent on a punitive expedition but finding no Aborigines other than Bennelong took no action.
Phillip, growing frustrated with the burdens of upholding a colony and his health suffering, resigned soon after this episode.
By 1790 the situation had stabilised. The population of about 2,000 was adequately housed and fresh food was being grown. Phillip assigned a convict, James Ruse, land at Rose Hill (now Parramatta) to establish proper farming, and when Ruse succeeded he received the first land grant in the colony. Other convicts followed his example. Sirius was wrecked in March 1790 at the satellite settlement of Norfolk Island, depriving Phillip of vital supplies. In June 1790 the Second Fleet arrived with hundreds more convicts, most of them too sick to work.
By December 1790 Phillip was ready to return to England, but the colony had largely been forgotten in London and no instructions reached him, so he carried on. In 1791 he was advised that the government would send out two convoys of convicts annually, plus adequate supplies. But July, when the vessels of the Third Fleet began to arrive, with 2,000 more convicts, food again ran short, and he had to send the ship Atlantic to Calcutta for supplies.
By 1792 the colony was well established, though Sydney remained an unplanned huddle of wooden huts and tents. The whaling industry was established, ships were visiting Sydney to trade, and convicts whose sentences had expired were taking up farming. John Macarthur and other officers were importing sheep and beginning to grow wool. The colony was still very short of skilled farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen, and the convicts continued to work as little as possible, even though they were working mainly to grow their own food.
In late 1792 Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished his governorship and sailed for England on the ship Atlantic, taking with him many specimens of plants and animals. He also took Bennelong and his friend Yemmerrawanne, another young Indigenous Australian who, unlike Bennelong, would succumb to English weather and disease and not live to make the journey home. The European population of New South Wales at his departure was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. The early years of the colony had been years of struggle and hardship, but the worst was over, and there were no further famines in New South Wales. Phillip arrived in London in May 1793. He tendered his formal resignation and was granted a pension of £ 500 a year.
Phillip 's estranged wife, Margaret, had died in 1792 and was buried in St Beuno 's Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire. In 1794 Phillip married Isabella Whitehead, and lived for a time at Bath. His health gradually recovered and in 1796 he went back to sea, holding a series of commands and responsible posts in the wars against the French. In January 1799 he became a Rear - Admiral. In 1805, aged 67, he retired from the Navy with the rank of Admiral of the Blue, and spent most of the rest of his life at Bath. He continued to correspond with friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony 's interests with government officials. He died in Bath in 1814.
Phillip was buried in St Nicholas 's Church, Bathampton. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in 1897 and the Premier of New South Wales, Sir Henry Parkes, had it restored. An annual service of remembrance is held here around Phillip 's birthdate by the Britain -- Australia Society to commemorate his life.
In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson QC alleged that Phillip 's remains are no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton and have been lost: "... Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies. ''
A number of places in Australia bear Phillip 's name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), the federal electorate of Phillip (1949 -- 1993), the suburb of Phillip in Canberra, the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, and many streets, parks and schools including a state high school in Parramatta. A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred 's Church, Bread St, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul 's Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary - le - Bow. There is a statue of him in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. There is a portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his Dictionary of Australian Biography:
Steadfast in mind, modest, without self seeking, Phillip had imagination enough to conceive what the settlement might become, and the common sense to realize what at the moment was possible and expedient. When almost everyone was complaining he never himself complained, when all feared disaster he could still hopefully go on with his work. He was sent out to found a convict settlement, he laid the foundations of a great dominion.
As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014. In the service the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as: "This modest, yet world - class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton. ''
A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James ' Church, Sydney on 31 August 2014.
A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney and a full - day symposium planned on his contributions to the founding of modern Australia.
Phillip is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker 's play Our Country 's Good, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of The Recruiting Officer. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers. He is also prominent in Banished and is played by David Wenham.
Phillip is referred to in the John Williamson song "Chains around my ankle ''.
Phillip is a prominent character in a 2005 film The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant where he is portrayed by Sam Neill.
Kate Grenville 's 2008 novel The Lieutenant portrays Phillip through the character Commodore James Gilbert.
The Arthur Phillip memorial on the wall of the Australia Chapel, Bathampton
Bathampton Memorials
Bust of Phillip at St Mary - le - Bow Church in London.
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how old are nathan and lucas in season 1 | One Tree Hill (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of One Tree Hill, an American teen drama television series created by Mark Schwahn, began airing on September 23, 2003 on The WB television network. The season concluded on May 11, 2004, after 22 episodes.
The series premiere was watched by 2.5 million viewers and achieved a 1.9 Adults 18 -- 49 rating on September 23, 2003. However, the following week it rose to 3.3 million viewers and a 2.4 demo, becoming only one of three shows to rise in its second episode in the 2003 -- 2004 TV season.
Warner Home Video released the complete first season, under the title of One Tree Hill: The Complete First Season, on January 25, 2005, as a six - disc boxed set.
The first season follows junior Lucas Scott as he joins his high school basketball team and forges a relationship with his half - brother Nathan Scott, while also coming to terms with who he is and who his father is. The season also explores the love lives of the boys as they develop relationships with characters like Peyton Sawyer, Haley James and Brooke Davis, while the parents of these teens must also face the past in order to move on from it.
Lucas blows his first varsity game and decides to quit the team. The wedge between Nathan and Peyton continues to grow after Peyton tires of Nathan 's jabs at Lucas. Meanwhile, Keith forces Karen to deal with her feelings for Dan after she refuses to set foot in the high school gym to support her son.
Annoyed by Lucas 's growing popularity, Nathan searches for his weak spot and finds it in Haley James - Lucas 's best friend. After convincing the team to aggressively haze Lucas, Nathan seeks tutoring help from Haley and tries to befriend her, after all, nothing could hurt Lucas more than seeing his best friend help his worst rival. Meanwhile, Brooke develops feelings for Lucas. Karen must face some not - so - friendly acquaintances from the past. And Peyton becomes furious with Lucas when she discovers that he secretly submitted her drawings to a local newspaper.
A party at Dan 's beach house, complete with basketball players, cheerleaders and beer? Sounds cool. But things heat up when Nathan humiliates Lucas, then crashes Peyton 's car and lets Lucas take the blame. When Lucas sees the wealth that was denied him, he finally confronts his mother about why she let Dan ignore them. Meanwhile, when Nathan 's mom returns home to hear her son was involved in a hit - and - run, she turns to Karen for advice.
Lucas asks Keith to play with him in the annual "Father and Son '' basketball game, and realizes he got the better father figure after Dan publicly humiliates Nathan on the court. Meanwhile, Peyton turns down Nathan 's attempts to make up; she is having a hard time dealing with the anniversary of her mother 's death and finds a comforting ally in Whitey. Haley continues tutoring Nathan and their developing friendship bothers Lucas.
When Whitey throws Lucas and Nathan off the team bus for misconduct, the two boys wind up stranded thirty miles from home. On the long walk home, they encounter a carload of players from the team they just beat who kidnap them at gunpoint. Injured during the game, Brooke needs Peyton to drive her home and Haley reluctantly accepts a ride with them. Meanwhile, Karen and Keith attend a business function, and tempers flare when Dan and Deb are seated at their table.
The night of Dan and Deb 's annual basketball appreciation party stirs up old wounds and new feelings. As Karen makes a new friend, Keith faces off with Dan once again and Lucas finally makes his move on Peyton. Meanwhile, Haley and Nathan grow closer until Brooke spreads a vicious rumor that leaves Haley devastated.
Looking for some fun, Brooke and Peyton crash a college party, but things turn ugly when one of the guys in the dorm drugs Peyton. After Brooke calls Lucas for help, the two bond while caring for a sleeping Peyton, prompting Lucas to look at Brooke in a new light. Meanwhile, Haley gives Nathan another chance and the two go on their first date.
After fighting with his father and Haley, Nathan succumbs to the pressure he is feeling and takes amphetamines to help his game. However, he is n't prepared for the destruction the drugs do to both his body and his family. Meanwhile, Peyton goes to Lucas to rekindle their relationship, but when she arrives at his house, Brooke is there with him.
Lucas decides if he wants to date Brooke or Peyton. Elsewhere, Whitey cancels practice to help the team refocus. Dan takes Nathan on a weekend outing in an attempt to reconcile with his son; and Deb and Haley plan an open - mike night at the cafe.
After quitting the basketball team, Nathan takes advantage of his extra free time to see more of Haley. The couple spend an afternoon at his beach house, where the liquor flows. The Scotts see a therapist to try to fix their family problems, but the distance between Deb and Dan continues to grow. Meanwhile, Brooke grows jealous of Peyton 's growing bond with Lucas.
After Peyton receives the devastating news that her father is lost at sea, she and Lucas take an overnight trip to Hilton Head to identify a body that has washed ashore. Overcome with emotion, Peyton kisses Lucas. Meanwhile, an unexpected visit from Dan 's parents leaves the Scott family in turmoil, as numerous family secrets are revealed at Dan 's birthday dinner.
On their way to pick up Karen from the airport, Keith and Lucas ' car collides with an oncoming vehicle and an unconscious Lucas is left fighting for his life. Having witnessed the accident, Dan races Lucas to the hospital and must acknowledge that Lucas is his son in order to save his life.
While holding a vigil at Lucas ' bedside as he lies in a coma, Karen meets her son 's new girlfriend, and learns that Deb and Dan are divorcing. Most shocking of all, Karen is horrified to discover that Keith was drinking while driving at the time of the accident. Meanwhile, Nathan tries to win Haley back after she gets to know that he was dating her just to mess with Lucas.
After his near - death experience, Lucas decides he made the wrong choice between Brooke and Peyton so he breaks things off with Brooke and secretly rekindles his romance with Peyton. However, the truth becomes obvious after he is rushed to the emergency room again and the girls come face to face in the hospital. Meanwhile, unable to pay his mortgage after paying Lucas ' hospital bill, Keith puts his garage up for sale.
Nathan must decide which parent to live with after the divorce, but Dan decides to force his hand by threatening to reveal Deb 's darkest secrets in court unless Nathan chooses him. Meanwhile, Lucas meets a beautiful stranger in a bar, while trying to drink his frustrations with his shoulder away. Grammy Award - winner Sheryl Crow appears as herself and performs the song "The First Cut Is The Deepest '' in Karen 's Cafe.
The gang hits the road to Charlotte where Brooke is determined to win first place at the annual cheerleading competition. But when one of her squad falls ill, Peyton begs Haley to step into a cheerleader 's shoes for a day. Meanwhile, after Whitey assigns Lucas and Nathan to the same room, tempers flare and Haley is caught in the middle.
Lucas, Nathan and Jake are auctioned off to the highest bidder in the annual "Boy Toy '' charity auction and the night leads to surprising developments with old flames. Meanwhile, having missed out on the auction, Brooke ends up spending the night with Mouth and he has the time of his life.
Is History repeating itself? Brooke is pregnant, and Lucas finds himself in the same situation Dan faced years ago. Karen turns down Keith 's proposal and Nicki tries to force her way into Jake 's life.
Nathan looks for an after - school job to pay his rent and looks forward to the party that Haley is throwing for him that night. However, Haley panics when things get out of control. Brooke realizes that she is n't considered a "close friend, '' when she is n't invited to the party so she goes to a bar, meets the infamous Nikki and they decide to crash the party together.
Dan becomes temporary coach of the basketball team when Whitey has to have eye surgery; no one else thinks this is a good idea. Haley finds objectional material on Nathan 's laptop and gets offended. Peyton and Brooke are to blame for Nikki kidnapping Jenny and Jake gets upset - and worried. Lucas takes on a complicated decision. Nathan realizes that he is pressuring Haley for sex in ways he does n't even know. Keith and Karen are at odds in their relationship. Dan finally gives Deb the divorce papers.
In the first season finale, Lucas and Nathan bear the brunt of Dan 's abuse as he coaches them into the playoffs, pushing both of them to their breaking points. Lucas is stunned when Haley 's reconciliation with Nathan heightens the intensity of their relationship. Meanwhile, Whitey learns that his medical condition may be more serious than he first believed, and Dan suffers a medical condition after walking in on Deb and Keith having a one night stand.
The DVD release of season one was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Regions 1, 2 and 4. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes. The words "The WB Presents '' were printed on the packaging before the "One Tree Hill '' title, although they were not included on international releases as The WB was not the broadcaster.
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dil meri na sune dil ki main na sunu movie name | Genius (2018 film) - Wikipedia
Genius is an Indian action thriller film directed by Anil Sharma. It marks the debut of his son Utkarsh Sharma as a male lead, who also featured as a child actor in Sharma 's 2001 blockbuster film Gadar: Ek Prem Katha. Nawazuddin Siddiqui and Mithun Chakraborty are in supporting roles in the film.
Vasudev Shastri (Utkarsh Sharma) is a topper yet charming man who comes into IIT where the second ranker, Nandini (Ishitha Chauhan), decides to make his life hell. But Vasu is smart and in love with her to be outmaneuver. Besides being the friendly ' genius ' around campus, he has also got a part - time job working with RAW (Research and Analysis Wing) where his hacking talents are occupied. Vasu was orphaned when his parents were killed in communal riots. He was found by a priest who raised him in a temple complex in Mathura. The life - positive Vasu is the one we see in flashback. In the present, Vasu dresses in all - black, uses a walking stick and suffers from acute tinnitus. This troubled, damaged Vasu is the one who survived multiple bullet wounds during a high - level mission. Special agent Vasu heads a division of RAW called TOCSI, which was tracking public enemy number one, simply referred to as MRS (Nawazuddin Siddiqui).
The film received generally poor reviews. Reviews were particularly critical of the confusing narrative and the standard of acting. Bollywood Hungama gave it 1 / 5 stars saying "On the whole, GENIUS is an extremely poor and senseless fare. '' Moviekoop gave a similar review describing it as failing miserably. Ronak Kotecha of The Times of India was equally critical of the film giving it 2 / 5 stars. The Indian Express gave it a "nil '' rating describing it as feeling redundant.
The music of the film is composed by Himesh Reshammiya and Monty Sharma done the background score while lyrics are penned by Manoj Muntashir, Kumaar, Shabbir Ahmed. The first song of the film "Tera Fitoor '' which is sung by Arijit Singh was released on 12 July 2018. The album was released on 9 August 2018 by Tips Music.
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the hepburn act of 1906 brought significant changes in which of the following industries | Pure Food and Drug Act - wikipedia
The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the first of a series of significant consumer protection laws which was enacted by Congress in the 20th century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. Its main purpose was to ban foreign and interstate traffic in adulterated or mislabeled food and drug products, and it directed the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry to inspect products and refer offenders to prosecutors. It required that active ingredients be placed on the label of a drug 's packaging and that drugs could not fall below purity levels established by the United States Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair was an inspirational piece that kept the public 's attention on the important issue of unsanitary meat processing plants that later led to food inspection legislation. Sinclair quipped, "I aimed at the public 's heart and by accident I hit it in the stomach, '' as readers demanded and got the pure food law.
The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was a key piece of Progressive Era legislation, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt on the same day as the Federal Meat Inspection Act. Enforcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act was assigned to the Bureau of Chemistry in the U.S. Department of Agriculture which was renamed the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1930. The Meat Inspection Act was assigned to what is now known as the Food Safety and Inspection Service, which remains in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The first federal law regulating foods and drugs, the 1906 Act 's reach was limited to foods and drugs moving in interstate commerce. Although the law drew upon many precedents, provisions, and legal experiments pioneered in individual states, the federal law defined "misbranding '' and "adulteration '' for the first time and prescribed penalties for each. The law recognized the U.S. Pharmacopeia and the National Formulary as standards authorities for drugs, but made no similar provision for federal food standards. The law was principally a "truth in labeling '' law designed to raise standards in the food and drug industries and protect the reputations and pocketbooks of honest businessmen.
Under the law, drug labels, for example, had to list any of 10 ingredients that were deemed "addictive '' and / or "dangerous '' on the product label if they were present, and could not list them if they were not present. Alcohol, morphine, opium, and cannabis were all included on the list of these "addictive '' and / or "dangerous '' drugs. The law also established a federal cadre of food and drug inspectors that one Southern opponent of the legislation criticized as "a Trojan horse with a bellyful of inspectors and other employees. '' Penalties under the law were modest, but an under - appreciated provision of the Act proved more powerful than monetary penalties. Goods found in violation of various areas of the law were subject to seizure and destruction at the expense of the manufacturer. That, combined with a legal requirement that all convictions be published as Notices of Judgment, proved to be important tools in the enforcement of the statute and had a deterrent effect upon would - be violators. Deficiencies in this original statute, which had become noticeable by the 1920s, led to the replacement of the 1906 statute with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act which was enacted in 1938 and signed by President Franklin Roosevelt. This act, along with its numerous amendments, remains the statutory basis for federal regulation of all foods, drugs, biological products, cosmetics, medical devices, tobacco, and radiation - emitting devices by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
It took 27 years to the 1906 statute, during which time the public was made aware of many problems with foods and drugs in the U.S. Muckraking journalists, such as Samuel Hopkins Adams, targeted the patent medicine industry with its high - alcoholic content patent medicines, soothing syrups for infants with opium derivatives, and "red clauses '' in newspaper contracts providing that patent medicine ads (upon which most newspapers of the time were dependent) would be withdrawn if the paper expressed support for food and drug regulatory legislation. The Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Chemistry, Dr. Harvey Washington Wiley, captured the country 's attention with his hygienic table studies, which began with a modest Congressional appropriation in 1902. The goal of the table trial was to study the human effects of common preservatives used in foods during a period of rapid changes in the food supply brought about by the need to feed cities and support an industrializing nation increasingly dependent on immigrant labor. Wiley recruited young men to eat all their meals at a common table as he added increased "doses '' of preservatives including borax, benzoate, formaldehyde, sulfites, and salicylates. The table trials captured the nation 's fancy and were soon dubbed "The Poison Squad '' by newspapers covering the story. The men soon adopted the motto "Only the Brave dare eat the fare '' and at times the publicity given to the trials became a burden. Though many results of the trial came to be in dispute, there was no doubt that formaldehyde was dangerous and it disappeared quickly as a preservative. Wiley himself felt that he had found adverse effects from large doses of each of the preservatives and the public seemed to agree with Wiley. In many cases, most particularly with ketchup and other condiments, the use of preservatives was often used to disguise insanitary production practices. Although the law itself did not proscribe the use of some of these preservatives, consumers increasingly turned away from many products with known preservatives.
The 1906 statute regulated food and drugs moving in interstate commerce and forbade the manufacture, sale, or transportation of poisonous patent medicines. The Act arose due to public education and exposés from public interest guardians such as Upton Sinclair and Samuel Hopkins Adams, social activist Florence Kelley, researcher Harvey W. Wiley, and President Theodore Roosevelt.
The 1906 Act paved the way for the eventual creation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and is generally considered to be that agency 's founding date, though the agency existed before the law was passed and was not named FDA until later. "While the Food and Drug act remains a foundational law of the FDA mission, it 's not the law that created the FDA. (Initially,) the Bureau of Chemistry (the precursor to the FDA) regulated food safety. In 1927, the Bureau was reorganized into the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. The FDIA was renamed the FDA in 1930. ''
The law itself was largely replaced by the much more comprehensive Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938.
The Pure Food and Drug Act was initially concerned with ensuring products were labeled correctly. Later efforts were made to outlaw certain products that were not safe, followed by efforts to outlaw products which were safe but not effective. For example, there was an attempt to outlaw Coca - Cola in 1909 because of its excessive caffeine content; caffeine had replaced cocaine as the active ingredient in Coca - Cola in 1903. In the case United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola, the judge found that Coca - Cola had a right to use caffeine as it saw fit, although Coca - Cola eventually lost when the government appealed to the Supreme Court. It reached a settlement with the United States government to reduce the caffeine amount.
In addition to caffeine, the Pure Food and Drug Act required that drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33 % after labeling was mandated. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate labels, monitoring of purity and dose, and consumer education.
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where is dr k exotic animal er located | Dr. K 's Exotic Animal ER - wikipedia
Reality
Dr. K 's Exotic Animal ER is a television series on the Nat Geo Wild network. It follows the veterinarians and staff of the Broward Avian and Exotic Animal Hospital, located in Deerfield Beach, Florida.
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what is the health care system in usa | Health care in the United States - Wikipedia
Health care in the United States is provided by many distinct organizations. Health care facilities are largely owned and operated by private sector businesses. 58 % of US community hospitals are non-profit, 21 % are government owned, and 21 % are for - profit. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the United States spent more on health care per capita ($8,608), and more on health care as percentage of its GDP (17 %), than any other nation in 2011.
64 % of health spending was paid for by the government in 2013, funded via programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, the Children 's Health Insurance Program, and the Veterans Health Administration. People aged under 67 acquire insurance via their or a family member 's employer, by purchasing health insurance on their own, or are uninsured. Health insurance for public sector employees is primarily provided by the government in its role as employer.
The United States life expectancy of 79.8 years at birth, up from 75.2 years in 1990, ranks it 42nd among 224 nations, and 22nd out of the 35 industrialized OECD countries, down from 20th in 1990. Of 17 high - income countries studied by the National Institutes of Health in 2013, the United States had the highest or near - highest prevalence of obesity, car accidents, infant mortality, heart and lung disease, sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancies, injuries, and homicides. On average, a U.S. male can be expected to live almost four fewer years than those in the top - ranked country, though notably Americans aged 75 live longer than those who reach that age in other developed nations. A 2014 survey of the healthcare systems of 11 developed countries found the US healthcare system to be the most expensive and worst - performing in terms of health access, efficiency, and equity.
Americans undergo cancer screenings at significantly higher rates than people in other developed countries, and access MRI and CT scans at the highest rate of any OECD nation. Diabetics are more likely to receive treatment and meet treatment targets in the U.S. than in Canada, England, or Scotland.
Gallup recorded that the uninsured rate among U.S. adults was 11.9 % for the first quarter of 2015, continuing the decline of the uninsured rate outset by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). A 2012 study for the years 2002 -- 2008 found that about 25 % of all senior citizens declared bankruptcy due to medical expenses, and 43 % were forced to mortgage or sell their primary residence.
In 2010 the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) became law, providing for major changes in health insurance. Under the act, hospitals and primary physicians would change their practices financially, technologically, and clinically to drive better health outcomes, lower costs, and improve their methods of distribution and accessibility. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of most of the law in June 2012 and affirmed insurance exchange subsidies in all states in June 2015.
A study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that there were 38.6 million hospital stays in the U.S. in 2011, an 11 % increase since 1997. Since the population was also growing, the hospitalization rate remained stable at approximately 1,200 stays per 10,000 population during this period. Information from 2012 indicates that there was a slight decrease in hospital stays compared to 2011, 36.5 million. Hospital stays in 2011 averaged 4.5 days and cost an average of $10,400 per stay.
A study by the National Institutes of Health reported that the lifetime per capita expenditure at birth, using year 2000 dollars, showed a large difference between health care costs of females ($361,192) and males ($268,679). A large portion of this cost difference is in the shorter lifespan of men, but even after adjustment for age (assume men live as long as women), there still is a 20 % difference in lifetime health care expenditures.
The U.S. Census Bureau reported that 49.9 million residents, 16.3 % of the population, were uninsured in 2010 (up from 49.0 million residents, 16.1 % of the population, in 2009). A 2009 study in five states found that medical debt contributed to 46.2 % of all personal bankruptcies and in 2007, 62.1 % of filers for bankruptcies claimed high medical expenses. Since then, health costs and the numbers of uninsured and underinsured have increased. A 2013 study found that about 25 % of all senior citizens declare bankruptcy due to medical expenses.
The World Health Organization (WHO), in 2000, ranked the U.S. health care system as the highest in cost, first in responsiveness, 37th in overall performance, and 72nd by overall level of health (among 191 member nations included in the study). In 2008 the Commonwealth Fund, an advocacy group seeking greater government involvement in US healthcare, then led by former Carter administration official Karen Davis, ranked the United States last in the quality of health care among similar countries, and noted U.S. care costs the most.
According to the WHO, the United States spent more on health care per capita ($7,146), and more on health care as percentage of its GDP (15.2 %), than any other nation in 2008. In 2013 the U.S. spent 17.1 % of its total GDP on healthcare, 50 % more than the second highest spending country, France (11.6 %). In 2014, the U.S. spent $2.6 trillion (a 5.0 % increase from 2013) on personal health care expenditures. Per per capita spending was $8,054 in 2014 -- up from $7,727 in 2013. In 2011, the U.S. paid nearly twice as much as Canada yet lagged behind other wealthy nations in such measures as infant mortality and life expectancy. As of 2009, the U.S. had a higher infant mortality rate than most of the world 's industrialized nations.
Active debate about health care reform in the United States concerns questions of a right to health care, access, fairness, efficiency, cost, choice, value, and quality. Some have argued that the system does not deliver equivalent value for the money spent. According to a 2004 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report: "The United States is among the few industrialized nations in the world that does not guarantee access to health care for its population. '' A 2004 OECD report said: "With the exception of Mexico, Turkey, and the United States, all OECD countries had achieved universal or near - universal (at least 98.4 % insured) coverage of their populations by 1990. '' The 2004 IOM report observed that "lack of health insurance causes roughly 18,000 unnecessary deaths every year in the United States '', while a 2009 Harvard study conducted by co-founders of Physicians for a National Health Program, a pro-single payer advocacy group, estimated that 44,800 excess deaths occurred annually due to lack of health insurance. The group 's methodology has been criticized by economist John C. Goodman for not looking at cause of death or tracking insurance status changes over time, including the time of death. Further, a 2009 study by former Clinton policy adviser Richard Kronick found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for, and specifically criticized the methodology used by IOM.
Between 2004 and 2013 a trend of high rates of un - and underinsurance and wage stagnation contributed to a health - care consumption decline for low - income Americans. This trend was reversed after the implementation of the major provisions of the Affordable Health Care Act (ACA) in 2014. Lack of insurance or higher cost sharing (user fees for the patient with insurance) create barriers to accessing health care: use of care declines with increasing patient cost - sharing obligation. Before the ACA passed in 2014, 39 % of below - average income Americans reported forgoing seeing a doctor for a medical issue (whereas 7 % of low - income Canadians and 1 % of low - income UK citizens reported the same). Forgone medical care due to extensive cost sharing may ultimately increase costs due to downstream medical issues; this dynamic may play a part in U.S. 's international ranking as having the highest health - care expenditures despite significant patient cost - sharing.
As of 2017, the possibility that the ACA may be repealed or replaced has intensified interest in the question of whether -- and how -- health insurance coverage affects health and mortality. Several studies have indicated that there was an association with expansion of the ACA and factors associated with better health outcomes such as having a regular source of care and the ability to afford care. Additionally, an analysis of changes in mortality post Medicaid expansion suggests that Medicaid saves lives at a relatively more cost effective rate of a societal cost of $327,000 - 867,000 per life saved compared to other public policies which cost an average of $7.6 million per life.
The United States is within the Region of the Americas or AMRO (a World Health Organization classification). Within AMRO, the U.S. had the third lowest under - five child mortality rate (U5MR) in 2015. In 2015, the under - five child mortality rate was 6.5 deaths per 1000 live births, less than half the regional average of 14.7. The U.S. had the second lowest maternal mortality in AMRO, 14 per 100,000 live births, well below the regional average of 52. Life expectancy at birth for a child born in the U.S. in 2015 is 81.6 (females) or 76.9 (males) years, compared to 79.9 (females) or 74 (males) years (AMRO regional estimates). Globally, average life expectancy is 73.8 for females and 69.1 for males born in 2015.
(deaths per 1000 live births)
(deaths per 100,000 live births)
76.9 (males)
74 (males)
69.1 (males)
The 2015 global average for under - five child mortality was 42.5 per 1000 live births. The U.S. 's under - five child mortality of 6.5 is more than 6 times less. The 2015 global average for maternal mortality was 216, the United State 's average of 14 maternal deaths 100,000 live births is more than 15 times less, however Canada had half as many (7) and Finland, Greece, Iceland and Poland each only had 3. While not as high in 2015 (14) as in 2013 (18.5), maternal deaths related to childbirth have shown recent increases; in 1987, the mortality ratio was 7.2 per 100,000. As of 2015, the American rate is double the maternal mortality rate in Belgium or Canada, and more than triple the rate in the Finland as well as several other Western European countries.
According to the World Health Organization, life expectancy in the U.S. is 31st in the world (out of 183 countries) as of 2015. The U.S. 's average life expectancy (both sexes is just over 79). Japan ranks first with an average life expectancy of nearly 84 years. Sierra Leone ranks last with a life expectancy of just over 50 years. However, the U.S. ranks lower (36th) when considering health - adjusted life expectancy (HALE) at just over 69 years. Another source, the Central Intelligence Agency, indicates life expectancy at birth in the U.S. is 79.8, ranking the U.S. 42nd in the world. Monaco is first on this list of 224, with an average life expectancy of 89.5. Chad is last with 50.2.
Aa 2013 National Research Council study stated that, when considered as one of 17 high - income countries, the United States was at or near the top in infant mortality, heart and lung disease, sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancies, injuries, homicides, and rates of disability. Together, such issues place the U.S. at the bottom of the list for life expectancy in high - income countries. As of 2007, U.S. males could be expected to live almost four fewer years than those in Switzerland, and U.S. females could be expected to live over 5 years less than women in Japan. Females born in the U.S. in 2015 have a life expectancy of 81.6 years, and males 76.9 years; more than 3 years less and as much as over 5 years less than people born in Switzerland (85.3 F, 81.3 M) or Japan (86.8 F, 80.5 M) in 2015.
The top three causes of death among both sexes and all ages in the U.S. have consistently remained cardiovascular diseases (ranked 1st), neoplasms (2nd) and neurological disorders (3rd), since the 1990s. In 2015, 267.18 per 100,000 deaths were caused by cardiovascular diseases, 204.63 by neoplasms and 100.66 by neurological disorders. Diarrhea, lower respiratory and other common infections were ranked 6th overall, but had the highest rate of infectious disease mortality in the U.S. at 31.65 deaths per 100,000. There is evidence, however, that a large proportion of health outcomes and early mortality can be attributed to factors other than communicable or non-communicable disease. As a 2013 National Research Council study concluded, more than half the men who die before 50 die due to murder (19 %), traffic accidents (18 %), and other accidents (16 %). For women, the percentages are different. 53 % of women who die before 50 die due to disease, whereas 38 % die due to accidents, homicide, and suicide.
Health care providers in the U.S. encompass individual health care personnel, health care facilities and medical products.
In the U.S., ownership of the health care system is mainly in private hands, though federal, state, county, and city governments also own certain facilities.
The non-profit hospitals share of total hospital capacity has remained relatively stable (about 70 %) for decades. There are also privately owned for - profit hospitals as well as government hospitals in some locations, mainly owned by county and city governments. The Hill - Burton Act was passed in 1946, which provided federal funding for hospitals in exchange for treating poor patients.
There is no nationwide system of government - owned medical facilities open to the general public but there are local government - owned medical facilities open to the general public. The U.S. Department of Defense operates field hospitals as well as permanent hospitals via the Military Health System to provide military - funded care to active military personnel.
The federal Veterans Health Administration operates VA hospitals open only to veterans, though veterans who seek medical care for conditions they did not receive while serving in the military are charged for services. The Indian Health Service (IHS) operates facilities open only to Native Americans from recognized tribes. These facilities, plus tribal facilities and privately contracted services funded by IHS to increase system capacity and capabilities, provide medical care to tribespeople beyond what can be paid for by any private insurance or other government programs.
Hospitals provide some outpatient care in their emergency rooms and specialty clinics, but primarily exist to provide inpatient care. Hospital emergency departments and urgent care centers are sources of sporadic problem - focused care. Surgicenters are examples of specialty clinics. Hospice services for the terminally ill who are expected to live six months or less are most commonly subsidized by charities and government. Prenatal, family planning, and dysplasia clinics are government - funded obstetric and gynecologic specialty clinics respectively, and are usually staffed by nurse practitioners. Services, particularly urgent - care services, may also be delivered remotely via telemedicine by providers such as Teladoc.
Physicians in the U.S. include those trained by the U.S. medical education system, and those that are international medical graduates who have progressed through the necessary steps to acquire a medical license to practice in a state.
The American College of Physicians, uses the term physician to describe all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree. In the U.S., however, most physicians have either a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree.
As in most other countries, the manufacture and production of pharmaceuticals and medical devices is carried out by private companies. The research and development of medical devices and pharmaceuticals is supported by both public and private sources of funding. In 2003, research and development expenditures were approximately $95 billion with $40 billion coming from public sources and $55 billion coming from private sources. These investments into medical research have made the United States the leader in medical innovation, measured either in terms of revenue or the number of new drugs and devices introduced. In 2006, the United States accounted for three quarters of the world 's biotechnology revenues and 82 % of world R&D spending in biotechnology. According to multiple international pharmaceutical trade groups, the high cost of patented drugs in the U.S. has encouraged substantial reinvestment in such research and development. Though PPACA, also known as Obamacare or ACA, will force industry to sell medicine at a cheaper price. Due to this, it is possible budget cuts will be made on research and development of human health and medicine in America. Reference behind paywall
A large demographic shift in the United States is putting pressure on the medical system, and the industries that support it. Roughly 10,000 baby boomers retire every day in the United States which removes many talented and experienced workers from the medical field each year. The demographic shift to an older population is projected to increase medical spending in North America by at least 5 %, creating a funding crunch that the government (through medicare and other social services), insurance companies, and individual savings accounts are straining to absorb. Finally, the older population is rapidly increasing demand for healthcare services despite the tight budgets and reduced workforce. All of these factors put pressure on wages and working conditions, with the majority of healthcare jobs seeing salary reductions between 2009 and 2011.
The challenging demographic pressures on the United States ' medical system means that more reductions (and imbalances) in wages are coming. Employment opportunities are increasing but job security and employee confidence have both fallen for medical professionals. Highly trained doctors, surgeons, and support staff such as anesthesiologists are insulated from falling wages thanks to high barriers of entry. For staff with less training, formerly well paying jobs are being outsourced or cut to make up budget shortfalls. Additionally, some of the fastest growing health sectors (such as seniors home care) are also some of the lowest paid which could cause supply shortages in the near future.
Aggregate U.S. hospital costs were $387.3 billion in 2011 -- a 63 % increase since 1997 (inflation adjusted). Costs per stay increased 47 % since 1997, averaging $10,000 in 2011.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), total health care spending in the U.S. was 18 % of its GDP in 2011, the highest in the world. The Health and Human Services Department expects that the health share of GDP will continue its historical upward trend, reaching 19 % of GDP by 2017. Of each dollar spent on health care in the United States, 31 % goes to hospital care, 21 % goes to physician / clinical services, 10 % to pharmaceuticals, 4 % to dental, 6 % to nursing homes and 3 % to home health care, 3 % for other retail products, 3 % for government public health activities, 7 % to administrative costs, 7 % to investment, and 6 % to other professional services (physical therapists, optometrists, etc.).
As of 2007, around 85 % of Americans had some form of health insurance; either through their employer or the employer of their spouse or parent (59 %), purchased individually (9 %), or provided by government programs (28 %; there is some overlap in these figures).
Among those whose employer pays for health insurance, the employee may be required to contribute part of the cost of this insurance, while the employer usually chooses the insurance company and, for large groups, negotiates with the insurance company. Government programs directly cover 28 % of the population (83 million), including the elderly, disabled, children, veterans, and some of the poor, and federal law mandates public access to emergency services regardless of ability to pay. Public spending accounts for between 45 % and 56 % of U.S. health care spending.
Administration of health care constitutes 30 percent of U.S. health - care costs.
Healthcare is subject to extensive regulation at both the federal and the state level, much of which "arose haphazardly ''. Under this system, the federal government cedes primary responsibility to the states under the McCarran - Ferguson Act. Essential regulation includes the licensure of health care providers at the state level and the testing and approval of pharmaceuticals and medical devices by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and laboratory testing. These regulations are designed to protect consumers from ineffective or fraudulent healthcare. Additionally, states regulate the health insurance market and they often have laws which require that health insurance companies cover certain procedures, although state mandates generally do not apply to the self - funded health care plans offered by large employers, which exempt from state laws under preemption clause of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act.
In 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) was signed by President Barack Obama and includes various new regulations, with one of the most notable being a health insurance mandate which requires all citizens to purchase health insurance. While not regulation per se, the federal government also has a major influence on the healthcare market through its payments to providers under Medicare and Medicaid, which in some cases are used as a reference point in the negotiations between medical providers and insurance companies.
At the federal level, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services oversees the various federal agencies involved in health care. The health agencies are a part of the U.S. Public Health Service, and include the Food and Drug Administration, which certifies the safety of food, effectiveness of drugs and medical products, the Centers for Disease Prevention, which prevents disease, premature death, and disability, the Agency of Health Care Research and Quality, the Agency Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, which regulates hazardous spills of toxic substances, and the National Institutes of Health, which conducts medical research.
State governments maintain state health departments, and local governments (counties and municipalities) often have their own health departments, usually branches of the state health department. Regulations of a state board may have executive and police strength to enforce state health laws. In some states, all members of state boards must be health care professionals. Members of state boards may be assigned by the governor or elected by the state committee. Members of local boards may be elected by the mayor council. The McCarran -- Ferguson Act, which cedes regulation to the states, does not itself regulate insurance, nor does it mandate that states regulate insurance. "Acts of Congress '' that do not expressly purport to regulate the "business of insurance '' will not preempt state laws or regulations that regulate the "business of insurance. '' The Act also provides that federal anti-trust laws will not apply to the "business of insurance '' as long as the state regulates in that area, but federal anti-trust laws will apply in cases of boycott, coercion, and intimidation. By contrast, most other federal laws will not apply to insurance whether the states regulate in that area or not.
Self - policing of providers by providers is a major part of oversight. Many health care organizations also voluntarily submit to inspection and certification by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Hospital Organizations, JCAHO. Providers also undergo testing to obtain board certification attesting to their skills. A report issued by Public Citizen in April 2008 found that, for the third year in a row, the number of serious disciplinary actions against physicians by state medical boards declined from 2006 to 2007, and called for more oversight of the boards.
The federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) publishes an on - line searchable database of performance data on nursing homes.
In 2004, libertarian think tank Cato Institute published a study which concluded that regulation provides benefits in the amount of $170 billion but costs the public up to $340 billion. The study concluded that the majority of the cost differential arises from medical malpractice, FDA regulations, and facilities regulations.
In 1978, the federal government required that all states implement Certificate of Need (CON) programs for cardiac care, meaning that hospitals had to apply and receive certificates prior to implementing the program; the intent was to reduce cost by reducing duplicate investments in facilities. It has been observed that these certificates could be used to increase costs through weakened competition. Many states removed the CON programs after the federal requirement expired in 1986, but some states still have these programs. Empirical research looking at the costs in areas where these programs have been discontinued have not found a clear effect on costs, and the CON programs could decrease costs because of reduced facility construction or increase costs due to reduced competition.
The American Medical Association (AMA) has lobbied the government to highly limit physician education since 1910, currently at 100,000 doctors per year, which has led to a shortage of doctors and physicians ' wages in the U.S. are double those in the Europe, which is a major reason for the more expensive health care.
An even bigger problem may be that the doctors are paid for procedures instead of results.
The AMA has also aggressively lobbied for many restrictions that require doctors to carry out operations that might be carried out by cheaper workforce. For example, in 1995, 36 states banned or restricted midwifery even though it delivers equally safe care to that by doctors, according to studies. The regulation lobbied by the AMA has decreased the amount and quality of health care, according to the consensus of economist: the restrictions do not add to quality, they decrease the supply of care. Moreover, psychologists, nurses and pharmacists are not allowed to prescribe medicines. Previously nurses were not even allowed to vaccinate the patients without direct supervision by doctors.
36 states require that health care workers undergo criminal background checks.
EMTALA, enacted by the federal government in 1986, requires that hospital emergency departments treat emergency conditions of all patients regardless of their ability to pay and is considered a critical element in the "safety net '' for the uninsured, but established no direct payment mechanism for such care. Indirect payments and reimbursements through federal and state government programs have never fully compensated public and private hospitals for the full cost of care mandated by EMTALA. More than half of all emergency care in the U.S. now goes uncompensated. According to some analyses, EMTALA is an unfunded mandate that has contributed to financial pressures on hospitals in the last 20 years, causing them to consolidate and close facilities, and contributing to emergency room overcrowding. According to the Institute of Medicine, between 1993 and 2003, emergency room visits in the U.S. grew by 26 %, while in the same period, the number of emergency departments declined by 425.
Mentally ill patients present a unique challenge for emergency departments and hospitals. In accordance with EMTALA, mentally ill patients who enter emergency rooms are evaluated for emergency medical conditions. Once mentally ill patients are medically stable, regional mental health agencies are contacted to evaluate them. Patients are evaluated as to whether they are a danger to themselves or others. Those meeting this criterion are admitted to a mental health facility to be further evaluated by a psychiatrist. Typically, mentally ill patients can be held for up to 72 hours, after which a court order is required.
Health care quality assurance consists of the "activities and programs intended to assure or improve the quality of care in either a defined medical setting or a program. The concept includes the assessment or evaluation of the quality of care; identification of problems or shortcomings in the delivery of care; designing activities to overcome these deficiencies; and follow - up monitoring to ensure effectiveness of corrective steps. '' Private companies such as Grand Rounds also release quality information and offer services to employers and plans to map quality within their networks.
One innovation in encouraging quality of health care is the public reporting of the performance of hospitals, health professionals or providers, and healthcare organizations. However, there is "no consistent evidence that the public release of performance data changes consumer behaviour or improves care. ''
The US health care delivery system unevenly provides medical care of varying quality to its population. In a highly effective health care system, individuals would receive reliable care that meets their needs and is based on the best scientific knowledge available. In order to monitor and evaluate system effectiveness, researchers and policy makers track system measures and trends over time. The US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) populates a publicly available dashboard called, the Health System Measurement Project (healthmeasures.aspe.hhs.gov), to ensure a robust monitoring system. The dashboard captures the access, quality and cost of care; overall population health; and health system dynamics (e.g., workforce, innovation, health information technology). Included measures align with other system performance measuring activities including the HHS Strategic Plan, the Government Performance and Results Act, Healthy People 2020, and the National Strategies for Quality and Prevention.
The US health system does not provide health care to the country 's entire population. Individuals acquire health insurance to offset health care spending. However, lack of adequate health insurance persists and is a known barrier to accessing the healthcare system and receiving appropriate and timely care. Measures of accessibility and affordability tracked by national health surveys include: having a usual source of medical care, visiting the dentist yearly, rates of preventable hospitalizations, reported difficulty seeing a specialist, delaying care due to cost, and rates of health insurance coverage.
The health of the population is also viewed as a measure of the overall effectiveness of the healthcare system. The extent to which the population lives longer healthier lives signals an effective system.
Finally, the United States tracks investment in the healthcare system in terms of a skilled healthcare workforce, meaningful use of healthcare IT, and R&D output. This aspect of the healthcare system performance dashboard is important to consider when evaluating cost of care in America. That is because in much of the policy debate around the high cost of US healthcare, proponents of highly specialized and cutting edge technologies point to innovation as a marker of an effective health care system.
A 2014 study by the private American foundation The Commonwealth Fund found that although the U.S. health care system is the most expensive in the world, it ranks last on most dimensions of performance when compared with Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. The study found that the United States failed to achieve better outcomes than other countries, and is last or near last in terms of access, efficiency and equity. Study date came from international surveys of patients and primary care physicians, as well as information on health care outcomes from The Commonwealth Fund, the World Health Organization, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
The U.S. stands 50th in the world with a life expectancy of 78.49. The CIA World Factbook ranked the United States 174th worst (out of 222) -- meaning 48th best -- in the world for infant mortality rate (5.98 / 1,000 live births).
A study found that between 1997 and 2003, preventable deaths declined more slowly in the United States than in 18 other industrialized nations. A 2008 study found that 101,000 people a year die in the U.S. that would not if the health care system were as effective as that of France, Japan, or Australia.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that the U.S. ranked poorly in terms of years of potential life lost (YPLL), a statistical measure of years of life lost under the age of 70 that were amenable to being saved by health care. Among OECD nations for which data are available, the United States ranked third last for the health care of women (after Mexico and Hungary) and fifth last for men (Slovakia and Poland also ranked worse).
Recent studies find growing gaps in life expectancy based on income and geography. In 2008, a government - sponsored study found that life expectancy declined from 1983 to 1999 for women in 180 counties, and for men in 11 counties, with most of the life expectancy declines occurring in the Deep South, Appalachia, along the Mississippi River, in the Southern Plains and in Texas. The difference is as high as three years for men, six years for women. The gap is growing between rich and poor and by educational level, but narrowing between men and women and by race. Another study found that the mortality gap between the well - educated and the poorly educated widened significantly between 1993 and 2001 for adults ages 25 through 64; the authors speculated that risk factors such as smoking, obesity and high blood pressure may lie behind these disparities. In 2011 the U.S. National Research Council forecasted that deaths attributed to smoking, on the decline in the US, will drop dramatically, improving life expectancy; it also suggested that one - fifth to one - third of the life expectancy difference can be attributed to obesity which is the worst in the world and has been increasing. In an analysis of breast cancer, colorectal cancer, and prostate cancer diagnosed during 1990 -- 1994 in 31 countries, the U.S. had the highest five - year relative survival rate for breast cancer and prostate cancer, although survival was systematically and substantially lower in black U.S. men and women.
The debate about U.S. health care concerns questions of access, efficiency, and quality purchased by the high sums spent. The World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000 ranked the U.S. health care system first in responsiveness, but 37th in overall performance and 72nd by overall level of health (among 191 member nations included in the study). The WHO study has been criticized by the free market advocate David Gratzer because "fairness in financial contribution '' was used as an assessment factor, marking down countries with high per - capita private or fee - paying health treatment. The WHO study has been criticized, in an article published in Health Affairs, for its failure to include the satisfaction ratings of the general public. The study found that there was little correlation between the WHO rankings for health systems and the stated satisfaction of citizens using those systems. Countries such as Italy and Spain, which were given the highest ratings by WHO were ranked poorly by their citizens while other countries, such as Denmark and Finland, were given low scores by WHO but had the highest percentages of citizens reporting satisfaction with their health care systems. WHO staff, however, say that the WHO analysis does reflect system "responsiveness '' and argue that this is a superior measure to consumer satisfaction, which is influenced by expectations. Furthermore, the relationship between patient satisfaction and health care utilization, expenditures, and outcomes is complex and not well defined.
A report released in April 2008 by the Foundation for Child Development, which studied the period from 1994 through 2006, found mixed results for the health of children in the U.S. Mortality rates for children ages 1 through 4 dropped by a third, and the percentage of children with elevated blood lead levels dropped by 84 %. The percentage of mothers who smoked during pregnancy also declined. On the other hand, both obesity and the percentage of low - birth weight babies increased. The authors note that the increase in babies born with low birth weights can be attributed to women delaying childbearing and the increased use of fertility drugs.
In a sample of 13 developed countries the US was third in its population weighted usage of medication in 14 classes in both 2009 and 2013. The drugs studied were selected on the basis that the conditions treated had high incidence, prevalence and / or mortality, caused significant long - term morbidity and incurred high levels of expenditure and significant developments in prevention or treatment had been made in the last 10 years. The study noted considerable difficulties in cross border comparison of medication use.
Variations in the efficiency of health care delivery can cause variations in outcomes. The Dartmouth Atlas Project, for instance, reported that, for over 20 years, marked variations in how medical resources are distributed and used in the United States were accompanied by marked variations in outcomes. The willingness of physicians to work in an area varies with the income of the area and the amenities it offers, a situation aggravated by a general shortage of doctors in the United States, particularly those who offer primary care. The Affordable Care Act, if implemented, will produce an additional demand for services which the existing stable of primary care doctors will be unable to fill, particularly in economically depressed areas. Training additional physicians would require some years.
Lean manufacturing techniques such as value stream mapping can help identify and subsequently mitigate waste associated with costs of healthcare. Other product engineering tools such as FMEA and Fish Bone Diagrams have been used to improve efficiencies in healthcare delivery.
In 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and traffic accidents caused the most years of life lost in the US. Low back pain, depression, musculoskeletal disorders, neck pain, and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability. The most deleterious risk factors were poor diet, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, physical inactivity, and alcohol use. Alzheimer 's disease, drug abuse, kidney disease and cancer, and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age - adjusted 1990 per - capita rates.
Between 1990 and 2010, among the 34 countries in the OECD, the US dropped from 18th to 27th in age - standardized death rate. The US dropped from 23rd to 28th for age - standardized years of life lost. It dropped from 20th to 27th in life expectancy at birth. It dropped from 14th to 26th for healthy life expectancy.
According to a 2009 study conducted at Harvard Medical School by co-founders of Physicians for a National Health Program, a pro-single payer lobbying group, and published by the American Journal of Public Health, lack of health coverage is associated with nearly 45,000 excess preventable deaths annually. Since then, as the number of uninsured has risen from about 46 million in 2009 to 49 million in 2012, the number of preventable deaths due to lack of insurance has grown to about 48,000 per year. The group 's methodology has been criticized by economist John C. Goodman for not looking at cause of death or tracking insurance status changes over time, including the time of death.
A 2009 study by former Clinton policy adviser Richard Kronick published in the journal Health Services Research found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for.
A study of international health care spending levels published in the health policy journal Health Affairs in the year 2000 found that the United States spends substantially more on health care than any other country in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and that the use of health care services in the U.S. is below the OECD median by most measures. The authors of the study conclude that the prices paid for health care services are much higher in the U.S. than elsewhere. While the 19 next most wealthy countries by GDP all pay less than half what the U.S. does for health care, they have all gained about six years of life expectancy more than the U.S. since 1970.
Uninsured Americans are less likely to have regular health care and use preventive services. They are more likely to delay seeking care, resulting in more medical crises, which are more expensive than ongoing treatment for such conditions as diabetes and high blood pressure. A 2007 study published in JAMA concluded that uninsured people were less likely than the insured to receive any medical care after an accidental injury or the onset of a new chronic condition. The uninsured with an injury were also twice as likely as those with insurance to have received none of the recommended follow - up care, and a similar pattern held for those with a new chronic condition. Uninsured patients are twice as likely to visit hospital emergency rooms as those with insurance; burdening a system meant for true emergencies with less - urgent care needs.
In 2008 researchers with the American Cancer Society found that individuals who lacked private insurance (including those covered by Medicaid) were more likely to be diagnosed with late - stage cancer than those who had such insurance.
The costs of treating the uninsured must often be absorbed by providers as charity care, passed on to the insured via cost shifting and higher health insurance premiums, or paid by taxpayers through higher taxes. However, hospitals and other providers are reimbursed for the cost of providing uncompensated care via a federal matching fund program. Each state enacts legislation governing the reimbursement of funds to providers. In Missouri, for example, providers assessments totaling $800 million are matched -- $2 for each assessed $1 -- to create a pool of approximately $2 billion. By federal law these funds are transferred to the Missouri Hospital Association for disbursement to hospitals for the costs incurred providing uncompensated care including Disproportionate Share Payments (to hospitals with high quantities of uninsured patients), Medicaid shortfalls, Medicaid managed care payments to insurance companies and other costs incurred by hospitals. In New Hampshire, by statute, reimbursable uncompensated care costs shall include: charity care costs, any portion of Medicaid patient care costs that are unreimbursed by Medicaid payments, and any portion of bad debt costs that the commissioner determines would meet the criteria under 42 U.S.C. section 1396r - 4 (g) governing hospital - specific limits on disproportionate share hospital payments under Title XIX of the Social Security Act.
A report published by the Kaiser Family Foundation in April 2008 found that economic downturns place a significant strain on state Medicaid and SCHIP programs. The authors estimated that a 1 % increase in the unemployment rate would increase Medicaid and SCHIP enrollment by 1 million, and increase the number uninsured by 1.1 million. State spending on Medicaid and SCHIP would increase by $1.4 billion (total spending on these programs would increase by $3.4 billion). This increased spending would occur at the same time state government revenues were declining. During the last downturn, the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 (JGTRRA) included federal assistance to states, which helped states avoid tightening their Medicaid and SCHIP eligibility rules. The authors conclude that Congress should consider similar relief for the current economic downturn.
The treatment given to a patient can vary significantly depending on which health care providers they use. Research suggests that some cost - effective treatments are not used as often as they should be, while overutilization occurs with other health care services. Unnecessary treatments increase costs and can cause patients unnecessary anxiety. The use of prescription drugs varies significantly by geographic region. The overuse of medical benefits is known as moral hazard -- individuals who are insured are then more inclined to consume health care. The way the Health care system tries to eliminate this problem is through cost sharing tactics like co-pays and deductibles. If patients face more of the economic burden they will then only consume health care when they perceive it to be necessary. According to the RAND health insurance experiment, individuals with higher Coinsurance rates consumed less health care than those with lower rates. The experiment concluded that with less consumption of care there was generally no loss in societal welfare but, for the poorer and sicker groups of people there were definitely negative effects. These patients were forced to forgo necessary preventative care measures in order to save money leading to late diagnosis of easily treated diseases and more expensive procedures later. With less preventative care, the patient is hurt financially with an increase in expensive visits to the ER. The Health Care costs in the U.S will also rise with these procedures as well. More expensive procedures lead to greater costs.
One study has found significant geographic variations in Medicare spending for patients in the last two years of life. These spending levels are associated with the amount of hospital capacity available in each area. Higher spending did not result in patients living longer.
Primary care doctors are often the point of entry for most patients needing care, but in the fragmented health care system of the U.S., many patients and their providers experience problems with care coordination. For example, a Harris Interactive survey of California physicians found that:
According to an article in The New York Times, the relationship between doctors and patients is deteriorating. A study from Johns Hopkins University found that roughly one in four patients believe their doctors have exposed them to unnecessary risks, and anecdotal evidence such as self - help books and web postings suggest increasing patient frustration. Possible factors behind the deteriorating doctor / patient relationship include the current system for training physicians and differences in how doctors and patients view the practice of medicine. Doctors may focus on diagnosis and treatment, while patients may be more interested in wellness and being listened to by their doctors.
Many primary care physicians no longer see their patients while they are in the hospital; instead, hospitalists are used. The use of hospitalists is sometimes mandated by health insurance companies as a cost - saving measure which is resented by some primary care physicians.
The health care system in the U.S. has a vast number of players. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of insurance companies in the U.S. This system has considerable administrative overhead, far greater than in nationalized, single - payer systems, such as Canada 's. An oft - cited study by Harvard Medical School and the Canadian Institute for Health Information determined that some 31 % of U.S. health care dollars, or more than $1,000 per person per year, went to health care administrative costs, nearly double the administrative overhead in Canada, on a percentage basis.
According to the insurance industry group America 's Health Insurance Plans, administrative costs for private health insurance plans have averaged approximately 12 % of premiums over the last 40 years. There has been a shift in the type and distribution of administrative expenses over that period. The cost of adjudicating claims has fallen, while insurers are spending more on other administrative activities, such as medical management, nurse help lines, and negotiating discounted fees with health care providers.
A 2003 study published by the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association (BCBSA) also found that health insurer administrative costs were approximately 11 % to 12 % of premiums, with Blue Cross and Blue Shield plans reporting slightly lower administrative costs, on average, than commercial insurers. For the period 1998 through 2003, average insurer administrative costs declined from 13 % to 12 % of premiums. The largest increases in administrative costs were in customer service and information technology, and the largest decreases were in provider services and contracting and in general administration. The McKinsey Global Institute estimated that excess spending on "health administration and insurance '' accounted for as much as 21 % of the estimated total excess spending ($477 billion in 2003).
According to a report published by the CBO in 2008, administrative costs for private insurance represent approximately 12 % of premiums. Variations in administrative costs between private plans are largely attributable to economies of scale. Coverage for large employers has the lowest administrative costs. The percentage of premium attributable to administration increases for smaller firms, and is highest for individually purchased coverage. A 2009 study published by BCBSA found that the average administrative expense cost for all commercial health insurance products was represented 9.2 % of premiums in 2008. Administrative costs were 11.1 % of premiums for small group products and 16.4 % in the individual market.
One study of the billing and insurance - related (BIR) costs borne not only by insurers but also by physicians and hospitals found that BIR among insurers, physicians, and hospitals in California represented 20 -- 22 % of privately insured spending in California acute care settings.
Most Americans pay for medical services largely through insurance, and this can distort the incentives of consumers since the consumer pays only a portion of the ultimate cost directly. The lack of price information on medical services can also distort incentives. The insurance which pays on behalf of insureds negotiate with medical providers, sometimes using government - established prices such as Medicaid billing rates as a reference point. This reasoning has led for calls to reform the insurance system to create a consumer - driven health care system whereby consumers pay more out - of - pocket. In 2003, the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act was passed, which encourages consumers to have a high - deductible health plan and a health savings account.
The U.S. spends more as a percentage of GDP than similar countries, and this can be explained either through higher prices for services themselves, higher costs to administer the system, or more utilization of these services, or to a combination of these elements.
Free - market advocates claim that the health care system is "dysfunctional '' because the system of third - party payments from insurers removes the patient as a major participant in the financial and medical choices that affect costs. The Cato Institute claims that because government intervention has expanded insurance availability through programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, this has exacerbated the problem. According to a study paid for by America 's Health Insurance Plans (a Washington lobbyist for the health insurance industry) and carried out by PriceWaterhouseCoopers, increased utilization is the primary driver of rising health care costs in the U.S. The study cites numerous causes of increased utilization, including rising consumer demand, new treatments, more intensive diagnostic testing, lifestyle factors, the movement to broader - access plans, and higher - priced technologies. The study also mentions cost - shifting from government programs to private payers. Low reimbursement rates for Medicare and Medicaid have increased cost - shifting pressures on hospitals and doctors, who charge higher rates for the same services to private payers, which eventually affects health insurance rates.
Health care costs rising far faster than inflation have been a major driver for health care reform in the United States. Surgical, injury, and maternal and neonatal health hospital visit costs increased by more than 2 % each year from 2003 -- 2011. Further, while average hospital discharges remained stable, hospital costs rose from $9,100 in 2003 to $10,600 in 2011, and were projected to be $11,000 by 2013.
In March 2010, Massachusetts released a report on the cost drivers which it called "unique in the nation ''. The report noted that providers and insurers negotiate privately, and therefore the prices can vary between providers and insurers for the same services, and it found that the variation in prices did not vary based on quality of care but rather on market leverage; the report also found that price increases rather than increased utilization explained the spending increases in the past several years.
Enrollment rules in private and governmental programs result in millions of Americans going without health care coverage, including children. The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that 45.7 million Americans (15.3 % of the total population) had no health insurance coverage in 2007. However, statistics regarding the insured population are difficult to pinpoint for a number of factors, with the Census Bureau writing that "health insurance coverage is likely to be underreported ''. Further, such statistics do not provide insight into the reason a given person might be uninsured. Studies have shown that approximately one third of this 45.7 million person population of uninsured persons is actually eligible for government insurance programmes such as Medicaid / Medicare, but has elected not to enroll. The largest proportion of the population of uninsured Americans is persons earning in excess of $50,000 per annum, with those earning over $75,000 p.a. comprising the fastest - growing segment of the uninsured population. U.S. Citizens who earn too much money to qualify for government assistance with insurance programs but who do not earn enough to purchase a private health insurance plan make up approximately 2.7 % percent of the total US population (8.2 million of approximately 300 million total population, by 2003 figures).
States like California offer insurance coverage for children of low income families, but not for adults; other states do not offer such coverage at all: both parent and child are caught in the notorious coverage "gap. '' Although EMTALA certainly keeps alive many working - class people who are badly injured, the 1986 law neither requires the provision of preventive or rehabilitative care, nor subsidizes such care, and it does nothing about the difficulties in the American mental health system.
Coverage gaps also occur among the insured population. Johns Hopkins University professor Vicente Navarro stated in 2003, "the problem does not end here, with the uninsured. An even larger problem is the underinsured '' and "The most credible estimate of the number of people in the United States who have died because of lack of medical care was provided by a study carried out by Harvard Medical School Professors Himmelstein and Woolhandler. They concluded that almost 100,000 people died in the U.S. yearly because of lack of needed care. '' Another study by the Commonwealth Fund published in Health Affairs estimated that 16 million U.S. adults were underinsured in 2003. The study defined underinsurance as characterized by at least one of the following conditions: annual out - of - pocket medical expenses totaling 10 % or more of income, or 5 % or more among adults with incomes below 200 % of the federal poverty level; or health plan deductibles equaling or exceeding 5 % of income. The underinsured were significantly more likely than those with adequate insurance to forgo health care, report financial stress because of medical bills, and experience coverage gaps for such items as prescription drugs. The study found that underinsurance disproportionately affects those with lower incomes -- 73 % of the underinsured in the study population had annual incomes below 200 % of the federal poverty level. Another study focusing on the effect of being uninsured found that individuals with private insurance were less likely to be diagnosed with late - stage cancer than either the uninsured or Medicaid beneficiaries. A study examining the effects of health insurance cost - sharing more generally found that chronically ill patients with higher co-payments sought less care for both minor and serious symptoms while no effect on self - reported health status was observed. The authors concluded that the effect of cost sharing should be carefully monitored.
Coverage gaps and affordability also surfaced in a 2007 international comparison by the Commonwealth Fund. Among adults surveyed in the U.S., 37 % reported that they had foregone needed medical care in the previous year because of cost; either skipping medications, avoiding seeing a doctor when sick, or avoiding other recommended care. The rate was higher -- 42 % --, among those with chronic conditions. The study reported that these rates were well above those found in the other six countries surveyed: Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the UK. The study also found that 19 % of U.S. adults surveyed reported serious problems paying medical bills, more than double the rate in the next highest country.
A lack of mental health coverage for Americans bears significant ramifications to the U.S. economy and social system. A report by the U.S. Surgeon General found that mental illnesses are the second leading cause of disability in the nation and affect 20 % of all Americans. It is estimated that less than half of all people with mental illnesses receive treatment (or specifically, an ongoing, much needed, and managed care; where medication alone, can not easily remove mental conditions) due to factors such as stigma and lack of access to care.
The Paul Wellstone Mental Health and Addiction Equity Act of 2008 mandates that group health plans provide mental health and substance - related disorder benefits that are at least equivalent to benefits offered for medical and surgical procedures. The legislation renews and expands provisions of the Mental Health Parity Act of 1996. The law requires financial equity for annual and lifetime mental health benefits, and compels parity in treatment limits and expands all equity provisions to addiction services. Insurance companies and third - party disability administrators (most notably, Sedgwick CMS) used loopholes and, though providing financial equity, they often worked around the law by applying unequal co-payments or setting limits on the number of days spent in inpatient or outpatient treatment facilities.
In most states in the U.S., people seeking to purchase health insurance directly must undergo medical underwriting. Insurance companies seeking to mitigate the problem of adverse selection and manage their risk pools screen applicants for pre-existing conditions. Insurers reject many applicants or quote increased rates for those with pre-existing conditions. Diseases that can make an individual uninsurable include serious conditions, such as arthritis, cancer, and heart disease, but also such common ailments as acne, being 20 pounds over or under weight, and old sports injuries. An estimated 5 million of those without health insurance are considered "uninsurable '' because of pre-existing conditions.
Proponents of medical underwriting argue that it ensures that individual health insurance premiums are kept as low as possible. Critics of medical underwriting believe that it unfairly prevents people with relatively minor and treatable pre-existing conditions from obtaining health insurance.
One large industry survey found that 13 % of applicants for individual health insurance who went through medical underwriting were denied coverage in 2004. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 % for those under 18 to just under one - third for those aged 60 to 64. Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76 % received offers at standard premium rates, and 22 % were offered higher rates. The frequency of increased premiums also increased with age, so for applicants over 40, roughly half were affected by medical underwriting, either in the form of denial or increased premiums. In contrast, almost 90 % of applicants in their 20s were offered coverage, and three - quarters of those were offered standard rates. Seventy percent of applicants age 60 -- 64 were offered coverage, but almost half the time (40 %) it was at an increased premium. The study did not address how many applicants who were offered coverage at increased rates chose to decline the policy. A study conducted by the Commonwealth Fund in 2001 found that, among those aged 19 to 64 who sought individual health insurance during the previous three years, the majority found it unaffordable, and less than a third ended up purchasing insurance. This study did not distinguish between consumers who were quoted increased rates due to medical underwriting and those who qualified for standard or preferred premiums. Some states have outlawed medical underwriting as a prerequisite for individually purchased health coverage. These states tend to have the highest premiums for individual health insurance.
Medical underwriting in the United States is now heavily regulated by the federal government, with numerous constraints set up by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Health disparities are well documented in the U.S. in ethnic minorities such as African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics. When compared to whites, these minority groups have higher incidence of chronic diseases, higher mortality, and poorer health outcomes. Among the disease - specific examples of racial and ethnic disparities in the United States is the cancer incidence rate among African Americans, which is 25 % higher than among whites. In addition, adult African Americans and Hispanics have approximately twice the risk as whites of developing diabetes and have higher overall obesity rates. Minorities also have higher rates of cardiovascular disease and HIV / AIDS than whites. Caucasian Americans have much lower life expectancy than Asian Americans. A 2001 study found large racial differences exist in healthy life expectancy at lower levels of education.
Public spending is highly correlated with age; average per capita public spending for seniors was more than five times that for children ($6,921 versus $1,225). Average public spending for non-Hispanic blacks ($2,973) was slightly higher than that for whites ($2,675), while spending for Hispanics ($1,967) was significantly lower than the population average ($2,612). Total public spending is also strongly correlated with self - reported health status ($13,770 for those reporting "poor '' health versus $1,279 for those reporting "excellent '' health). Seniors comprise 13 % of the population but take 1 / 3 of all prescription drugs. The average senior fills 38 prescriptions annually. A new study has also found that older men and women in the South are more often prescribed antibiotics than older Americans elsewhere, even though there is no evidence that the South has higher rates of diseases requiring antibiotics.
There is considerable research into inequalities in health care. In some cases these inequalities are caused by income disparities that result in lack of health insurance and other barriers to receiving services. According to the 2009 National Healthcare Disparities Report, uninsured Americans are less likely to receive preventive services in health care. For example, minorities are not regularly screened for colon cancer and the death rate for colon cancer has increased among African Americans and Hispanic people. In other cases, inequalities in health care reflect a systemic bias in the way medical procedures and treatments are prescribed for different ethnic groups. Raj Bhopal writes that the history of racism in science and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times. Nancy Krieger wrote that racism underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatment for heart disease, renal failure, bladder cancer, and pneumonia. Raj Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in numerous studies. The consistent and repeated findings were that black Americans received less health care than white Americans -- particularly when the care involved expensive new technology. One recent study has found that when minority and white patients use the same hospital, they are given the same standard of care.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the primary institution tasked with the safety and effectiveness of human and veterinary drugs. It also is responsible for making sure drug information is accurately and informatively presented to the public. The FDA reviews and approves products and establishes drug labeling, drug standards, and medical device manufacturing standards. It sets performance standards for radiation and ultrasonic equipment.
One of the more contentious issues related to drug safety is immunity from prosecution. In 2004, the FDA reversed a federal policy, arguing that FDA premarket approval overrides most claims for damages under state law for medical devices. In 2008 this was confirmed by the Supreme Court in Riegel v. Medtronic.
On June 30, 2006, an FDA ruling went into effect extending protection from lawsuits to pharmaceutical manufacturers, even if it was found that they submitted fraudulent clinical trial data to the FDA in their quest for approval. This left consumers who experience serious health consequences from drug use with little recourse. In 2007, the House of Representatives expressed opposition to the FDA ruling, but the Senate took no action. On March 4, 2009, an important U.S. Supreme Court decision was handed down. In Wyeth v. Levine, the court asserted that state - level rights of action could not be pre-empted by federal immunity and could provide "appropriate relief for injured consumers. '' In June 2009, under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act, Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius signed an order extending protection to vaccine makers and federal officials from prosecution during a declared health emergency related to the administration of the swine flu vaccine.
During the 1990s, the price of prescription drugs became a major issue in American politics as the prices of many new drugs increased exponentially, and many citizens discovered that neither the government nor their insurer would cover the cost of such drugs. Per capita, the U.S. spends more on pharmaceuticals than any other country, although expenditures on pharmaceuticals accounts for a smaller share (13 %) of total health care costs compared to an OECD average of 18 % (2003 figures). Some 25 % of out - of - pocket spending by individuals is for prescription drugs.
The U.S. government has taken the position (through the Office of the United States Trade Representative) that U.S. drug prices are rising because U.S. consumers are effectively subsidizing costs which drug companies can not recover from consumers in other countries (because many other countries use their bulk - purchasing power to aggressively negotiate drug prices). The U.S. position (consistent with the primary lobbying position of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America) is that the governments of such countries are free riding on the backs of U.S. consumers. Such governments should either deregulate their markets, or raise their domestic taxes in order to fairly compensate U.S. consumers by directly remitting the difference (between what the companies would earn in an open market versus what they are earning now) to drug companies or to the U.S. government. In turn, pharmaceutical companies would be able to continue to produce innovative pharmaceuticals while lowering prices for U.S. consumers. Currently, the U.S., as a purchaser of pharmaceuticals, negotiates some drug prices but is forbidden by law from negotiating drug prices for the Medicare program due to the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act passed in 2003. Democrats have charged that the purpose of this provision is merely to allow the pharmaceutical industry to profiteer off of the Medicare program.
The U.S. is one of two countries in the world that allows direct - to - consumer advertising of prescription drugs. Critics note that drug advertisements cost money which they believe have raised the overall price of drugs.
When health care legislation was being written in 2009, the drug companies were asked to support the legislation in return for not allowing importation of drugs from foreign countries.
A poll released in March 2008 by the Harvard School of Public Health and Harris Interactive found that Americans are divided in their views of the U.S. health system, and that there are significant differences by political affiliation. When asked whether the U.S. has the best health care system or if other countries have better systems, 45 % said that the U.S. system was best and 39 % said that other countries ' systems are better. Belief that the U.S. system is best was highest among Republicans (68 %), lower among independents (40 %), and lowest among Democrats (32 %). Over half of Democrats (56 %) said they would be more likely to support a presidential candidate who advocates making the U.S. system more like those of other countries; 37 % of independents and 19 % of Republicans said they would be more likely to support such a candidate. 45 % of Republicans said that they would be less likely to support such a candidate, compared to 17 % of independents and 7 % of Democrats.
A 2004 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report said, "the United States is among the few industrialized nations in the world that does not guarantee access to health care for its population. '' There is currently an ongoing political debate centering on questions of access, efficiency, quality, and sustainability. Whether a government - mandated system of universal health care should be implemented in the U.S. remains a hotly debated political topic, with Americans divided along party lines in their views of the U.S. health system and what should be done to improve it. Those in favor of universal health care argue that the large number of uninsured Americans creates direct and hidden costs shared by all, and that extending coverage to all would lower costs and improve quality. Cato Institute Senior Fellow Alan Reynolds argues that people should be free to opt out of health insurance, citing a study by economists Craig Perry and Harvey Rosen that found "the lack of health insurance among the self - employed does not affect their health. For virtually every subjective and objective measure of their health status, the self - employed and wage - earners are statistically indistinguishable for each other. '' Both sides of the political spectrum have also looked to more philosophical arguments, debating whether people have a fundamental right to have health care provided to them by their government.
Lobbying by insurance company and health care industry representatives has played an important role in health care reform efforts. Key politicians such as Senator Max Baucus have taken the option of single payer health care off the table entirely. In a June 2009 NBC News / Wall Street Journal survey, 76 % said it was either "extremely '' or "quite '' important to "give people a choice of both a public plan administered by the federal government and a private plan for their health insurance. ''
Advocates for single - payer health care often point to other countries, where national government - funded systems produce better health outcomes at lower cost. Opponents deride this type of system as "socialized medicine '', and it has not been one of the favored reform options by Congress or the President in both the Clinton and Obama reform efforts. It has been pointed out that socialized medicine is a system in which the government owns the means of providing medicine. England is an example of socialized system, as, in America, is the Veterans Health Administration. Medicare is an example of a mostly single - payer system, as is France. Both of these systems have private insurers to choose from, but the government is the dominant purchaser.
As an example of how government intervention has had unintended consequences, in 1973, the federal government passed the Health Maintenance Organization Act, which heavily subsidized the HMO business model -- a model that was in decline prior to such legislative intervention. The law was intended to create market incentives that would lower health care costs, but HMOs have never achieved their cost - reduction potential.
Piecemeal market - based reform efforts are complex. One study evaluating current popular market - based reform policy packages concluded that if market - oriented reforms are not implemented on a systematic basis with appropriate safeguards, they have the potential to cause more problems than they solve.
According to economist and former U.S. Secretary of Labor, Robert Reich, only a "big, national, public option '' can force insurance companies to cooperate, share information, and reduce costs. Scattered, localized, "insurance cooperatives '' are too small to do that and are "designed to fail '' by the moneyed forces opposing Democratic health care reform. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed into law in March 2010, did not include such an option.
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Public Law 111 - 148) is a health care reform bill that was signed into law in the United States by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The law includes a large number of health - related provisions, most of which took effect in 2014, including expanding Medicaid eligibility for people making up to 133 % of FPL, subsidizing insurance premiums for individuals and families making up to 400 % of FPL and capping expenses from 2 % to 9.8 % of annual income. For the first time, all health policies sold in the United States must cap an individual 's (or family 's) medical expenses out of pocket annually. Other provisions include providing incentives for businesses to provide health care benefits, prohibiting denial of coverage and denial of claims based on pre-existing conditions, establishing health insurance exchanges, prohibiting insurers from establishing annual spending caps and support for medical research. The costs of these provisions are offset by a variety of taxes, fees, and cost - saving measures, such as new Medicare taxes for high - income brackets, taxes on indoor tanning, cuts to the Medicare Advantage program in favor of traditional Medicare, and fees on medical devices and pharmaceutical companies; there is also a tax penalty for citizens who do not obtain health insurance (unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons). The Congressional Budget Office estimates that the net effect (including the reconciliation act) will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $143 billion over the first decade.
In May 2011, the state of Vermont became the first state to pass legislation establishing a single - payer health care system. The legislation, known as Act 48, establishes health care in the state as a "human right '' and lays the responsibility on the state to provide a health care system which best meets the needs of the citizens of Vermont. After reviewing the costs and procedures for implementing such a program, the state decided against such a measure in late 2014.
Of the 26.2 million foreign immigrants living in the US in 1998, 62.9 % were non-U.S. citizens. In 1997, 34.3 % of non-U.S. citizens living in America did not have health insurance coverage opposed to the 14.2 % of native - born Americans who do not have health insurance coverage. Among those immigrants who became citizens, 18.5 % were uninsured, as opposed to noncitizens, who are 43.6 % uninsured. In each age and income group, immigrants are less likely to have health insurance. With the recent healthcare changes, many legal immigrants with various immigration statuses now are able qualify for affordable health insurance. Options vary according to the immigrants ' age and how long they have been permanent residents.
Undocumented immigrants within the United States do not have access to government funded health insurance. Although The Affordable Care Act allows immigrants to receive insurance at a discounted rate, the same does not go for those without US citizenship. Undocumented immigrants in the US can seek medical help from community centers, or what is termed Safety Net Providers, and participate in fee for service medical assistance, but can only buy health insurance from privatized health insurers.
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in which landmark case did the supreme court find a virginia law | Loving v. Virginia - wikipedia
Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967), is a landmark civil rights decision of the United States Supreme Court which struck down all state laws banning interracial marriage.
The case was brought by Mildred Loving (née Jeter), a woman of color, and Richard Loving, a white man, who had been sentenced to a year in prison in Virginia for marrying each other. Their marriage violated the state 's anti-miscegenation statute, the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, which prohibited marriage between people classified as "white '' and people classified as "colored ''. The Supreme Court 's unanimous decision determined that this prohibition was unconstitutional, overruling Pace v. Alabama (1883) and ending all race - based legal restrictions on marriage in the United States.
The decision was followed by an increase in interracial marriages in the U.S. and is remembered annually on Loving Day. It has been the subject of several songs and three movies, including the 2016 film Loving. Beginning in 2013, it was cited as precedent in U.S. federal court decisions holding restrictions on same - sex marriage in the United States unconstitutional, including in the 2015 Supreme Court decision Obergefell v. Hodges.
Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States had been in place in certain states since colonial days. Marriage to a slave was never legal. In the Reconstruction Era in 1865, the Black Codes across the seven states of the lower South made intermarriage illegal. The new Republican legislatures in six states repealed the restrictive laws. After the Democrats returned to power, the restriction was reimposed.
A major concern was how to draw the line between black and white in a society in which white men had many children with black slave women. On the one hand, a person 's reputation as black or white was usually decisive in practical matters. On the other hand, most laws used a "one drop of blood '' rule, which meant that one black ancestor made a person black in the view of the law.
In 1967, 16 states, mainly Southern, still had anti-miscegenation laws.
Mildred Delores Loving (née Jeter; July 22, 1939 -- May 2, 2008) was the daughter of Musial (Byrd) Jeter and Theoliver Jeter. Mildred 's racial identity has been a point of confusion. She has been noted as self - identifying as Indian - Rappahannock, but was also reported as being of Cherokee, Portuguese, and African American ancestry. During the trial, it seemed clear that she identified herself as black, especially as far as her own lawyer was concerned. However, upon her arrest, the police report identifies her as "Indian. '' She said in a 2004 interview, "I have no black ancestry. I am Indian - Rappahannock. ''. A possible contributing factor is that it was seen at the time of her arrest as advantageous to be "anything but black. '' There was an ingrained history in the state of the denial of African ancestry. Additionally, the frequent racial mixing of Central Point, where she lived, could have contributed to this idea of fluid racial identity. Mildred was known as a quiet and humble woman. She was born and raised in the same rural Virginia community as her husband, Richard.
Richard Perry Loving (October 29, 1933 -- June 29, 1975) was a white man, and the son of Lola (Allen) Loving and Twillie Loving. He was a construction worker. The 1830 census marks Lewis Loving, Richard 's paternal ancestor, as having owned seven slaves. Richard 's grandfather, T.P. Farmer, fought for the Confederacy in the Civil War.
Their families both lived in Caroline County, Virginia. The county adhered to strict Jim Crow segregation laws but Central Point had been a visible mixed - race community since the 19th century. Richard 's father worked for one of the wealthiest black men in the county for 25 years. Richard 's closest companions were black, including those he drag - raced with and Mildred 's older brothers. The couple met in high school and fell in love. Richard moved into the Jeter household when Mildred became pregnant.
After the Supreme Court case, the couple moved back to Central Point, where Richard built them a house. The couple had three children: Donald, Peggy, and Sidney. Richard Loving died aged 41 in 1975, when a drunk driver struck his car in Caroline County, Virginia. Mildred Loving lost her right eye in the same accident. She died of pneumonia on May 2, 2008, in her home in Central Point, aged 68.
At the age of 18, Mildred became pregnant. In June 1958, the couple traveled to Washington, D.C. to marry, thereby evading Virginia 's Racial Integrity Act of 1924, which made marriage between whites and non-whites a crime. They returned to the small town of Central Point, Virginia. Based on an anonymous tip, local police raided their home in the early morning hours of July 11, 1958, hoping to find them having sex, given that interracial sex was then also illegal in Virginia. When the officers found the Lovings sleeping in their bed, Mildred pointed out their marriage certificate on the bedroom wall. They were told the certificate was not valid in the Commonwealth.
The Lovings were charged under Section 20 - 58 of the Virginia Code, which prohibited interracial couples from being married out of state and then returning to Virginia, and Section 20 - 59, which classified miscegenation as a felony, punishable by a prison sentence of between one and five years.
On January 6, 1959, the Lovings pled guilty to "cohabiting as man and wife, against the peace and dignity of the Commonwealth. '' They were sentenced to one year in prison, with the sentence suspended on condition that the couple leave Virginia and not return together for at least 25 years. After their conviction, the couple moved to the District of Columbia.
In 1964, frustrated by their inability to travel together to visit their families in Virginia, as well as their social isolation and financial difficulties in Washington, Mildred Loving wrote in protest to Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. Kennedy referred her to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). The ACLU assigned volunteer cooperating attorneys Bernard S. Cohen and Philip J. Hirschkop, who filed a motion on behalf of the Lovings in the Virginia Caroline County Circuit Court, that requested the court to vacate the criminal judgments and set aside the Lovings ' sentences on the grounds that the Virginia miscegenation statutes ran counter to the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause.
On October 28, 1964, after waiting almost a year for a response to their motion, the ACLU attorneys brought a class action suit in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. This prompted the county court judge in the case, Leon M. Bazile, to issue a ruling on the long - pending motion to vacate. Echoing Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 's 18th - century interpretation of race, the local court wrote:
Almighty God created the races white, black, yellow, malay and red, and he placed them on separate continents. And but for the interference with his arrangement there would be no cause for such marriages. The fact that he separated the races shows that he did not intend for the races to mix.
On January 22, 1965, a three - judge district court panel postponed decision on the federal class - action case while the Lovings appealed Judge Bazile 's decision on constitutional grounds to the Virginia Supreme Court. Justice Harry L. Carrico (later Chief Justice of the Court) wrote an opinion for the court upholding the constitutionality of the anti-miscegenation statutes. While he upheld their criminal convictions, he directed that their sentence be modified. Carrico cited as authority the Virginia Supreme Court 's decision in Naim v. Naim (1955) and argued that the Lovings ' case was not a violation of the Equal Protection Clause because both the white and the non-white spouse were punished equally for the crime of miscegenation, an argument similar to that made by the United States Supreme Court in 1883 in Pace v. Alabama.
The Lovings, still supported by the ACLU, appealed the decision to the United States Supreme Court, where Virginia was represented by Robert McIlwaine of the state 's attorney general 's office. The Lovings did not attend the oral arguments in Washington, but one of their lawyers, Bernard S. Cohen, conveyed the message he had been given by Richard Loving: "Mr. Cohen, tell the Court I love my wife, and it is just unfair that I ca n't live with her in Virginia. ''
Before Loving v. Virginia, there had been several cases on the subject of interracial sexual relations. Within the state of Virginia, on Oct. 3, 1878, in Kinney v. The Commonwealth, the Supreme Court of Virginia ruled that the marriage legalized in Washington, D.C. between Andrew Kinney, a black man, and Mahala Miller, a white woman, was "invalid '' in Virginia. In the national case of Pace v. Alabama (1883), the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the conviction of an Alabama couple for interracial sex, affirmed on appeal by the Alabama Supreme Court, did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. Interracial marital sex was deemed a felony, whereas extramarital sex ("adultery or fornication '') was only a misdemeanor. On appeal, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the criminalization of interracial sex was not a violation of the equal protection clause because whites and non-whites were punished in equal measure for the offense of engaging in interracial sex. The court did not need to affirm the constitutionality of the ban on interracial marriage that was also part of Alabama 's anti-miscegenation law, since the plaintiff, Mr. Pace, had chosen not to appeal that section of the law. After Pace v. Alabama, the constitutionality of anti-miscegenation laws banning marriage and sex between whites and non-whites remained unchallenged until the 1920s.
In Kirby v. Kirby (1921), Mr. Kirby asked the state of Arizona for an annulment of his marriage. He charged that his marriage was invalid because his wife was of "negro '' descent, thus violating the state 's anti-miscegenation law. The Arizona Supreme Court judged Mrs. Kirby 's race by observing her physical characteristics and determined that she was of mixed race, therefore granting Mr. Kirby 's annulment.
In the Monks case (Estate of Monks, 4. Civ. 2835, Records of California Court of Appeals, Fourth district), the Superior Court of San Diego County in 1939 decided to invalidate the marriage of Marie Antoinette and Allan Monks because she was deemed to have "one eighth negro blood ''. The court case involved a legal challenge over the conflicting wills that had been left by the late Allan Monks; an old one in favor of a friend named Ida Lee, and a newer one in favor of his wife. Lee 's lawyers charged that the marriage of the Monkses, which had taken place in Arizona, was invalid under Arizona state law because Marie Antoinette was "a Negro '' and Alan had been white. Despite conflicting testimony by various expert witnesses, the judge defined Mrs. Monks ' race by relying on the anatomical "expertise '' of a surgeon. The judge ignored the arguments of an anthropologist and a biologist that it was impossible to tell a person 's race from physical characteristics.
Monks then challenged the Arizona anti-miscegenation law itself, taking her case to the California Court of Appeals, Fourth District. Monks ' lawyers pointed out that the anti-miscegenation law effectively prohibited Monks as a mixed - race person from marrying anyone: "As such, she is prohibited from marrying a negro or any descendant of a negro, a Mongolian or an Indian, a Malay or a Hindu, or any descendants of any of them. Likewise... as a descendant of a negro she is prohibited from marrying a Caucasian or a descendant of a Caucasian... '' The Arizona anti-miscegenation statute thus prohibited Monks from contracting a valid marriage in Arizona, and was therefore an unconstitutional constraint on her liberty. However, the court dismissed this argument as inapplicable, because the case presented involved not two mixed - race spouses but a mixed - race and a white spouse: "Under the facts presented the appellant does not have the benefit of assailing the validity of the statute. '' Dismissing Monks ' appeal in 1942, the United States Supreme Court refused to reopen the issue.
The turning point came with Perez v. Sharp (1948), also known as Perez v. Lippold. In Perez, the Supreme Court of California recognized that bans on interracial marriage violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution.
The U.S. Supreme Court overturned the Lovings ' convictions in a unanimous decision dated June 12, 1967, dismissing the Commonwealth of Virginia 's argument that a law forbidding both white and black persons from marrying persons of another race and providing identical penalties to white and black violators could not be construed as racially discriminatory. The court ruled that Virginia 's anti-miscegenation statute violated both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Chief Justice Earl Warren 's opinion for the unanimous court held that:
Marriage is one of the "basic civil rights of man, '' fundamental to our very existence and survival... To deny this fundamental freedom on so unsupportable a basis as the racial classifications embodied in these statutes, classifications so directly subversive of the principle of equality at the heart of the Fourteenth Amendment, is surely to deprive all the State 's citizens of liberty without due process of law. The Fourteenth Amendment requires that the freedom of choice to marry not be restricted by invidious racial discrimination. Under our Constitution, the freedom to marry, or not marry, a person of another race resides with the individual and can not be infringed by the State.
The court concluded that anti-miscegenation laws were racist and had been enacted to perpetuate white supremacy:
There is patently no legitimate overriding purpose independent of invidious racial discrimination which justifies this classification. The fact that Virginia prohibits only interracial marriages involving white persons demonstrates that the racial classifications must stand on their own justification, as measures designed to maintain White Supremacy.
Associate Justice Potter Stewart filed a brief concurring opinion. He reiterated his opinion from McLaughlin v. Florida that "it is simply not possible for a state law to be valid under our Constitution which makes the criminality of an act depend upon the race of the actor. ''
Despite the Supreme Court 's decision, anti-miscegenation laws remained on the books in several states, although the decision had made them unenforceable. Local judges in Alabama continued to enforce that state 's anti-miscegenation statute until the Nixon administration obtained a ruling from a U.S. District Court in United States v. Brittain in 1970. In 2000, Alabama became the last state to adapt its laws to the Supreme Court 's decision, when 60 % of voters endorsed a ballot initiative that removed anti-miscegenation language from the state constitution.
After Loving v. Virginia, the number of interracial marriages continued to increase across the United States and in the South. In Georgia, for instance, the number of interracial marriages increased from 21 in 1967 to 115 in 1970. At the national level, 0.4 % of marriages were interracial in 1960, 2.0 % in 1980, 12 % in 2013, and 16 % in 2015, almost 50 years after Loving.
Loving v. Virginia was discussed in the context of the public debate about same - sex marriage in the United States.
In Hernandez v. Robles (2006), the majority opinion of the New York Court of Appeals -- that state 's highest court -- declined to rely on the Loving case when deciding whether a right to same - sex marriage existed, holding that "the historical background of Loving is different from the history underlying this case. '' In the 2010 federal district court decision in Perry v. Schwarzenegger, overturning California 's Proposition 8 which restricted marriage to opposite - sex couples, Judge Vaughn R. Walker cited Loving v. Virginia to conclude that "the (constitutional) right to marry protects an individual 's choice of marital partner regardless of gender ''. On narrower grounds, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed.
In June 2007, on the 40th anniversary of the Supreme Court 's decision in Loving, Mildred Loving issued a statement that said:
My generation was bitterly divided over something that should have been so clear and right. The majority believed that what the judge said, that it was God 's plan to keep people apart, and that government should discriminate against people in love. But I have lived long enough now to see big changes. The older generation 's fears and prejudices have given way, and today 's young people realize that if someone loves someone they have a right to marry.
Surrounded as I am now by wonderful children and grandchildren, not a day goes by that I do n't think of Richard and our love, our right to marry, and how much it meant to me to have that freedom to marry the person precious to me, even if others thought he was the "wrong kind of person '' for me to marry. I believe all Americans, no matter their race, no matter their sex, no matter their sexual orientation, should have that same freedom to marry. Government has no business imposing some people 's religious beliefs over others. Especially if it denies people 's civil rights.
I am still not a political person, but I am proud that Richard 's and my name is on a court case that can help reinforce the love, the commitment, the fairness, and the family that so many people, black or white, young or old, gay or straight seek in life. I support the freedom to marry for all. That 's what Loving, and loving, are all about.
Up until 2014, five U.S. Courts of Appeals considered the constitutionality of state bans on same - sex marriage. In doing so they interpreted or used the Loving ruling differently:
In Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), which decided the issue, the Supreme Court invoked Loving, among other cases, as precedent for its holding that states are required to allow same - sex marriages under both the Equal Protection Clause and the Due Process Clause of the Constitution. The court 's decision in Obergefell cited Loving nearly a dozen times, and was based on the same principles -- equality and an unenumerated right to marriage. During oral argument, the eventual author of the majority opinion, Justice Anthony Kennedy, noted that the ruling holding racial segregation unconstitutional and the ruling holding bans on interracial marriage unconstitutional (Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and Loving v. Virginia in 1967, respectively), were made about 13 years apart, much like the ruling holding bans on same - sex sexual activity unconstitutional and the eventual ruling holding bans on same - sex marriage unconstitutional (Lawrence v. Texas in 2003 and Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015, respectively).
In the United States, June 12, the date of the decision, has become known as Loving Day, an annual unofficial celebration of interracial marriages. In 2014, Mildred Loving was honored as one of the Library of Virginia 's "Virginia Women in History ''. In 2017, the Virginia Department of Historic Resources dedicated a state historical marker, which tells the story of the Lovings, outside the Patrick Henry Building in Richmond -- the former site of the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals.
The story of the Lovings became the basis of several films:
A 2015 novel by the French journalist Gilles Biassette, L'amour des Loving ("The Love of the Lovings '', ISBN 978 - 2917559598), recounts the life of the Lovings and their case. A photo - essay about the couple by Grey Villet, created just before the case, was republished in 2017.
Nanci Griffith 's 2009 album The Loving Kind is named for the Lovings and includes a song about them.
A four - part film, The Loving Generation, premiered on Topic.com in February 2018. Directed and produced by Lacey Schwartz and Mehret Mandefro, it explores the lives of biracial children born after the Loving decision.
Almighty God created the races white, black, yellow, malay and red, and he placed them on separate continents. And but for the interference with his arrangement there would be no cause for such marriages. The fact that he separated the races shows that he did not intend for the races to mix.
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when does the american baseball season start and finish | 2018 Major League Baseball season - wikipedia
The 2018 Major League Baseball season began on March 29, 2018, and is scheduled to end on September 30. The postseason will begin on October 2. The 2018 World Series is set to begin on October 23, and a potential Game 7 is scheduled for October 31.
The 89th Major League Baseball All - Star Game was held on July 17 at Nationals Park, the home of the Washington Nationals. The American League won 8 -- 6 in 10 innings.
As has been the case since 2013, all teams will play their four division opponents 19 times each for a total of 76 games. They will play six or seven games against each of the other ten same - league opponents for a total of 66 games, and 20 inter-league games. The primary inter-league match - ups are AL East vs NL East, AL Central vs NL Central, and AL West vs NL West. Since "natural rivalry '' matchups are part of the three - year divisional rotation, the schedule format for interleague games will be different from previous years. The 20 interleague games each team will play will consist of two three - game series (one home, one away) against its natural rival (total of six games), two two - game series (one home, one away) against each team for two other opponents (total of eight games), and a single three - game series against each team for the last two (one home, one away; total of six games).
Under the new collective bargaining agreement reached in December 2016, the regular season has been extended to 187 days in order to add four additional off - days for all teams. All teams were scheduled to play Opening Day, March 29 -- the earliest domestic start of a regular season in MLB history. There will no longer be a Sunday - night game on the final Sunday before the All - Star Game. A single, nationally televised game was played on the Thursday after the All - Star Game (which for 2018, was played between the St. Louis Cardinals and Chicago Cubs), before all other teams return from break the next day.
The Minnesota Twins and the Cleveland Indians played a two - game series at Hiram Bithorn Stadium in San Juan, Puerto Rico on April 17 and 18, while the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Diego Padres played a three - game series at Estadio de Béisbol Monterrey in Monterrey, Mexico from May 4 to 6. The 2018 MLB Little League Classic at BB&T Ballpark in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, coinciding with the Little League World Series, will return to the schedule. It will be played between the Philadelphia Phillies and the New York Mets on August 19.
Beginning in the 2018 season, MLB implemented new pace of play rules, which include limiting the number of mound visits for each team to six per nine innings. Teams will receive an additional visit for every extra inning played.
Updated through August 12
The Detroit Tigers modified the Olde English D on the home jersey to match the D on the cap. This is the first major change to the Tigers ' home jersey since 1934 (not counting the hiatus in 1960).
The Cleveland Indians have confirmed this will be the final season using the Chief Wahoo logo on its uniforms. It will be replaced at the start of the 2019 season.
The Oakland Athletics added a kelly green alternate jersey to commemorate the franchise 's 50th anniversary in Oakland. The uniforms are used during every Friday home game.
The Washington Nationals added a second navy blue jersey to commemorate the team 's hosting of the 2018 All - Star Game. The uniform features the script "Nationals '' in white with red trim and numerals in red with white trim.
Both the Cincinnati Reds and the Pittsburgh Pirates replaced their camouflage uniforms with new white alternate jerseys featuring olive and military green logos, letters and numbers.
The following teams will wear commemorative patches for special occasions:
As is the custom for the reigning World Series champions, the Astros wore gold - lettered uniforms at their home opener April 2 and April 3.
Players, managers and coaches wore # 42 on April 15, the 71st anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut in the majors.
The Orioles wore special caps and green uniforms on April 22, Earth Day.
The Reds and Diamondbacks wore Spanish language "Los Rojos '' and "Los D - backs '' uniforms May 5, Cinco de Mayo.
The Royals wore an alternate uniform with a crown atop the R, and a cap with a crown instead of the "KC '', on June 30 in Seattle.
The Blue Jays wore red uniforms July 1, Canada Day. They wore a cap with a gold maple leaf, as well.
The Phillies will wear their 1980s powder blue uniforms for select Thursday home games.
The Athletics and White Sox wore 1968 throwbacks April 17 to mark the 50th anniversary of the Athletics ' first season in Oakland.
The Tigers and Royals wore Negro Leagues throwbacks May 6. The Tigers wore the uniforms of the Detroit Stars, and the Royals wore the uniforms of the Kansas City Monarchs.
The Padres wore 1998 throwbacks May 12 to mark the 20th anniversary of their 1998 NL title. They will wear them again at select Wednesday games.
The Royals wore 1969 throwbacks May 19 to mark the franchise 's 50th season. The uniforms also had the MLB 100th anniversary patch, which all teams wore that season.
The White Sox and Brewers wore 1980s throwbacks June 2 and 3.
The Marlins wore 1993 throwbacks June 8 -- 10 to mark their 25th anniversary.
The Braves wore 1974 throwbacks June 22 and 23 to celebrate Hank Aaron Heritage Weekend.
The Mariners marked the 20th anniversary of their 1998 "Turn Ahead the Clock '' promotion by wearing the uniforms from that game June 30 against Kansas City.
The Brewers and Pirates wore Negro League throwbacks July 13. The Brewers wore the uniforms of the Milwaukee Bears, and the Pirates wore the uniforms of the Pittsburgh Crawfords.
The Mariners and Astros wore throwbacks on August 10; the Mariners wore their 1979 throwbacks, and the Astros wore their "Tequila Sunrise '' uniforms.
The Rays wore throwbacks from their inaugural season on March 31 against the Boston Red Sox, on June 9 against the Seattle Mariners, and on June 23 against the New York Yankees. They will wear these throwbacks once more on September 8 against the Baltimore Orioles.
This is the fifth year of the current eight - year deals with Fox Sports, ESPN and TBS. Fox will air eight weeks of baseball on Saturday Nights leading up to the 2018 Major League Baseball All - Star Game which will also air on Fox. Fox will then televise Saturday afternoon games for the last four weeks of the regular season. FS1 will televise games on Tuesday and on Saturdays both during the afternoon and night. ESPN will televise games on its flagship telecast Sunday Night Baseball as well as Monday and Wednesday Nights. TBS will televise Sunday afternoon games for the last 13 weeks of the regular season. Fox and ESPN Sunday Night Baseball telecasts will be exclusive; all other national telecasts will be subject to local blackout.
TBS will televise the American League Wild Card Game, Division Series and Championship Series. ESPN will televise the National League Wild Card. FS1 and MLB Network will televise the National League Division Series. Fox and FS1 will televise the National League Championship Series. The World Series will air exclusively on Fox for the 19th consecutive year.
Nine regular season games will be broadcast exclusively in the United States on Facebook Watch, beginning with the April 4 game between the New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillies.
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why is genetic variation an important part of biodiversity | Genetic diversity - wikipedia
Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary.
Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals.
The academic field of population genetics includes several hypotheses and theories regarding genetic diversity. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that diversity is the result of the accumulation of neutral substitutions. Diversifying selection is the hypothesis that two subpopulations of a species live in different environments that select for different alleles at a particular locus. This may occur, for instance, if a species has a large range relative to the mobility of individuals within it. Frequency - dependent selection is the hypothesis that as alleles become more common, they become more vulnerable. This occurs in host -- pathogen interactions, where a high frequency of a defensive allele among the host means that it is more likely that a pathogen will spread if it is able to overcome that allele.
A study conducted by the National Science Foundation in 2007 found that genetic diversity (within species diversity) and biodiversit y are dependent upon each other -- i.e. that diversity within a species is necessary to maintain diversity among species, and vice versa. According to the lead researcher in the study, Dr. Richard Lankau, "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down, and the community becomes dominated by a single species. '' Genotypic and phenotypic diversity have been found in all species at the protein, DNA, and organismal levels; in nature, this diversity is nonrandom, heavily structured, and correlated with environmental variation and stress.
The interdependence between genetic and species diversity is delicate. Changes in species diversity lead to changes in the environment, leading to adaptation of the remaining species. Changes in genetic diversity, such as in loss of species, leads to a loss of biological diversity. Loss of genetic diversity in domestic animal populations has also been studied and attributed to the extension of markets and economic globalization.
Variation in the populations gene pool allows natural selection to act upon traits that allow the population to adapt to changing environments. Selection for or against a trait can occur with changing environment -- resulting in an increase in genetic diversity (if a new mutation is selected for and maintained) or a decrease in genetic diversity (if a disadvantageous allele is selected against). Hence, genetic diversity plays an important role in the survival and adaptability of a species. The capability of the population to adapt to the changing environment will depend on the presence of the necessary genetic diversity The more genetic diversity a population has, the more likelihood the population will be able to adapt and survive. Conversely, the vulnerability of a population to changes, such as climate change or novel diseases will increase with reduction in genetic diversity. For example, the inability of koalas to adapt to fight Chlamydia and the koala retrovirus (KoRV) has been linked to the koala 's low genetic diversity. This low genetic diversity also has geneticists concerned for the koalas ability to adapt to climate change and human - induced environmental changes in the future.
Large populations are more likely to maintain genetic material and thus generally have higher genetic diversity. Small populations are more likely to experience the loss of diversity over time by random chance, which is called genetic drift. When an allele (variant of a gene) drifts to fixation, the other allele at the same locus is lost, resulting in a loss in genetic diversity. In small population sizes, inbreeding, or mating between individuals with similar genetic makeup, is more likely to occur, thus perpetuating more common alleles to the point of fixation, thus decreasing genetic diversity. Concerns about genetic diversity are therefore especially important with large mammals due to their small population size and high levels of human - caused population effects.
A genetic bottleneck can occur when a population goes through a period of low number of individuals, resulting in a rapid decrease in genetic diversity. Even with an increase in population size, the genetic diversity often continues to be low if the entire species began with a small population, since beneficial mutations (see below) are rare, and the gene pool is limited by the small starting population. This is an important consideration in the area of conservation genetics, when working toward a rescued population or species that is genetically - healthy.
Random mutations consistently generate genetic variation. A mutation will increase genetic diversity in the short term, as a new gene is introduced to the gene pool. However, the persistence of this gene is dependent of drift and selection (see above). Most new mutations either have a neutral or negative effect on fitness, while some have a positive effect. A beneficial mutation is more likely to persist and thus have a long - term positive effect on genetic diversity. Mutation rates differ across the genome, and larger populations have greater mutation rates. In smaller populations a mutation is less likely to persist because it is more likely to be eliminated by drift.
Gene flow, often by migration, is the movement of genetic material (for example by pollen in the wind, or the migration of a bird). Gene flow can introduce novel alleles to a population. These alleles can be integrated into the population, thus increasing genetic diversity.
For example, an insecticide - resistant mutation arose in Anopheles gambiae African mosquitoes. Migration of some A. gambiae mosquitoes to a population of Anopheles coluzziin mosquitoes resulted in a transfer of the beneficial resistance gene from one species to the other. The genetic diversity was increased in A. gambiae by mutation and in A. coluzziin by gene flow.
When humans initially started farming, they used selective breeding to pass on desirable traits of the crops while omitting the undesirable ones. Selective breeding leads to monocultures: entire farms of nearly genetically identical plants. Little to no genetic diversity makes crops extremely susceptible to widespread disease; bacteria morph and change constantly and when a disease - causing bacterium changes to attack a specific genetic variation, it can easily wipe out vast quantities of the species. If the genetic variation that the bacterium is best at attacking happens to be that which humans have selectively bred to use for harvest, the entire crop will be wiped out.
The nineteenth - century Potato Famine in Ireland was in part caused by lack of biodiversity. Since new potato plants do not come as a result of reproduction, but rather from pieces of the parent plant, no genetic diversity is developed, and the entire crop is essentially a clone of one potato, it is especially susceptible to an epidemic. In the 1840s, much of Ireland 's population depended on potatoes for food. They planted namely the "lumper '' variety of potato, which was susceptible to a rot - causing oomycete called Phytophthora infestans. The fungus destroyed the vast majority of the potato crop, and left one million people to starve to death.
Genetic diversity in agriculture does not only relate to disease, but also herbivores. Similarly, to the above example, monoculture agriculture selects for traits that are uniform throughout the plot. If this genotype is susceptible to certain herbivores, this could result in the loss of a large portion of the crop. One way farmers get around this is through inter-cropping. By planting rows of unrelated, or genetically distinct crops as barriers between herbivores and their preferred host plant, the farmer effectively reduces the ability of the herbivore to spread throughout the entire plot.
The genetic diversity of livestock species permits animal husbandry in a range of environments and with a range of different objectives. It provides the raw material for selective breeding programmes and allows livestock populations to adapt as environmental conditions change.
Livestock biodiversity can be lost as a result of breed extinctions and other forms of genetic erosion. As of June 2014, among the 8,774 breeds recorded in the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD - IS), operated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 17 percent were classified as being at risk of extinction and 7 percent already extinct. There is now a Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources that was developed under the auspices of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture in 2007, that provides a framework and guidelines for the management of animal genetic resources.
Awareness of the importance of maintaining animal genetic resources has increased over time. FAO has published two reports on the state of the world 's animal genetic resources for food and agriculture, which cover detailed analyses of our global livestock diversity and ability to manage and conserve them.
High genetic diversity in viruses must be considered when designing vaccinations. High genetic diversity results in difficulty in designing targeted vaccines, and allows for viruses to quickly evolve to resist vaccination lethality. For example, malaria vaccinations are impacted by high levels of genetic diversity in the protein antigens. In addition, HIV - 1 genetic diversity limits the use of currently available viral load and resistance tests.
The natural world has several ways of preserving or increasing genetic diversity. Among oceanic plankton, viruses aid in the genetic shifting process. Ocean viruses, which infect the plankton, carry genes of other organisms in addition to their own. When a virus containing the genes of one cell infects another, the genetic makeup of the latter changes. This constant shift of genetic makeup helps to maintain a healthy population of plankton despite complex and unpredictable environmental changes.
Cheetahs are a threatened species. Low genetic diversity and resulting poor sperm quality has made breeding and survivorship difficult for cheetahs. Moreover, only about 5 % of cheetahs survive to adulthood However, it has been recently discovered that female cheetahs can mate with more than one male per litter of cubs. They undergo induced ovulation, which means that a new egg is produced every time a female mates. By mating with multiple males, the mother increases the genetic diversity within a single litter of cubs.
Attempts to increase the viability of a species by increasing genetic diversity is called genetic rescue. For example, eight panthers from Texas were introduced to the Florida panther population, which was declining and suffering from inbreeding depression. Genetic variation was thus increased and resulted in a significant increase in population growth of the Florida Panther. Creating ot maintaining high genetic diversity is an important consideration in species rescue efforts, in order to ensure the longevity of a population.
Genetic diversity of a population can be assessed by some simple measures.
Furthermore, stochastic simulation software is commonly used to predict the future of a population given measures such as allele frequency and population size.
Alternatively, other types of diversity may be assessed for organisms:
There are broad correlations between different types of diversity. For example, there is a close link between vertebrate taxonomic and ecological diversity.
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how many episodes of olive kitteridge are there | Olive Kitteridge (miniseries) - wikipedia
Olive Kitteridge is a 2014 four - hour miniseries based on the 2008 novel of the same name by Elizabeth Strout. Set in Maine, the HBO miniseries features Frances McDormand as the title character, Richard Jenkins as Olive 's loving husband Henry Kitteridge, Zoe Kazan as Denise Thibodeau, and Bill Murray as Jack Kennison. The miniseries is divided into four parts, each depicting a certain point of time in the novel.
Olive Kitteridge debuted in the United States on November 2, 2014, on the American premium TV network HBO, which aired the show 's first two episodes back - to - back that evening; the third and fourth episodes aired back - to - back the following evening. The miniseries was shown in a similar format in the United Kingdom on Sky Atlantic, on December 14 and December 15, 2014. It premiered in Australia on showcase from 13 January 2015. At the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards, the miniseries won eight awards including Outstanding Limited Series.
Olive Kitteridge is a misanthropic and strict, but well - meaning, retired schoolteacher who lives in the fictional seaside town of Crosby, Maine. She is married to Henry Kitteridge, a kind, considerate man who runs a pharmacy downtown, and has a troubled son named Christopher, who grows up to be a podiatrist. For 25 years, Olive has experienced problems of depression, bereavement, jealousy, and friction with family members and friends.
Olive Kitteridge received praise for its writing, directing, cinematography, and Frances McDormand 's central performance, along with co-stars Richard Jenkins, Bill Murray and John Gallagher Jr. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the miniseries a 96 % "fresh '' rating based on 47 reviews with an average score of 8.59 out of 10. The critical consensus reads: "Olive Kitteridge 's narrative slow burn enhances fascinating performances -- and a story worthy of its source material. '' On Metacritic, the show has a score of 89 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The miniseries received nominations at several awards ceremonies including the 72nd Golden Globe Awards, where the series was nominated for Best Miniseries or Television Film, Frances McDormand was nominated for Best Actress -- Miniseries or Television Film and Bill Murray was nominated for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. Frances McDormand was also nominated at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie and Richard Jenkins was nominated Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie. McDormand and Jenkins were also nominated in equivalent categories at the 19th Satellite Awards, where Zoe Kazan was also nominated Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film and the series was nominated Best Miniseries or Television Film.
Olive Kitteridge was released by HBO on DVD and Blu - ray on February 10, 2015.
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where does the last name street come from | Spanish naming customs - wikipedia
Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a person 's name consists of a given name (simple or composite) followed by two family names (surnames). The first surname is usually the father 's first surname, and the second the mother 's first surname. In recent years, the order of the surnames can be decided at birth. Often, the practice is to use one given name and the first surname only (e.g. Miguel de Unamuno), with the full name being used in legal, formal, and documentary matters, or for disambiguation when the first surname is very common (e.g. Federico García Lorca).. In these cases, it is common to use only the second surname, as in "Lorca '' or "Zapatero ''. Note that this does not affect alphabetization: discussions of "Lorca '', the Spanish poet, must be alphabetized in an index under "García Lorca '', never "Lorca ''.
Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name (nombre in Spanish) and two surnames (apellidos in Spanish).
A composite given name comprises two (or more) single names; for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename.
The two surnames refer to each of the parental families. Traditionally, a person 's first surname is the father 's first surname (apellido paterno), and the second one is the mother 's first surname (apellido materno). For example, if a man named Eduardo Fernández Garrido marries a woman named María Dolores Martínez Ruiz and they have a child named José, there are several legal options, but their child would most usually be known as José Fernández Martínez.
Spanish gender equality law has allowed surname transposition since 1999, subject to the condition that every sibling must bear the same surname order recorded in the Registro Civil (civil registry), but there have been legal exceptions. From 2013, if the parents of a child were unable to agree on order of surnames, an official would decide which is to come first, with the default being the paternal name. Since June 2017, the paternal name in first order stopped being the default, and parents are required to sign an agreement where the name order is expressed explicitly. The law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. The law applies only to Spanish citizens; people of other nationalities get the surname indicated by the law in their original country.
Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the conjunction y or e (and), by the preposition de (of) or by a hyphen. For example, a person 's name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García - Iglesias, consisting of a forename (Juan Pablo), a paternal surname (Fernández de Calderón) and a maternal surname (García - Iglesias).
There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, to correctly analyse it. For example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under "Arbó '', assuming that Sebastià and Juan were both given names. However, "Juan '' was actually his first surname. Resolving questions like this, which typically involve very common names ("Juan '' is rarely a surname), commonly involves consultation of the person involved or legal documents pertaining to them.
A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be informally addressed as
Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific such as don José Antonio or don José.
It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, like García in the example above, for a person to be referred to formally using both family names, or casually by his or her second surname only. For example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (elected Prime Minister of Spain in the 2004 and 2008 general elections) is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mother 's family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, and with the painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso. As these people 's paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names (Rubalcaba, Lorca, Picasso). It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as "Zapatero '', or Federico García Lorca under L as "Lorca ''.
In an English - speaking environment, Spanish - named people sometimes hyphenate their surnames to avoid Anglophone confusion or to fill in forms with only one space provided for last name, thus: Mr. José Antonio Gómez - Iglesias. A practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words.
Parents choose their child 's given name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil (Civil Registry) to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name; common sources of names are the parents ' taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina (nominal register), and traditional Spanish names. Legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian (Jesus, Mary, saints) and typical Spanish names (Álvaro, Jimena, etc.). Although the first part of a composite forename generally reflects the gender of the child, the second personal name need not (e.g. José María Aznar). At present, the only naming limitation is the dignity of the child, who can not be given an insulting name. Similar limitations applied against diminutive, familiar, and colloquial variants not recognized as names proper, and "those that lead to confusion regarding sex ''; however, current law allows registration of diminutive names.
Girls are often named María, honouring the Virgin Mary, by appending either a shrine, place, or religious - concept suffix - name to María. In daily life, such women omit the "Mary of the... '' nominal prefix, and use the suffix portion of their composite names as their public, rather than legal, identity. Hence, women with Marian names such as María de los Ángeles (Mary of the Angels), María del Pilar (Mary of the Pillar), and María de la Luz (Mary of the Light), are normally addressed as Ángeles (Angels), Pilar (Pillar), and Luz (Light); however, each might be addressed as María. Nicknames such as Maricarmen for María del Carmen, Marisol for "María (de la) Soledad '' ("Our Lady of Solitude '', the Virgin Mary), Dolores or Lola for María de los Dolores ("Our Lady of Sorrows ''), Mercedes or Merche for María de las Mercedes ("Our Lady of Mercy ''), etc. are often used. Also, parents can simply name a girl María, or Mari without a suffix portion.
It is not unusual for a boy 's formal name to include María, preceded by a masculine name, e.g. José María Aznar (Joseph Mary Aznar) or Juan María Vicencio de Ripperdá (John Mary Vicencio de Ripperdá). Equivalently, a girl can be formally named María José (Mary Joseph), e.g. skier María José Rienda, and informally named Marijose, Mariajo, Majo, Ajo, Josefa, Josefina, Fina, Pepa, Pepi, Chepi, Pepita, Marisé or even José in honor of St. Joseph. María as a masculine name is often abbreviated in writing as M. (José M. Aznar), Ma. (José Ma. Aznar), or M. a (José M. a Morelos). It is unusual for any names other than the religiously significant María and José to be used in this way except for the name Jesús that is also very common and can be used as "Jesús '' or "Jesús María '' for a boy and "María Jesús '' for a girl, and can be abbreviated as "Sus '', "Chus '' and other nicknames.
The Registro Civil (Civil Registry) officially records a child 's identity as composed of a forename (simple or composite) and the two surnames; however, a child can be religiously baptized with several forenames, e.g. Felipe Juan Froilán de Todos los Santos. Until the 1960s, it was customary to baptize children with three forenames: the first was the main and the only one used by the child; if parents agreed, one of the other two was the name of the day 's saint. Nowadays, baptizing with three or more forenames is usually a royal and noble family practice.
In Spain, upon marrying, one does not change one 's surname. In some instances, such as high society meetings, the partner 's surname can be added after the person 's surnames using the preposition de. An example would be a Leocadia Blanco Álvarez, married to a Pedro Pérez Montilla, may be addressed as Leocadia Blanco de Pérez or as Leocadia Blanco Álvarez de Pérez. This format is not used in everyday settings and has no legal value.
In the generational transmission of surnames, the paternal surname 's precedence eventually eliminates the maternal surnames from the family lineage. Contemporary law (1999) allows the maternal surname to be given precedence, but most people observe the traditional paternal -- maternal surname order. So the daughter and son of Ángela López Sáenz and Tomás Portillo Blanco are usually called Laura Portillo López and Pedro Portillo López, but could also be called Laura López Portillo and Pedro López Portillo. The two surnames of all siblings must be in the same order when recorded in the Registro Civil.
Patrilineal surname transmission was not always the norm in Spanish - speaking societies. Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, when the current paternal - maternal surname combination norm was adopted, Hispanophone societies often practised matrilineal surname transmission, giving children the maternal surname, and, occasionally, giving children a grandparent 's surname (borne by neither parent) for prestige -- being perceived as gentry -- and profit, flattering the matriarch or the patriarch in hope of inheriting land. The Spanish naming customs include the orthographic option of conjoining the surnames with the conjunction particle y, or e before a name starting with ' I ', ' Hi ' or ' Y ', (both meaning "and '') e.g. José Ortega y Gasset, or Tomás Portillo y Blanco, or Eduardo Dato e Iradier, following an antiquated aristocratic usage.
Not every surname is a single word; such conjoining usage is common with doubled surnames (maternal - paternal), ancestral composite surnames bequeathed to the following generations -- especially when the paternal surname is socially undistinguished. José María Álvarez del Manzano y López del Hierro is an example, his name comprising the composite single name José María, and two composite surnames Álvarez del Manzano and López del Hierro. Other examples derive from church place - names such as San José. When a person bears doubled surnames, the means of disambiguation is to insert y between the paternal and maternal surnames.
In case of illegitimacy -- when the child 's father either is unknown or refuses to recognise his son or daughter legally -- the child bears both of the mother 's surnames, which may be interchanged.
Occasionally, a person with a common paternal surname and an uncommon maternal surname becomes widely known by the maternal surname. The artist Pablo Ruiz Picasso, the poet Federico García Lorca, and the politician José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero are examples. With similar effect, the foreign paternal surname of the Uruguayan writer Eduardo Hughes Galeano (his father was British) is usually omitted. (As a boy, however, he occasionally signed his name as Eduardo Gius, using a Hispanicised approximation of the English pronunciation of "Hughes ''.) Such use of the second last name by itself is colloquial, however, and may not be applied in legal contexts.
Also rarely, a person may become widely known by both surnames, with an example being tennis player Arantxa Sánchez Vicario -- whereas her older brothers Emilio and Javier, also professional tennis players, are mainly known only by the paternal surname of Sánchez in everyday life, although they also would formally be addressed as Sánchez Vicario.
Where Basque and Romance cultures have linguistically long coexisted, the surnames denote the father 's name and the (family) house or town / village. Thus the Romance patronymic and the place - name are conjoined with the prepositional particle de ("from '' + "provenance ''). For example, in the name José Ignacio López de Arriortúa, the composite surname López de Arriortúa is a single surname, despite Arriortúa being the original family - name. This can lead to confusion, because the Spanish López and the Basque Arriortúa are discrete surnames in Spanish and Basque respectively. This pattern was also in use in other Basque districts, but was phased out in most of the Basque - speaking areas and only remained in place across lands of heavy Romance influence, i.e. some central areas of Navarre and most of Álava. To a lesser extent, this pattern has been also present in Castile, where Basque - Castilian bilingualism was common in northern and eastern areas up to the 13th century.
In Spanish, the preposition particle de ("of '') is used as a conjunction in two surname spelling styles, and to disambiguate a surname. The first style is in patronymic and toponymic spelling formulæ, e.g. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Pedro López de Ayala, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa, as in many conquistador names.
The spellings of surnames containing the prepositional particle de are written in lower - case when they follow the name, thus José Manuel de la Rúa ("of the street '') and Cunegunda de la Torre ("of the tower ''), otherwise the upper - case spellings doctor De la Rúa and señora De la Torre are used.
Bearing the de particle does not necessarily denote a noble family, especially in Castile and Alava, the de usually applied to the place - name (town or village) from which the person and his or her ancestors originated; however, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the usage of de spread as a way of denoting the bearer 's noble heritage to avoid the misperception that he or she is either a Jew or a Moor. In that time, many people, regardless of their true origins, used the particle, e.g. Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega, etc.; moreover, following that fashion a high noble such as Francisco Sandoval Rojas called himself Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas. During the eighteenth century, the Spanish nobility fully embraced the French custom of using de as a nobility identifier, however, commoners also bore the de particle, which made the de usages unclear; thus, nobility was emphasised with the surname 's lineage.
In the sixteenth century, the Spanish adopted the copulative conjunction y ("and '') to distinguish a person 's surnames; thus the Andalusian Baroque writer Luis de Góngora y Argote (1561 -- 1627), the Aragonese painter Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746 -- 1828), the Andalusian artist Pablo Diego Ruiz y Picasso (1881 -- 1973), and the Madrilenian liberal philosopher José Ortega y Gasset (1883 -- 1955). In Hispanic America, this spelling convention was common to clergymen (e.g. Salvadoran Bishop Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez), and sanctioned by the Ley de Registro Civil (Civil Registry Law) of 1870, requiring birth certificates indicating the paternal and maternal surnames conjoined with y -- thus, Felipe González y Márquez and José María Aznar y López are the respective true names of the Spanish politicians Felipe González Márquez and José María Aznar López; however, unlike in Catalan, the Spanish usage is infrequent. In the Philippines, y and its associated usages are retained only in formal state documents such as police records, but is otherwise dropped in favour of a more American - influenced naming order.
The conjunction y avoids denominational confusion when the paternal surname might appear to be a (first) name; hence the physiologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal might appear to be named Santiago Ramón (composite) and surnamed Cajal, likewise the jurist Francisco Tomás y Valiente, and the cleric Vicente Enrique y Tarancón. Without the conjunction, the footballer Rafael Martín Vázquez, when referred to by his surnames Martín Vázquez mistakenly appears to be forenamed Martín rather than Rafael, whilst, to his annoyance, the linguist Fernando Lázaro Carreter occasionally was addressed as Don Lázaro, rather than as Don Fernando (Lázaro can be either forename or surname).
Moreover, when the maternal surname begins with an i vowel sound, written with either the vowel I (Ibarra), the vowel Y (Ybarra archaic spelling) or the combination Hi + consonant (Higueras), Spanish euphony substitutes e in place of y, thus the example of the Spanish statesman Eduardo Dato e Iradier (1856 -- 1921).
To communicate a person 's social identity, Spanish naming customs provide orthographic means, such as suffix - letter abbreviations, surname spellings, and place names, which denote and connote the person 's place in society.
h. (son of): A man named like his father, might append the lower - case suffix h. (denoting hijo, son) to his surname, thus distinguishing himself, Juan Gómez Marcos, h., from his father, Juan Gómez Marcos; the English analogue is "Jr. '' (son).
-- ez: Spanish surnames ending in - ez originated as patronymics denoting "the son of '' -- Fernández (son of Fernando), González (son of Gonzalo) -- yet not every such surname is patronymic, because in many Spanish dialects the Spanish - language letters z and s are pronounced alike, leading to the same word being spelt with either "s '' or "z ''. In Hispano - American Spanish, the - ez spellings of Chávez (Hugo Chávez), Cortez (Alberto Cortez) and Valdez (Nelson Valdez) are not patronymic surnames, because they are variant spellings of the Iberian Spanish spelling with - es, as in the names of Manuel Chaves, Hernán Cortés and Víctor Valdés. For more on the - z surnames in Spanish see Influences on the Spanish language.
Anonymous foundlings were a naming problem for civil registrars, but such anonymous children were often named toponymically, after the town where they were found. Because most foundlings were reared in church orphanages, they were often given the surnames Iglesia or Iglesias (church (es)) and Cruz (cross). Blanco (connoting "blank '' here, rather than the more usual "white '') was another option. A toponymical first surname might be followed as second surname by Iglesia or Cruz.
Foundlings often were surnamed Expósito / Expósita (Lat. exposĭtus, "exposed '', connoting "foundling ''), which marked them, and their descendants, as of low caste and social class, people without social pedigree. In the Catalan language the surname Deulofeu ("made by God '') was often given to foundlings. In 1921 Spanish law allowed the surname Expósito to be changed without charge.
In Aragón, anonymous children used to receive as well the family surname Gracia ("grace '') or de Gracia, because they were thought to survive by the grace of God.
In Spain, legal and illegal foreign immigrants retain use of their cultural naming customs, yet upon becoming Spanish citizens, they are legally obliged to assume Spanish - style names (a name and two surnames). If the naturalised person is from a one - surname culture, the actual surname is duplicated; therefore, the English name "George Albert Duran '' becomes the Spanish name "George Albert Duran Duran '', yet the law optionally allows him to adopt his mother 's maiden name (her surname), as his maternal (second) surname. Formally, Spanish naming customs conflate his name "George '' and his middle - name "Albert '' to the composite name "George Albert '', and his sole surname, "Duran '', is duplicated as his paternal and maternal surnames.
Historically, flamenco artists seldom used their proper names. According to the flamenco guitarist Juan Serrano, this was because flamenco was considered disreputable and they did not want to embarrass their families:
We have to start with the history of the gypsies in Spain. They gained a bad reputation because of the minor crimes they had to commit to survive. They did not have any kind of jobs, they had to do something to live, and of course this created hostility. And Flamenco was the music of the Gypsies, so many high society people did not accept it -- they said Flamenco was in the hands of criminals, bandits, et cetera. And the girls, that maybe liked dancing or singing, their parents said, "Oh no, you want to be a prostitute! ''.
This tradition has persisted to the present day, even though Flamenco is now legitimate. Sometimes the artistic name consists of the home town appended to the first name (Manolo Sanlúcar, Ramón de Algeciras); but many, perhaps most, of such names are more eccentric: Pepe de la Matrona (because his mother was a midwife); Perico del Lunar (because he had a mole); Tomatito (son of a father known as Tomate (tomato) because of his red face); Sabicas (because of his childhood passion for green beans, from niño de las habicas); Paco de Lucía, born Francisco ("Paco '') Gustavo Sánchez Gomes, was known from infancy after his Portuguese mother, Lucía Gomes (de Lucía = (son) of Lucía). And many more.
Many Spanish names can be shortened into hypocoristic, affectionate "child - talk '' forms using a diminutive suffix, especially - ito and - cito (masculine) and - ita and - cita (feminine). Sometimes longer than the person 's name, a nickname is usually derived via linguistic rules. However, in contrast to English use, hypocoristic names in Spanish are only used to address a person in a very familiar environment -- the only exception being when the hypocoristic is an artistic name (e.g. Nacho Duato born Juan Ignacio Duato). The common English practice of using a nickname in the press or media, or even on business cards (such as Bill Gates instead of William Gates), is not accepted in Spanish, being considered excessively colloquial. The usages vary by country and region; these are some usual names and their nicknames:
The official recognition of Spain 's other written languages -- Catalan, Basque, and Galician -- legally allowed the autonomous communities to re-establish their vernacular social identity, including the legal use of personal names in the local languages and written traditions -- banned since 1938 -- sometimes via the re-spelling of names from Castilian Spanish to their original languages.
The Basque - speaking territories (the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre) usually follow Spanish naming customs (given names + two family names, the two family names being usually the father 's and the mother 's).
The given names are officially in one language (Basque or Spanish) but often people use a translated or shortened version. A bilingual Basque - Spanish speaker will not necessarily bear a Basque name, and a monolingual Spanish speaker can use a Basque name or a Basque hypocoristic of an official Spanish name; e.g. a Francisco (official Spanish name) may be known as Patxi (Basque hypocoristic).
Some Basque - language names and surnames are foreign transliterations into the Basque tongue, e.g. Ander (English: "Andrew ''; Spanish: Andrés), Mikel (English: "Michael ''; Spanish: Miguel), or Ane (English: "Anne ''; Spanish: Ana). In some cases, the name 's original - language denotation is translated to Basque, e.g., Zutoia and Zedarri denote the Spanish Pilar (English: "Pillar ''). Moreover, some originally Basque names, such as Xabier and Eneko (English "Xavier '' and "Inigo '') have been transliterated into Spanish (Javier and Íñigo).
Recently, Basque names without a direct equivalent in other languages have become popular, e.g. Aitor (a legendary patriarch), Hodei ("cloud ''), Iker ("to investigate ''), and Amaia ("the end ''). Some Basque names without a direct Spanish meaning, are unique to the Basque language, for instance, Eneko, Garikoitz, Urtzi. Basque names, rather than Spanish names, are preponderant in the Basque Country, countering the Spanish - name imposition of the Franco régime requiring people being given only Spanish names at birth. After Franco 's death and the restoration of democracy in Spain, many Basque adults changed their Spanish names to the Basque equivalent, e.g. from Miguel to Mikel.
A source for modern Basque names is Sabino Arana 's Deun - Ixendegi Euzkotarra ("Basque saint - name collection '', published in 1910). Instead of the traditional Basque adaptations of Romance names, he proposed others he made up and that in his opinion were truer to the originals and adapted better to the Basque phonology. For example, his brother Luis became Koldobika, from Frankish Hlodwig. The traditionals Peru (from Spanish "Pedro ''), Pello or Piarres (from French "Pierre ''), all meaning "Peter '', became Kepa from Aramaic כיפא (Kepha). He believed that the suffix - (n) e was inherently feminine, and new names like Nekane ("pain '' + ne, "Dolores '') or Garbiñe ("clean '' + ne, "Immaculate (Conception) '') are frequent among Basque females.
Basque surnames usually denote the patronymic house of the bearer; e.g. Etxebarria -- "new house '', from etxe (house) + barri (new), denotes "related to a so - named farmhouse ''; in the same way, Garaikoetxea -- "house in the heights '', garai ("height '') + etxe ("house ''). Sometimes, surnames denote not the house itself but a characteristic of the place, e.g. Saratxaga -- "willow - place '', from saratze ("willow '') + - aga ("place of ''); Loyola, from loi ("mud '') + ola ("iron smithery ''); Arriortua -- "stone orchard '', from harri ("stone '') + ortua ("orchard ''). Before the 20th century all Basque men were considered nobles (indeed, some Basque surnames, e.g. Irujo or Medoza, were related to some of the oldest Spanish noble families), and many of them used their status to emigrate with privileges to other regions of the Spanish Empire, especially the Americas, due to which some Basque surnames became common to the Spanish - American world; e.g. Mendoza -- "cold mountain '', from mendi ("mountain '' + hotza ("cold ''); Salazar -- "Old hall '', from sala ("hall '') + zahar ("old ''). Until 1978, Spanish was the single official language of the Spanish civil registries and Basque surnames had to be registered according to the Spanish phonetical rules (for example, the Spanish "ch '' sound merges the Basque "ts '', "tx '', and "tz '', and someone whose surname in Standard Basque would be "Krutxaga '' would have to write it as "Cruchaga '', letter "k '' also not being used in Spanish). Although the democratic restoration ended this policy, allowing surnames to be officially changed into their Basque phonology, there still are many people who hold Spanish - written Basque surnames, even in the same family: a father born before 1978 would be surnamed "Echepare '' and his children, "Etxepare ''. This policy even changed the usual pronunciation of some Basque surnames. For instance, in Basque, the letter "z '' maintained a sibilant "s '' - like sound, while Spanish changed it; thus, a surname such as "Zabala '' should be properly read similar to "sabala '' (Basque pronunciation: (s̻abala)), although in Spanish, because the "z '' denotes a "th '' sound ((θ)), it would be read as "Tha - bala '' (Spanish pronunciation: (θaˈβala)). However, since the letter "z '' exists in Spanish, the registries did not force the Zabalas to transliterate their surname.
In the Basque provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, it was uncommon to take a surname from the place (town or village) where one resided, unless one was a foundling; in general, people bearing surnames such as Bilbao (after the Basque city of Bilbao) are descendants of foundlings. However, in the Basque province of Alava and, to a lesser extent, in Navarre, it was common to add one 's birth village to the surname using the Spanish particle de to denote a toponymic, particularly when the surname was a common one; for instance, someone whose surname was Lopez and whose family was originally from the valley of Ayala could employ Lopez de Ayala as a surname. This latter practice is also common in Castile.
Basque compound surnames are relatively common, and were created with two discrete surnames, e.g. Elorduizapaterietxe -- Elordui + Zapaterietxe, a practice denoting family allegiances or the equal importance of both families. This custom sometimes conduced to incredibly long surnames, for compound surnames could be used to create others; for example, the longest surname recorded in Spain is Basque, Burionagonatotoricagageazcoechea, formed by Buriona+ Gonatar + Totorika + Beazcoetxea.
Finally, the nationalist leader Sabino Arana pioneered a naming custom of transposing the name - surname order to what he thought was the proper Basque language syntax order; e.g. the woman named Miren Zabala would be referred to as Zabalatar Miren -- the surname first, plus the - tar suffix denoting "from a place '', and then the name. Thus, Zabalatar Miren means "Miren, of the Zabala family ''. The change in the order is effected because in the Basque tongue, declined words (such as Zabalatar) that apply to a noun are uttered before the noun itself; another example of this would be his pen name, Arana ta Goiritar Sabin. This Basque naming custom was used in nationalist literature, not in formal, official documents wherein the Castilian naming convention is observed.
The Catalan - speaking territories also abide by the Spanish naming customs, yet usually the discrete surnames are joined with the word i ("and ''), instead of the Spanish y, and this practice is very common in formal contexts. For example, the former president of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia) is formally called El Molt Honorable Senyor Carles Puigdemont i Casamajó. Furthermore, the national language policy enumerated in article 19.1 of Law 1 / 1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames ''.
The correction, translation, and surname - change are regulated by the Registro Civil (Civil Registry) with the Decree 138 / 2007 of 26 June, modifying the Decree 208 / 1998 of 30 July, which regulates the accreditation of the linguistic correctness of names. The attributes and functions of Decree 138 / 2007 of 26 July regulate the issuance of language - correction certificates for translated Catalan names, by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Institute of Catalan Studies) in Barcelona. Nevertheless, there are Catalan surnames that conform to neither the current spelling rules nor to the traditionally correct Catalan spelling rules; a language - correction certification can be requested from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans, for names such as these:
Many Catalan names are shortened to hypocoristic forms using only the final portion of the name (unlike Spanish, which mostly uses only the first portion of the name), and with a diminutive suffix (- et, - eta / - ita). Thus, shortened Catalan names taking the first portion of the name are probably influenced by the Spanish tradition. The influence of Spanish in hypocoristics is recent since it became a general fashion only in the twentieth century and specially since Francisco Franco 's dictatorship; example Catalan names are:
The Galician - speaking areas also abide the Spanish naming customs. Main differences are the usage of Galician given names and surnames.
Most Galician surnames have their origin in local toponymies, being these either Galician regions (Sanlés < Salnés, Carnota, Bergantiños), towns (Ferrol, Noia), parishes or villages (as Andrade). Just like elsewhere, many surnames were also generated from jobs or professions (Carpinteiro ' carpenter ', Cabaleiro ' Knight ', Ferreiro ' Smith ', Besteiro ' Crossbowman '), physical characteristics (Gago ' Twangy ', Tato ' Stutterer ', Couceiro ' Tall and thin ', Bugallo ' fat ', Pardo ' Swarthy '), or origin of the person (Franco and Francés ' French ', Portugués ' Portuguese ').
Although many Galician surnames have been historically adapted into Spanish phonetics and orthography, they are still clearly recognizable as Galician words: Freijedo, Spanish adaptation of freixedo ' place with ash - trees '; Seijo from seixo ' stone '; Doval from do Val ' of the Valley '; Rejenjo from Reguengo, Galician evolution of local Latin - Germanic word Regalingo ' Royal property '.
Specially relevant are the Galician surnames originated from medieval patronymics, present in local documentation since the 9th century, and popularized from the 12th century on. Although many of them have been historically adapted into Spanish orthography, phonetics and traditions, many are still characteristically Galician; most common ones are:
Some of them (namely Páez, Méndez, Vázquez) are characteristically Galician due to the drop of intervocalic - l -, - d -, - g - and - n -, but the most present surnames in Galicia could also be of Spanish origin (although Lugo is the only province in Spain with a majority of people surnamed López).
Some common Galician names are:
Nicknames are usually obtained from the end of a given name, or through derivation. Common suffixes include masculine - iño, - ito (as in Sito, from Luisito), - echo (Tonecho, from Antonecho) and - uco (Farruco, from Francisco); and feminine - iña, - ucha / uxa (Maruxa, Carmucha, from Maria and Carme), - uca (Beluca, from Isabeluca), and - ela (Mela, from Carmela).
As the provincial Surname distribution map (above) indicates, Mohamed is an often - occurring surname in the autonomous Mediterranean North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla (respectively registered 10,410 and 7,982 occurrences), Hispanophone Muslims use the Spanish "Mohamed '' spelling for "Muhammad ''. As such, it is often a component of Arabic names for men; hence, many Ceutan and Melillan Muslims share surnames despite not sharing a common ancestry. Furthermore, Mohamed (Muhammad) is the most popular name for new - born boys, thus it is not unusual to encounter a man named Mohamed Mohamed Mohamed: the first occurrence is the given name, the second occurrence is the paternal surname, and the third occurrence is the maternal surname.
In English the Chicago Manual of Style recommends that Spanish and Hispanophone names be indexed by the family name. When there are two family names, the indexing is done under the father 's family name; this would be the first element of the surname if the father 's and mother 's or husband 's family names are joined by a y. Depending upon the person involved, the particle de may be treated as a part of a family name or it may be separated from a family name. The indexing of Hispanophone names differs from that of Portuguese or Lusophone names, where the final element of the name is indexed because the Portuguese custom is to for the father 's surname to follow, rather than precede, the mother 's. The effect is that the father 's surname is the one indexed both for Spanish and Portuguese names.
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a r i z o n a wiki | Arizona - wikipedia
As of 2010
Arizona (/ ˌærɪˈzoʊnə / (listen); Navajo: Hoozdo Hahoodzo (xòːztò xɑ̀xòːtsò); O'odham: Alĭ ṣonak (laɺi lʂonak)) is a U.S. state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western and the Mountain states. It is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, and one point in common with the southwestern corner of Colorado. Arizona 's border with Mexico is 389 miles (626 km) long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California.
Arizona is the 48th state and last of the contiguous states to be admitted to the Union, achieving statehood on February 14, 1912. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, it became part of independent Mexico in 1821. After being defeated in the Mexican -- American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase.
Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. Northern Arizona features forests of pine, Douglas fir, and spruce trees; the Colorado Plateau; some mountain ranges (such as the San Francisco Mountains); as well as large, deep canyons, with much more moderate summer temperatures and significant winter snowfalls. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, and Tucson. In addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments.
About one - quarter of the state is made up of Indian reservations that serve as the home of 27 federally recognized Native American tribes, including the Navajo Nation, the largest in the state and the United States, with more than 300,000 citizens. Although federal law gave all Native Americans the right to vote in 1924, Arizona excluded those living on reservations from voting until its state Supreme Court ruled in 1948 in favor of Native American plaintiffs.
The state 's name appears to originate from an earlier Spanish name, Arizonac, derived from the O'odham name alĭ ṣonak, meaning "small spring, '' which initially applied only to an area near the silver mining camp of Planchas de Plata, Sonora. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like "Arissona ''. The area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the O'odham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona ("the good oak ''), as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area.
There is a misconception that the state 's name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona ("Arid Zone '').
For thousands of years before the modern era, Arizona was home to numerous Native American tribes. Hohokam, Mogollon and Ancestral Puebloan cultures were among the many that flourished throughout the state. Many of their pueblos, cliffside dwellings, rock paintings and other prehistoric treasures have survived, attracting thousands of tourists each year.
The first European contact by native peoples was with Marcos de Niza, a Spanish Franciscan, in 1539. He explored parts of the present state and made contact with native inhabitants, probably the Sobaipuri. The expedition of Spanish explorer Coronado entered the area in 1540 -- 1542 during its search for Cíbola.
Father Kino was the next European in the region. A member of the Society of Jesus ("Jesuits ''), he led the development of a chain of missions in the region. He converted many of the Indians to Christianity in the Pimería Alta (now southern Arizona and northern Sonora) in the 1690s and early 18th century. Spain founded presidios ("fortified towns '') at Tubac in 1752 and Tucson in 1775.
When Mexico achieved its independence from the Kingdom of Spain and its Spanish Empire in 1821, what is now Arizona became part of its Territory of Nueva California, ("New California ''), also known as Alta California ("Upper California ''). Descendants of ethnic Spanish and mestizo settlers from the colonial years still lived in the area, with much deeper roots than later European - American migrants from the United States.
During the Mexican -- American War (1847 -- 1848), the U.S. Army occupied the national capital of Mexico City and pursued its claim to much of northern Mexico, including what later became Arizona Territory in 1863 and later the State of Arizona in 1912. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) specified that, in addition to language and cultural rights of the existing inhabitants of former Mexican citizens being considered as inviolable, the sum of US $ 15 million dollars in compensation (equivalent to $424,269,230.77 in 2017.) be paid to the Republic of Mexico. In 1853 the U.S. acquired the land south below the Gila River from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase along the southern border area as encompassing the best future southern route for a transcontinental railway.
What is now known as the state of Arizona was initially administered by the United States government as part of the Territory of New Mexico until the southern part of that region seceded from the Union to form the Territory of Arizona. This newly established territory was formally organized by the Confederate States government on Saturday, January 18, 1862, when President Jefferson Davis approved and signed An Act to Organize the Territory of Arizona, marking the first official use of the name "Territory of Arizona ''. The Southern territory supplied the Confederate government with men, horses, and equipment. Formed in 1862, Arizona scout companies served with the Confederate States Army during the Civil War. Arizona has the westernmost military engagement on record during the Civil War with the Battle of Picacho Pass.
The Federal government declared a new U.S. Arizona Territory, consisting of the western half of earlier New Mexico Territory, in Washington, D.C., on February 24, 1863. These new boundaries would later form the basis of the state. The first territorial capital, Prescott, was founded in 1864 following a gold rush to central Arizona.
Although names including "Gadsonia '', "Pimeria '', "Montezuma '', and "Arizuma '' had been considered for the territory, when 16th President Abraham Lincoln signed the final bill, it read "Arizona, '' and that name was adopted. (Montezuma was not derived from the Aztec emperor, but was the sacred name of a divine hero to the Pima people of the Gila River Valley. It was probably considered -- and rejected -- for its sentimental value before Congress settled on the name "Arizona. '')
Brigham Young, patriarchal leader of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints in Salt Lake City in Utah, sent Mormons to Arizona in the mid - to late 19th century. They founded Mesa, Snowflake, Heber, Safford, and other towns. They also settled in the Phoenix Valley (or "Valley of the Sun ''), Tempe, Prescott, and other areas. The Mormons settled what became northern Arizona and northern New Mexico. At the time these areas were located in a part of the former New Mexico Territory.
During the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, several battles were fought in the Mexican towns just across the border from Arizona settlements. Throughout the revolution, numerous Arizonans enlisted in one of the several armies fighting in Mexico. Only two significant engagements took place on U.S. soil between U.S. and Mexican forces: Pancho Villa 's 1916 Columbus Raid in New Mexico, and the Battle of Ambos Nogales in 1918 in Arizona. The Americans won the latter.
After U.S. soldiers were fired on by Mexican federal troops, the American garrison launched an assault into Nogales, Mexico. The Mexicans eventually surrendered after both sides sustained heavy casualties. A few months earlier, just west of Nogales, an Indian War battle had occurred, considered the last engagement in the American Indian Wars, which lasted from 1775 to 1918. U.S. soldiers stationed on the border confronted Yaqui Indians who were using Arizona as a base to raid the nearby Mexican settlements, as part of their wars against Mexico.
Arizona became a U.S. state on February 14, 1912. Arizona was the 48th state admitted to the U.S. and the last of the contiguous states to be admitted.
Cotton farming and copper mining, two of Arizona 's most important statewide industries, suffered heavily during the Great Depression. But during the 1920s and even the 1930s, tourism began to develop as the important Arizonan industry it is today. Dude ranches, such as the KL Bar and Remuda in Wickenburg, along with the Flying V and Tanque Verde in Tucson, gave tourists the chance to take part in the flavor and activities of the "Old West ''. Several upscale hotels and resorts opened during this period, some of which are still top tourist draws. They include the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in central Phoenix (opened 1929) and the Wigwam Resort on the west side of the Phoenix area (opened 1936).
Arizona was the site of German POW camps during World War II and Japanese - American internment camps. Because of wartime fears of Japanese invasion of the West Coast, the government authorized the removal of all Japanese - American residents from western Washington, western Oregon, all of California, and western Arizona. From 1942 to 1945, they were forced to reside in internment camps built in the interior of the country. Many lost their homes and businesses in the process. The camps were abolished after World War II.
The Phoenix - area German POW site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family (of major home appliance fame). It was developed as the site of the Phoenix Zoo. A Japanese - American internment camp was located on Mount Lemmon, just outside the state 's southeastern city of Tucson. Another POW camp was located near the Gila River in eastern Yuma County.
Arizona was also home to the Phoenix Indian School, one of several federal Indian boarding schools designed to assimilate Native American children into mainstream European - American culture. Children were often enrolled into these schools against the wishes of their parents and families. Attempts to suppress native identities included forcing the children to cut their hair, to take and use English names, to speak only English, and to practice Christianity rather than their native religions.
Numerous Native Americans from Arizona fought for the United States during World War II. Their experiences resulted in a rising activism in the postwar years to achieve better treatment and civil rights after their return to the state. After Maricopa County did not allow them to register to vote, in 1948 veteran Frank Harrison and Harry Austin, of the Mojave - Apache Tribe at Fort McDowell Indian Reservation, brought a legal suit, Harrison and Austin v. Laveen, to challenge this exclusion. The Arizona Supreme Court ruled in their favor.
Arizona 's population grew tremendously with residential and business development after World War II, aided by the widespread use of air conditioning, which made the intensely hot summers more comfortable. According to the Arizona Blue Book (published by the Arizona Secretary of State 's office each year), the state population in 1910 was 294,353. By 1970, it was 1,752,122. The percentage growth each decade averaged about 20 % in the earlier decades, and about 60 % each decade thereafter.
In the 1960s, retirement communities were developed. These were special age - restricted subdivisions catering exclusively to the needs of senior citizens; they attracted many retirees who wanted to escape the harsh winters of the Midwest and the Northeast. Sun City, established by developer Del Webb and opened in 1960, was one of the first such communities. Green Valley, south of Tucson, was another such community, designed as a retirement subdivision for Arizona 's teachers. Many senior citizens from across the U.S. and Canada come to Arizona each winter and stay only during the winter months; they are referred to as snowbirds.
In March 2000, Arizona was the site of the first legally binding election ever held over the internet to nominate a candidate for public office. In the 2000 Arizona Democratic Primary, under worldwide attention, Al Gore defeated Bill Bradley. Voter turnout in this state primary increased more than 500 % over the 1996 primary.
Three ships named USS Arizona have been christened in honor of the state, although only USS Arizona (BB - 39) was so named after statehood was achieved.
Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico and before Nevada. Of the state 's 113,998 square miles (295,000 km), approximately 15 % is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land and Native American reservations.
Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the state 's southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This region 's topography was shaped by prehistoric volcanism, followed by the cooling - off and related subsidence. Its climate has exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. The state is less well known for its pine - covered north - central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau (see Arizona Mountains forests).
Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains and plateaus. Despite the state 's aridity, 27 % of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern - day France or Germany. The world 's largest stand of ponderosa pine trees is in Arizona.
The Mogollon Rim, a 1,998 - foot (609 m) escarpment, cuts across the state 's central section and marks the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau. In 2002, this was an area of the Rodeo -- Chediski Fire, the worst fire in state history.
Located in northern Arizona, the Grand Canyon is a colorful, deep, steep - sided gorge, carved by the Colorado River. The canyon is one of the seven natural wonders of the world and is largely contained in the Grand Canyon National Park -- one of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of designating the Grand Canyon area as a National Park, often visiting to hunt mountain lion and enjoy the scenery. The canyon was created by the Colorado River cutting a channel over millions of years, and is about 277 miles (446 km) long, ranges in width from 4 to 18 miles (6 to 29 km) and attains a depth of more than 1 mile (1.6 km). Nearly two billion years of the Earth 's history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of sediment as the Colorado Plateau uplifted.
Arizona is home to one of the most well - preserved meteorite impact sites in the world. Created around 50,000 years ago, the Barringer Meteorite Crater (better known simply as "Meteor Crater '') is a gigantic hole in the middle of the high plains of the Colorado Plateau, about 25 miles (40 km) west of Winslow. A rim of smashed and jumbled boulders, some of them the size of small houses, rises 150 feet (46 m) above the level of the surrounding plain. The crater itself is nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) wide, and 570 feet (170 m) deep.
Arizona is one of two U.S. states that does not observe Daylight Saving Time (the other being Hawaii). The exception is within the large Navajo Nation (which observes Daylight Saving Time), in the state 's northeastern region.
Generally, Arizona is at low risk of earthquakes, except for the southwestern portion which is at moderate risk due to its proximity to Southern California. On the other hand, Northern Arizona is at moderate risk due to numerous faults in the area. The regions near and west of Phoenix have the lowest risk.
The earliest Arizona earthquakes were recorded at Fort Yuma, on the California side of the Colorado River. They were centered near the Imperial Valley, or Mexico, back in the 1800s. Residents in Douglas felt the 1887 Sonora earthquake with its epicenter 40 miles to the south in the Mexican state of Sonora. The first damaging earthquake known to be centered within Arizona occurred on January 25, 1906, also including a series of other earthquakes centered near Socorro, New Mexico. The shock was violent in Flagstaff.
In September 1910, a series of fifty - two earthquakes caused a construction crew near Flagstaff to leave the area. In 1912, the year Arizona achieved statehood, on August 18, an earthquake caused a 50 - mile crack in the San Francisco Range. In early January 1935, the state experienced a series of earthquakes, in the Yuma area and near the Grand Canyon. Arizona experienced its largest earthquake in 1959, with a tremor of a magnitude 5.6. It was centered near Fredonia, in the state 's northwest near the border with Utah. The tremor was felt across the border in Nevada and Utah.
Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of localized climate conditions. In the lower elevations, the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and extremely hot summers. Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of 60 ° F (16 ° C). November through February are the coldest months, with temperatures typically ranging from 40 to 75 ° F (4 to 24 ° C), with occasional frosts.
About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise, with warm days, and cool, breezy nights. The summer months of June through September bring a dry heat from 90 to 120 ° F (32 to 49 ° C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 ° F (52 ° C) having been observed in the desert area. Arizona 's all - time record high is 128 ° F (53 ° C) recorded at Lake Havasu City on June 29, 1994, and July 5, 2007; the all - time record low of − 40 ° F (− 40 ° C) was recorded at Hawley Lake on January 7, 1971.
Due to the primarily dry climate, large diurnal temperature variations occur in less - developed areas of the desert above 2,500 ft (760 m). The swings can be as large as 83 ° F (46 ° C) in the summer months. In the state 's urban centers, the effects of local warming result in much higher measured night - time lows than in the recent past.
Arizona has an average annual rainfall of 12.7 in (323 mm), which comes during two rainy seasons, with cold fronts coming from the Pacific Ocean during the winter and a monsoon in the summer. The monsoon season occurs toward the end of summer. In July or August, the dewpoint rises dramatically for a brief period. During this time, the air contains large amounts of water vapor. Dewpoints as high as 81 ° F (27 ° C) have been recorded during the Phoenix monsoon season. This hot moisture brings lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. These downpours often cause flash floods, which can turn deadly. In an attempt to deter drivers from crossing flooding streams, the Arizona Legislature enacted the Stupid Motorist Law. It is rare for tornadoes or hurricanes to occur in Arizona.
Arizona 's northern third is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers, though the climate remains semiarid to arid. Extremely cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and Canada occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) to the state 's northern parts.
Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over 100 ° F (38 ° C) (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff).
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Arizona was 6,828,065 on July 1, 2015, a 6.82 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
Arizona remained sparsely settled for most of the 19th century. The 1860 census reported the population of "Arizona County '' to be 6,482, of whom 4,040 were listed as "Indians '', 21 as "free colored '', and 2,421 as "white ''. Arizona 's continued population growth puts an enormous stress on the state 's water supply. As of 2011, 61.3 % of Arizona 's children under the age of 1 belonged to minority groups.
The population of metropolitan Phoenix increased by 45.3 % from 1991 through 2001, helping to make Arizona the second fastest - growing state in the U.S. in the 1990s (the fastest was Nevada). As of January 2012, the population of the Phoenix area is estimated to be over 4.3 million.
According to the 2010 United States Census, Arizona had a population of 6,392,017. In 2010, illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 7.9 % of the population. This was the second highest percentage of any state in the U.S.
Metropolitan Phoenix (4.3 million) and Tucson (1 million) are home to about five - sixths of Arizona 's people (as of the 2010 census). Metro Phoenix alone accounts for two - thirds of the state 's population.
In 1980, the Census Bureau reported Arizona 's population as 16.2 % Hispanic, 5.6 % Native American, and 74.5 % non-Hispanic white. In 2010, the racial makeup of the state was:
Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 29.6 % of the state 's population. Non-Hispanic whites formed 57.8 % of the total population.
Arizona 's five largest ancestry groups, as of 2009, were:
As of 2010, 72.90 % (4,215,749) of Arizona residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 20.80 % (1,202,638) spoke Spanish, 1.48 % (85,602) Navajo, 0.39 % (22,592) German, 0.39 % (22,426) Chinese (which includes Mandarin), 0.33 % (19,015) Tagalog, 0.30 % (17,603) Vietnamese, 0.27 % (15,707) Other North American Indigenous Languages (especially indigenous languages of Arizona), and French was spoken as a main language by 0.26 % (15,062) of the population over the age of five. In total, 27.10 % (1,567,548) of Arizona 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.
Arizona is home to the largest number of speakers of Native American languages in the 48 contiguous states, as over 85,000 individuals reported speaking Navajo, and 10,403 people reported Apache, as a language spoken at home in 2005. Arizona 's Apache County has the highest concentration of speakers of Native American Indian languages in the United States.
Phoenix, located in Maricopa County, is the capital and the largest city in Arizona. Other prominent cities in the Phoenix metro area include Mesa (the third largest city in Arizona), Chandler (the fourth largest city in Arizona), Glendale, Peoria, Buckeye, Sun City, Sun City West, Fountain Hills, Surprise, Gilbert, El Mirage, Avondale, Tempe, Tolleson and Scottsdale, with a total metropolitan population of just over 4.3 million. It has an average July high temperature of 106 ° F (41 ° C), one of the highest of any metropolitan area in the United States, offset by an average January high temperature of 67 ° F (19 ° C), the basis of its winter appeal.
Tucson, with a metro population of just over one million, is the state 's second - largest city. It is located in Pima County, approximately 110 miles (180 km) southeast of Phoenix. Tucson was incorporated in 1877, making it the oldest incorporated city in Arizona. It is home to the University of Arizona. Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. It has an average July temperature of 100 ° F (38 ° C) and winter temperatures averaging 65 ° F (18 ° C). Saguaro National Park, just west of the city in the Tucson Mountains, is the locale of the largest collection of Saguaro cacti in the world.
The Prescott metropolitan area includes the cities of Prescott, Cottonwood, Camp Verde and numerous other towns spread out over the 8,123 square miles (21,000 km) of Yavapai County area. With 212,635 residents, this cluster of towns forms the third largest metropolitan area in the state. The city of Prescott (population 41,528) lies approximately 100 miles (160 km) northwest of the Phoenix metropolitan area. Situated in pine tree forests at an elevation of about 5,500 feet (1,700 m), Prescott enjoys a much cooler climate than Phoenix, with average summer highs around 88 ° F (31 ° C) and winter temperatures averaging 50 ° F (10 ° C).
Yuma is center of the fourth - largest metropolitan area in Arizona. Located in Yuma County, it is near the borders of California and Mexico. It is one of the hottest cities in the United States, with an average July high of 107 ° F (42 ° C). (The same month 's average in Death Valley is 115 ° F (46 ° C).) The city features sunny days about 90 % of the year. The Yuma Metropolitan Statistical Area has a population of 160,000. Yuma attracts many winter visitors from all over the United States.
Flagstaff, in Coconino County, is the largest city in northern Arizona, and is at an elevation of nearly 7,000 feet (2,100 m). With its large Ponderosa pine forests, snowy winter weather and picturesque mountains, it is a stark contrast to the desert regions typically associated with Arizona. It is sited at the base of the San Francisco Peaks, the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona, which contain Humphreys Peak, the highest point in Arizona at 12,633 feet (3,851 m). Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to numerous tourist attractions including: Grand Canyon National Park, Sedona, and Oak Creek Canyon. Historic U.S. Route 66 is the main east - west street in the town. The Flagstaff metropolitan area is home to 134,421 residents and the main campus of Northern Arizona University.
Lake Havasu City, in Mohave County, known as "Arizona 's playground, '' was developed on the Colorado River and is named after Lake Havasu. Lake Havasu City has a population of about 53,000 people. It is famous for huge spring break parties, sunsets and the London Bridge, relocated from London, England. Lake Havasu City was founded by real estate developer Robert P. McCulloch in 1963. It has two colleges, Mohave Community College and ASU Colleges in Lake Havasu City.
As of the year 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported that the three largest denominational groups in Arizona were the Catholic Church, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - Day Saints and non-denominational Evangelical Protestants. The Catholic Church has the highest number of adherents in Arizona (at 930,001), followed by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints with 410,263 members reported and then non-denominational Evangelical Protestants, reporting 281,105 adherents. The religious body with the largest number of congregations is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (with 836 congregations) followed by the Southern Baptist Convention (with 323 congregations).
According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, the fifteen largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 and 2000 were:
Regarding non-Christian denominations, Hinduism became the largest non-Christian religion (when combining all denominations) in 2010, with over 32,000 adherents in several denominations, followed by Judaism with over 20,000 in three denominations, and Buddhism with over 19,000 adherents in several denominations.
The 2011 total gross state product was $259 billion. This figure gives Arizona a larger economy than such countries as Ireland, Finland, and New Zealand. The composition of the state 's economy is moderately diverse; although health care, transportation and the government remain the largest sectors.
The state 's per capita income is $40,828, ranking 39th in the U.S. The state had a median household income of $50,448, making it 22nd in the country and just below the U.S. national mean. Early in its history, Arizona 's economy relied on the "five C 's '': copper (see Copper mining in Arizona), cotton, cattle, citrus, and climate (tourism). Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open - pit and underground mines, accounting for two - thirds of the nation 's output.
The state government is Arizona 's largest employer, while Banner Health is the state 's largest private employer, with over 39,000 employees (2016). As of March 2016, the state 's unemployment rate was 5.4 %.
The top employment sectors in Arizona are (August 2014, excludes agriculture):
According to The Arizona Republic, the largest private employers in the state as of 2016 were:
In southern Arizona, the top ten largest public employers, as of 2011, were:
Arizona collects personal income taxes in five brackets: 2.59 %, 2.88 %, 3.36 %, 4.24 % and 4.54 %. The state transaction privilege tax is 5.6 %; however, county and municipal sales taxes generally add an additional 2 %.
The state rate on transient lodging (hotel / motel) is 7.27 %. The state of Arizona does not levy a state tax on food for home consumption or on drugs prescribed by a licensed physician or dentist. However, some cities in Arizona do levy a tax on food for home consumption.
All fifteen Arizona counties levy a tax. Incorporated municipalities also levy transaction privilege taxes which, with the exception of their hotel / motel tax, are generally in the range of 1 - to - 3 %. These added assessments could push the combined sales tax rate to as high as 10.7 %.
I - 8 I - 10 Future I - 11 I - 15 I ‐ 17 I ‐ 19 I - 40
US 60 US 64 US 70 US 89 US 91 US 93 US 95 US 160 US 163 US 180 US 191
Main interstate routes include I - 17, and I - 19 traveling north - south, I - 8, I - 10, and I - 40, traveling east - west, and a short stretch of I - 15 traveling northeast -- southwest through the extreme northwestern corner of the state. In addition, the various urban areas are served by complex networks of state routes and highways, such as the Loop 101, which is part of Phoenix 's vast freeway system.
The Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas are served by public bus transit systems. Yuma and Flagstaff also have public bus systems. Greyhound Lines serves Phoenix, Tucson, Flagstaff, Yuma, and several smaller communities statewide.
A light rail system, called Valley Metro Rail, was completed in December 2008; it connects Central Phoenix with the nearby cities of Mesa and Tempe.
In Tucson, the Sun Link streetcar system travels through the downtown area, connecting the main University of Arizona campus with Mercado San Agustin on the western edge of downtown Tucson. Sun Link, loosely based on the Portland Streetcar, launched in July 2014.
Amtrak Southwest Chief route serves the northern part of the state, stopping at Winslow, Flagstaff, Williams and Kingman. The Texas Eagle and Sunset Limited routes serve South - Central Arizona, stopping at Tucson, Maricopa, Yuma and Benson. Phoenix lost Amtrak service in 1996 with the discontinuation of the Desert Wind, and now an Amtrak bus runs between Phoenix and the station in Maricopa.
Airports with regularly scheduled commercial flights include: Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport (IATA: PHX, ICAO: KPHX) in Phoenix (the largest airport and the major international airport in the state); Tucson International Airport (IATA: TUS, ICAO: KTUS) in Tucson; Phoenix - Mesa Gateway Airport (IATA: AZA, ICAO: KIWA) in Mesa; Yuma International Airport (IATA: NYL, ICAO: KNYL) in Yuma; Prescott Municipal Airport (PRC) in Prescott; Flagstaff Pulliam Airport (IATA: FLG, ICAO: KFLG) in Flagstaff, and Grand Canyon National Park Airport (IATA: GCN, ICAO: KGCN, FAA: GCN), a small, but busy, single - runway facility providing tourist flights, mostly from Las Vegas. Phoenix Sky Harbor is currently 7th busiest airport in the world in terms of aircraft movements, and 17th for passenger traffic.
Other significant airports without regularly scheduled commercial flights include Scottsdale Municipal Airport (IATA: SCF, ICAO: KSDL) in Scottsdale, and Deer Valley Airport (IATA: DVT, ICAO: KDVT, FAA: DVT) home to two flight training academies and the Nation 's busiest general aviation airport.
The state capital of Arizona is Phoenix. The original Capitol building, with its distinctive copper dome, was dedicated in 1901 (construction was completed for $136,000 in 1900), when the area was still a territory. Phoenix became the official state capital with Arizona 's admission to the union in 1912.
The House of Representatives and Senate buildings were dedicated in 1960, and an Executive Office Building was dedicated in 1974 (the ninth floor of this building is where the Office of the Governor is located). The original Capitol building was converted into a museum.
The Capitol complex is fronted and highlighted by the richly landscaped Wesley Bolin Memorial Plaza, named after Wesley Bolin, a governor who died in office in the 1970s. Numerous monuments and memorials are on the site, including the anchor and signal mast from the USS Arizona (one of the U.S. Navy ships sunk in Pearl Harbor) and a granite version of the Ten Commandments.
The Arizona Legislature is bicameral (like the legislature of every other state except Nebraska) and consists of a thirty - member Senate and a 60 - member House of Representatives. Each of the thirty legislative districts has one senator and two representatives. Legislators are elected for two - year terms.
Each Legislature covers a two - year period. The first session following the general election is known as the first regular session, and the session convening in the second year is known as the second regular session. Each regular session begins on the second Monday in January and adjourns sine die (terminates for the year) no later than Saturday of the week in which the 100th day from the beginning of the regular session falls. The President of the Senate and Speaker of the House, by rule, may extend the session up to seven additional days. Thereafter, the session can only be extended by a majority vote of members present of each house.
The current majority party is the Republican Party, which has held power in both houses since 1993.
Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two - year terms and are limited to four consecutive terms in a chamber, though there is no limit on the total number of terms. When a lawmaker is term - limited from office, it is not uncommon for him or her to run for election in the other chamber.
The fiscal year 2006 -- 07 general fund budget, approved by the Arizona Legislature in June 2006, is slightly less than $10 billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, it also includes more than $500 million in income - and property tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and additional funding for the K -- 12 education system.
Arizona 's executive branch is headed by a governor, who is elected to a four - year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row. Arizona is one of the few states that does not maintain a governor 's mansion. During office the governors reside within their private residence, and all executive offices are housed in the executive tower at the state capitol. The current governor of Arizona is Doug Ducey (R).
Former Governor Jan Brewer assumed office after Janet Napolitano had her nomination by Barack Obama for Secretary of Homeland Security confirmed by the United States Senate. Arizona has had four female governors, more than any other state.
Other elected executive officials include the Secretary of State, State Treasurer, State Attorney General, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Mine Inspector and a five - member Corporation Commission. All elected officials hold a term of four years, and are limited to two consecutive terms (except the office of the State Mine Inspector, which is limited to 4 terms).
Arizona is one of seven states that do not have a specified lieutenant governor. The secretary of state is the first in line to succeed the governor in the event of death, disability, resignation, or removal from office. The line of succession also includes the attorney general, state treasurer and superintendent of public instruction. Since 1977, four secretaries of state and one attorney general have risen to Arizona 's governorship through these means.
The Arizona Supreme Court is the highest court in Arizona. The court currently consists of one chief justice, a vice chief justice, and three associate justices. Justices are appointed by the governor from a list recommended by a bipartisan commission, and are re-elected after the initial two years following their appointment. Subsequent re-elections occur every six years. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in death penalty cases, but almost all other appellate cases go through the Arizona Court of Appeals beforehand. The court has original jurisdiction in a few other circumstances, as outlined in the state constitution. The court may also declare laws unconstitutional, but only while seated en banc. The court meets in the Arizona Supreme Court Building at the capitol complex (at the southern end of Wesley Bolin Plaza).
The Arizona Court of Appeals, further divided into two divisions, is the intermediate court in the state. Division One is based in Phoenix, consists of sixteen judges, and has jurisdiction in the Western and Northern regions of the state, along with the greater Phoenix area. Division Two is based in Tucson, consists of six judges, and has jurisdiction over the Southern regions of the state, including the Tucson area. Judges are selected in a method similar to the one used for state supreme court justices.
Each county of Arizona has a superior court, the size and organization of which are varied and generally depend on the size of the particular county.
Arizona is divided into political jurisdictions designated as counties. As of 1983 there were 15 counties in the state, ranging in size from 1,238 square miles (3,210 km) to 18,661 square miles (48,330 km).
Arizona 's two United States Senators are John McCain (R), the 2008 Republican Presidential Nominee, and Jeff Flake (R).
As of the start of the 115th Congress, Arizona 's representatives in the United States House of Representatives are Tom O'Halleran (D - 1), Martha McSally (R - 2), Raul Grijalva (D - 3), Paul Gosar (R - 4), Andy Biggs (R - 5), David Schweikert (R - 6), Ruben Gallego (D - 7) and Kyrsten Sinema (D - 9). Arizona gained a ninth seat in the House of Representatives due to redistricting based on Census 2010. The 8th district became vacant when Trent Franks resigned on December 8, 2017.
See also: Elections in Arizona, Political party strength in Arizona
From statehood through the late 1940s, Arizona was primarily dominated by the Democratic Party. During this time period, the Democratic candidate for the presidency carried the state each election, with the only exceptions being the elections of 1920, 1924 and 1928 -- all three of which were national Republican landslides.
In 1924 Congress had passed a law granting citizenship and suffrage to all Native Americans, some of whom had previously been excluded as members of tribes on reservations. Legal interpretations of Arizona 's constitution prohibited Native Americans living on reservations from voting, classifying them as being under "guardianship. '' This interpretation was overturned as being incorrect and unconstitutional in 1948 by the Arizona Supreme Court, following a suit by World War II Indian veterans Frank Harrison and Harry Austin, both of the Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation. The landmark case is Harrison and Austin v. Laveen. After the men were refused the opportunity to register in Maricopa County, they filed suit against the registrar. The National Congress of American Indians, the Department of Justice, the Department of the Interior, and the American Civil Liberties Union all filed amicus curiae (friends of the court) briefs in the case. The State Supreme Court established the rights of Native Americans to vote in the state; at the time, they comprised about 11 % of the population. That year, a similar provision was overturned in New Mexico when challenged by another Indian veteran in court. These were the only two states that had continued to prohibit Native Americans from voting.
Since the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952, the majority of state voters have favored Republicans in presidential elections. Arizona voted Republican in every presidential election from 1952 to 1992, with Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan winning the state by particularly large margins. During this forty - year span, it was the only state not to be carried by a Democrat at least once.
Democrat Lyndon Johnson, in 1964, lost the state by less than 5,000 votes to Arizona Senator and native Barry Goldwater. (This was the most closely contested state in what was otherwise a landslide victory for Johnson that year.) Democrat Bill Clinton ended this streak in 1996, when he won Arizona by a little over two percentage points (Clinton had previously come within less than two percent of winning Arizona 's electoral votes in 1992). Since then, the majority of the state has continued to support Republican presidential candidates by solid margins.
Since the late 20th century, the Republican Party has also dominated Arizona politics in general. The fast - growing Phoenix and Tucson suburbs became increasingly friendly to Republicans from the 1950s onward. During this time, many "Pinto Democrats, '' or conservative Democrats from rural areas, became increasingly willing to support Republicans at the state and national level. While the state normally supports Republicans at the federal level, Democrats are often competitive in statewide elections. Two of the last five governors have been Democrats.
On March 4, 2008, Senator John McCain effectively clinched the Republican nomination for 2008, becoming the first presidential nominee from the state since Barry Goldwater in 1964.
Arizona politics are dominated by a longstanding rivalry between its two largest counties, Maricopa and Pima -- home to Phoenix and Tucson, respectively. The two counties have almost 75 percent of the state 's population and cast almost 80 percent of the state 's vote. They also elect a substantial majority of the state legislature.
Maricopa County is home to almost 60 percent of the state 's population, and most of the state 's elected officials live there. It has voted Republican in every presidential election since 1948. This includes the 1964 run of native son Barry Goldwater; he would not have carried his home state without his 20,000 - vote margin in Maricopa County. Similarly, while McCain won Arizona by eight percentage points in 2008, aided by his 130,000 - vote margin in Maricopa County.
In contrast, Pima County, home to Tucson, and most of southern Arizona have historically voted more Democratic. While Tucson 's suburbs lean Republican, they hold to a somewhat more moderate brand of Republicanism than is common in the Phoenix area.
Arizona rejected a same - sex marriage ban in a referendum as part of the 2006 elections. Arizona was the first state in the nation to do so. Same - sex marriage was not recognized in Arizona, but this amendment would have denied any legal or financial benefits to unmarried homosexual or heterosexual couples. In 2008, Arizona voters passed Proposition 102, an amendment to the state constitution to define marriage as a union of one man and one woman. It passed by a more narrow majority than similar votes in a number of other states.
In 2010, Arizona passed SB 1070, called the toughest illegal immigration legislation in the nation. A fierce debate erupted between supporters and detractors of the law.
The United States Supreme Court heard arguments March 18, 2013, regarding the validity of the Arizona law, which requires individuals to show documents proving U.S. citizenship in order to register to vote in national elections.
In 2006, Arizona became the first state in the United States to reject a proposition, Prop 107, that would have banned same - sex marriage and civil unions. However, in 2008, Arizona voters approved of Prop 102, a constitutional ban on same - sex marriage. Prior to same - sex marriage being legal, the City of Bisbee became the first jurisdiction in Arizona to approve of civil unions. The state 's Attorney General at the time, Tom Horne, threatened to sue, but rescinded the threat once Bisbee amended the ordinance; Bisbee approved of civil unions in 2013. The municipalities of Clarkdale, Cottonwood, Jerome, Sedona, and Tucson also passed civil unions.
A November 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found that 44 % of Arizona voters supported the legalization of same - sex marriage, while 45 % opposed it and 12 % were not sure. A separate question on the same survey found that 72 % of respondents supported legal recognition of same - sex couples, with 40 % supporting same - sex marriage, 32 % supporting civil unions, 27 % opposing all legal recognition and 1 % not sure. Arizona Proposition 102, known by its supporters as the Marriage Protection Amendment, appeared as a legislatively referred constitutional amendment on the November 4, 2008 ballot in Arizona, where it was approved: 56.2 % -- 43 %. It amended the Arizona Constitution to define marriage as between one man and one woman.
On October 17, 2014, Arizona Attorney General Tom Horne announced that his office would no longer object to same - sex marriage, in response to a U.S. District Court Ruling on Arizona Proposition 102. On that day, each county 's Clerk of the Superior Court began to issue same - sex marriage licenses, and Arizona became the 31st state to legalize same - sex marriage.
Public schools in Arizona are separated into about 220 local school districts which operate independently, but are governed in most cases by elected county school superintendents; these are in turn overseen by the Arizona State Board of Education (a division of the Arizona Department of Education) and the state Superintendent of Public Instruction (elected in partisan elections every even - numbered year when there is not a presidential election, for a four - year term). In 2005, a School District Redistricting Commission was established with the goal of combining and consolidating many of these districts.
Arizona is served by three public universities: The University of Arizona, Arizona State University, and Northern Arizona University. These schools are governed by the Arizona Board of Regents.
Private higher education in Arizona is dominated by a large number of for - profit and "chain '' (multi-site) universities.
Embry -- Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott and Prescott College are Arizona 's only non-profit four - year private colleges.
Arizona has a wide network of two - year vocational schools and community colleges. These colleges were governed historically by a separate statewide Board of Directors but, in 2002, the state legislature transferred almost all oversight authority to individual community college districts. The Maricopa County Community College District includes 11 community colleges throughout Maricopa County and is one of the largest in the nation.
Phoenix Art Museum, located on the historic Central Avenue corridor in Phoenix, is the Southwest 's largest collection of visual art from across the world. The museum displays international exhibitions alongside the museum 's collection of more than 18,000 works of American, Asian, European, Latin American, Western American, modern and contemporary art, and fashion design. With a community education mandate since 1951, Phoenix Art Museum holds a year - round program of festivals, live performances, independent art films and educational programs. The museum also has PhxArtKids, an interactive space for children; photography exhibitions through the museum 's partnership with the Center for Creative Photography; the landscaped Sculpture Garden and dining at Arcadia Farms.
Arizona is a recognized center of Native American art, with a number of galleries showcasing historical and contemporary works. The Heard Museum, also located in Phoenix, is a major repository of Native American art. Some of the signature exhibits include a full Navajo hogan, the Mareen Allen Nichols Collection containing 260 pieces of contemporary jewelry, the Barry Goldwater Collection of 437 historic Hopi kachina dolls, and an exhibit on the 19th century boarding school experiences of Native Americans. The Heard Museum has about 250,000 visitors a year.
Sedona, Jerome, and Tubac are known as a budding artist colonies, and small arts scenes exist in the larger cities and near the state universities.
Several major Hollywood films, such as Billy Jack, U Turn, Waiting to Exhale, Just One of the Guys, Ca n't Buy Me Love, Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure, The Scorpion King, The Banger Sisters, Used Cars, and Raising Arizona have been made there (as have many Westerns). The 1993 science fiction movie Fire in the Sky, based on a reported alien abduction in the town of Snowflake, was set in Snowflake. It was filmed in the Oregon towns of Oakland, Roseburg, and Sutherlin.
The 1974 film Alice Does n't Live Here Anymore, for which Ellen Burstyn won the Academy Award for Best Actress, and also starring Kris Kristofferson, was set in Tucson. The climax of the 1977 Clint Eastwood film The Gauntlet takes place in downtown Phoenix. The final segments of the 1984 film Starman take place at Meteor Crater outside Winslow. The Jeff Foxworthy comedy documentary movie Blue Collar Comedy Tour was filmed almost entirely at the Dodge Theatre. Some of Alfred Hitchcock 's classic film Psycho was shot in Phoenix, the ostensible home town of the main character.
Some of the television shows filmed or set in Arizona include The New Dick Van Dyke Show, Medium, Alice, The First 48, Insomniac with Dave Attell, Cops, and America 's Most Wanted. The TV sitcom Alice, which was based on the movie was set in Phoenix. Twilight had passages set in Phoenix at the beginning and the end of the film.
Arizona is prominently featured in the lyrics of many Country and Western songs, such as Jamie O'Neal 's hit ballad "There Is No Arizona ''. George Strait 's "Oceanfront Property '' uses "ocean front property in Arizona '' as a metaphor for a sucker proposition. The line "see you down in Arizona Bay '' is used in a Tool song in reference to the possibility (expressed as a hope by comedian Bill Hicks) that Southern California will one day fall into the ocean. Glen Campbell, a notable resident, popularized the song "By The Time I Get To Phoenix ''.
"Arizona '' was the title of a popular song recorded by Mark Lindsay. Arizona is mentioned by the hit song "Take It Easy '', written by Jackson Browne and Glenn Frey and performed by the Eagles. Arizona is also mentioned in the Beatles ' song "Get Back '', credited to John Lennon and Paul McCartney; McCartney sings: "JoJo left his home in Tucson, Arizona, for some California grass. '' "Carefree Highway '', released in 1974 by Gordon Lightfoot, takes its name from Arizona State Route 74 north of Phoenix.
Arizona 's budding music scene is helped by emerging bands, as well as some well - known artists. The Gin Blossoms, Chronic Future, Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers, Jimmy Eat World, Caroline 's Spine, and others began their careers in Arizona. Also, a number of punk and rock bands got their start in Arizona, including JFA, The Feederz, Sun City Girls, The Meat Puppets, The Maine, The Summer Set, and more recently Authority Zero and Digital Summer.
Arizona also has many singers and other musicians. Singer, songwriter and guitarist Michelle Branch is from Sedona. The late Chester Bennington, the former lead vocalist of Linkin Park, and mash - up artist DJ Z - Trip are both from Phoenix. One of Arizona 's better known musicians is shock rocker Alice Cooper, who helped define the genre. Maynard James Keenan, the lead singer of the bands Tool, A Perfect Circle, and Puscifer, calls the town of Cornville his current home.
Other notable singers include country singers Dierks Bentley and Marty Robbins, folk singer Katie Lee, Fleetwood Mac 's Stevie Nicks, CeCe Peniston, Rex Allen, 2007 American Idol winner Jordin Sparks, and Linda Ronstadt.
Arizona is also known for its heavy metal scene, which is centered in and around Phoenix. In the early to mid-1990s, it included bands such as Job for a Cowboy, Knights of the Abyss, Greeley Estates, Eyes Set To Kill, blessthefall, The Word Alive, The Dead Rabbitts, and Abigail Williams. The band Soulfly calls Phoenix home and Megadeth lived in Phoenix for about a decade. Beginning in and around 2009, Phoenix began to host a burgeoning desert rock and sludge metal underground, (ala ' Kyuss in 1990s California) led by bands like Wolves of Winter, Asimov and Dead Canyon.
American composer Elliott Carter composed his first String Quartet (1950 -- 51) while on sabbatical (from New York) in Arizona. The quartet won a Pulitzer Prize and other awards and is now a staple of the string quartet repertoire.
Professional sports teams in Arizona include:
The University of Phoenix stadium hosted Super Bowl XLII on February 3, 2008, and Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015.
Due to its numerous golf courses, Arizona is home to several stops on the PGA Tour, most notably the Phoenix Open, held at the TPC of Scottsdale, and the WGC - Accenture Match Play Championship at the Ritz - Carlton Golf Club in Marana.
Auto racing is another sport known in the state. Phoenix International Raceway in Avondale is home to NASCAR race weekends twice a year. Firebird International Raceway near Chandler is home to drag racing and other motorsport events.
College sports are also prevalent in Arizona. The Arizona State Sun Devils and the Arizona Wildcats belong to the Pac - 12 Conference while the Northern Arizona Lumberjacks compete in the Big Sky Conference and the Grand Canyon Antelopes compete for in the Western Athletic Conference. The rivalry between Arizona State Sun Devils and the Arizona Wildcats predates Arizona 's statehood, and is the oldest rivalry in the NCAA. The Territorial Cup, first awarded in 1889 and certified as the oldest trophy in college football, is awarded to the winner of the annual football game between the two schools.
Arizona also hosts several college football bowl games. The Fiesta Bowl, originally held at Sun Devil Stadium, is now held at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale. The Fiesta Bowl is part of the new College Football Playoff (CFP). University of Phoenix Stadium was also home to the 2007 and 2011 BCS National Championship Games.
Arizona is a popular location for Major League Baseball spring training, as it is the site of the Cactus League. Spring training was first started in Arizona in 1947, when Brewers owner Veeck sold them in 1945 but went onto purchase the Cleveland Indians in 1946. He decided to train the Cleveland Indians in Tucson and convinced the New York Giants to give Phoenix a try. Thus the Cactus League was born.
On March 9, 1995, Arizona was awarded a franchise to begin play for the 1998 season. A $130 million franchise fee was paid to Major League Baseball and on January 16, 1997, the Diamondbacks were officially voted into the National League.
Since their debut, the Diamondbacks have won five National League West titles, one National League Championship pennant, and the 2001 World Series.
Some notable Arizonans involved in politics and government include:
Arizona notables in culture and the arts include:
Official state government website
Other reference links
Tourism information links
Coordinates: 34 ° N 112 ° W / 34 ° N 112 ° W / 34; - 112
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wwe money in the bank 2014 ladder match | Money in the Bank (2014) - wikipedia
Money in the Bank (2014) was a professional wrestling pay - per - view (PPV) event and WWE Network event produced by WWE. It took place on June 29, 2014 at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. It was the fifth annual Money in the Bank event.
Eight matches took place at the event, with no match aired on the pre-show. The titular ladder match for the Money in the Bank contract was won by Seth Rollins. The main event was a ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by John Cena. The event received 122,000 buys (excluding WWE Network views), down from the previous year 's 199,000 buys.
The event is named after the Money In The Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The winner is guaranteed a match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at a time of their choosing within the next year. On the June 2 episode of Raw, Alberto Del Rio qualified for the match by defeating Dolph Ziggler. The following week, following Daniel Bryan being stripped of his WWE World Championship due to injury, Stephanie McMahon changed the match into a ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship itself. The same night, Triple H placed Randy Orton into the match, while United States Champion Sheamus and Cesaro defeated Intercontinental Champion Bad News Barrett and Rob Van Dam respectively to qualify. On the June 13 episode of SmackDown, Bray Wyatt qualified for the match after defeating Dean Ambrose (with interference from Seth Rollins). On the June 16 episode of Raw, John Cena won a spot in the match by defeating Kane in a Stretcher match, and Roman Reigns qualified for the match by winning a 19 - man battle royal. On the June 23 episode of Raw, Kane was added to the match by Triple H.
The card included eight matches that resulted from scripted storylines with results predetermined by WWE. Storylines were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows, Raw and SmackDown.
During the feud between John Cena and Bray Wyatt, WWE Tag Team Champions Jimmy Uso and Jey Uso inserted themselves in the rivalry alongside Cena to counteract Wyatt Family members Luke Harper and Erick Rowan. At Payback, The Usos were once again be in Cena 's corner to even the odds and in the process, Cena defeated Bray Wyatt in a Last Man Standing match to end the feud. The next night on Raw, Rowan and Harper shifted their attention to The Usos, defeating the latter in a non-title tag team match on the June 2 episode of Raw. Due to this win, they earned a match for the Tag Team Championship at the pay - per - view.
On the June 17 episode of Main Event, a Money In The Bank ladder match was added to the event, with Seth Rollins declaring himself the first participant in the match. On June 23 episode of Raw, Triple H added Intercontinental Champion Bad News Barrett, Dolph Ziggler, Rob Van Dam, Kofi Kingston, and Jack Swagger to the match. Later that night (after Dean Ambrose threatened to disrupt the pay - per - view), Rollins requested Ambrose be added to the match, to which Triple H agreed. On the June 27 episode of SmackDown, Barret suffered an injury, causing him to be removed from the match.
At Payback, after a loss to RybAxel, Cody Rhodes told his brother, Goldust, that he deserves a better partner than him. Following Payback, Goldust was unsuccessful in defeating Rybaxel with his new partners, chosen for him by Cody. On the June 16 episode of Raw, Cody debuted as his new moniker of Stardust, and began teaming with his brother to defeat the team Rybaxel. On the June 24 episode of Main Event, Rybaxel challenged Stardust and Goldust to a match at the pay - per - view, which they accepted.
On the June 17 episode of Main Event, Naomi defeated WWE Divas Champion Paige in a non-title match, setting up a title match between the two at Money In The Bank.
After Fandango had replaced his dance partner Summer Rae with Layla, Summer Rae attacked Layla on the May 19 episode of Raw. They continued to attack each other and interfere in Fandango 's matches, thus setting up a match at the pay - per - view, with Fandango as the special guest referee.
Since his debut, Rusev was presented as a Russian super athlete. His manager, Lana, insulted the United States many times. This included an attack on WWE Hall of Famer Jim Duggan, known for his patriotic gimmick, who was saved by Big E. Big E and Rusev had a match at Payback, but Big E was defeated by Rusev. After the event, they continued to attack each other, setting up a rematch at the pay - per - view.
The pre-show was provided by pre-show panel of Renee Young, Booker T, Christian, and Alex Riley. The English commentators were Michael Cole, Jerry Lawler, and John "Bradshaw '' Layfield while there were also Spanish and German commentators ringside. Lilian Garcia and Justin Roberts were ring announcers.
During the pre-show, Daniel Bryan came out to speak about his health and being stripped of the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The former champion led the Boston fans in an echoing "Yes! '' chant and said that his recovery was going poorly and that he did n't know when he 'd be back. He promised to return better than ever and to win back his title. Bo Dallas entered ring to try to cheer Bryan up. Bryan called Dallas a "Bo - ner '' then mocked his "Bo - lieve '' catchphrase, telling him "Bo - leave '' before leading another round of chants.
The actual pay - per - view opened with The Usos defending the WWE Tag Team Championship against The Wyatt Family 's Luke Harper and Erick Rowan. In the end, Jimmy and Jey executed a double Superplex on Rowan. Jey performed a Samoan Splash on Rowan, which was followed by Jey performing a Samoan Splash on Rowan to retain the title.
Next, Paige defended the WWE Divas Championship against Naomi. The match ended when Paige executed a RamPaige on Naomi to retain the title.
After that, Damien Sandow wrestled Adam Rose. Rose performed a Party Foul on Sandow to win the match.
The next match was the WWE World Heavyweight Championship contract Money in the Bank ladder match involving Kofi Kingston, Jack Swagger, Rob Van Dam, Dolph Ziggler, Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins. During the match, Ambrose pushed a ladder, causing Kingston to fall off the top rope onto Swagger, Ziggler and Van Dam. Van Dam executed a Rolling Thunder Senton on Rollins, who was lay on a ladder wedged in the ring corner. Swagger performed a Powerbomb off a ladder on Van Dam, which was followed by Ambrose performing a Suplex off the ladder on Rollins. Ambrose injured his shoulder, leading to him being taken backstage by medical personnel. Kingston performed a Back Body Drop on Rollins atop a ladder, causing Rollins to fall onto another ladder bridged between the ladder and the ropes. Ziggler executed a Zig Zag onto a ladder on Kingston. Ziggler attempted to retrieve the briefcase but Rollins hit Ziggler with a chair. Rollins attempted to retrieve the briefcase but Ambrose came back out and hit Rollins with the chair. Ambrose attempted to retrieve the briefcase but Kane came down to the ring and executed a Chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver on Ambrose. Rollins retrieved the briefcase to win the match.
Next, Gold and Stardust faced Ryback and Curtis Axel. In the end, Stardust pinned Ryback with a roll - up to win the match.
After that, Rusev wrestled Big E. Rusev forced Big E to submit to The Accolade to win the match.
In the seventh match, Summer Rae faced Layla with Fandango as the special guest referee. Layla performed a Roundhouse Kick on Rae to win the match.
The main event was a Ladder Match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship involving Alberto Del Rio, Bray Wyatt, Cesaro, John Cena, Kane, Randy Orton, Roman Reigns and United States Champion Sheamus. During the match, Cesaro and Sheamus fought atop the ladder but Wyatt pushed the ladder, causing Cesaro and Sheamus to hang onto the championship belts. Orton executed an Elevated DDT off a ladder bridged between the apron and a broadcast table on Sheamus. After everyone fought each other off, Sheamus controlled the match by performing a Diving Shoulder Block on Kane, an Irish Curse Backbreaker on Del Rio, White Noise on Orton and a Brogue Kick on Cena. After Orton and Kane removed the other participants from the ring, Reigns controlled the match by performing a Spear on Kane, Superman Punches on Orton and Sheamus, Running Front Dropkicks on Del Rio, who was draped on the bottom rope, and Wyatt, who was draped on a broadcast table, and a Spear on Cesaro. Reigns fought with Cena, ending by executing a Spear on Cena. After each men executed their finishers on the other participants, Reigns fought with Orton and attempted to retrieve the championship belts but Kane performed a Chokeslam on Reigns. Orton attempted to retrieve the championship belts but Cena executed an Attitude Adjustment on Kane and an Attitude Adjustment on Orton onto Kane. Cena retrieved the championship belts to win the match.
Randy Orton received medical assistance after the event. He received 11 staples to close the gash in his head suffered during the main event of Money in the Bank.
The following night on Raw, The Authority held a mock celebration for the new WWE World Heavyweight Champion John Cena and revealed he would be featured on the cover of the WWE 2K15 video game, but Cena made it clear that he would not allow The Authority to control him. Triple H then scheduled a Fatal four - way match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at Battleground between Cena, Orton, Kane, and Reigns. In a tag team match between those four superstars later in the night, Seth Rollins attempted to cash in his briefcase against an assaulted Cena for his championship, but was stopped by Dean Ambrose, who earlier in the show declared that he 'd be there to stop Rollins from cashing in his briefcase successfully.
Also on Raw, AJ Lee returned and defeated Paige for the Divas Championship.
Bad News Barrett, who had been removed from the Money in the Bank ladder match due to injury, was also stripped of his Intercontinental Championship. A battle royal for the vacant championship, scheduled for Battleground, was won by The Miz.
Brock Lesnar returned on July 21 and proceeded to defeat Cena at SummerSlam to capture the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. At WrestleMania 31 on March 29, 2015, Seth Rollins successfully cashed in his Money In The Bank contract during Lesnar and Royal Rumble winner Roman Reigns ' match, making it into a triple threat match, which Rollins won by pinning Reigns to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. However, Rollins vacated the title on November 4, 2015, after suffering multiple knee injuries at a live event in Dublin, Ireland, ending his reign at 220 days.
The event received generally positive reviews. PWTorch James Caldwell described the Money in the Bank Ladder match as an "excellent MITB ladder match that had a little bit of everything '', focusing in the Ambrose - Rollins feud and gave it 41⁄4 stars out of five. Also, he compared the Money in the Bank match and the WWE World Heavyweight Championship ladder match and said that "not as good as the similar MITB ladder match, as there were too many wrestlers in the match, the middle really dragged, and this felt more disorganized and cluttered than the nicely - structured previous match. '' Caldwell felt it was the "right decision for Cena to win '' to set up his match with Brock Lesnar at SummerSlam in two months. He gave the main event 3 stars out of five.
PWInsider Dave Scherer criticized the decision to crown John Cena as champion. According to him, he "hated the result '' and "it 's the wrong decision and I think the crowd was very representative of how many fans felt tonight as they cheered for a lot of new talent and groaned at a lot of the older talent ''. Also, he liked the opener, the Money in the Bank ladder match and the Rusev vs. Big E match.
Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter gave the Money in the Bank ladder match 41⁄2 stars out of five while the WWE World Heavyweight Championship ladder match was given 4 stars out of five.
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where does north sea end and english channel start | North Sea - wikipedia
The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric (or "shelf '') sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi).
The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery. The sea is a popular destination for recreation and tourism in bordering countries and more recently has developed into a rich source of energy resources including fossil fuels, wind, and early efforts in wave power.
Historically, the North Sea has featured prominently in geopolitical and military affairs, particularly in Northern Europe. It was also important globally through the power northern Europeans projected worldwide during much of the Middle Ages and into the modern era. The North Sea was the centre of the Vikings ' rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets and resources of the world. As Germany 's only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars.
The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features. In the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south the coast consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the dense population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it, there have been a number of environmental issues affecting the sea 's ecosystems. Adverse environmental issues -- commonly including overfishing, industrial and agricultural runoff, dredging, and dumping among others -- have led to a number of efforts to prevent degradation of the sea while still making use of its economic potential.
The North Sea is bounded by the Orkney Islands and east coast of Great Britain to the west and the northern and central European mainland to the east and south, including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, which lies in the very north - eastern part of the Atlantic.
The North Sea is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi) and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres (13,000 cu mi). Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, and the Frisian Islands. The North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea, including water from the Baltic Sea. The largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine -- Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas.
For the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres (300 ft). The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to an area north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) wide and has a maximum depth of 725 metres (2,379 ft).
The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris, rises to a mere 15 to 30 metres (50 -- 100 ft) below the surface. This feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with roughly uniform depth in fathoms, (forty fathoms and fourteen fathoms or 73 and 26 m deep respectively). These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, which has been alleviated by the implementation of satellite navigation systems. The Devil 's Hole lies 200 miles (320 km) east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of asymmetrical trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) long, 1 and 2 kilometres (0.62 and 1.24 mi) wide and up to 230 metres (750 ft) deep.
Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank and Noordhinder Bank.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows:
On the Southwest. A line joining the Walde Lighthouse (France, 1 ° 55'E) and Leathercoat Point (England, 51 ° 10'N).
On the Northwest. From Dunnet Head (3 ° 22'W) in Scotland to Tor Ness (58 ° 47'N) in the Island of Hoy, thence through this island to the Kame of Hoy (58 ° 55'N) on to Breck Ness on Mainland (58 ° 58'N) through this island to Costa Head (3 ° 14'W) and to Inga Ness (59'17'N) in Westray through Westray, to Bow Head, across to Mull Head (North point of Papa Westray) and on to Seal Skerry (North point of North Ronaldsay) and thence to Horse Island (South point of the Shetland Islands).
On the North. From the North point (Fethaland Point) of the Mainland of the Shetland Islands, across to Graveland Ness (60 ° 39'N) in the Island of Yell, through Yell to Gloup Ness (1 ° 04'W) and across to Spoo Ness (60 ° 45'N) in Unst island, through Unst to Herma Ness (60 ° 51'N), on to the SW point of the Rumblings and to Muckle Flugga (60 ° 51 ′ N 0 ° 53 ′ W / 60.850 ° N 0.883 ° W / 60.850; - 0.883) all these being included in the North Sea area; thence up the meridian of 0 ° 53 ' West to the parallel of 61 ° 00 ' North and eastward along this parallel to the coast of Norway, the whole of Viking Bank being thus included in the North Sea.
The average temperature in summer is 17 ° C (63 ° F) and 6 ° C (43 ° F) in the winter. The average temperatures have been trending higher since 1988, which has been attributed to climate change. Air temperatures in January range on average between 0 to 4 ° C (32 to 39 ° F) and in July between 13 to 18 ° C (55 to 64 ° F). The winter months see frequent gales and storms.
The salinity averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt per litre of water. The salinity has the highest variability where there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.
The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea is an anti-clockwise rotation along the edges.
The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receiving the majority of ocean current from the northwest opening, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smaller opening at the English Channel. These tidal currents leave along the Norwegian coast. Surface and deep water currents may move in different directions. Low salinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper, denser high salinity waters move in shore.
The North Sea located on the continental shelf has different waves from those in deep ocean water. The wave speeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are increased. In the North Sea there are two amphidromic systems and a third incomplete amphidromic system. In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave amplitude is between 0 to 8 metres (0 to 26 ft).
The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic ocean is a semidiurnal wave that travels northward. Some of the energy from this wave travels through the English Channel into the North Sea. The wave still travels northward in the Atlantic Ocean, and once past the northern tip of Great Britain, the Kelvin wave turns east and south and once again enters into the North Sea.
The eastern and western coasts of the North Sea are jagged, formed by glaciers during the ice ages. The coastlines along the southernmost part are covered with the remains of deposited glacial sediment. The Norwegian mountains plunge into the sea creating deep fjords and archipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, the islands become fewer. The eastern Scottish coast is similar, though less severe than Norway. From north east of England, the cliffs become lower and are composed of less resistant moraine, which erodes more easily, so that the coasts have more rounded contours. In the Netherlands, Belgium and in East Anglia the littoral is low and marshy. The east coast and south - east of the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are mainly sandy and straight owing to longshore drift, particularly along Belgium and Denmark.
The southern coastal areas were originally amphibious flood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulnerable to storm surges, people settled behind elevated levees and on natural areas of high ground such as spits and geestland. As early as 500 BC, people were constructing artificial dwelling hills higher than the prevailing flood levels. It was only around the beginning of the High Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that inhabitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dike line along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibious regions between the land and the sea into permanent solid ground.
The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflow and lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17th and 18th centuries, built in the Netherlands. The North Sea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were impetus for further raising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coast line so as to present as little surface area as possible to the punishment of the sea and the storms. Currently, 27 % of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes, dunes, and beach flats.
Coastal management today consists of several levels. The dike slope reduces the energy of the incoming sea, so that the dike itself does not receive the full impact. Dikes that lie directly on the sea are especially reinforced. The dikes have, over the years, been repeatedly raised, sometimes up to 9 metres (30 ft) and have been made flatter to better reduce wave erosion. Where the dunes are sufficient to protect the land behind them from the sea, these dunes are planted with beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) to protect them from erosion by wind, water, and foot traffic.
Storm surges threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and low lying areas of eastern England particularly around The Wash and Fens. Storm surges are caused by changes in barometric pressure combined with strong wind created wave action.
The first recorded storm tide flood was the Julianenflut, on 17 February 1164. In its wake the Jadebusen, (a bay on the coast of Germany), began to form. A storm tide in 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000 people. In 1362, the Second Marcellus Flood, also known as the Grote Manndrenke, hit the entire southern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time again record more than 100,000 deaths as large parts of the coast were lost permanently to the sea, including the now legendary lost city of Rungholt. In the 20th century, the North Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations ' coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives. 315 citizens of Hamburg died in the North Sea flood of 1962.
Though rare, the North Sea has been the site of a number of historically documented tsunamis. The Storegga Slides were a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece of the Norwegian continental shelf slid into the Norwegian Sea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BCE and 6000 BCE, and caused a tsunami up to 20 metres (66 ft) high that swept through the North Sea, having the greatest effect on Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. The Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the first recorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring between 5.6 and 5.9 on the Richter scale. This event caused extensive damage in Calais both through its tremors and possibly triggered a tsunami, though this has never been confirmed. The theory is a vast underwater landslide in the English Channel was triggered by the earthquake, which in turn caused a tsunami. The tsunami triggered by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake reached Holland, although the waves had lost their destructive power. The largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom was the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter magnitude scale and caused a small tsunami that flooded parts of the British coast.
Shallow epicontinental seas like the current North Sea have since long existed on the European continental shelf. The rifting that formed the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, from about 150 million years ago, caused tectonic uplift in the British Isles. Since then, a shallow sea has almost continuously existed between the uplands of the Fennoscandian Shield and the British Isles. This precursor of the current North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fall of the eustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimes it was connected with other shallow seas, such as the sea above the Paris Basin to the south - west, the Paratethys Sea to the south - east, or the Tethys Ocean to the south.
During the Late Cretaceous, about 85 million years ago, all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinavia was a scattering of islands. By the Early Oligocene, 34 to 28 million years ago, the emergence of Western and Central Europe had almost completely separated the North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which gradually shrank to become the Mediterranean as Southern Europe and South West Asia became dry land. The North Sea was cut off from the English Channel by a narrow land bridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophic floods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago. Since the start of the Quaternary period about 2.6 million years ago, the eustatic sea level has fallen during each glacial period and then risen again. Every time the ice sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea became almost completely dry. The present - day coastline formed after the Last Glacial Maximum when the sea began to flood the European continental shelf.
In 2006 a bone fragment was found while drilling for oil in the north sea. Analysis indicated that it was a Plateosaurus from 199 to 216 million years ago. This was the deepest dinosaur fossil ever found and the first find for Norway.
Copepods and other zooplankton are plentiful in the North Sea. These tiny organisms are crucial elements of the food chain supporting many species of fish. Over 230 species of fish live in the North Sea. Cod, haddock, whiting, saithe, plaice, sole, mackerel, herring, pouting, sprat, and sandeel are all very common and are fished commercially. Due to the various depths of the North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, temperature, and water movement, some fish such as blue - mouth redfish and rabbitfish reside only in small areas of the North Sea.
Crustaceans are also commonly found throughout the sea. Norway lobster, deep - water prawns, and brown shrimp are all commercially fished, but other species of lobster, shrimp, oyster, mussels and clams all live in the North Sea. Recently non-indigenous species have become established including the Pacific oyster and Atlantic jackknife clam.
The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh Nature Preserve, and Farne Islands in the UK and the Wadden Sea National Parks in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. These locations provide breeding habitat for dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds make use of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratory stopovers every year. Populations of black legged kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, northern fulmars, and species of petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants, gulls, auks, and terns, and many other seabirds make these coasts popular for birdwatching.
The North Sea is also home to marine mammals. Common seals, and harbour porpoises can be found along the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands. The very northern North Sea islands such as the Shetland Islands are occasionally home to a larger variety of pinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seals, and even walrus. North Sea cetaceans include various porpoise, dolphin and whale species.
Plant species in the North Sea include species of wrack, among them bladder wrack, knotted wrack, and serrated wrack. Algae, macroalgal, and kelp, such as oarweed and laminaria hyperboria, and species of maerl are found as well. Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of the Wadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th century by a disease. Similarly, sea grass used to coat huge tracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawling and dredging have diminished its habitat and prevented its return. Invasive Japanese seaweed has spread along the shores of the sea clogging harbours and inlets and has become a nuisance.
Due to the heavy human populations and high level of industrialization along its shores, the wildlife of the North Sea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and overfishing. Flamingos and pelicans were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but became extinct over the 2nd millennium. Walruses frequented the Orkney Islands through the mid-16th century, as both Sable Island and Orkney Islands lay within its normal range. Gray whales also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 17th century Other species have dramatically declined in population, though they are still found. North Atlantic right whales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates, salmon, and other species were common in the North Sea until the 20th century, when numbers declined due to overfishing. Other factors like the introduction of non-indigenous species, industrial and agricultural pollution, trawling and dredging, human - induced eutrophication, construction on coastal breeding and feeding grounds, sand and gravel extraction, offshore construction, and heavy shipping traffic have also contributed to the decline.
The OSPAR commission manages the OSPAR convention to counteract the harmful effects of human activity on wildlife in the North Sea, preserve endangered species, and provide environmental protection. All North Sea border states are signatories of the MARPOL 73 / 78 Accords, which preserve the marine environment by preventing pollution from ships. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement for the protection of the Wadden Sea, or mudflats, which run along the coasts of the three countries on the southern edge of the North Sea.
Whaling was an important economic activity from the 9th until the 13th century for Flemish whalers. The medieval Flemish, Basque and Norwegian whalers who were replaced in the 16th century by Dutch, English, Danes and Germans, took massive numbers of whales and dolphins and nearly depleted the right whales. This activity likely led to the extinction of the Atlantic population of the once common gray whale. By 1902 the whaling had ended. After being absent for 300 years a single gray whale returned, it probably was the first of many more to find its way through the now ice - free Northwest Passage. Once 16 - metre (50 ft) "fish '' were taken in large quantities at the mouth of the River Seine. Perhaps the gray whale will someday return to its former Seine estuary breeding grounds and to the feeding grounds of the Wadden Sea where it will again roil the sediments and release its benthic nutrients that will benefit the ecosystem.
Through history various names have been used for the North Sea. One of the earliest recorded names was Septentrionalis Oceanus, or "Northern Ocean, '' which was cited by Pliny. The name "North Sea '' probably came into English, however, via the Dutch "Noordzee '', who named it thus either in contrast with the Zuiderzee ("South Sea ''), located south of Frisia, or because the sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Before the adoption of "North Sea, '' the names used in English were "German Sea '' or "German Ocean '', referred to the Latin names "Mare Gemanicum '' and "Oceanus Germanicus '', and these persisted in use until the First World War.
Other common names in use for long periods were the Latin terms "Mare Frisicum '', as well as their English equivalents, "Frisian Sea ''.
The modern names of the sea in local languages are: Danish: Nordsøen, Dutch: Noordzee, Dutch Low Saxon: Noordzee, French: Mer du Nord, West Frisian: Noardsee, German: Nordsee, Low German: Noordsee, Northern Frisian: Weestsiie (literally meaning "West Sea ''), Norwegian: Nordsjøen, Nynorsk: Nordsjøen, Scots: German Ocean, Swedish: Nordsjön, Scottish Gaelic: An Cuan a Tuath, West Flemish: Nôordzêe and Zeeuws: Noôrdzeê.
The North Sea has provided waterway access for commerce and conquest. Many areas have access to the North Sea because of its long coastline and the European rivers that empty into it. The British Isles had been protected from invasion by the North Sea waters until the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 CE. The Romans established organised ports, which increased shipping, and began sustained trade. When the Romans abandoned Britain in 410, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea during the Migration Period. They made successive invasions of the island.
The Viking Age began in 793 with the attack on Lindisfarne; for the next quarter - millennium the Vikings ruled the North Sea. In their superior longships, they raided, traded, and established colonies and outposts along the coasts of the sea. From the Middle Ages through the 15th century, the northern European coastal ports exported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods and wine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain, fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn the North Sea countries imported high - grade cloths, spices, and fruits from the Mediterranean region. Commerce during this era was mainly conducted by maritime trade due to underdeveloped roadways.
In the 13th century the Hanseatic League, though centred on the Baltic Sea, started to control most of the trade through important members and outposts on the North Sea. The League lost its dominance in the 16th century, as neighbouring states took control of former Hanseatic cities and outposts. Their internal conflict prevented effective cooperation and defence. As the League lost control of its maritime cities, new trade routes emerged that provided Europe with Asian, American, and African goods.
The 17th century Dutch Golden Age during which Dutch herring, cod and whale fisheries reached an all time high saw Dutch power at its zenith. Important overseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, powerful navy and large profits made the Dutch the main challengers to an ambitious England. This rivalry led to the first three Anglo - Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1673, which ended with Dutch victories. After the Glorious Revolution the Dutch prince William ascended to the English throne. With both countries united, commercial, military, and political power shifted from Amsterdam to London. The British did not face a challenge to their dominance of the North Sea until the 20th century.
Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904 by the Dogger Bank incident. During the Russo - Japanese War, several ships of the Russian Baltic Fleet, which was on its way to the Far East, mistook British fishing boats for Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon each other, near the Dogger Bank, nearly causing Britain to enter the war on the side of Japan.
During the First World War, Great Britain 's Grand Fleet and Germany 's Kaiserliche Marine faced each other in the North Sea, which became the main theatre of the war for surface action. Britain 's larger fleet and North Sea Mine Barrage were able to establish an effective blockade for most of the war, which restricted the Central Powers ' access to many crucial resources. Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight, the Battle of the Dogger Bank, and the Battle of Jutland. World War I also brought the first extensive use of submarine warfare, and a number of submarine actions occurred in the North Sea.
The Second World War also saw action in the North Sea, though it was restricted more to aircraft reconnaissance, and action by fighter / bomber aircraft, submarines, and smaller vessels such as minesweepers and torpedo boats.
In the aftermath of the war, hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical weapons were disposed of by being dumped in the North Sea.
After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by NATO member - states. However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states around the North Sea began full - scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources. The North Sea continues to be an active trade route.
Countries that border the North Sea all claim the 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) of territorial waters, within which they have exclusive fishing rights. The Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU) exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with disputes between EU states and the EU border state of Norway.
After the discovery of mineral resources in the North Sea, the Convention on the Continental Shelf established country rights largely divided along the median line. The median line is defined as the line "every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. '' The ocean floor border between Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reapportioned after protracted negotiations and a judgement of the International Court of Justice.
As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areas around the North Sea and natural gas as early as 1910.
Test drilling began in 1966 and then, in 1969, Phillips Petroleum Company discovered the Ekofisk oil field distinguished by valuable, low - sulphur oil. Commercial exploitation began in 1971 with tankers and, after 1975, by a pipeline, first to Teesside, England and then, after 1977, also to Emden, Germany.
The exploitation of the North Sea oil reserves began just before the 1973 oil crisis, and the climb of international oil prices made the large investments needed for extraction much more attractive.
Although the production costs are relatively high, the quality of the oil, the political stability of the region, and the proximity of important markets in western Europe has made the North Sea an important oil producing region. The largest single humanitarian catastrophe in the North Sea oil industry was the destruction of the offshore oil platform Piper Alpha in 1988 in which 167 people lost their lives.
Besides the Ekofisk oil field, the Statfjord oil field is also notable as it was the cause of the first pipeline to span the Norwegian trench. The largest natural gas field in the North Sea, Troll gas field, lies in the Norwegian trench dropping over 300 metres (980 ft) requiring the construction of the enormous Troll A platform to access it.
The price of Brent Crude, one of the first types of oil extracted from the North Sea, is used today as a standard price for comparison for crude oil from the rest of the world. The North Sea contains western Europe 's largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one of the world 's key non-OPEC producing regions.
In the UK sector of the North Sea, the oil industry invested £ 14.4 billion in 2013, and was on track to spend £ 13 billion in 2014. Industry body Oil & Gas UK put the decline down to rising costs, lower production, high tax rates, and less exploration.
The North Sea is Europe 's main fishery accounting for over 5 % of international commercial fish caught. Fishing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern part of the coastal waters. The main method of fishing is trawling. In 1995, the total volume of fish and shellfish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 million tonnes. Besides fish, it is estimated that one million tonnes of unmarketable by - catch is caught and discarded each year.
In recent decades, overfishing has left many fisheries unproductive, disturbing marine food chain dynamics and costing jobs in the fishing industry. Herring, cod and plaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerel fishing, which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing. The objective of the European Union Common Fisheries Policy is to minimize the environmental impact associated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increasing productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fisheries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonable prices for the consumer.
In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along the North Sea also take millions of cubic metres per year of sand and gravel from the ocean floor. These are used for beach nourishment, land reclamation and construction. Rolled pieces of amber may be picked up on the east coast of England.
Due to the strong prevailing winds, and shallow water, countries on the North Sea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used the shore for wind power since the 1990s. The North Sea is the home of one of the first large - scale offshore wind farms in the world, Horns Rev 1, completed in 2002. Since then many other wind farms have been commissioned in the North Sea (and elsewhere). As of 2013 the 630 megawatt (MW) London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 (MW) Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK. These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank (7,200 MW), and Irish Sea (4,200 MW). At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013.
The expansion of offshore wind farms has met with some resistance. Concerns have included shipping collisions and environmental effects on ocean ecology and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds, however, these concerns were found to be negligible in a long - term study in Denmark released in 2006 and again in a UK government study in 2009. There are also concerns about reliability, and the rising costs of constructing and maintaining offshore wind farms. Despite these, development of North Sea wind power is continuing, with plans for additional wind farms off the coasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK. There have also been proposals for a transnational power grid in the North Sea to connect new offshore wind farms.
Energy production from tidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. The European Marine Energy Centre has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland and a tidal power testing station on the nearby island of Eday. Since 2003, a prototype Wave Dragon energy converter has been in operation at Nissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark.
The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are destinations for tourists. The Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish coasts are developed for tourism. The North Sea coast of the United Kingdom has tourist destinations with beach resorts and golf courses. Fife in Scotland is famous for its links golf courses. The coastal City of St. Andrews being renowned as the "Home of Golf ''. The coast of North East England has several tourist towns such as Scarborough, Bridlington, Seahouses, Whitby, Robin Hood 's Bay and Seaton Carew. The coast of North East England has long sandy beaches and links golfing locations such as Seaton Carew Golf Club and Goswick Golf Club. The North Sea Trail is a long - distance trail linking seven countries around the North Sea. Windsurfing and sailing are popular sports because of the strong winds. Mudflat hiking, recreational fishing and birdwatching are among other activities.
The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast have been claimed to be healthful. As early as the 19th century, travellers used their stays on the North Sea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body 's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system.
The North Sea is important for marine transport and its shipping lanes are among the busiest in the world. Major ports are located along its coasts: Rotterdam, the busiest port in Europe and the fourth busiest port in the world by tonnage as of 2013, Antwerp (was 16th) and Hamburg (was 27th), Bremen / Bremerhaven and Felixstowe, both in the top 30 busiest container seaports, as well as the Port of Bruges - Zeebrugge, Europe 's leading ro - ro port.
Fishing boats, service boats for offshore industries, sport and pleasure craft, and merchant ships to and from North Sea ports and Baltic ports must share routes on the North Sea. The Dover Strait alone sees more than 400 commercial vessels a day. Because of this volume, navigation in the North Sea can be difficult in high traffic zones, so ports have established elaborate vessel traffic services to monitor and direct ships into and out of port.
The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals and canal systems to facilitate traffic between and among rivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world reporting an average of 89 ships per day not including sporting boats and other small watercraft in 2009. It saves an average of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), instead of the voyage around the Jutland peninsula. The North Sea Canal connects Amsterdam with the North Sea.
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how to write bible verses in roman numerals | Bible citation - wikipedia
A citation from the Bible is usually referenced with the book name, chapter number and verse number. Sometimes, the name of the Bible translation is also included. There are several formats for doing so.
For example, The Book of Genesis, chapter 3, verse 5, of The Living Bible (TLB) could be cited as:
Genesis 3: 5, TLB
A common format for biblical citations is Book chapter: verses, using a colon to delimit chapter from verse, as in:
Or, stated more formally,
The range delimiter is an en - dash, and there are no spaces on either side of it.
This format is the one accepted by the Chicago Manual of Style and is also the format used by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints to cite scriptural standard works. The MLA style is similar, but replaces the colon with a period.
Citations in the APA style add the translation / version of the Bible after the verse. For example, (John 3: 16, New International Version). Translation / version names should not be abbreviated (e.g., write out King James Version instead of using KJV). Subsequent citations do not require the translation / version unless that changes. In APA style, the Bible is not listed in the references at the end of the document.
When citations are used in run - in quotations, they should not, according to The Christian Writer 's Manual of Style, contain the punctuation either from the quotation itself (such as a terminating exclamation mark or question mark) or from the surrounding prose. The full - stop at the end of the surrounding sentence belongs outside of the parentheses that surround the citation. For example:
The Christian Writer 's Manual of Style also states that a citation that follows a block quotation of text may either be in parentheses flush against the text, or right - aligned following an em - dash on a new line. For example:
-- John 16: 33 NASB
The names of the books of the Bible can be abbreviated. Most Bibles give preferred abbreviation guides in their tables of contents, or at the front of the book. Abbreviations may be used when the citation is a reference that follows a block quotation of text.
Abbreviations should not be used, according to The Christian Writer 's Manual of Style, when the citation is in running text. Instead, the full name should be spelled out. Hudson observes, however, that for scholarly or reference works that contain a large number of citations in running text, abbreviations may be used simply to reduce the length of the prose, and that a similar exception can be made for cases where a large number of citations are used in parentheses.
There are two commonly accepted styles for abbreviating the book names, one used in general books and one used in scholarly works.
Electronic editions of Bibles use internal abbreviations. Some of these abbreviation schemes are standardized. These include OSIS and ParaTExt USFM.
Roman numerals are often used for the numbered books of the Bible. For example, Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians may be written as "I Corinthians '', using the Roman numeral "I '' rather than the Arabic numeral "1 ''. The Christian Writer 's Manual of Style, however, recommends using Arabic numerals for numbered books, as in "2 Corinthians '' rather than "II Corinthians ''.
The Student Supplement to the SBL Handbook of Style published by the Society of Biblical Literature states that for modern editions of the Bible, publishers information is not required in a citation. One should simply use the standard abbreviation of the version of the Bible (e.g. "KJV '' for King James Version, "RSV '' for Revised Standard Version, "NIV '' for New International Version, and so forth).
The Student Supplement to the SBL Handbook of Style recommends that multiple citations be given in the form of a list separated by a semi-colon, without a conjunction before the final item in the list. When multiple consecutive citations reference the same book, the name of the book is omitted from the second and subsequent citations. For example:
Some Bibles, particularly study bibles, contain additional text that is not the biblical text. This includes footnotes, annotations, and special articles. The Student Supplement to the SBL Handbook of Style recommends that such text be cited in the form of a normal book citation, not as a Bible citation. For example:
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where is the forge in forged in fire | Forged in Fire (TV series) - wikipedia
Forged in Fire is an American competition series that airs on the History channel, and is produced by Outpost Entertainment, a Leftfield Entertainment company. In each episode, four bladesmiths compete in a three - round elimination contest to forge bladed weapons, with the overall winner receiving $10,000 and the day 's championship title. The series is hosted by Wil Willis, with a three - judge panel consisting of J. Neilson (Jason Knight during portions of season 3 and 4), David Baker, and Doug Marcaida, experts in weapon history and use. History ordered an initial eight episodes of the series. with the first program premiering on Monday, June 22, 2015, at 10pm ET. Season two premiered on February 16, 2016. The third series premiered with a "champion of champions '' match on August 23, 2016, and was announced as having 16 episodes. The fourth season premiered on April 11, 2017, with a "Judges ' Pick '' episode in which the four judges (Neilson, Knight, Baker, Marcaida) each selected one smith from past seasons to compete again.
The series is filmed in Brooklyn, New York. The set, referred to as "The Forge, '' is stocked with a wide range of metalworking equipment, including propane forges, coal forges, grinders, power hammers and hydraulic presses. At the end of each round, the smith whose weapon is judged to be the least satisfactory must surrender it and leave the competition. Medical personnel are present to treat any injuries or other health problems and may, at their discretion, disqualify smiths who are unable to continue safely.
In the first round, the four smiths are presented with a starting material that they must use to forge a blade. In some episodes, they all begin with the same material; in others, they may choose from an assortment of metal objects or must salvage their material from a source such as a junked car or lawnmower. Willis states one set of criteria concerning blade or blade / tang length, and often a second set for a feature that must be incorporated, such as serrations or a fuller groove; not all competitions require a special feature. The smiths are typically given 10 minutes to sketch out their designs, but this time is occasionally extended or omitted altogether. Following the design period, they are given a set length of time to forge their blades. The forging time is three hours in most episodes, but may be extended to four hours if the extra feature poses a sufficient challenge, such as being required to forge a billet with modern damascus steel methods and use it for the blade. Once time expires, the judges evaluate the blades based on Willis ' criteria and inspect their workmanship, quality, and design.
For the second round, the three remaining smiths are given an additional three hours to turn their blades into fully operational weapons. They must attach a handle (choosing from a range of provided materials) and grind, sharpen, and polish the blades. They may also address any flaws or issues pointed out by the judges in the first round, if they choose to do so. After the time expires, the judges put each weapon through a series of tests to gauge properties such as sharpness, durability, and ease of use. For these tests, the weapons are used to chop / slash / slice / stab various objects that include ice blocks, animal carcasses, sandbags, and car doors. If a weapon suffers catastrophic failure, defined as damage that renders it unsafe or ineffective for further testing, its maker is immediately disqualified. The judges may, at their discretion, choose not to subject a weapon to a particular test if it is sufficiently cracked or flawed.
In the third round, the two remaining smiths are shown a historically significant weapon and are given five days to create a version of it. They return to their home forges to do the work and comply with any specifications set by Willis. Afterwards, they return to the Forge and submit their weapons for testing against objects and environments similar to the historical scenarios in which they were typically used. Based on the test results, the judges select one smith to receive the $10,000 prize.
The "Master & Apprentice '' episode in Season 4 featured four master / apprentice pairs of smiths. Only one member of each pair was allowed to work at any time, trading off every 30 minutes in the first two rounds, and every day in the third. The non-working member was allowed to offer advice. For this episode, the forging time in the first round was extended to three and a half hours.
Willis is a former Army Ranger and decorated Air Force para-rescue specialist. Willis ' previous television experience includes Special Ops Mission and Triggers, two series that aired on the former Military Channel.
J. Neilson, a knife and sword expert, holds the rank of Master Smith within the American Bladesmith Society. He has over 20 years ' experience in making knives and edged weapons. He examines the weapons ' technical qualities and tests their durability. In Season 3, Neilson took a leave of absence in order to have surgery on his hand; Jason Knight, another ABS Master Smith, filled his seat on the judges ' panel during that time. Neilson appeared alongside Knight for the Season 4 premiere, then permanently resumed his seat in the eighth episode.
David Baker, a Hollywood prop maker who has appeared on the Spike series Deadliest Warrior, is an authority on weapons history and an expert on replicating period - accurate weapons for both museums and films. He judges the weapons ' historical accuracy and aesthetic beauty.
Doug Marcaida, an edged - weapons specialist, is a U.S. military contractor, martial arts instructor and knife designer for FOX Knives Italy. Specializing in the Southeast Asian fighting style of Kali, he has taught classes in weapon awareness and use for military, law enforcement, and security organizations. Marcaida evaluates the smiths ' weapons to determine their effectiveness in combat. He often uses the phrases "It will cut '' and "It will kill '' ("It will keel '') when a blade he is testing proves to be sufficiently sharp or lethal, respectively.
Tim Healy and Steve Ascher are executive producers for History. Jodi Flynn, Brent Montgomery, David George, Shawn Witt and Simon Thomas are executive producers for Outpost Entertainment. Healy observed the demonstration, and later the filming, from the sidelines. Healy says that the inspiration for Forged in Fire came from his and other developers ' love of food competition shows such as Chopped and Iron Chef. However, in order to appeal to the History channel 's audience, they decided to have the competition focus on historical weaponry.
there will be 20 total episodes this season * *
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when did spirit and opportunity land on mars | Spirit (rover) - wikipedia
The launch patch for Spirit, featuring Marvin the Martian
Spirit, also known as MER - A (Mars Exploration Rover -- A) or MER - 2, is a robotic rover on Mars, active from 2004 to 2010. It was one of two rovers of NASA 's ongoing Mars Exploration Rover Mission. It landed successfully on Mars at 04: 35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004, three weeks before its twin, Opportunity (MER - B), landed on the other side of the planet. Its name was chosen through a NASA - sponsored student essay competition. The rover became stuck in late 2009, and its last communication with Earth was sent on March 22, 2010.
The rover completed its planned 90 - sol mission. Aided by cleaning events that resulted in more energy from its solar panels, Spirit went on to function effectively over twenty times longer than NASA planners expected. Spirit also logged 7.73 km (4.8 mi) of driving instead of the planned 600 m (0.4 mi), allowing more extensive geological analysis of Martian rocks and planetary surface features. Initial scientific results from the first phase of the mission (the 90 - sol prime mission) were published in a special issue of the journal Science.
On May 1, 2009 (5 years, 3 months, 27 Earth days after landing; 21.6 times the planned mission duration), Spirit became stuck in soft soil. This was not the first of the mission 's "embedding events '' and for the following eight months NASA carefully analyzed the situation, running Earth - based theoretical and practical simulations, and finally programming the rover to make extrication drives in an attempt to free itself. These efforts continued until January 26, 2010 when NASA officials announced that the rover was likely irrecoverably obstructed by its location in soft soil, though it continued to perform scientific research from its current location.
The rover continued in a stationary science platform role until communication with Spirit stopped on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24, 2011, when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended, calling the mission complete. A formal farewell took place at NASA headquarters after the 2011 Memorial Day holiday and was televised on NASA TV.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA 's Office of Space Science, Washington.
The scientific objectives of the Mars Exploration Rover mission were to:
NASA sought evidence of life on Mars, beginning with the question of whether the Martian environment was ever suitable for life. Life forms known to science require water, so the history of water on Mars is a critical piece of knowledge. Although the Mars Exploration Rovers did not have the ability to detect life directly, they offered very important information on the habitability of the environment during the planet 's history.
Spirit (and its twin, Opportunity) are six - wheeled, solar - powered robots standing 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) high, 2.3 meters (7.5 ft) wide and 1.6 meters (5.2 ft) long and weighing 180 kilograms (400 lb). Six wheels on a rocker - bogie system enable mobility over rough terrain. Each wheel has its own motor. The vehicle is steered at front and rear and is designed to operate safely at tilts of up to 30 degrees. Maximum speed is 5 centimetres per second (2.0 in / s); 0.18 kilometers per hour (0.11 mph), although average speed is about 1 centimetre per second (0.39 in / s). Both Spirit and Opportunity have pieces of the fallen World Trade Center 's metal on them that were "turned into shields to protect cables on the drilling mechanisms ''.
Solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to four hours per Martian day (sol) while rechargeable lithium ion batteries store energy for use at night. Spirit 's onboard computer uses a 20 MHz RAD6000 CPU with 128 MB of DRAM, 3 MB of EEPROM, and 256 MB of flash memory. The rover 's operating temperature ranges from − 40 to + 40 ° C (− 40 to 104 ° F) and radioisotope heater units provide a base level of heating, assisted by electrical heaters when necessary. A gold film and a layer of silica aerogel provide insulation.
Communications depends on an omnidirectional low - gain antenna communicating at a low data rate and a steerable high - gain antenna, both in direct contact with Earth. A low gain antenna is also used to relay data to spacecraft orbiting Mars.
Fixed science instruments include
The rover arm holds the following instruments
The cameras produce 1024 - pixel by 1024 - pixel images, the data is compressed, stored, and transmitted later.
The primary surface mission for Spirit was planned to last at least 90 sols. The mission received several extensions and lasted about 2,208 sols. On August 11, 2007, Spirit obtained the second longest operational duration on the surface of Mars for a lander or rover at 1282 Sols, one sol longer than the Viking 2 lander. Viking 2 was powered by a nuclear cell whereas Spirit is powered by solar arrays. Until Opportunity overtook it on May 19, 2010, the Mars probe with longest operational period was Viking 1 that lasted for 2245 Sols on the surface of Mars. On March 22, 2010, Spirit sent its last communication, thus falling just over a month short of surpassing Viking 1 's operational record. An archive of weekly updates on the rover 's status can be found at the Spirit Update Archive.
Spirit 's total odometry as of March 22, 2010 (sol 2210) is 7,730.50 meters (4.80 mi).
The Spirit Mars rover and lander arrived successfully on the surface of Mars on 04: 35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004. This was the start of its 90 - sol mission, but solar cell cleaning events would mean it was the start of a much longer mission, lasting until 2010.
Spirit was targeted to a site that appears to have been affected by liquid water in the past, the crater Gusev, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the center of the target ellipse at 14 ° 34 ′ 18 '' S 175 ° 28 ′ 43 '' E / 14.5718 ° S 175.4785 ° E / - 14.5718; 175.4785.
After the airbag - protected landing craft settled onto the surface, the rover rolled out to take panoramic images. These give scientists the information they need to select promising geological targets and drive to those locations to perform on - site scientific investigations. The panoramic image below shows a slightly rolling surface, littered with small rocks, with hills on the horizon up to 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) away. The MER team named the landing site "Columbia Memorial Station, '' in honor of the seven astronauts killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
"Sleepy Hollow, '' a shallow depression in the Mars ground at the right side of the above picture, was targeted as an early destination when the rover drove off its lander platform. NASA scientists were very interested in this crater. It is 9 meters (30 ft) across and about 12 meters (39 ft) north of the lander.
To the right is the first color image derived from images taken by the panoramic camera on the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. It was the highest resolution image taken on the surface of another planet. According to the camera designer Jim Bell of Cornell University, the panoramic mosaic consists of four pancam images high by three wide. The picture shown originally had a full size of 4,000 by 3,000 pixels. However, a complete pancam panorama is even 8 times larger than that, and could be taken in stereo (i.e., two complete pictures, making the resolution twice as large again.) The colors are fairly accurate. (For a technical explanation, see colors outside the range of the human eye.)
The MER pancams are black - and - white instruments. Thirteen rotating filter wheels produce multiple images of the same scene at different wavelengths. Once received on Earth, these images can be combined to produce color images.
On January 21, 2004 (sol 17), Spirit abruptly ceased communicating with mission control. The next day the rover radioed a 7.8 bit / s beep, confirming that it had received a transmission from Earth but indicating that the craft believed it was in a fault mode. Commands would only be responded to intermittently. This was described as a very serious anomaly, but potentially recoverable if it were a software or memory corruption issue rather than a serious hardware failure. Spirit was commanded to transmit engineering data, and on January 23 sent several short low - bitrate messages before finally transmitting 73 megabits via X band to Mars Odyssey. The readings from the engineering data suggested that the rover was not staying in sleep mode. As such, it was wasting its battery energy and overheating -- risk factors that could potentially destroy the rover if not fixed soon. On sol 20, the command team sent it the command SHUTDWN_DMT_TIL ("Shutdown Dammit Until '') to try to cause it to suspend itself until a given time. It seemingly ignored the command.
The leading theory at the time was that the rover was stuck in a "reboot loop ''. The rover was programmed to reboot if there was a fault aboard. However, if there was a fault that occurred during reboot, it would continue to reboot forever. The fact that the problem persisted through reboot suggested that the error was not in RAM, but in either the flash memory, the EEPROM, or a hardware fault. The last case would likely doom the rover. Anticipating the potential for errors in the flash memory and EEPROM, the designers had made it so that the rover could be booted without ever touching the flash memory. The radio itself could decode a limited command set -- enough to tell the rover to reboot without using flash. Without access to flash memory the reboot cycle was broken.
On sol 19 (January 24, 2004) the rover repair team announced that the problem was with Spirit 's flash memory and the software that wrote to it. The flash hardware was believed to be working correctly but the file management module in the software was "not robust enough '' for the operations the Spirit was engaged in when the problem occurred, indicating that the problem was caused by a software bug as opposed to faulty hardware. NASA engineers finally came to the conclusion that there were too many files on the file system, which was a relatively minor problem. Most of these files contained unneeded in - flight data. After realizing what the problem was, the engineers deleted some files, and eventually reformatted the entire flash memory system. On February 6 (sol 33), the rover was restored to its original working condition, and science activities resumed.
The round, shallow depression in this image resulted from the first intentional grinding of a rock on Mars. The Rock Abrasion Tool (aka "RAT '') on NASA 's Spirit rover ground off the surface of a patch 45.5 millimeters (1.79 in) in diameter on a rock called Adirondack during sol 32 (February 6, 2004). The hole is 2.65 millimeters (0.104 in) deep, exposing fresh interior material of the rock for close inspection with the rover 's microscopic imager and two spectrometers on the robotic arm. This image was taken by Spirit 's panoramic camera, providing a quick visual check of the success of the grinding.
"The RAT performed beyond our expectations, '' beamed Steve Gorevan, of Honeybee Robotics, New York, lead scientist for the rock abrasion tools on both rovers. "With the docile cutting parameters we set, I did n't think that it would cut this deep. In fact, when we saw virtually a complete circle, I was thrilled beyond anything I could have ever dreamed. Following up that glorious circular brushing -- it 's like back - to - back homers. ''
This color image taken by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit 's panoramic camera on sol 39 (February 13, 2004) is centered on an unusually flaky rock called Mimi. Mimi is only one of many features in the area known as "Stone Council '', but looks very different from any rock that scientists have seen at the Gusev crater site so far. Mimi 's flaky appearance leads scientists to a number of hypotheses. Mimi could have been subjected to pressure either through burial or impact, or may have once been a dune that was cemented into flaky layers, a process that sometimes involves the action of water.
On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed "Humphrey ''. Raymond Arvidson, the McDonnell University Professor and chair of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis, reported during a NASA press conference: "If we found this rock on Earth, we would say it is a volcanic rock that had a little fluid moving through it. '' In contrast to the rocks found by the twin rover Opportunity, this one was formed from magma and then acquired bright material in small crevices, which look like crystallized minerals. If this interpretation holds true, the minerals were most likely dissolved in water, which was either carried inside the rock or interacted with it at a later stage, after it formed.
On sol 65 March 11, 2004, Spirit reached Bonneville crater after a 400 - yard (370 m) journey. This crater is about 200 meters (220 yd) across with a floor about 10 meters (11 yd) below the surface. JPL decided that it would be a bad idea to send the rover down into the crater, as they saw no targets of interest inside. Spirit drove along the southern rim and continued to the southwest towards the Columbia Hills.
Spirit reached Missoula crater on sol 105. The crater is roughly 100 yards (91 m) across and 20 yards (18 m) deep. Missoula crater was not considered a high priority target due to the older rocks it contained. The rover skirted the northern rim, and continued to the southeast. It then reached Lahontan crater on sol 118, and drove along the rim until sol 120. Lahontan is about 60 yards (55 m) across and about 10 yards (9.1 m) deep. A long, snaking sand dune stretches away from its southwestern side, and Spirit went around it, because loose sand dunes present an unknown risk to the ability of the rover wheels to get traction.
Spirit drove from Bonneville crater in a direct line to the Columbia Hills. The route was only directly controlled by the engineers when the terrain was difficult to navigate; otherwise, the rover drove in an autonomous mode. On sol 159, Spirit reached the first of many targets at the base of the Columbia Hills called West Spur. Hank 's Hollow was studied for 23 sols. Within Hank 's Hollow was the strange - looking rock dubbed "Pot of Gold ''. Analysing this rock was difficult for Spirit, because it lay in a slippery area. After a detailed analysis with the AXPS - and the Mößbauer instrument it was detected that it contains hematite. This kind of rock can be built in connection with water.
As the produced energy from the solar panels was lowering due to the setting sun and dust the Deep Sleep Mode was introduced. In this mode the rover was shut down completely during the night in order to save energy, even if the instruments would fail. The route was selected so that the rover 's panels were tilted as much as possible towards the winter sun.
From here, Spirit took a northerly path along the base of the hill towards the target Wooly Patch, which was studied from sol 192 to sol 199. By sol 203, Spirit had driven southward up the hill and arrived at the rock dubbed "Clovis ''. Clovis was ground and analyzed from sol 210 to sol 225. Following Clovis came the targets of Ebenezer (Sols 226 -- 235), Tetl (sol 270), Uchben and Palinque (Sols 281 -- 295), and Lutefisk (Sols 296 -- 303). From Sols 239 to 262, Spirit powered down for solar conjunction, when communications with the Earth are blocked. Slowly, Spirit made its way around the summit of Husband Hill, and at sol 344 was ready to climb over the newly designated "Cumberland Ridge '' and into "Larry 's Lookout '' and "Tennessee Valley ''. Spirit also did some communication tests with the ESA orbiter Mars Express though most of the communication was usually done with the NASA orbiters Mars Odyssey and Mars Global Surveyor.
Spirit had now been on Mars for one Earth year and was driving slowly uphill towards the top of Husband Hill. This was difficult because there were many rocky obstacles and sandy parts. This lead frequently to a slippage and the route could not be driven as planned. In February Spirit 's computer received a software update in order to drive more autonomously. On sol 371, Spirit arrived at a rock named "Peace '' near the top of Cumberland Ridge. Spirit ground Peace with the RAT on sol 373. By sol 390 (mid-February 2005), Spirit was advancing towards "Larry 's Lookout '', by driving up the hill in reverse. The scientists at this time were trying to conserve as much energy as possible for the climb.
Spirit also investigated some targets along the way, including the soil target, "Paso Robles '', which contained the highest amount of salt found on the red planet. The soil also contained a high amount of phosphorus in its composition, however not nearly as high as another rock sampled by Spirit, "Wishstone ''. Squyres said of the discovery, "We 're still trying to work out what this means, but clearly, with this much salt around, water had a hand here ''.
Pot of Gold rock
Spirit 's traverse up Husband Hill
Spirit artificially added to image (taken by itself) of Larry 's Lookout
Martian sunset by Spirit at Gusev crater, May 19, 2005.
On March 9, 2005 (probably during the Martian night), the rover 's solar panel efficiency jumped from around 60 % of what it had originally been to 93 %, followed on March 10, by the sighting of dust devils. NASA scientists speculate a dust devil must have swept the solar panels clean, possibly significantly extending the duration of the mission. This also marks the first time dust devils had been spotted by either Spirit or Opportunity, easily one of the top highlights of the mission to date. Dust devils had previously been photographed by only the Pathfinder probe.
Mission members monitoring Spirit on Mars reported on sol 421 March 12, 2005, that a lucky encounter with a dust devil had cleaned the robot 's solar panels. Energy levels dramatically increased and daily science work was anticipated to be expanded.
As of August Spirit was only 100 meters away from the top. Here it was found that Husband Hill has two summits, with one a little higher than the other. On September 29, the 618th sol Spirit reached the real summit of Husband Hill. The rover was the first spacecraft to climb atop a mountain on another planet. The whole distance driven totaled 4971 meters. The summit itself was flat. Spirit took a 360 degree panorama in real color, which included the whole Gusev crater. At night the rover observed the moons Phobos and Deimos in order to determine their orbits better. On sol 656 Spirit surveyed the Mars sky and the opacity of the atmosphere with its pancam to make a coordinated science campaign with the Hubble Space Telescope in Earth orbit.
From the peak Spirit spotted a striking formation, which was dubbed "Home Plate ''. This was an interesting target, but Spirit would be driven later to the McCool Hill to tilt its solar panels towards the sun in the coming winter. At the end of October the rover was driven downhill and to Home Plate. On the way down Spirit reached the rock formation named "Comanche '' on sol 690. Scientists used data from all three spectrometers to find out that about one - fourth of the composition of Comanche is magnesium iron carbonate. That concentration is 10 times higher than for any previously identified carbonate in a Martian rock. Carbonates originate in wet, near - neutral conditions but dissolve in acid. The find at Comanche is the first unambiguous evidence from the Mars Exploration Mission rovers for a past Martian environment that may have been more favorable to life than the wet but acidic conditions indicated by the rovers ' earlier finds.
In 2006 Spirit drove towards an area dubbed Home Plate, and reached it in February. For events in 2006 by NASA see NASA Spirit Archive 2006
Spirit 's next stop was originally planned to be the north face of McCool Hill, where Spirit would receive adequate sunlight during the Martian winter. On March 16, 2006 JPL announced that Spirit 's troublesome front wheel had stopped working altogether. Despite this, Spirit was still making progress toward McCool Hill because the control team programmed the rover to drive toward McCool Hill backwards, dragging its broken wheel. In late March, Spirit encountered loose soil that was impeding its progress toward McCool Hill. A decision was made to terminate attempts to reach McCool Hill and instead park on a nearby ridge named Low Ridge Haven.
Spirit arrived at the north west corner of Home Plate, a raised and layered outcrop on sol 744 (February 2006) after an effort to maximize driving. Scientific observations were conducted with Spirit 's robotic arm.
Reaching the ridge on April 9, 2006 and parking on the ridge with an 11 ° incline to the north, Spirit spent the next eight months on the ridge, spending that time undertaking observations of changes in the surrounding area. No drives were attempted because of the low energy levels the rover was experiencing during the Martian winter. The rover made its first drive, a short turn to position targets of interest within reach of the robotic arm, in early November 2006, following the shortest days of winter and solar conjunction when communications with Earth were severely limited.
While at Low Ridge, Spirit imaged two rocks of similar chemical nature to that of Opportunity 's Heat Shield Rock, a meteorite on the surface of Mars. Named "Zhong Shan '' for Sun Yat - sen and "Allan Hills '' for the location in Antarctica where several Martian meteorites have been found, they stood out against the background rocks that were darker. Further spectrographic testing is being done to determine the exact composition of these rocks, which may turn out to also be meteorites.
On sol 1067, January 4, 2007, both rovers received new flight software to the onboard computers. The update was received just in time for the third anniversary of their landing. The new systems let the rovers decide whether or not to transmit an image, and whether or not to extend their arms to examine rocks, which would save much time for scientists as they would not have to sift through hundreds of images to find the one they want, or examine the surroundings to decide to extend the arms and examine the rocks.
Spirit 's dead wheel turned out to be a mixed blessing. As it was traveling in March 2007, pulling the dead wheel behind, the wheel scraped off the upper layer of the Martian soil, uncovering a patch of ground that scientists say shows evidence of a past environment that would have been perfect for microbial life. It is similar to areas on Earth where water or steam from hot springs came into contact with volcanic rocks. On Earth, these are locations that tend to teem with bacteria, said rover chief scientist Steve Squyres. "We 're really excited about this, '' he told a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU). The area is extremely rich in silica -- the main ingredient of window glass. The researchers have now concluded that the bright material must have been produced in one of two ways. One: hot - spring deposits produced when water dissolved silica at one location and then carried it to another (i.e. a geyser). Two: acidic steam rising through cracks in rocks stripped them of their mineral components, leaving silica behind. "The important thing is that whether it is one hypothesis or the other, the implications for the former habitability of Mars are pretty much the same, '' Squyres explained to BBC News. Hot water provides an environment in which microbes can thrive and the precipitation of that silica entombs and preserves them. Squyres added, "You can go to hot springs and you can go to fumaroles and at either place on Earth it is teeming with life -- microbial life. ''
During 2007 Spirit spent several months near the base of the Home Plate plateau. On sol 1306 Spirit climbed onto the eastern edge of the plateau. In September and October it examined rocks and soils at several locations on the southern half of the plateau. On November 6, Spirit had reached the western edge of Home Plate, and started taking pictures for a panoramic overview of the western valley, with Grissom Hill and Husband Hill visible. The panorama image was published on NASA 's website on January 3, 2008 to little attention, until January 23, when an independent website published a magnified detail of the image that showed a rock feature a few centimeters high resembling a humanoid figure seen from the side with its right arm partially raised.
Towards the end of June 2007, a series of dust storms began clouding the Martian atmosphere with dust. The storms intensified and by July 20, both Spirit and Opportunity were facing the real possibility of system failure due to lack of energy. NASA released a statement to the press that said (in part) "We 're rooting for our rovers to survive these storms, but they were never designed for conditions this intense ''. The key problem caused by the dust storms was a dramatic reduction in solar energy caused by there being so much dust in the atmosphere that it was blocking 99 percent of direct sunlight to Opportunity, and slightly more to Spirit.
Normally the solar arrays on the rovers are able to generate up to 700 watt - hours (2,500 kJ) of energy per Martian day. After the storms, the amount of energy generated was greatly reduced to 128 watt - hours (460 kJ). If the rovers generate less than 150 watt - hours (540 kJ) per day they must start draining their batteries to run survival heaters. If the batteries run dry, key electrical elements are likely to fail due to the intense cold. Both rovers were put into the lowest - power setting in order to wait out the storms. In early August the storms began to clear slightly, allowing the rovers to successfully charge their batteries. They were kept in hibernation in order to wait out the remainder of the storm.
The main concern was the energy level for Spirit. To increase the amount of light hitting the solar panels, the rover was parked in the northern part of Home Plate on as steep a slope as possible. It was expected that the level of dust cover on the solar panels would increase by 70 percent and that a slope of 30 degrees would be necessary to survive the winter. In February, a tilt of 29.9 degrees was achieved. Extra energy was available at times, and a high definition panorama named Bonestell was produced. At other times there was only enough solar energy to recharge the batteries, communication with Earth was minimized and all unnecessary instruments were switched off. At winter solstice the energy production declined to 235 watt hours per sol.
On November 10, 2008, a large dust storm further reduced the output of the solar panels to 89 watt - hours (320 kJ) per day -- a critically low level. NASA officials were hopeful that Spirit would survive the storm, and that the energy level would rise once the storm had passed and the skies started clearing. They attempted to conserve energy by shutting down systems for extended periods of time, including the heaters. On November 13, 2008 the rover awoke and communicated with mission control as scheduled.
From sols 1728 to 1734, November 14, 2008 to November 20, 2008 Spirit averaged 169 watt - hours (610 kJ) per day. The heaters for the thermal emission spectrometer, which used about 27 watt - hours (97 kJ) per day, were disabled on November 11, 2008. Tests on the thermal emission spectrometer indicate that it was undamaged, and the heaters would be enabled with sufficient energy. The solar conjunction, where the Sun is between Earth and Mars, started on November 29, 2008 and communication with the rovers was not possible until December 13, 2008.
On February 6, 2009, a beneficial wind blew off some of the dust accumulated on the panels. This led to an increase in energy output to 240 watt - hours (860 kJ) per day. NASA officials stated that this increase in energy was to be used predominantly for driving.
On sol 1879 April 18, 2009 and sol 1889 April 28, 2009 energy output of the solar arrays were increased by cleaning events. The energy output of Spirit 's solar arrays climbed from 223 watt - hours (800 kJ) per day on March 31, 2009 to 372 watt - hours (1,340 kJ) per day on April 29, 2009.
On sol 1892 (May 1, 2009), the rover became stuck in soft soil, the machine resting upon a cache of iron (III) sulfate (jarosite) hidden under a veneer of normal - looking soil. Iron sulfate has very little cohesion, making it difficult for the rover 's wheels to gain traction.
JPL team members simulated the situation by means of a rover mock - up and computer models in an attempt to get the rover back on track. To reproduce the same soil mechanical conditions on Earth as those prevailing on Mars under low gravity and under very weak atmospheric pressure, tests with a lighter version of a mock - up of Spirit were conducted at JPL in a special sandbox to attempt to simulate the cohesion behavior of poorly consolidated soils under low gravity. Preliminary extrication drives began on November 17, 2009.
On sol 2116 December 17, 2009, the right - front wheel suddenly began to operate normally for the first three out of four rotations attempts. It was unknown what effect it would have on freeing the rover if the wheel became fully operational again. The right rear wheel had also stalled on sol 2097 November 28 and remained inoperable for the remainder of the mission. This left the rover with only four fully operational wheels. If the team could not gain movement and adjust the tilt of the solar panels, or gain a beneficial wind to clean the panels, the rover would only be able to sustain operations until May 2010.
On sol 2155 January 26, 2010, after several months attempting to free the rover, NASA decided to redefine the mobile robot mission by calling it a stationary research platform. Efforts were directed in preparing a more suitable orientation of the platform in relation to the Sun in an attempt to allow a more efficient recharge of the platform 's batteries. This was needed to keep some systems operational during the Martian winter. On March 30, 2010, Spirit skipped a planned communication session and as anticipated from recent power - supply projections, had probably entered a low - power hibernation mode.
The last communication with the rover was on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010) and there is a strong possibility the rover 's batteries lost so much energy at some point that the mission clock stopped. In previous winters the rover was able to park on a Sun - facing slope and keep its internal temperature above − 40 ° C, but since the rover was stuck on flat ground it is estimated that its internal temperature dropped to − 55 ° C. If Spirit had survived these conditions and there had been a cleaning event, there was a possibility that with the southern summer solstice in March 2011, solar energy would increase to a level that would wake up the rover.
Spirit remains silent at its location, called "Troy, '' on the west side of Home Plate. As of 2016, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010).
It is likely that Spirit experienced a low - power fault and had turned off all sub-systems, including communication, and gone into a deep sleep, trying to recharge its batteries. It is also possible that the rover had experienced a mission clock fault. If that had happened, the rover would have lost track of time and tried to remain asleep until enough sunlight struck the solar arrays to wake it. This state is called "Solar Groovy. '' If the rover woke up from a mission clock fault, it would only listen. Starting on Sol 2333 (July 26, 2010), a new procedure to address the possible mission clock fault was implemented.
Each sol, the Deep Space Network mission controllers sent a set of X-band "Sweep & Beep '' commands. If the rover had experienced a mission clock fault and then had been awoken during the day, it would have listened during brief, 20 - minute intervals during each hour awake. Due to the possible clock fault, the timing of these 20 - minute listening intervals was not known, so multiple "Sweep & Beep '' commands were sent. If the rover heard one of these commands, it would have responded with an X-band beep signal, updating the mission controllers on its status and allowing them to investigate the state of the rover further. But even with this new strategy, there was no response from the rover.
The rover had driven 7,730.50 meters (4.80 miles) until it became immobile.
JPL continued attempts to regain contact with Spirit until May 25, 2011, when NASA announced the end of contact efforts and the completion of the mission. According to NASA, the rover likely experienced excessively cold "internal temperatures '' due to "inadequate energy to run its survival heaters '' that, in turn, was a result of "a stressful Martian winter without much sunlight. '' Many critical components and connections would have been "susceptible to damage from the cold. '' Assets that had been needed to support Spirit were transitioned to support Spirit 's "still - active twin '', Opportunity, as well as the next - generation Mars rover Curiosity. Two NASA Mars orbiters and the Deep Space Network of antennas were prepared for the Curiosity launch that took place on November 26, 2011.
The rocks on the plains of Gusev are a type of basalt. They contain the minerals olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, and magnetite, and they look like volcanic basalt as they are fine - grained with irregular holes (geologists would say they have vesicles and vugs).
Much of the soil on the plains came from the breakdown of the local rocks. Fairly high levels of nickel were found in some soils; probably from meteorites.
Analysis shows that the rocks have been slightly altered by tiny amounts of water. Outside coatings and cracks inside the rocks suggest water deposited minerals, maybe bromine compounds. All the rocks contain a fine coating of dust and one or more harder rinds of material. One type can be brushed off, while another needed to be ground off by the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT).
There are a variety of rocks in the Columbia Hills (Mars), some of which have been altered by water, but not by very much water.
The dust in Gusev Crater is the same as dust all around the planet. All the dust was found to be magnetic. Moreover, Spirit found the magnetism was caused by the mineral magnetite, especially magnetite that contained the element titanium. One magnet was able to completely divert all dust hence all Martian dust is thought to be magnetic. The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water.
Observations of rocks on the plains show they contain the minerals pyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and magnetite. These rocks can be classified in different ways. The amounts and types of minerals make the rocks primitive basalts -- also called picritic basalts. The rocks are similar to ancient terrestrial rocks called basaltic komatiites. Rocks of the plains also resemble the basaltic shergottites, meteorites that came from Mars. One classification system compares the amount of alkali elements to the amount of silica on a graph; in this system, Gusev plains rocks lie near the junction of basalt, picrobasalt, and tephite. The Irvine - Barager classification calls them basalts. Plains rocks have been very slightly altered, probably by thin films of water because they are softer and contain veins of light colored material that may be bromine compounds, as well as coatings or rinds. It is thought that small amounts of water may have gotten into cracks inducing mineralization processes). Coatings on the rocks may have occurred when rocks were buried and interacted with thin films of water and dust. One sign that they were altered was that it was easier to grind these rocks compared to the same types of rocks found on Earth.
Cross-sectional drawing of a typical rock from the plains of Gusev crater. Most rocks contain a coating of dust and one or more harder coatings. Veins of water - deposited minerals are visible, along with crystals of olivine. Veins may contain bromine salts.
Scientists found a variety of rock types in the Columbia Hills, and they placed them into six different categories. The six are: Clovis, Wishbone, Peace, Watchtower, Backstay, and Independence. They are named after a prominent rock in each group. Their chemical compositions, as measured by APXS, are significantly different from each other. Most importantly, all of the rocks in Columbia Hills show various degrees of alteration due to aqueous fluids. They are enriched in the elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and bromine -- all of which can be carried around in water solutions. The Columbia Hills ' rocks contain basaltic glass, along with varying amounts of olivine and sulfates. The olivine abundance varies inversely with the amount of sulfates. This is exactly what is expected because water destroys olivine but helps to produce sulfates.
Acid fog is believed to have changed some of the Watchtower rocks. This was in a 200 meter long section of Cumberland Ridge and the Husband Hill summit. Certain places became less crystalline and more amorphous. Acidic water vapor from volcanoes dissolved some minerals forming a gel. When water evaporated a cement formed and produced small bumps. This type of process has been observed in the lab when basalt rocks are exposed to sulfuric and hydrochloric acids.
The Clovis group is especially interesting because the Mössbauer spectrometer (MB) detected goethite in it. Goethite forms only in the presence of water, so its discovery is the first direct evidence of past water in the Columbia Hills 's rocks. In addition, the MB spectra of rocks and outcrops displayed a strong decline in olivine presence, although the rocks probably once contained much olivine. Olivine is a marker for the lack of water because it easily decomposes in the presence of water. Sulfate was found, and it needs water to form. Wishstone contained a great deal of plagioclase, some olivine, and anhydrate (a sulfate). Peace rocks showed sulfur and strong evidence for bound water, so hydrated sulfates are suspected. Watchtower class rocks lack olivine consequently they may have been altered by water. The Independence class showed some signs of clay (perhaps montmorillonite a member of the smectite group). Clays require fairly long term exposure to water to form. One type of soil, called Paso Robles, from the Columbia Hills, may be an evaporate deposit because it contains large amounts of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, and iron. Also, MB found that much of the iron in Paso Robles soil was of the oxidized, Fe form, which would happen if water had been present.
Towards the middle of the six - year mission (a mission that was supposed to last only 90 days), large amounts of pure silica were found in the soil. The silica could have come from the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water or from water in a hot spring environment.
After Spirit stopped working scientists studied old data from the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, or Mini-TES and confirmed the presence of large amounts of carbonate - rich rocks, which means that regions of the planet may have once harbored water. The carbonates were discovered in an outcrop of rocks called "Comanche. ''
In summary, Spirit found evidence of slight weathering on the plains of Gusev, but no evidence that a lake was there. However, in the Columbia Hills there was clear evidence for a moderate amount of aqueous weathering. The evidence included sulfates and the minerals goethite and carbonates that only form in the presence of water. It is believed that Gusev crater may have held a lake long ago, but it has since been covered by igneous materials. All the dust contains a magnetic component that was identified as magnetite with some titanium. Furthermore, the thin coating of dust that covers everything on Mars is the same in all parts of Mars.
Spirit pointed its cameras towards the sky and observed a transit of the Sun by Mars ' moon Deimos (see Transit of Deimos from Mars). It also took the first photo of Earth from the surface of another planet in early March 2004.
In late 2005, Spirit took advantage of a favorable energy situation to make multiple nighttime observations of both of Mars ' moons Phobos and Deimos. These observations included a "lunar '' (or rather phobian) eclipse as Spirit watched Phobos disappear into Mars ' shadow. Some of Spirit 's star gazing was designed to look for a predicted meteor shower caused by Halley 's Comet, and although at least four imaged streaks were suspect meteors, they could not be unambiguously differentiated from those caused by cosmic rays.
A transit of Mercury from Mars took place on January 12, 2005 from about 14: 45 UTC to 23: 05 UTC. Theoretically, this could have been observed by both Spirit and Opportunity; however, camera resolution did not permit seeing Mercury 's 6.1 '' angular diameter. They were able to observe transits of Deimos across the Sun, but at 2 ' angular diameter, Deimos is about 20 times larger than Mercury 's 6.1 '' angular diameter. Ephemeris data generated by JPL Horizons indicates that Opportunity would have been able to observe the transit from the start until local sunset at about 19: 23 UTC Earth time, while Spirit would have been able to observe it from local sunrise at about 19: 38 UTC until the end of the transit.
Both rovers have passed their original mission time of 90 sols many times over and the extended time on the surface, and therefore additional stress on components, has resulted in some issues developing.
On sol 778 (March 13, 2006), the right front wheel ceased working after having covered 4.2 mi (7 km) on Mars. Engineers began driving the rover backwards, dragging the dead wheel. Although this resulted in changes to driving techniques, the dragging effect became a useful tool, partially clearing away soil on the surface as the rover traveled, thus allowing areas to be imaged that would normally be inaccessible. However, in mid-December 2009, to the surprise of the engineers, the right front wheel showed slight movement in a wheel - test on sol 2113 and clearly rotated with normal resistance on three of four wheel - tests on sol 2117, but stalled on the fourth. On sols 2100 -- 2101 (Nov 29, 2009), the right rear wheel also stalled and remained inoperable for the remainder of the mission.
Scientific instruments also experienced degradation as a result of exposure to the harsh Martian environment and use over a far longer period than had been anticipated by the mission planners. Over time, the diamond in the resin grinding surface of the Rock Abrasion Tool wore down, after that the device could only be used to brush targets. All of the other science instruments and engineering cameras continued to function until contact was lost; however, towards the end of Spirit 's life, the MIMOS II Mössbauer spectrometer took much longer to produce results than it did earlier in the mission because of the decay of its cobalt - 57 gamma ray source that has a half life of 271 days.
To commemorate Spirit 's great contribution to the exploration of Mars, the asteroid 37452 Spirit has been named after it. The name was proposed by Ingrid van Houten - Groeneveld who along with Cornelis Johannes van Houten and Tom Gehrels discovered the asteroid on September 24, 1960.
Reuben H. Fleet Science Center and the Liberty Science Center also have an IMAX show called Roving Mars that documents the journey of both Spirit and Opportunity, using both CG and actual imagery.
January 4, 2014 was celebrated as the tenth anniversary of its landing on many news sites, despite nearly four years since loss of communications.
To honor the rover, the JPL team named an area near Endeavour Crater explored by the Opportunity rover, ' Spirit Point '.
On 22 January 27, 2004 NASA memorialized the crew of Apollo 1 by naming three hills to the north of "Columbia Memorial Station '' as the Apollo 1 Hills. On 28 February 2, 2004 the astronauts on Space Shuttle Columbia 's final mission were further memorialized when NASA named a set of hills to the east of the landing site the Columbia Hills Complex, denoting seven peaks in that area as "Anderson '', "Brown '', "Chawla '', "Clark '', "Husband '', "McCool '', and "Ramon ''; NASA has submitted these geographical feature names to the IAU for approval.
The rover can take pictures with its different cameras. But only the PanCam camera has the ability to photograph a scene with different color filters. The panorama views are usually built up from PanCam images. Spirit has transferred 128,224 pictures in its lifetime.
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scott pilgrim vs the world what is it about | Scott Pilgrim vs. the World - wikipedia
Scott Pilgrim vs. the World is a 2010 action comedy film co-written, produced and directed by Edgar Wright, based on the graphic novel series Scott Pilgrim by Bryan Lee O'Malley. It stars Michael Cera as Scott Pilgrim, a slacker musician who must battle the seven evil exes of his newest girlfriend Ramona.
A film adaptation of the comics was proposed following the release of the first volume. Wright became attached to the project, and filming began in March 2009 in Toronto. The film premiered after a panel discussion at the San Diego Comic - Con International on July 22, 2010, and received a wide release in North America on August 13, 2010.
Despite receiving positive reviews from critics, who particularly noted the film 's visual style and humour, Scott Pilgrim vs. the World was a box office bomb, grossing $47.7 million against its production budget of $85 -- 90 million.
In Toronto, 23 - year - old Scott Pilgrim is a bassist in Sex Bob - Omb, a floundering garage band. To the disapproval of his friends, he is dating Knives Chau, a 17 - year - old high - school student. Scott meets an American Amazon delivery girl, Ramona Flowers, having first seen her in a dream, and loses interest in Knives, but does n't break up with her before pursuing Ramona. When Sex Bob - Omb plays in a battle of the bands sponsored by record executive G - Man Graves, Scott is attacked by Ramona 's ex-boyfriend Matthew Patel. Scott defeats Patel and learns that, in order to date Ramona, he must defeat the remaining six evil exes.
Scott breaks up with Knives, who blames Ramona and swears to win him back. Scott defeats Ramona 's second evil ex, Hollywood actor and skateboarder Lucas Lee, by tricking him into performing a dangerous stunt. He defeats her third ex, superpowered vegan Todd Ingram, who is dating Scott 's ex-girlfriend, Envy Adams, by tricking him into drinking dairy. He defeats her fourth ex, Roxy Richter (with Ramona 's help, as he ca n't hit a girl), by touching the spot behind her knee (Ramona tells him this is Roxy 's weak point).
Scott becomes upset with Ramona 's dating history, and Ramona breaks up with him. At the next battle of the bands, Sex Bob - Omb defeats Ramona 's fifth and sixth evil exes, twins Kyle and Ken Katayanagi, earning Scott an extra life. Ramona gets back with her seventh evil ex, Gideon, AKA G - Man Graves. Sex Bob - Omb accepts Gideon 's record deal, except for Scott, who leaves the band in protest.
Gideon invites Scott to his venue, the Chaos Theater, where Sex Bob - Omb is playing. Resolving to win Ramona back, Scott challenges Gideon to a fight for her affections, earning the "Power of Love '' sword. Knives interrupts the battle, attacking Ramona, and Scott is forced to reveal that he cheated on both of them. Gideon kills Scott and Ramona visits him in limbo to reveal that Gideon has implanted her with a mind control device.
Scott uses his 1 - up and re-enters the Chaos Theater. He makes peace with his friends and challenges Gideon again, this time for himself. He gains the "Power of Self - Respect '' sword and disarms Gideon. He apologizes to Ramona and Knives for cheating on them, and Scott and Knives join forces to defeat Gideon.
Free from Gideon 's control, Ramona prepares to leave. Knives accepts that her relationship with Scott is over and, at her encouragement, he leaves with Ramona.
After artist Bryan Lee O'Malley completed the first volume of Scott Pilgrim, his publisher Oni Press contacted producer Marc Platt to propose a film adaptation. O'Malley originally had mixed feelings about a film adaptation, stating that he "expected them to turn it into a full - on action comedy with some actor that I hated '' but ultimately "did n't even care. I was a starving artist, and I was like, ' Please, just give me some money. ' '' Universal Studios contracted director Edgar Wright, who had just finished Shaun of the Dead (2004) and agreed to adapt the Scott Pilgrim comics. In May 2005, the studio signed Michael Bacall to write the screenplay. Wright cited Mario Bava 's Danger: Diabolik (1968) as an influence on his approach to Scott Pilgrim, describing it as an "Italian influence, a sense of completely unbridled imagination. They do n't make any attempt to make it look realistic. Mario Bava 's composition and staging has a real try - anything attitude. '' Bacall said that he wanted to write the Scott Pilgrim film because he felt strongly about its story and empathized with its characters. By 2010, casting had been completed and the film was titled Scott Pilgrim vs. the World. Wright said that O'Malley was "very involved '' with the script of the film from the start, contributing lines and adding polish. Due to the long development, several lines from various scripts written by Wright and Bacall were used in later Scott Pilgrim comics. No material from Scott Pilgrim 's Finest Hour, the sixth Scott Pilgrim volume, appeared in the film, as the comic was not complete at the time of the film 's production. O'Malley contributed suggestions for the film 's ending and gave the producers his notes for the sixth volume, but stated that the film 's ending was "their ending ''.
Casting of the principal characters began in June 2008. Principal photography began in March 2009 in Toronto and wrapped as scheduled in August. In the film 's original ending, written before the release of the final Scott Pilgrim book, Scott gets back together with Knives. After the final book in the series was released, in which Scott and Ramona get back together, and divided audience reaction to the film 's original ending, a new ending was filmed to match the books, with Scott and Ramona getting back together. The film was given a production budget of $85 -- 90 million, an amount offset by tax rebates that resulted in a final cost of around $60 million. Universal fronted $60 million of the pre-rebate budget. O'Malley's commentary track was recorded on August 14, 2010, one day after the film 's theatrical release.
One of the producers, Miles Dale, said that the film is "the biggest movie ever identifiably set in Toronto. '' The film features Casa Loma, St. Michael 's College School, Sonic Boom, the Toronto Public Library Wychwood Library, a Goodwill location on St. Clair West, a Second Cup, and a Pizza Pizza. The developers planned to set the series in Toronto because, in Dale 's words, "the books are super-specific in their local details '' and director Wright wanted to use the imagery from the books, so Universal Studios had no plans to alter the setting. Dale stated that "Bathurst Street is practically the cerebral cortex of Scott Pilgrim ''.
Director Wright felt confident with his casting in the film. Wright stated that "Like with Hot Fuzz how we had great people in every single tiny part, it 's the same with this. What 's great with this is that there 's people you know, like with Michael (Cera) and Jason (Schwartzman), and then we have people who are up and coming, like Anna Kendrick, Aubrey Plaza and Brie Larson, and then there 's complete unknowns as well ''. There was no studio interference with casting more unknowns, as Wright stated that "Universal never really gave me any problems about casting bigger people, because in a way Michael (Cera) has starred in two $100 million - plus movies, and also a lot of the other people, though they 're not the biggest names, people certainly know who they are. '' Wright planned on casting Cera while writing Hot Fuzz after watching episodes of Arrested Development. Wright said he needed an actor that "audiences will still follow even when the character is being a bit of an ass. '' Wright ran all his casting decisions by O'Malley during the casting session. Mary Elizabeth Winstead was Wright 's choice for Ramona Flowers two years before filming had started, because "she has a very sunny disposition as a person, so it was interesting to get her to play a version of herself that was broken inside. She 's great in the film because she causes a lot of chaos but remains supernaturally grounded. '' Ellen Wong, a Toronto actress known mostly from a role in This Is Wonderland, auditioned for the part of Knives Chau three times. On her second audition, Wright learned that Wong has a green belt in tae kwon do, and says he found himself intrigued by this "sweet - faced young lady being a secret badass ''.
Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich, Beck, Metric, Broken Social Scene, Cornelius, Dan the Automator, Kid Koala, and David Campbell all contributed to the film 's soundtrack. Beck wrote and composed the music played by Sex Bob - omb in the film, with Brian LeBarton playing drums and bass for the band on the film 's score and soundtrack. Two unreleased songs can also be heard in the teaser trailer.
Cast members Webber, Pill, and Simmons all had to learn to play their respective instruments, and spent time rehearsing as a band with Cera (who already played bass) before filming began. The actors also sing on the film 's soundtrack. Brendan Canning and Kevin Drew of Broken Social Scene wrote all the songs for Crash and the Boys. The tracks were sung by Knudsen, who plays Crash in the film. Drew stated that the reason behind this was that "(he) knew that (Knudsen) did n't need to be a singer to pull (it) off '' because the songs were "so quick and punk and fast '' and "it needed to be the character 's voice. '' Metric is the inspiration for the film 's fictional band, the Clash at Demonhead, and contributed the song "Black Sheep '' to the film. The clothing of Metric 's lead singer, Emily Haines, is also the basis for the clothing of the lead singer of Clash at Demonhead. Brie Larson provides the vocals for "Black Sheep '' in the film, while the soundtrack features a version of the song with Haines as lead singer. Chris Murphy of the band Sloan was the guitar coach for the actors in the film. Music from the Legend of Zelda video game series is used in a dream sequence in the film. To get permission to use the music, Edgar Wright sent a clip of the film and wrote a letter to Nintendo of America that described the music as "like nursery rhymes to a generation. ''
The opening title sequence was designed by Richard Kenworthy of Shynola, and was inspired by drawn - on - film animation. According to Kenworthy:
You ca n't study animation and not be well - versed in Len Lye, Oskar Fischinger, Stan Brakhage, and Norman McLaren. We went back and re-watched those films and they were still full of life. We got excited about projecting such vivid imagery on the big screen, in front of an audience who most likely had n't experienced that work.
Wright got the idea from fellow director Quentin Tarantino, who famously uses title sequences at the beginning of his films.
A Scott Pilgrim vs. the World panel featured at the San Diego Comic - Con International held on July 22, 2010. After the panel, Wright invited selected members of the audience for a screening of the film which was followed by a performance by Metric. Scott Pilgrim was also shown at the Fantasia Festival in Montreal, Quebec, Canada on July 27, 2010 and was also featured at the Movie - Con III in London, England on August 15, 2010.
The film premiered in Japan during the Yubari International Fantastic Film Festival on February 26, 2011 as an official selection. It was released to the rest of the country on April 29, 2011.
On March 25, 2010, the first teaser trailer was released.
A second trailer featuring music by The Ting Tings, LCD Soundsystem, Be Your Own Pet, Cornelius, Blood Red Shoes, and The Prodigy was released May 31, 2010.
At the 2010 MTV Movie Awards, the first clip was released featuring Scott facing Lucas Lee in battle. The actors playing Lee 's stunt doubles are the actual stunt doubles for Chris Evans. Alison Pill, who plays Kim in the film, stated that her character 's past relationship with Scott will be explored in other media stating that "There will be a little something - something that will air on Adult Swim ''. The animated short, Scott Pilgrim vs. the Animation, produced by Titmouse Inc., adapts the opening prologue of the second Scott Pilgrim book and was aired on Adult Swim on August 12, 2010, a day prior to the film 's theatrical release, later being released on their website. Michael Cera stated that he felt the film was "a tricky one to sell. I do n't know how you convey that movie in a marketing campaign. I can see it being something that people are slow to discover. In honesty, I was slow to find Shaun of the Dead ''.
A video game was produced based on the series. It was released for PlayStation Network on August 10, 2010 and on Xbox Live Arcade on August 25, being met with mostly positive reviews. The game is published by Ubisoft and developed by Ubisoft Montreal and Ubisoft Chengdu, featuring animation by Paul Robertson and original music by Anamanaguchi.
Scott Pilgrim vs. the World was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc in North America on November 9, 2010 and in the United Kingdom on December 27, 2010.
The DVD features include four audio commentaries: (director Wright, co-writer Bacall, and author O'Malley; Wright and director of photography Pope; Cera, Schwartzman, Winstead, Wong, and Routh; and Kendrick, Plaza, Culkin, and Webber), 21 deleted, extended, and alternate scenes including the original ending (where Scott ends up with Knives) with commentary, bloopers, photo galleries, and a trivia track.
The Blu - ray Disc release includes all DVD features, plus alternate footage, six featurettes, production blogs, Scott Pilgrim vs. the Animation, trailers and TV spots, storyboard picture - in - picture, a DVD copy, and a digital copy. The "Ultimate Japan Version '' Blu - ray Disc includes a commentary track that features Wright and Shinya Arino. It also includes footage of Wright and Cera 's publicity tour through Japan and a round - table discussion with Japanese film critic Tomohiro Machiyama. It was released on September 2, 2011.
In its first week of release, the DVD sold 190,217 copies, earning $3,422,004 in revenue, and as of 2011 earned $27,349,933 on the total US home media sales. It reached the top of the UK Blu - ray Disc charts in its first week of release.
The film was widely released in North America on August 13, 2010, opening in 2,818 theaters. The film finished fifth on its first weekend of release with a total of $10.5 million ($11.8 million when adjusted for inflation), and by its second weekend of release had dropped to the bottom of the top ten. The Wall Street Journal described this as "disappointing '' while Ben Fritz of the Los Angeles Times noted that the film appeared to be a "major financial disappointment ''. Universal acknowledged their disappointment at the opening weekend, saying they had "been aware of the challenges of broadening this film to a mainstream audience ''; regardless, the studio 's spokesman said Universal was "proud of this film and our relationship with the visionary and creative filmmaker Edgar Wright... Edgar has created a truly unique film that is both envelope pushing and genre bending and when examined down the road will be identified as an important piece of filmmaking. ''
In the UK, the film opened in 408 cinemas, finishing second on its opening weekend with £ 1.6 million, dropping to fifth place by the next weekend.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 82 % based on 257 reviews, with an average score of 7.5 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "its script may not be as dazzling as its eye - popping visuals, but Scott Pilgrim vs. the World is fast, funny, and inventive ''. Metacritic has assigned an average score of 69 out of 100, based on 38 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews ''.
At a test screening, director Kevin Smith was impressed by the film saying "That movie is great. It 's spellbinding and nobody is going to understand what the fuck just hit them. I would be hard pressed to say, ' he 's bringing a comic book to life! ' but he is bringing a comic book to life. '' Smith also said that fellow directors Quentin Tarantino and Jason Reitman were "really into it ''. Carla Gillis, a writer for Now and former lead singer for the band Plumtree, also commented on the film, as her band 's song "Scott Pilgrim '' was the inspiration for O'Malley to create the series. Gillis felt the film carried the same positive yet bittersweet tone of the song.
After premiere screenings at the San Diego Comic - Con International, the film received positive reviews. Variety gave the film a mixed review, referring to the film as "an example of attention - deficit filmmaking at both its finest and its most frustrating '' and that "anyone over 25 is likely to find director Edgar Wright 's adaptation of the cult graphic novel exhausting, like playing chaperone at a party full of oversexed college kids. ''
The Hollywood Reporter wrote a negative review, stating that "What 's disappointing is that this is all so juvenile. Nothing makes any real sense... (Michael) Cera does n't give a performance that anchors the nonsense. '' and "Universal should have a youth hit in the domestic market when the film opens next month. A wider audience among older or international viewers seems unlikely. '' David Edelstein of New York magazine wrote that "The film is repetitive, top - heavy: Wright blows his wad too early. But a different lead might have kept you laughing and engaged. Cera does n't come alive in the fight scenes the way Stephen Chow does in the best (and most Tashlin - like) of all the surreal martial - arts comedies, Kung Fu Hustle. ''
Cindy White at IGN gave the film a positive rating of 8 / 10 calling the film "funny and offbeat '' as well as noting that the film is "best suited for the wired generation and those of us who grew up on Nintendo and MTV. Its kinetic nature and quirky sensibilities might be a turnoff for some. ''
Nick Schager of Slant Magazine gave the film a positive review of three and a half stars out of four, calling Edgar Wright an "inspired mash - up artist, and Scott Pilgrim vs. the World may be his finest hybridization to date ''. A.O. Scott made the film a "critics pick '', stating "There are some movies about youth that just make you feel old, even if you are n't... Scott Pilgrim vs. the World has the opposite effect. Its speedy, funny, happy - sad spirit is so infectious that the movie makes you feel at home in its world even if the landscape is, at first glance, unfamiliar. '' According to Michael Phillips, "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World is different, and not just because it 's funny first and everything else second. Director and co-writer Edgar Wright understands the appeal of the original Bryan Lee O'Malley graphic novels... O'Malley's manga - inspired books combine utter banality with superhero hyperbole, and it 's a lot for a director to take on. Wright, who is British, has taken it on and won. Scott Pilgrim vs. the World lives and breathes the style of the original books, with animated squiggles and hearts and stars filling out the frame in many individual shots. Some of this is cute; some of it is better, weirder than ' cute. ' '' Phillips concludes:
"To enjoy the film you must enjoy the brash, satiric spirit of hero 's quest. Cera and his fellow ensemble members, including Kieran Culkin as Scott 's roommate, Anna Kendrick as his snippy younger sister and the majestically dour Alison Pill as the band 's drummer, mitigate the apocalyptic craziness with their deadpan wiles. At its best, Wright 's film is raucous, impudent entertainment. ''
After its premiere in Japan, several notable video game, film, and anime industry personalities have praised Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, among them Hironobu Sakaguchi, Goichi Suda, Miki Mizuno, Tomohiko Itō and Takao Nakano.
In June 2013, Scott Pilgrim creator Bryan Lee O'Malley, who is of Korean and white Canadian parentage, stated that he regretted the fact that the film 's cast was predominantly white, and that there were not enough roles for minorities.
The film received four nominations at the 2010 Satellite Awards held on December 19, 2010 at the Intercontinental Hotel in Century City. It won in two categories; Best film -- Comedy or Musical and Best Actor -- Musical or Comedy for Michael Cera. The film also made the final short list for a nomination for Best Visual Effects at the 83rd Academy Awards, but did not receive a nomination.
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once upon a time cast season 3 episode 7 | Once Upon a Time (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 11, 2017. It will consist of 22 episodes, airing on Fridays, having premiered on October 6, 2017.
This season marks a significant change for the series, as it was announced at the end of the sixth season that the majority of the main cast members would not be returning for season 7. Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle will be the only ones remaining. Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced as new regulars in May 2017. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced as additional regulars in July 2017. In August 2017, it was announced that Mekia Cox had been promoted to series regular after initially joining the cast in July as recurring.
The storyline is softly rebooted with a main narrative led by an adult Henry Mills, set several years after last season 's events. In February 2018, it was announced the seventh season would serve as the final season of the series.
Years after the Final Battle, Henry leaves Storybrooke in search of his own story only to find himself in New Fairy Tale Land, where a conflict between Lady Tremaine and her stepdaughter Cinderella culminates in the casting of yet another curse. As Henry 's daughter tries to make him believe in the curse, the enchantress Gothel sets out to revive a cult with sinister intentions.
The seventh season finale, which will serve as the series finale, is set to broadcast on May 18, 2018.
In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset '' of the show 's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order. After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back - end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind. Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot. '' We 're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We 're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It 's a combination of a lot of things, but what we 're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been. ''
In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real - world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood '' and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters ' lives before and during the latest curse.
In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7. It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss. In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge. ''
Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season. Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017. On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.
In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode 's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7. West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.
On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7. Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season. On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons. On July 22 at San Diego Comic - Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.
On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season 's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple. On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch, whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season. On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season. On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3. It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc. On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.
On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season, later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season 's fifth episode. On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage '' Anastasia, Lady Tremaine 's other biological daughter.
On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood. On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character. On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be recurring in the second half of the season. It was later revealed that the role would be played by Jeff Pierre, who will first appear in the twelfth episode of the season. On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.
On January 23, 2018, it was announced that Kip Pardue had been cast as Chad, Zelena 's fiancé from when she was cursed as Kelly. He will make his first appearance in the seventeenth episode of the season.
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