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who signed the united nations declaration of human rights | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - wikipedia
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.
The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual 's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law. However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law. '' Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law.
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment.
The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles:
These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.
During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion ''.
When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II, the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter 's provisions on human rights.
In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.
The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years.
Canadian John Peters Humphrey, Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary - General to work on the project and became the Declaration 's principal drafter. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.
Other well - known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P.C. Chang of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
According to Allan Carlson, the Declaration 's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement 's influence on Cassin and Malik.
Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council, the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States.
British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation. (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.)
The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain.
The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate. South Africa 's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated several articles in the Declaration. The Saudi Arabian delegation 's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration 's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief ''; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights. The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism. Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.
The 48 countries which voted in favour of the Declaration are:
8 countries abstained:
Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later, which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote, and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles.
The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year - long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us ''.
In 1948, the UN Resolution A / RES / 217 (III) (A) adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French, and official translations in Chinese, Russian and Spanish. In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world 's "Most Translated Document '' (370 different languages and dialects). The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017).
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
For the first time in international law, the term "the rule of law '' was used in the preamble of the Declaration. The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration reads as follows: "Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law. ''
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms '' and "human rights '' appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community '' to all persons. The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, and many more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights.
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of importance '', while Eleanor Roosevelt -- first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration -- stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere. '' In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time '' but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration. In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community. ''
Turkey -- which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population -- signed the Declaration in 1948. However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration, claiming that it violated Sharia law. Pakistan -- which had signed the declaration -- disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position. Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie - Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '' which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia. On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah '', without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations ''.
Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR. Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women 's rights.
A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration 's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riffat Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has argued:
What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality '' of the assumptions on which it is based is -- at the very least -- problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.
Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics.
Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights. ''
Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs, played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self - determination.
Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill '' to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from -- but not yet explicit in -- Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit, but -- to date (2017) -- those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride -- Assistant Secretary - General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate -- has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is ' The Right to Refuse to Kill '. ''
The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West 's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism: "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences '', "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered '', and "3. Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. ''
During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments ' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights -- in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.
The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators, musicians, and producers created a 20 - minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to bring to life the Declaration 's 30 articles.
Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up! '' event.
The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC) is a non-profit, nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world.
The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights. Censorship, the invasion of privacy, and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA.
In response to violations of human rights, the ALA asserts the following principles:
The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. Such restrictions, whether enforced by statutes or regulations, contractual stipulations, or voluntary agreements, pervert the function of the library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians.
The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form. Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression, strengthens the hand of the oppressor, and undermines the cause of justice.
The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles. We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice, and contributes to the demise of freedom.
Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world.
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what is an operating system name the types of os | Operating system - wikipedia
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
Time - sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer -- from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
The dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 82.74 %. macOS by Apple Inc. is in second place (13.23 %), and the varieties of Linux are collectively in third place (1.57 %). In the mobile (smartphone and tablet combined) sector, use in 2017 is up to 70 % of Google 's Android and according to third quarter 2016 data, Android on smartphones is dominant with 87.5 percent and a growth rate 10.3 percent per year, followed by Apple 's iOS with 12.1 percent and a per year decrease in market share of 5.2 percent, while other operating systems amount to just 0.3 percent. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors. Other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real - time systems, exist for many applications.
A single - tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is achieved by time - sharing, where the available processor time is divided between multiple processes. These processes are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task - scheduling subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types. In preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix - like operating systems, such as Solaris and Linux -- as well as non-Unix - like, such as AmigaOS -- support preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16 - bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32 - bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking.
Single - user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem. A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time. Time - sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.
A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they form a distributed system.
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses.
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.
A real - time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real - time operating system may be single - or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event - driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time - sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and composed with the application and configuration code to construct a unikernel: a specialized, single address space, machine image that can be deployed to cloud or embedded environments.
Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could automatically run different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s. Hardware features were added, that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers.
In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special - purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the programming process (Stern, 1981).
In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period of time and would arrive at a scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards or punched tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that Alan Turing was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the principles of the universal Turing machine.
Later machines came with libraries of programs, which would be linked to a user 's program to assist in operations such as input and output and generating computer code from human - readable symbolic code. This was the genesis of the modern - day operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line (clothes line) from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes - pegs to indicate job - priority.
An improvement was the Atlas Supervisor introduced with the Manchester Atlas commissioned in 1962, "considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system ''. Brinch Hansen described it as "the most significant breakthrough in the history of operating systems. ''
Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems on mainframe computers, including batch processing, input / output interrupt, buffering, multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link - loading, and programs for sorting records in files. These features were included or not included in application software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959, the SHARE Operating System was released as an integrated utility for the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes, although it was quickly supplanted by IBSYS / IBJOB on the 709, 7090 and 7094.
During the 1960s, IBM 's OS / 360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System / 360 machines. IBM 's current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system and applications written for OS / 360 can still be run on modern machines.
OS / 360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and file locking during update. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system.
The alternative CP - 67 system for the S / 360 - 67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems used on IBM S / 360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS / 360 (Compatibility Operating System), DOS / 360 (Disk Operating System), TSS / 360 (Time Sharing System), TOS / 360 (Tape Operating System), BOS / 360 (Basic Operating System), and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).
Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long - distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real - time chat, and multi-user graphical games.
In 1961, Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high - level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high - level language -- ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground - breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS / 400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to license MCP to run on the AS / 400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath / MCP line of computers.
UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main - frame systems, this batch - oriented system managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real - Time Basic (RTB) system to support large - scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system.
General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS).
Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS - 10 and TOPS - 20 time sharing systems for the 36 - bit PDP - 10 class systems. Before the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS - 10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community. RT - 11 was a single - user real - time OS for the PDP - 11 class minicomputer, and RSX - 11 was the corresponding multi-user OS.
From the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying computer architectures to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact, most 360s after the 360 / 40 (except the 360 / 165 and 360 / 168) were microprogrammed implementations.
The enormous investment in software for these systems made since the 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. Notable supported mainframe operating systems include:
The first microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from ROM and known as monitors. One notable early disk operating system was CP / M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated by Microsoft 's MS - DOS, which became widely popular as the operating system chosen for the IBM PC (IBM 's version of it was called IBM DOS or PC DOS). In the 1980s, Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple II series of microcomputers to introduce the Apple Macintosh computer with an innovative graphical user interface (GUI) to the Mac OS.
The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip in October 1985, with 32 - bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft 's operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X (macOS after latest name change).
The GNU Project was started by activist and programmer Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply "Linux '' by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU / Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.
Unix was originally written in assembly language. Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system (see History).
The Unix - like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX '' is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "UNIX - like '' is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.
Unix - like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas.
Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP 's HP - UX and IBM 's AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor 's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems 's Solaris can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple 's macOS, a replacement for Apple 's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel - based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants.
A subgroup of the Unix family is the Berkeley Software Distribution family, which includes FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now commonly used by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were widely implemented and refined in BSD. The World Wide Web was also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS based on BSD called NeXTSTEP.
In 1974, University of California, Berkeley installed its first Unix system. Over time, students and staff in the computer science department there began adding new programs to make things easier, such as text editors. When Berkeley received new VAX computers in 1978 with Unix installed, the school 's undergraduates modified Unix even more in order to take advantage of the computer 's hardware possibilities. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense took interest, and decided to fund the project. Many schools, corporations, and government organizations took notice and started to use Berkeley 's version of Unix instead of the official one distributed by AT&T.
Steve Jobs, upon leaving Apple Inc. in 1985, formed NeXT Inc., a company that manufactured high - end computers running on a variation of BSD called NeXTSTEP. One of these computers was used by Tim Berners - Lee as the first webserver to create the World Wide Web.
Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs. Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. After two years of legal disputes, the BSD project spawned a number of free derivatives, such as NetBSD and FreeBSD (both in 1993), and OpenBSD (from NetBSD in 1995).
macOS (formerly "Mac OS X '' and later "OS X '') is a line of open core graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. macOS is the successor to the original classic Mac OS, which had been Apple 's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, macOS is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, followed in March 2001 by a client version (Mac OS X v10. 0 "Cheetah ''). Since then, six more distinct "client '' and "server '' editions of macOS have been released, until the two were merged in OS X 10.7 "Lion ''.
Prior to its merging with macOS, the server edition -- macOS Server -- was architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart and usually ran on Apple 's line of Macintosh server hardware. macOS Server included work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. With Mac OS X v10. 7 Lion, all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated into the client version and the product re-branded as "OS X '' (dropping "Mac '' from the name). The server tools are now offered as an application.
The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university student in Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for computer students and programmers, and received support and assistance from volunteers who succeeded in creating a complete and functional kernel.
Linux is Unix - like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smart - watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only 1.82 % of all "desktop '' (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most supercomputers including the top 385. Many of the same computers are also on Green500 (but in different order), and Linux runs on the top 10. Linux is also commonly used on other small energy - efficient computers, such as smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google 's Android, Chrome OS, and Chromium OS.
Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected computers. The latest version is Windows 10.
In 2011, Windows 7 overtook Windows XP as most common version in use.
Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985, as an operating environment running on top of MS - DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released which only used MS - DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run real - mode MS - DOS and 16 - bit Windows 3. x drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of Windows run on IA - 32, x86 - 64 and 32 - bit ARM microprocessors. In addition Itanium is still supported in older server version Windows Server 2008 R2. In the past, Windows NT supported additional architectures.
Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended significant capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating system. However, Windows ' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share.
ReactOS is a Windows - alternative operating system, which is being developed on the principles of Windows -- without using any of Microsoft 's code.
There have been many operating systems that were significant in their day but are no longer so, such as AmigaOS; OS / 2 from IBM and Microsoft; classic Mac OS, the non-Unix precursor to Apple 's macOS; BeOS; XTS - 300; RISC OS; MorphOS; Haiku; BareMetal and FreeMint. Some are still used in niche markets and continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications. OpenVMS, formerly from DEC, is still under active development by Hewlett - Packard. Yet other operating systems are used almost exclusively in academia, for operating systems education or to do research on operating system concepts. A typical example of a system that fulfills both roles is MINIX, while for example Singularity is used purely for research. Another example is the Oberon System designed at ETH Zürich by Niklaus Wirth, Jürg Gutknecht and a group of students at the former Computer Systems Institute in the 1980s. It was used mainly for research, teaching, and daily work in Wirth 's group.
Other operating systems have failed to win significant market share, but have introduced innovations that have influenced mainstream operating systems, not least Bell Labs ' Plan 9.
The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All user software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a mouse or keyboard or as complex as an Internet component.
With the aid of the firmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the computer 's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPU 's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long - term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc.
The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs. Executing an application program involves the creation of a process by the operating system kernel which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and with hardware devices.
Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact with and react to its environment. The alternative -- having the operating system "watch '' the various sources of input for events (polling) that require action -- can be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or 60 bytes) but is unusual in modern systems with large stacks. Interrupt - based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place.
When an interrupt is received, the computer 's hardware automatically suspends whatever program is currently running, saves its status, and runs computer code previously associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to placing a bookmark in a book in response to a phone call. In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by the operating system 's kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer 's hardware or the running program.
When a hardware device triggers an interrupt, the operating system 's kernel decides how to deal with this event, generally by running some processing code. The amount of code being run depends on the priority of the interrupt (for example: a person usually responds to a smoke detector alarm before answering the phone). The processing of hardware interrupts is a task that is usually delegated to software called a device driver, which may be part of the operating system 's kernel, part of another program, or both. Device drivers may then relay information to a running program by various means.
A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operating system. If a program wishes to access hardware, for example, it may interrupt the operating system 's kernel, which causes control to be passed back to the kernel. The kernel then processes the request. If a program wishes additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such as memory, it triggers an interrupt to get the kernel 's attention.
Modern microprocessors (CPU or MPU) support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability offer at least two modes: user mode and supervisor mode. In general terms, supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access to all machine resources, including all MPU instructions. User mode operation sets limits on instruction use and typically disallows direct access to machine resources. CPUs might have other modes similar to user mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor types, such as 16 - bit processors on a 32 - bit one, or 32 - bit processors on a 64 - bit one.
At power - on or reset, the system begins in supervisor mode. Once an operating system kernel has been loaded and started, the boundary between user mode and supervisor mode (also known as kernel mode) can be established.
Supervisor mode is used by the kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is accessed, and communicating with devices such as disk drives and video display devices. User mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Application programs, such as word processors and database managers, operate within user mode, and can only access machine resources by turning control over to the kernel, a process which causes a switch to supervisor mode. Typically, the transfer of control to the kernel is achieved by executing a software interrupt instruction, such as the Motorola 68000 TRAP instruction. The software interrupt causes the microprocessor to switch from user mode to supervisor mode and begin executing code that allows the kernel to take control.
In user mode, programs usually have access to a restricted set of microprocessor instructions, and generally can not execute any instructions that could potentially cause disruption to the system 's operation. In supervisor mode, instruction execution restrictions are typically removed, allowing the kernel unrestricted access to all machine resources.
The term "user mode resource '' generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which contain information that the running program is n't allowed to alter. Attempts to alter these resources generally causes a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting, for example, by forcibly terminating ("killing '') the program).
Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already in use by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory.
Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems, assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the kernel 's memory manager, and do not exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen any more, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a program fails, it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs or viruses may purposefully alter another program 's memory, or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory management, it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system.
Memory protection enables the kernel to limit a process ' access to the computer 's memory. Various methods of memory protection exist, including memory segmentation and paging. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU), which does n't exist in all computers.
In both segmentation and paging, certain protected mode registers specify to the CPU what memory address it should allow a running program to access. Attempts to access other addresses trigger an interrupt which cause the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the kernel in charge. This is called a segmentation violation or Seg - V for short, and since it is both difficult to assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the kernel generally resorts to terminating the offending program, and reports the error.
Windows versions 3.1 through ME had some level of memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. A general protection fault would be produced, indicating a segmentation violation had occurred; however, the system would often crash anyway.
The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks.
If a program tries to access memory that is n't in its current range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel is interrupted in the same way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page fault.
When the kernel detects a page fault it generally adjusts the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular application 's memory is stored, or even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet.
In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed less frequently can be temporarily stored on disk or other media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand.
"Virtual memory '' provides the programmer or the user with the perception that there is a much larger amount of RAM in the computer than is really there.
Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time - sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer 's time to execute.
An operating system kernel contains a scheduling program which determines how much time each process spends executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. Later, control is returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This so - called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a context switch.
An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called cooperative multitasking. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the kernel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the kernel. This means that a malicious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent any other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang the entire system if it enters an infinite loop.
Modern operating systems extend the concepts of application preemption to device drivers and kernel code, so that the operating system has preemptive control over internal run - times as well.
The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs are given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To accomplish this, modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A protected mode timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specified time has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode Operation.)
On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. The AmigaOS is an exception, having preemptive multitasking from its very first version. Windows NT was the first version of Microsoft Windows which enforced preemptive multitasking, but it did n't reach the home user market until Windows XP (since Windows NT was targeted at professionals).
Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use of the drive 's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a directory tree.
Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for an operating system to support more than one file system.
While many simpler operating systems support a limited range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like UNIX and Linux support a technology known as a virtual file system or VFS. An operating system such as UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or file systems, allowing them to be accessed through a common application programming interface (API). This makes it unnecessary for programs to have any knowledge about the device they are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an infinite variety of file systems installed on them, through the use of specific device drivers and file system drivers.
A connected storage device, such as a hard drive, is accessed through a device driver. The device driver understands the specific language of the drive and is able to translate that language into a standard language used by the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX, this is the language of block devices.
When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place, it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw format, which may contain one or more file systems. A file system driver is used to translate the commands used to access each specific file system into a standard set of commands that the operating system can use to talk to all file systems. Programs can then deal with these file systems on the basis of filenames, and directories / folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create, delete, open, and close files, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size, free space, and creation and modification dates.
Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult. Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of file attributes makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support natively) file systems specifically designed for them; for example, NTFS in Windows and ext3 and ReiserFS in Linux. However, in practice, third party drivers are usually available to give support for the most widely used file systems in most general - purpose operating systems (for example, NTFS is available in Linux through NTFS - 3g, and ext2 / 3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows through third - party software).
Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. It is possible to install Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD, DVD...), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system.
A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and / or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware - dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time - dependent hardware interfacing needs.
The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems can not be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these operating system mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver ensures that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating system 's point of view.
Under versions of Windows before Vista and versions of Linux before 2.6, all driver execution was co-operative, meaning that if a driver entered an infinite loop it would freeze the system. More recent revisions of these operating systems incorporate kernel preemption, where the kernel interrupts the driver to give it tasks, and then separates itself from the process until it receives a response from the device driver, or gives it more tasks to do.
Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing, files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computer 's operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or even sharing another computer 's graphics or sound hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed transparently, such as SSH which allows networked users direct access to a computer 's command line interface.
Client / server networking allows a program on a computer, called a client, to connect via a network to another computer, called a server. Servers offer (or host) various services to other network computers and users. These services are usually provided through ports or numbered access points beyond the server 's IP address. Each port number is usually associated with a maximum of one running program, which is responsible for handling requests to that port. A daemon, being a user program, can in turn access the local hardware resources of that computer by passing requests to the operating system kernel.
Many operating systems support one or more vendor - specific or open networking protocols as well, for example, SNA on IBM systems, DECnet on systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, and Microsoft - specific protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specific protocols for specific tasks may also be supported such as NFS for file access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote system 's sound hardware.
A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel.
The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between "privileged '' and "non-privileged '', systems commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share). Also covered by the concept of requester identity is authorization; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system are tied to either the requester 's user account or to the variously configured groups of users to which the requester belongs.
In addition to the allow or disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security also offers auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, "who has been reading this file? ''). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they can not be secured.
External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating system 's kernel, where they can be passed onto applications, or carried out directly. Security of operating systems has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United States Government Department of Defense (DoD) created the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the effectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select trusted operating systems being considered for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or classified information.
Network services include offerings such as file sharing, print services, email, web sites, and file transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices known as firewalls or intrusion detection / prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number of software firewalls available, as well as intrusion detection / prevention systems. Most modern operating systems include a software firewall, which is enabled by default. A software firewall can be configured to allow or deny network traffic to or from a service or application running on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP, and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the firewall would deny all traffic trying to connect to the service on that port.
An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is where the operating system is not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a p - code based system such as Java.
Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users can not tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing.
Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user interface is usually referred to as a shell and is essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface views the directory structure and requests services from the operating system that will acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a keyboard, mouse or credit card reader, and requests operating system services to display prompts, status messages and such on output hardware devices, such as a video monitor or printer. The two most common forms of a user interface have historically been the command - line interface, where computer commands are typed out line - by - line, and the graphical user interface, where a visual environment (most commonly a WIMP) is present.
Most of the modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementation of the classic Mac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel.
While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and macOS are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user - space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions between Windows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly in kernel space. Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel.
Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE Plasma 5 is a commonly found setup on most Unix and Unix - like (BSD, Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell, but the shell itself can not be separated from Windows.
Numerous Unix - based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation, though an effort to standardize in the 1990s to COSE and CDE failed for various reasons, and were eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and K Desktop Environment. Prior to free software - based toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit / desktop combination (and was the basis upon which CDE was developed).
Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 1999.
A real - time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real - time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large - scale computing systems.
An early example of a large - scale real - time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Reservations System.
Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real - time operating system such as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux. Windows CE is a real - time operating system that shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows ' codebase. Symbian OS also has an RTOS kernel (EKA2) starting with version 8.0 b.
Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, BSD, and Linux, although such operating systems do not support real - time computing.
Operating system development is one of the most complicated activities in which a computing hobbyist may engage. A hobby operating system may be classified as one whose code has not been directly derived from an existing operating system, and has few users and active developers.
In some cases, hobby development is in support of a "homebrew '' computing device, for example, a simple single - board computer powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or, development may be for an architecture already in widespread use. Operating system development may come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by modeling an existing operating system. In either case, the hobbyist is his / her own developer, or may interact with a small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals who have like interests.
Examples of a hobby operating system include Syllable.
Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and sometimes even for specific hardware. When porting the application to run on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained.
Unix was the first operating system not written in assembly language, making it very portable to systems different from its native PDP - 11.
This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms like Java or Qt. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries.
Another approach is for operating system vendors to adopt standards. For example, POSIX and OS abstraction layers provide commonalities that reduce porting costs.
In 2014, Android was first (currently not replicated by others, in a single year) operating system ever to ship on a billion devices, becoming the most popular operating system by installed base.
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list of schools for the deaf in ghana | List of schools in Ghana - wikipedia
Following is a list of schools in the African country of Ghana.
Royal Christian Academy, Mami - Ejuratia
Nyamekye international school in Apam
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the lake house song this never happened before | This Never Happened Before - Wikipedia
"This Never Happened Before '' is a song from Paul McCartney 's 2005 album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard. It was released to radio stations in the United States in 2006, peaking at # 27 on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary chart (see 2006 in music). It was included in the soundtrack of the movie The Lake House (2006).
Per booklet.
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explain the meaning of a relational database management system | Relational database management system - wikipedia
A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model invented by Edgar F. Codd, of IBM 's San Jose Research Laboratory. As of 2017, many of the databases in widespread use are based on the relational database model.
RDBMSs have been a common choice for the storage of information in new databases used for financial records, manufacturing and logistical information, personnel data, and other applications since the 1980s. Relational databases have often replaced legacy hierarchical databases and network databases because they are easier to understand and use. However, relational databases have received unsuccessful challenge attempts by object database management systems in the 1980s and 1990s (which were introduced trying to address the so - called object - relational impedance mismatch between relational databases and object - oriented application programs) and also by XML database management systems in the 1990s. Despite such attempts, RDBMSs keep most of the market share, which has also grown over the years.
According to DB - Engines, in May 2017, the most widely used systems are Oracle, MySQL (open source), Microsoft SQL Server, PostgreSQL (open source), IBM DB2, Microsoft Access, and SQLite (open source).
According to research company Gartner, in 2011, the five leading commercial relational database vendors by revenue were Oracle (48.8 %), IBM (20.2 %), Microsoft (17.0 %), SAP including Sybase (4.6 %), and Teradata (3.7 %).
According to Gartner, in 2008, the percentage of database sites using any given technology were (a given site may deploy multiple technologies):
In 1974, IBM began developing System R, a research project to develop a prototype RDBMS. However, the first commercially available RDBMS was Oracle, released in 1979 by Relational Software, now Oracle Corporation. Other examples of an RDBMS include DB2, SAP Sybase ASE, and Informix. In 1984, the first RDBMS for Macintosh began being developed, code - named Silver Surfer, it was later released in 1987 as 4th Dimension and known today as 4D.
The term "relational database '' was invented by E.F. Codd at IBM in 1970. Codd introduced the term in his research paper "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks ''. In this paper and later papers, he defined what he meant by "relational ''. One well - known definition of what constitutes a relational database system is composed of Codd 's 12 rules. However, many of the early implementations of the relational model did not conform to all of Codd 's rules, so the term gradually came to describe a broader class of database systems, which at a minimum:
The first systems that were relatively faithful implementations of the relational model were from the University of Michigan; Micro DBMS (1969), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; (1971), and from IBM UK Scientific Centre at Peterlee; IS1 (1970 -- 72) and its followon PRTV (1973 -- 79). The first system sold as an RDBMS was Multics Relational Data Store, first sold in 1978. Others have been Ingres and IBM BS12.
The most common definition of an RDBMS is a product that presents a view of data as a collection of rows and columns, even if it is not based strictly upon relational theory. By this definition, RDBMS products typically implement some but not all of Codd 's 12 rules.
A second school of thought argues that if a database does not implement all of Codd 's rules (or the current understanding on the relational model, as expressed by Christopher J Date, Hugh Darwen and others), it is not relational. This view, shared by many theorists and other strict adherents to Codd 's principles, would disqualify most DBMSs as not relational. For clarification, they often refer to some RDBMSs as truly - relational database management systems (TRDBMS), naming others pseudo-relational database management systems (PRDBMS).
As of 2009, most commercial relational DBMSes employ SQL as their query language.
Alternative query languages have been proposed and implemented, notably the pre-1996 implementation of Ingres QUEL.
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what is a first class citizen in programming | First - class citizen - wikipedia
In programming language design, a first - class citizen (also type, object, entity, or value) in a given programming language is an entity which supports all the operations generally available to other entities. These operations typically include being passed as an argument, returned from a function, modified, and assigned to a variable.
The concept of first - and second - class objects was introduced by Christopher Strachey in the 1960s. He did not actually define the term strictly, but contrasted real numbers and procedures in ALGOL:
First and second class objects. In Algol, a real number may appear in an expression or be assigned to a variable, and either of them may appear as an actual parameter in a procedure call. A procedure, on the other hand, may only appear in another procedure call either as the operator (the most common case) or as one of the actual parameters. There are no other expressions involving procedures or whose results are procedures. Thus in a sense procedures in Algol are second class citizens -- they always have to appear in person and can never be represented by a variable or expression (except in the case of a formal parameter)...
Robin Popplestone gave the following definition: All items have certain fundamental rights.
During the 1990s, Raphael Finkel proposed definitions of second and third class values, but these definitions have not been widely adopted.
The simplest scalar data types, such as integer and floating - point numbers, are nearly always first - class.
In many older languages, arrays and strings are not first - class: they can not be assigned as objects or passed as parameters to a subroutine. For example, neither Fortran IV nor C supports array assignment, and when they are passed as parameters, only the position of their first element is actually passed -- their size is lost. C appears to support assignment of array pointers, but in fact these are simply pointers to the array 's first element, and again do not carry the array 's size.
In most languages, data types are not first - class objects, though in some object - oriented languages, classes are first - class objects and are instances of metaclasses.
Few languages support continuations and GOTO - labels as objects at all, let alone as first - class objects.
Many programming languages support passing and returning function values, which can be applied to arguments. Whether this suffices to call function values first - class is disputed.
Some authors require it be possible to create new functions at runtime to call them ' first - class '. As a result, functions in C are not first - class objects; instead, they are sometimes called second - class objects, because they can still be manipulated in most of the above fashions (via function pointers).
In Smalltalk, functions (methods) are first - class objects, just like Smalltalk classes. Since Smalltalk operators (+, -, etc.) are methods, they are also first - class objects.
Some languages, such as Java and PHP, have an explicit reflection subsystem which allow access to internal implementation structures even though they are not accessible or manipulable in the same way as ordinary objects.
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pink floyd we don't want no education | Another Brick in the Wall - wikipedia
"Another Brick in the Wall '' is the title of three songs set to variations of the same basic theme, on Pink Floyd 's 1979 rock opera, The Wall, subtitled Part 1 (working title "Reminiscing ''), Part 2 (working title "Education ''), and Part 3 (working title "Drugs ''). All parts were written by Pink Floyd 's bassist, Roger Waters.
Part 2 is a protest song against rigid schooling in general and boarding schools in the UK in particular. It was also released as a single and provided the band 's only number - one hit in the United Kingdom, the United States, West Germany and many other countries. In addition, in the US, along with the tracks, "Run Like Hell '', and "Do n't Leave Me Now '', "Another Brick in the Wall '' reached number 57 on the disco chart.
In the UK, Part 2 was Pink Floyd 's first single since 1968 's "Point Me at the Sky ''; the song was also the final number - one single of the 1970s. For Part 2, Pink Floyd received a Grammy nomination for Best Performance by a Rock Duo or Group and lost to Bob Seger 's "Against the Wind ''. In addition, Part 2 was number 375 on Rolling Stone 's list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The single sold over 4 million copies worldwide.
That single, as well as the album The Wall, were banned in South Africa in 1980 after the song was adopted by supporters of a nationwide school boycott protesting racial inequities in education under the apartheid regime.
Each of the three parts has a similar tune, and lyrical structure (though not lyrics, aside from the "all in all '' refrain), and each is louder and more enraged than the one before, rising from the sadness of Part I to the protesting Part II to the furious Part III.
Part 1 of the song is very quiet dynamically and features a long, subdued guitar solo. The vocals are softer and gentler in tone than in Parts 2 and 3, although there is a short, sharp rise in dynamics and tone for a brief period towards the end of the lyrical portion. Sniffing, shouting, wailing, calling and children can be faintly heard in the background. The song 's beginning coincides with the final chord of "The Thin Ice '', and the echoing multi-guitar solo (after the lyrics) crossfades into the helicopter and yelling - teacher sounds of "The Happiest Days of Our Lives ''.
"The Thin Ice '' discussed during the previous song breaks when Pink becomes older and learns of the death of his father. Pink is devastated by this reality and begins to build The Wall.
Pink 's mother is seen praying in a church after the death of her husband overseas. Pink, however, is, at this point, oblivious of his death, and can be seen playing with a toy aeroplane. The song continues with Pink playing in a public park after his mother leaves him to go shopping. He sees a man who he takes a liking to in the absence of his own father. The man gives Pink a lift onto a ride, and it 's clear Pink feels as if this man is his real father. Pink follows the man 's son around, copying him, but does n't understand why the other boy 's father is n't paying attention to him. He grabs the man 's hand but is shooed away, only to grab the man 's hand again. The man pushes Pink away again, and dejectedly he sits on a swing. He looks over at the other parents swinging their kids, feeling even more alone.
In the album version of The Wall, "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2) '' segues from "The Happiest Days of Our Lives ''. The song has strong drums, a well - known bass line and distinctive guitar parts in the background with a smooth, yet edgy guitar solo. The song also features a choir of schoolchildren singing in the second verse: as the song ends, the sounds of a school yard are heard, along with a Scottish teacher who continues to lord it over the children 's lives by shouting "Wrong! Do it again! '', and "If you do n't eat yer meat, you ca n't have any pudding! How can you have any pudding if you do n't eat yer meat?! '', and "You! Yes! You behind the bikesheds! Stand still, laddie! '', all of it dissolving into the dull drone of a phone ringing. It trails off into the next song, ending with a deep sigh.
Producer Bob Ezrin had immediately recognised the hit potential of this song, but it took some manoeuvring behind the band 's back until "Part II '' took its eventual form. Waters originally rejected the idea, saying "Go ahead and waste your time doing silly stuff. ''
It was Ezrin 's idea to use a school choir for this song, as he explained to Guitar World in 2009:
The most important thing I did for the song was to insist that it be more than just one verse and one chorus long, which it was when Roger wrote it. When we played it with the disco drumbeat I said: "Man, this is a hit! But it 's one minute 20. We need two verses and two choruses. '' And they said, "Well you 're not bloody getting them. We do n't do singles, so fuck you. '' So I said, "Okay, fine '', and they left. And because of our two (tape recorder) set up, while they were n't around we were able to copy the first verse and chorus, take one of the drum fills, put them in between and extend the chorus.
Then the question is what do you do with the second verse, which is the same? And having been the guy who made Alice Cooper 's School 's Out I 've got this thing about kids on record, and it is about kids after all. So while we were in America, we sent (recording engineer) Nick Griffiths to a school near the Floyd studios (in Islington, North London). I said, "Give me 24 tracks of kids singing this thing. I want Cockney, I want posh, fill ' em up '', and I put them on the song. I called Roger into the room, and when the kids came in on the second verse there was a total softening of his face, and you just knew that he knew it was going to be an important record.
Griffiths approached music teacher Alun Renshaw of Islington Green School, around the corner from Pink Floyd 's Britannia Row Studios, about the choir.
Though the school received a lump sum payment of £ 1000, there was no contractual arrangement for royalties from record sales. Under a 1996 UK copyright law, they became eligible for royalties from broadcasts, and after royalties agent Peter Rowan traced choir members through the website Friends Reunited and other means, they lodged a claim for royalties with the Performing Artists ' Media Rights Association in 2004.
The idea for the disco beat came likewise from Ezrin. As David Gilmour explained in 2009:
It was n't my idea to do disco music, it was Bob 's. He said to me, "Go to a couple of clubs and listen to what 's happening with disco music, '' so I forced myself out and listened to loud, four - to - the - bar bass drums and stuff and thought, Gawd, awful! Then we went back and tried to turn one of the (song 's) parts into one of those so it would be catchy.
Of the final outcome, Roger Waters has commented:
It was great -- exactly the thing I expected from a collaborator.
David Gilmour said:
And it does n't, in the end, not sound like Pink Floyd.
After being insulted by the teacher, Pink dreams that the kids in his school begin to protest against their abusive teachers. The song talks about how he had a personal wall around him from the rest of the world, and the teachers were just another brick in the wall.
Following "The Happiest Days of Our Lives '' Pink starts to daydream during his class. He imagines several students marching in unison to the beat of the song, following a path until they enter a steamy tunnel section to re-emerge as putty - faced clones void of individual distinction and proceed to fall blindly into an oversized meat - grinder. Starting with Gilmour 's guitar solo, the children destroy the school building using hammers (foreshadowing the subsequent neo-fascist Nazi - like animated sequence with its marching hammers) and crowbars, creating a bonfire, dragging their teacher out of the burning school kicking and screaming while chanting "We do n't need no education. '' The song ends with Pink rubbing his hand, which the teacher slapped with a ruler in the song previously.
During the song, the teacher 's "meat and pudding '' lines are folded into the first few lines of the school choir 's lines (with the instrumental breaks between shortened by a bar in 2 places), and are performed by the teacher in the film, played by Alex McAvoy. Once the film was completed, the actual scenes of "The Happiest Days of Our Lives '' and "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2 '' were combined into a new video, which now represents the music video for "Another Brick in the Wall ''.
Prior to the film, the first video for the track, directed by album / concert / film art designer Gerald Scarfe, depicted students running in a playground (Kings Square Gardens, Islington) and the teacher puppet from The Wall concerts was used. The video also mixed in some animated scenes later used in "The Trial '' and "Waiting for the Worms ''. The opening shot, a pan across the London skyline was filmed from the top of Turnpike House in Islington, both St Lukes Church and St Clements Church (the one overlooking the playground) are both clearly visible in the shot. After the media furore surrounding the song, the Islington Green school head teacher Margaret Maden refused permission for the children who sang on the song to appear in the video or on Top of the Pops, although at the time they were told it was because they did n't hold Equity Cards. The teacher 's lines in the song are absent from the version in the music video.
When performed as part of the various live shows of The Wall, the teacher is represented by a giant inflatable puppet, based on the figure from Scarfe 's animations. This puppet duly becomes the focus of the song 's anger and frustration.
All in all it 's just another brick in the wall All in all you 're just another brick in the wall Just another blunder Just another lousy call Just another clap of thunder And apologies ring hollow From the guilty in Whitehall And there 's no hint of sorrow Just the whitewash on the wall Just one man dead And nothing is gained Nothing at all And Jean Charles de Menezes remains Just another brick in the wall
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
This song is louder than the previous two parts, expressing Pink 's rage. It is also the shortest part of "Another Brick in the Wall '', and cross-fades into "Goodbye Cruel World ''. On the live version the song gets an extended ending seguing into the instrumental "The Last Few Bricks '' which continues its keyboard staccato.
Pink decides to finish this wall as a result of his rage after his wife 's betrayal. He states that he has seen "the writing on the wall ''. He concludes that he no longer needs anything at all, dismissing the people in his life as just "bricks in the wall ''. The song also contains the line "I do n't need no drugs to calm me '', possibly foreshadowing what is going to happen in the song "Comfortably Numb '', although Waters has stated that "Comfortably Numb '' is not about drugs.
In the film, the song is accompanied by a montage of events that contributed to the construction of the wall. This version was also completely re-recorded with a faster tempo.
The song, part number unspecified, won Waters the 1983 British Academy Award for ' Best Original Song ' from the movie of The Wall.
Personnel per The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia.
Part I
Part II
with:
Part III
Nu metal band Korn have covered the three parts of the song as well as "Goodbye Cruel World '' (which comes to conclude the track) for their greatest hits album released in 2004.
Citations
Sources
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how much money did the song rockstar make | Rockstar (Post Malone song) - wikipedia
"Rockstar '' (stylized as "rockstar '') is a song by American rapper Post Malone. It was released on September 15, 2017 by Republic Records as the lead single from his second studio album Beerbongs & Bentleys (2018). The track features a guest verse from fellow American rapper 21 Savage, It was written by Post Malone, 21 Savage, Louis Bell, Carl Austin Rosen, Joey Bada $ $ and Olufunmibi Awoshiley, and produced by Tank God and Bell (who co-produced "Congratulations '').
The track reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, and reached the top spot in several other countries, including Australia, Canada, Portugal, Ireland, New Zealand, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark and the United Kingdom. It became both Post Malone and 21 Savage 's first number - one single in all the countries mentioned.
Post Malone posted a snippet of himself recording the track in the studio via Twitter on December 29, 2016. The song originally featured American artists T - Pain and Joey Badass, the latter who co-wrote the track but is uncredited.
The unofficial YouTube video for the track 's audio, released by Republic Records, is a three - minute - and - 38 - second loop of solely the song 's chorus. Therefore, the song was able to receive equivalent downloads without featuring the entirety of the song, which some attributed to its number - one spot on the Hot 100. Some called it a "clever marketing scheme '', while others believed it was a trick or a loophole.
The official music video, directed by Emil Nava, was released on Post Malone 's Vevo YouTube channel on November 21, 2017. The video features Post Malone in a room fighting against a gang of men with samurai swords, and ends with Post Malone and 21 Savage covered in blood. Pitchfork noted that the video references the Japanese action film Lady Snowblood. As of April 2018, the video has received over 300 million views on YouTube.
The song reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Post Malone and 21 Savage 's first number - one song. It debuted at number two behind Cardi B 's "Bodak Yellow '', breaking the single week streaming record on Apple Music with over 25 million streams becoming Post Malone 's third top 20 hit, following his debut single, "White Iverson '' and his top 10 hit "Congratulations ''. It stayed behind "Bodak Yellow '' for three consecutive weeks before reaching the top spot in its fourth week. As of October 2017, the single has sold 165,458 copies in the United States. "Rockstar '' topped the Hot 100 for eight weeks, the longest run at number one for a hip hop song in 2017. In Australia, it topped the ARIA Singles Chart for seven weeks In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number five on September 22, 2017. The following week, it rose three places to number two, behind Sam Smith 's "Too Good at Goodbyes '', before reaching the top on October 6.
Spin.com reviewed the song 's unofficial video by stating: "The chorus loop may be a weirdly hypnotic, post-Vine marketing gimmick, but it seems like it worked. "rockstar '' is both Post Malone 's and 21 Savage 's first - ever No. 1 single, meaning this probably wo n't be the last time an artist attempts to boost a track by distilling its catchiest section into a standalone product. Maybe, in the future, we 'll all listen to seconds - long hooks on endless extended loops. ''
On December 13, 2017, a Latin remix of the song featuring Puerto Rican reggaeton artists Nicky Jam and Ozuna was released. Another remix was released on December 22, 2017 featuring new verses from rappers Jadakiss and Nino Man. On December 25, 2017, Lil Wayne released his remix of the song, titled "5 Star '' and featuring Nicki Minaj, as a single from his mixtape Dedication 6. On December 28, 2017, the original version of the song featuring T - Pain and Joey Bada $ $ was leaked. On January 23, 2018, American rapper Fetty Wap released his remix of the song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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i cant eat i can't sleep anymore i wish i didn't miss you anymore | Wish I Did n't Miss You - wikipedia
"Wish I Did n't Miss You '' is a song by American recording artist Angie Stone. It was written by Andrea Martin and Ivan Matias for Stone 's second studio album, Mahogany Soul (2001), while production was helmed by Martin, Matias, Stone and Swizz Beatz. The song features an interpolated composition of The O'Jays 's 1972 record "Back Stabbers '' as written by Leon Huff, Gene McFadden, and John Whitehead.
Jose F. Promis from Allmusic wrote that Mahogany Soul 's "true gem is the smoldering, gorgeous, aching "Wish I Did n't Miss You, '' which pulls forward with an unstoppable beat and features a stellar, yearning performance from Miss Stone. '' Similarly, Barry Walters from Rolling Stone declared it the album 's "knockout track ''. Spin magazine ranked the song among the 20 best singles of 2002 and wrote: "If Angie were skinny, Whitney would be unnecessary and Mary J. would worried. Sad but true ''.
Remixed by Hex Hector and Mac Quayle, "Wish I Did n't Miss You '' became a successful club hit and gay anthem.
It was the last song ever played at Space nightclub in Ibiza on 3rd October 2016. It was played by Carl Cox.
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how many times has scotland won the six nations | Six Nations Championship - wikipedia
The Six Nations Championship (recently known as the NatWest 6 Nations for sponsorship reasons) is an annual international rugby union competition between the teams of England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. The current champions are Ireland, having won the 2018 tournament.
The Six Nations is the successor to the Home Nations Championship (1883 -- 1909 and 1932 -- 39), played between teams from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, which was the first international rugby union tournament. With the addition of France, this became the Five Nations Championship (1910 -- 31 and 1947 -- 99), which in turn became the Six Nations Championship with the addition of Italy.
England hold the record for outright wins of the Home Nations, Five Nations and Six Nations tournaments, with 28 titles, although Wales follow closely with 26 outright wins with the addition of 12 shared victories to England 's 10. Since the Six Nations era started in 2000, only Italy and Scotland have failed to win the Six Nations title, although Scotland were the last winners of the Five Nations.
The tournament was first played in 1883 as the Home Nations Championship among the four Home Nations -- England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. The tournament then became the Five Nations Championship in 1910 with the addition of France. The tournament was expanded in 2000 to become the Six Nations Championship with the addition of Italy.
Following the relative success of the Tier 2 nations in the 2015 Rugby World Cup, there were calls by Octavian Morariu, the president of Rugby Union 's governing body for promotion and development, to let Georgia and Romania join the Six Nations due to their consistent success in the European Nations Cup and ability to compete in the Rugby World Cup.
Played annually, the format of the Championship is simple: each team plays every other team once (making a total of 15 matches), with home ground advantage alternating from one year to the next. Prior to the 2017 tournament, two points were awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss. Unlike many other rugby union competitions the bonus point system has not previously been used.
On 30 November 2016, the 6 Nations Committee announced that the bonus point system will be trialled for the 2017 Championship. The system is similar to the one used in most rugby championships (0 points for a loss, 2 for a draw, 4 for a win, 1 for scoring four or more tries in match, and 1 for losing by 7 points or fewer), with the only difference being that a Grand Slam winner will be given 3 extra points to ensure they finish top of the table.
Prior to 1994, teams equal on match points shared the championship. Since then, ties have been broken by considering the points difference of the teams. The rules of the championship further provide that if teams tie on both match points and points difference, the team that scored the most tries wins the championship. Were this decider to be a tie, the tying teams would share the championship. To date, however, match points and points difference have been sufficient to decide the championship.
Also, the team that finishes at the bottom of the league table is said to have "won '' the Wooden Spoon, although no actual trophy is given to the team. A team that has lost all five matches is said to have been whitewashed. Since the inaugural Six Nations tournament in 2000, only England and Ireland have avoided the Wooden Spoon award. Italy are the holders of the most Wooden Spoon awards in the Six Nations era with eleven, and have been whitewashed six times. However, each of the other five nations has accumulated more than that through competing in previous eras.
The winners of the Six Nations are presented with the Championship Trophy. This was originally conceived by the Earl of Westmorland, and was first presented to the winners of the 1993 championship, France. It is a sterling silver trophy, designed by James Brent - Ward and made by a team of eight silversmiths from the London firm William Comyns.
It has 15 side panels representing the 15 members of the team and with three handles to represent the three officials (referee and two touch judges). The cup has a capacity of 3.75 litres -- sufficient for five bottles of champagne. Within the mahogany base is a concealed drawer which contains six alternate finials, each a silver replica of one of the team emblems, which can be screwed on the detachable lid.
A new trophy was introduced for the 2015 Championship. The new trophy was designed and crafted by Thomas Lyte silversmiths and replaces the 1993 edition, which is being retired as it represented the nations that took part in the Five Nations Championship. Ireland were the last team to win the old trophy, and coincidentally, the first team to win the new one.
A team that wins all its games wins the ' Grand Slam '.
Victory by any Home Nation over the other three Home Nations is a ' Triple Crown '. Although this achievement has long been a feature of the tournament, it was not until 2006 that a physical Triple Crown trophy was awarded.
The Triple Crown may only be won by England, Ireland, Scotland or Wales, when one nation wins all three of their matches against the others, during the Six Nations Championship. The Triple Crown honour has long been a feature of the tournament, dating back to the original Home Nations Championship, but the physical Triple Crown Trophy has been awarded only since 2006. The current holder of the Triple Crown is Ireland, who defeated England, Scotland, and Wales in the 2018 championship. For the 2006 Six Nations, the Royal Bank of Scotland (the primary sponsor of the competition) commissioned Hamilton & Inches to design and create a dedicated Triple Crown Trophy. It has since been won three times by Ireland and twice by England and Wales.
Several individual competitions take place under the umbrella of the tournament. The oldest such regular competition is for the Calcutta Cup, contested annually between England and Scotland since 1879. It is named the Calcutta Cup as it is made from melted - down Indian Rupees donated by the Calcutta Club. Since 1988, the Millennium Trophy has been awarded to the winner of the game between England and Ireland, and since 1989 the Centenary Quaich has been awarded to the winner of the game between Ireland and Scotland. Since 2007, France and Italy have contested the Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy; it was created for the 200th anniversary of the birth of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian hero who helped unify Italy and volunteered in the French Republican Army against Prussia.
The following trophies are contested within the main competition, mostly as long - standing fixtures between pairs of teams:
As of the 2018 competition, Six Nations matches are held in the following stadia:
The opening of the Aviva Stadium in May 2010 ended the arrangement with the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) that allowed the all - Ireland governing body for rugby union, the Irish Rugby Football Union, to use the GAA 's flagship stadium, Croke Park, for its international matches. This arrangement was made necessary by the 2007 closure and subsequent demolition of Ireland 's traditional home at Lansdowne Road; the Aviva was built on the former Lansdowne Road site. During the construction of the Aviva, Croke Park was the largest of the Six Nations grounds, with a capacity of 82,300.
In 2012 Italy moved their home games from the Stadio Flaminio, which only held 32,000, to the Stadio Olimpico, also in Rome, with a capacity of 72,000.
The French Rugby Federation (FFR) had planned to build a new stadium of its own, seating 82,000 in the southern suburbs of Paris, because of frustrations with their tenancy of the Stade de France. However the project was cancelled in December 2016.
Bold indicates that the team did not win any matches.
England 's Jonny Wilkinson currently holds the records for individual points in one match (35 points against Italy in 2001) and one season with 89 (scored in 2001). Ronan O'Gara of Ireland holds the career scoring record with 557 points to Wilkinson 's 546, having surpassed Wilkinson in Round 3 of the 2011 championship.
The record for tries in a match is held by Scotsman George Lindsay who scored five tries against Wales in 1887. England 's Cyril Lowe and Scotland 's Ian Smith jointly hold the record for tries in one season with 8 (Lowe in 1914, Smith in 1925). Ireland 's Brian O'Driscoll has the Championship record for tries with 26.
The record for appearances is held by O'Gara, with 63 Six Nations appearances from the start of the Six Nations era in 2000 to his retirement in 2013. He surpassed countryman Mike Gibson in the first round of the 2012 tournament against Wales. Gibson played in 56 Five Nations matches (Italy had not become part of the Championship yet) between 1964 and 1979.
The most points scored by a team in one match was 80 points, scored by England against Italy in 2001. England also scored the most ever points in a season in 2001 with 229, and most tries in a season with 29. Wales hold the record for fewest tries conceded during a season in the Six Nations era, conceding only 2 in 5 games in 2008, but the 1977 Grand Slam - winning France team did not concede a try in their four matches. Wales hold the record for the longest time without conceding a try, at 358 minutes in the 2013 tournament.
The Championship is run from headquarters in Dublin, Ireland by Six Nations Rugby Ltd, which also takes responsibility for the British and Irish Lions tours. The CEO of the Championship is John Feehan, a former Leinster player.
The BBC has long covered the tournament, broadcasting all matches apart from England home matches between 1997 and 2002, which were shown live by Sky Sports with highlights on the BBC. Between 2003 and 2015, the BBC covered every match live on BBC Sport either on BBC One or BBC Two with highlights also on the BBC Sport website and either on the BBC Red Button or late at night on BBC Two. In 2011, it was announced that the BBC 's coverage of the tournament on TV, radio and online would be extended to 2017. However, on 9 July 2015, in reaction to satellite pay - TV bids from Sky Sports and BT Sport for coverage from 2017, BBC agreed to lose exclusive rights to the tournament two years early. But from 2016, BBC and ITV would jointly broadcast the tournament in the UK, with BBC showing all France, Scotland and Wales home matches live, and ITV showing all England, Ireland and Italy home matches live. This means that the Six Nations will remain on free - to - air television in the UK until 2021.
In Ireland, RTÉ have broadcast the championship since RTÉ 's inception and continued to do so until 2017, while TG4 televised highlights. However in late 2015 it was announced that free to air rival TV3 would take over the rights for every game from the Six Nations on Irish Television from 2018 -- 2021, so that after the 2017 championship RTÉ lost the rights.
France Télévisions covered the competition in France; this lasted until 2017.
In Italy, from 2014 to 2017 DMAX of Discovery Communications broadcast all matches, and will do so until 2021.
In the United States, NBC Sports broadcasts matches in English and TV5 Monde airs matches in French. In Wales, S4C also broadcasts matches featuring the Welsh team shown by the BBC in Welsh.
Until 1998, the Championship had no title sponsor. Sponsorship rights were sold to Lloyds TSB for the 1999 tournament and the competition was titled the Lloyds TSB 5 Nations and Lloyds TSB 6 Nations until 2003.
The Royal Bank of Scotland Group took over sponsorship from 2004 until 2017, with the competition being branded the RBS 6 Nations. A new title sponsor was sought for the 2018 tournament and beyond. However, after struggling to find a new sponsor, organisers agreed a one - year extension with the Royal Bank of Scotland Group at a reduced rate. As the RBS initials brand was being phased out, the tournament was named for their banking arm NatWest, becoming the Natwest 6 Nations.
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what is it called when you mix up the letters of a word | Characteristics of dyslexia - wikipedia
Dyslexia is a disorder characterized by problems with the visual notation of speech, which in most languages of European origin are problems with alphabet writing systems which have a phonetic construction.
Examples of these issues can be problems speaking in full sentences, problems correctly articulating Rs and Ls as well as Ms and Ns, mixing up sounds in multi-syllabic words (ex: aminal for animal, spaghetti for spaghetti, helicopter for helicopter, hangaberg for hamburger, ageen for magazine, etc.), problems of immature speech "wed and gween '' instead of "red and green ''.
The characteristics of dyslexia have been identified mainly from research in languages with alphabetic writing systems, primarily English. However, many of these characteristic may be transferable to other types of writing systems.
The causes of dyslexia are not agreed upon, although the consensus of neuroscientists believe dyslexia is a phonological processing disorder and that dyslexics have reading difficulties because they are unable to see or hear a word, break it down to discrete sounds, and then associate each sound with letter / s that make up the word. Some researchers believe that a subset of dyslexics have visual deficits in addition to deficits in phoneme processing, but this view is not universally accepted. In any case, there is evidence that dyslexics literally "see '' letters backward or in reverse order within words.
Some shared symptoms of the speech or hearing deficits and dyslexia:
The identification of these factors results from the study of patterns across many clinical observations of dyslexic children. In the UK, Thomas Richard Miles was important in such work and his observations led him to develop the Bangor Dyslexia Diagnostic Test.
Because of literacy problems, an individual with dyslexia may have difficulty with handwriting. This can involve slower writing speed than average, poor handwriting characterised by irregularly formed letters, or inability to write straight on a blank paper with no guideline.
Some studies have also reported gross motor difficulties in dyslexia, including motor skills disorder. This difficulty is indicated by clumsiness and poor coordination. The relationship between motor skills and reading difficulties is poorly understood but could be linked to the role of the cerebellum and inner ear in the development of reading and motor abilities.
Dyslexia and dyscalculia are two learning disorders with different cognitive profiles. Dyslexia and dyscalculia have separable cognitive profiles, mainly a phonological deficit in the case of dyslexia and a deficient number module in the case of dyscalculia.
Individuals with dyslexia can be gifted in mathematics while having poor reading skills. They might have difficulty with word processing problems (e.g. descriptive mathematics, engineering or physics problems that rely on written text rather than numbers or formulas).
A study has found that entrepreneurs are five times more likely to be dyslexic than average citizens.
Evidence based on randomly selected populations of children indicate that dyslexia affects boys and girls equally; that dyslexia is diagnosed more frequently in boys appears to be the result of sampling bias in school - identified sample populations.
In the United States, researchers estimate the prevalence of dyslexia to range from three to ten percent of school - aged children though some have put the figure as high as 17 percent. Recent studies indicate that dyslexia is particularly prevalent among small business owners, with roughly 20 to 35 percent of US and British entrepreneurs being affected.
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what suburbs are in the sydney metropolitan area | List of Sydney suburbs - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of the suburbs and localities in the greater Sydney area in alphabetical order. Sydney has about 38 local government areas, each consisting of several suburbs (suburbs in Australia are purely geographical, not political, divisions). See table below, Category: Suburbs of Sydney and Category: Local government areas in Sydney.
Suburbs are listed here if they are inside the Sydney metro area, and are listed in the Geographical Names Register as being suburbs. For this list, the boundaries of the Sydney metro area are defined as the Hawkesbury / Nepean River in the north / north west, and then the outer boundaries of the City of Penrith, Camden Council, the City of Campbelltown and Sutherland Shire.
Some but not all Sydney localities are also listed, and localities are shown in italics to differentiate them from suburbs. Further localities may be added if they are on the Geographical Names Register, are inside the Sydney metro area, and are also listed in the "Suburb and Localities Index '' of the most recent (2006) edition of the Sydney UBD Street Directory.
Abbotsbury - Abbotsford - Acacia Gardens - Agnes Banks - Airds - Alexandria - Alfords Point - Allambie Heights - Allawah - Ambarvale - Annandale - Annangrove - Arcadia - Arncliffe - Arndell Park - Artarmon - Ashbury - Ashcroft - Ashfield - Asquith - Auburn - Austral - Avalon Beach
Badgerys Creek - Balgowlah - Balgowlah Heights - Balmain - Balmain East - Bangor - Banksia - Banksmeadow - Bankstown - Bankstown Aerodrome - Barangaroo - Barden Ridge - Bardia - Bardwell Park - Bardwell Valley - Barra Brui - Bass Hill - Baulkham Hills - Bayview - Beacon Hill - Beaconsfield - Beaumont Hills - Beecroft - Belfield - Bella Vista - Bellevue Hill - Belmore - Belrose - Berala - Berkshire Park - Berowra - Berowra Creek - Berowra Heights - Berowra Waters - Berrilee - Beverley Park - Beverly Hills - Bexley - Bexley North - Bickley Vale - Bidwill - Bilgola Beach - Bilgola Plateau - Birchgrove - Birrong - Blackett - Blacktown - Blair Athol - Blairmount - Blakehurst - Bligh Park - Bondi - Bondi Beach - Bondi Junction - Bonnet Bay - Bonnyrigg - Bonnyrigg Heights - Bossley Park - Botany - Bow Bowing - Box Hill - Bradbury - Breakfast Point - Brighton - Le - Sands - Bringelly - Bronte - Brooklyn - Brookvale - Bundeena - Bungarribee - Burwood - Burwood Heights - Busby -
Cabarita - Cabramatta - Cabramatta West - Caddens - Cambridge Gardens - Cambridge Park - Camden - Camden South - Camellia - Cammeray - Campbelltown - Camperdown - Campsie - Canada Bay - Canley Heights - Canley Vale - Canoelands - Canterbury - Caringbah - Caringbah South - Carlingford - Carlton - Carnes Hill - Carramar - Carss Park - Cartwright - Castle Cove - Castle Hill - Castlecrag - Castlereagh - Casula - Catherine Field - Cattai - Cawdor - Cecil Hills - Cecil Park - Centennial Park - Central Business District - Chatswood - Chatswood West - Cheltenham - Cherrybrook - Chester Hill - Chifley - Chippendale - Chipping Norton - Chiswick - Chullora - Church Point - Claremont Meadows - Clarendon - Clareville - Claymore - Clemton Park - Clontarf - Clovelly - Clyde - Coasters Retreat - Cobbitty - Colebee - Collaroy - Collaroy Plateau - Colyton - Como - Concord - Concord West - Condell Park - Connells Point - Constitution Hill - Coogee - Cottage Point - Cowan - Cranebrook - Cremorne - Cremorne Point - Cromer - Cronulla - Crows Nest - Croydon - Croydon Park - Curl Curl - Currans Hill - Currawong Beach
Daceyville - Dangar Island - Darling Point - Darlinghurst - Darlington - Davidson - Dawes Point - Dean Park - Dee Why - Denham Court - Denistone - Denistone East - Denistone West - Dharruk - Dolans Bay - Dolls Point - Doonside - Double Bay - Dover Heights - Drummoyne - Duffys Forest - Dulwich Hill - Dundas - Dundas Valley - Dural
Eagle Vale - Earlwood - East Gordon - East Hills - East Killara - East Lindfield - East Ryde - East Sydney - Eastern Creek - Eastgardens - Eastlakes - Eastwood - Edensor Park - Edgecliff - Edmondson Park - Elanora Heights - Elderslie - Elizabeth Bay - Elizabeth Hills - Ellis Lane - Elvina Bay - Emerton - Emu Heights - Emu Plains - Enfield - Engadine - Englorie Park - Enmore - Epping - Ermington - Erskine Park - Erskineville - Eschol Park - Eveleigh
Fairfield - Fairfield East - Fairfield Heights - Fairfield West - Fairlight - Fiddletown - Five Dock - Flemington - Forest Glen - Forest Lodge - Forestville - Freemans Reach - Frenchs Forest - Freshwater
Galston - Georges Hall - Gilead - Girraween - Gladesville - Glebe - Gledswood Hills - Glen Alpine - Glendenning - Glenfield - Glenhaven - Glenmore Park - Glenorie - Glenwood - Glossodia - Gordon - Granville - Grasmere - Grays Point - Great Mackerel Beach - Green Valley - Greenacre - Greendale - Greenfield Park - Greenhills Beach - Greenwich - Gregory Hills - Greystanes - Guildford - Guildford West - Gymea - Gymea Bay
Haberfield - Hammondville - Harrington Park - Harris Park - Hassall Grove - Hawkesbury River - Haymarket - Heathcote - Hebersham - Heckenberg - Henley - Hillsdale - Hinchinbrook - Hobartville - Holroyd - Holsworthy - Homebush - Homebush West - Horningsea Park - Hornsby - Hornsby Heights - Horsley Park - Hoxton Park - Hunters Hill - Huntingwood - Huntleys Cove - Huntleys Point - Hurlstone Park - Hurstville - Hurstville Grove
Illawong - Ingleburn - Ingleside
Jamisontown - Jannali - Jordan Springs
Kangaroo Point - Kareela - Kearns - Kellyville - Kellyville Ridge - Kemps Creek - Kensington - Kenthurst - Kentlyn - Killara - Killarney Heights - Kings Cross - Kings Langley - Kings Park - Kingsford - Kingsgrove - Kingswood - Kingswood Park - Kirkham - Kirrawee - Kirribilli - Kogarah - Kogarah Bay - Ku - ring - gai Chase - Kurnell - Kurraba Point - Kyeemagh - Kyle Bay
La Perouse - Lakemba - Lalor Park - Lane Cove - Lane Cove North - Lane Cove West - Lansdowne - Lansvale - Laughtondale - Lavender Bay - Leets Vale - Leichhardt - Len Waters Estate - Leonay - Leppington - Lethbridge Park - Leumeah - Lewisham - Liberty Grove - Lidcombe - Lilli Pilli - Lilyfield - Lindfield - Linley Point - Little Bay - Liverpool - Llandilo - Loftus - Londonderry - Long Point - Longueville - Lower Portland - Luddenham - Lugarno - Lurnea
Macquarie Fields - Macquarie Links - Macquarie Park - Maianbar - Malabar - Manly - Manly Vale - Maraylya - Marayong - Maroota - Maroubra - Marrickville - Marsden Park - Marsfield - Mascot - Matraville - Mays Hill - McCarrs Creek - McGraths Hill - McMahons Point - Meadowbank - Melrose Park - Menai - Menangle Park - Merrylands - Merrylands West - Middle Cove - Middle Dural - Middleton Grange - Miller - Millers Point - Milperra - Milsons Passage - Milsons Point - Minchinbury - Minto - Minto Heights - Miranda - Mona Vale - Monterey - Moore Park - Moorebank - Mortdale - Mortlake - Mosman - Mount Annan - Mount Colah - Mount Druitt - Mount Kuring - Gai - Mount Lewis - Mount Pritchard - Mount Vernon - Mulgoa - Mulgrave
Narellan Vale - Naremburn - Narrabeen - Narraweena - Narwee - Nelson - Neutral Bay - Newington - Newport - Newtown - Normanhurst - North Balgowlah - North Bondi - North Curl Curl - North Epping - North Manly - North Narrabeen - North Parramatta - North Richmond - North Rocks - North Ryde - North Seaforth - North St Ives - North St Marys - North Strathfield - North Sydney - North Turramurra - North Willoughby - North Wahroonga - Northbridge - Northmead - Northwood
Oakhurst - Oakville - Oatlands - Oatley - Old Guildford - Old Toongabbie - Oran Park - Orchard Hills - Osborne Park - Oxford Falls - Oxley Park - Oyster Bay
Paddington - Padstow - Padstow Heights - Pagewood - Palm Beach - Panania - Parklea - Parramatta - Peakhurst - Peakhurst Heights - Pemulwuy - Pendle Hill - Pennant Hills - Penrith - Penshurst - Petersham - Phillip Bay - Picnic Point - Pitt Town - Pleasure Point - Plumpton - Point Piper - Port Botany - Potts Hill - Potts Point - Prairiewood - Prestons - Prospect - Punchbowl - Putney - Pymble - Pyrmont
Quakers Hill - Queens Park - Queenscliff
Raby - Ramsgate - Ramsgate Beach - Randwick - Redfern - Regents Park - Regentville - Revesby - Revesby Heights - Rhodes - Richmond - Riverstone - Riverview - Riverwood - Rockdale - Rodd Point - Rookwood - Rooty Hill - Ropes Crossing - Rose Bay - Rosebery - Rosehill - Roselands - Rosemeadow - Roseville - Roseville Chase - Rossmore - Rouse Hill - Royal National Park - Rozelle - Ruse - Rushcutters Bay - Russell Lea - Rydalmere - Ryde
Sackville North - Sadleir - Sandringham - Sans Souci - Scheyville - Schofields - Scotland Island - Seaforth - Sefton - Seven Hills - Shalvey - Shanes Park - Silverwater - Singletons Mill - Smeaton Grange - Smithfield - South Coogee - South Hurstville - South Maroota - South Penrith - South Turramurra - South Wentworthville - South Windsor - Spring Farm - St Andrews - St Clair - St Helens Park - St Ives - St Ives Chase - St Johns Park - St Leonards - St Marys - St Peters - Stanhope Gardens - Stanmore - Strathfield - Strathfield South - Summer Hill - Surry Hills - Sutherland - Sydenham - Sydney Olympic Park - Sylvania - Sylvania Waters
Tamarama - Taren Point - Telopea - Tempe - Tennyson Point - Terrey Hills - The Ponds - The Rocks - Thornleigh - Toongabbie - Tregear - Turramurra - Turrella
Ultimo
Varroville - Vaucluse - Villawood - Vineyard - Voyager Point
Wahroonga - Waitara - Wakeley - Wallacia - Wareemba - Warrawee - Warriewood - Warwick Farm - Waterfall - Waterloo - Watsons Bay - Wattle Grove - Waverley - Waverton - Weavers - Wedderburn - Wentworth Point - Wentworthville - Werrington - Werrington County - Werrington Downs - West Hoxton - West Killara - West Lindfield - West Pennant Hills - West Pymble - West Ryde - Westleigh - Westmead - Wetherill Park - Whalan - Wheeler Heights - Wiley Park - Willmot - Willoughby - Willoughby East - Windsor - Windsor Downs - Winston Hills - Wisemans Ferry - Wolli Creek - Wollstonecraft - Woodbine - Woodcroft - Woodpark - Woollahra - Woolloomooloo - Woolooware - Woolwich - Woronora - Woronora Heights
Yagoona - Yarramundi - Yarrawarrah - Yennora - Yowie Bay
Zetland
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who sings you're gonna miss me when i'm gone from pitch perfect | Cups (song) - wikipedia
"Cups '' is a version of the 1931 Carter Family song "When I 'm Gone '', usually performed a cappella with a cup used to provide percussion, as in the cup game. It was first performed this way in a YouTube video by Luisa Gerstein and Heloise Tunstall - Behrens as Lulu and The Lampshades in 2009 (under the title "You 're Gonna Miss Me ''). Composition of the song is credited to A.P. Carter and Luisa Gerstein of Lulu and the Lampshades.
The song became popular after it was performed by Anna Kendrick in the 2012 film Pitch Perfect. That version also became the official theme song of the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup tournament.
The original song "When I 'm Gone '' was written by A.P. Carter, then recorded in 1931 by the Carter Family (not to be confused with their 1928 song "Will You Miss Me When I 'm Gone? ''). The song was reworked in 1937 by J.E. Mainer. Over the years it has been recorded by many people including Mainer 's Mountaineers and Charlie Monroe. In 1940 it was released by Elizabeth Cotten. A vocalist and guitar player. It can also be heard in the film Dan in Real Life.
Lulu and the Lampshades were the first to perform the song using the cup game for percussion. Anna Burden made her own version of the Lulu on Youtube and the Lamspshades video that was discovered by Reddit, and where Anna Kendrick learned the routine, prompting dozens of other Youtube users to submit cover versions of the song using the Cup Clap technique. It was soon dubbed The Cup Song.
The song is also used for the theme song for the BBC Two sitcom ' Mum ' starring Lesley Manville.
Though the song had been popular online for years, mainstream success came when it was incorporated into the film Pitch Perfect in 2012. In the film it is performed by the main character, Beca Mitchell (Anna Kendrick) during an audition for a college a cappella group. Unlike the soundtrack version, the single version of the song was re-produced with additional instrumentation (notably the banjo) by American Music Award - winning music producer Ali Dee Theodore, Jordan Yaeger and Harvey Mason, Jr... The single version was extended by an additional minute. Prior to the single 's release, covers of the song as well as tutorials on how to do the song (using cups) went viral. Kendrick has stated that she learned the song and its cup percussion from watching and doing it many times on Reddit prior to being cast in Pitch Perfect, and it was therefore written into the film.
Prior to the song 's release as a single in March 2013, the song debuted at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending January 12, 2013. Afterward, the single was released and the song began a slow but steady ascent up the chart. In its 32nd week on the chart, the song reached number 6, its peak position to date. By October 2013, all versions of the song had sold 2.5 million downloads in the US.
On May 4, 2013, "Cups '' returned to the top 50 of the ARIA Charts at a new peak of number 44, achieved in part due to the DVD of Pitch Perfect being released in Australia on April 13, 2013. It originally made it to number 48 in January 2013.
The song 's music video was shot in the fourth week of March 2013, and it was directed by Pitch Perfect 's director Jason Moore. It was released on April 12, 2013 on Anna Kendrick 's Vevo channel; as of February 2018, it has over 400 million views.
It opens with Anna Kendrick in a restaurant 's kitchen cutting dough into biscuits with a styrene - acrylonitrile pebbled tumbler, while looking up longingly at some postcards of far - away places, such as Scotland and Paris, stuck to the refrigerator. She puts the biscuits in the oven, sets a timer, and dusts her hands off with an oscillating fan, before pausing a moment, and then starting the song using the cup on the table. In a long continuous shot, she washes her hands, takes a plate of food from the chef, and makes her way out into the dining area, where all the customers are drumming the cups in various ways. The camera then follows her singing while collecting dirty dishes and cleaning tables, before it pans around and back out wide, showing the entire diner synchronously doing the routine during the bridge section. It then cuts back to her walking back to the kitchen, passing the chef now drumming with a cup instead of wooden utensils, and follows back to her at the table. The timer rings as the song ends, and she looks back up, out towards the dining area where everyone is now normal, realizing it was all her imagination. Taking one last look at the chef, she smiles and exits through the back door.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
The Maccabeats, a Jewish a capella group from Yeshiva University, covered Kendrick 's version and parodied her music video with group members sitting around a Shabbat table singing the Shabbat morning table song "D'ror Yikra '' while performing the cups routine.
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who sings what the world needs now is love | What the World Needs Now is Love - wikipedia
"What the World Needs Now Is Love '' is a 1965 popular song with lyrics by Hal David and music composed by Burt Bacharach. First recorded and made popular by Jackie DeShannon, it was released on April 15, 1965, on the Imperial label after a release on sister label Liberty records the previous month was canceled. It peaked at number seven on the US Hot 100 in July of that year. In Canada, the song reached number one.
The song was originally offered to Dionne Warwick, who turned it down at the time, though she later recorded it for her album Here Where There Is Love. (Warwick also recorded a second version in 1996, which scraped the lower reaches of the US Hot 100.) Bacharach initially did not believe in the song, and was reluctant to play it for DeShannon. DeShannon 's version was recorded on March 23, 1965, at New York 's Bell Sound studios. Bacharach arranged, conducted and produced the session.
In 1968, The Supremes recorded the song for their album Reflections.
In 2011, Ronan Keating recorded the song for his album When Ronan Met Burt.
Kree Harrison, in 2013, made a cover of the song in the 12th season of American Idol. The studio version was recorded by Idol Studio Recordings.
On June 15, 2016, the song was recorded by Broadway for Orlando, with all proceeds going to the victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting.
On Dec. 22, 2016 the Mighty Mighty Bosstones announced the upcoming release of their version of the song
On Mar. 24, 2017 it was re-recorded by Hans Zimmer, Steve Mazzaro & Missi Hale for the movie The Boss Baby.
"What the World Needs Now Is Love '' has been recorded or performed live by over 100 artists, including:
In addition to the DeShannon hit recording and the numerous cover versions, "What the World Needs Now is Love '' served as the basis for a distinctive 1971 remix.
Disc jockey Tom Clay was working at radio station KGBS in Los Angeles, California, when he created the single "What the World Needs Now is Love / Abraham, Martin and John '', a social commentary that became a surprise hit record that summer.
The song begins with a man asking a young boy to define such words as bigotry, segregation, and hatred (to which the boy says he does n't know); he says that prejudice is "when someone 's sick ''. Following that is a soundbite of a drill sergeant leading a platoon into training, along with gunfire sound effects, after which are snippets of the two songs -- both as recorded by The Blackberries, a session recording group. Interspersed are excerpts of speeches by John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, the eulogy (given by Ted Kennedy) after Robert 's assassination, and Martin Luther King, Jr., and soundbites of news coverage of each one 's assassination. The ending of the song is a reprise of the introduction.
"What the World Needs Now is Love / Abraham, Martin and John '' rose to No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1971, and was Clay 's only Top 40 hit.
"What the World Needs Now is Love '' has been used in many film soundtracks, notably Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice and For the Love of Fred (used as the film 's closing theme song in both), Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, My Best Friend 's Wedding, Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, Hot Shots!, Happy Gilmore, and Forrest Gump. In the Danish zodiac porn comedy I Jomfruens tegn (1973), an extended version is used for the hardcore underwater orgy that ends the film.
The song contains the memorable lines:
The song builds upon the theme of "Stowaway in the Sky '', composed in 1960 by Jean Prodromidès for the film of the same title.
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who played caroline lane in maid in manhattan | Natasha Richardson - wikipedia
Natasha Jane Richardson (11 May 1963 -- 18 March 2009) was an English stage and screen actress.
Richardson was a member of the Redgrave family: she was the daughter of actress Vanessa Redgrave and director / producer Tony Richardson, and the granddaughter of Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson. Early in her career, she portrayed Mary Shelley in Ken Russell 's Gothic (1986) and Patty Hearst in the eponymous 1988 film directed by Paul Schrader, and later received critical acclaim and a Theatre World Award for her Broadway debut in the 1993 revival of Anna Christie.
She won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical, the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical, and the Outer Critics Circle Award for her performance as Sally Bowles in the 1998 Broadway revival of Cabaret. Some of her notable films included Patty Hearst (1988), The Handmaid 's Tale (1990), Nell (1994), The Parent Trap (1998), and Maid in Manhattan (2002).
Richardson died on 18 March 2009 from an epidural hematoma, after hitting her head in a skiing accident in Quebec, Canada.
Richardson was born and raised in Marylebone, London, a member of the Redgrave family, known as a theatrical and film acting dynasty. She was the daughter of director and producer Tony Richardson and actress Vanessa Redgrave, granddaughter of actors Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson, sister of Joely Richardson, half - sister of Carlo Gabriel Nero and Katharine Grimond Hess, niece of actress Lynn Redgrave and actor Corin Redgrave, and cousin of Jemma Redgrave.
Richardson 's parents divorced in 1967. The following year, she made her film debut at the age of four in an uncredited role in The Charge of the Light Brigade, directed by her father.
Richardson was educated in London at two independent schools, the Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle in South Kensington, London, and St. Paul 's Girls ' School in Hammersmith, London, before training at the Central School of Speech and Drama.
Richardson began her career in regional theatre at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds, and, in 1984, at the Open Air Theatre in London 's Regent 's Park, when she appeared in A Midsummer Night 's Dream with Ralph Fiennes and Richard E. Grant. Her first professional work in London 's West End was in a revival of Anton Chekhov 's The Seagull in 1985. Soon after, she starred in a London stage production of High Society, adapted from the Cole Porter film. In 1993 she made her Broadway debut in the title role of Anna Christie, which is where she met future husband, Liam Neeson. In 1998, she played the role of Sally Bowles in Sam Mendes ' revival of Cabaret on Broadway, for which she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. The following year she returned to Broadway in Closer, for which she was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play, and in 2005, she appeared again with the Roundabout, this time as Blanche DuBois in their revival of Tennessee Williams 's A Streetcar Named Desire, opposite John C. Reilly as Stanley Kowalski. In January 2009, two months before her death, Richardson played the role of Desirée in a concert production of Stephen Sondheim 's A Little Night Music, opposite her mother, Vanessa Redgrave who played Mme. Armfeldt. At the time of Richardson 's death, the pair were preparing to co-star in a Broadway revivial of the musical.
In 1984, Richardson made her first credited screen appearance as an art tutor in the James Scott - directed Every Picture Tells A Story, based on the early life of the painter William Scott. She later starred as Mary Shelley in the 1986 film Gothic, a fictionalised account of the author 's creation of Frankenstein. The following year she starred opposite Kenneth Branagh and Colin Firth in A Month in the Country, directed by Pat O'Connor. Director Paul Schrader signed her for the title role in Patty Hearst, his 1988 docudrama about the heiress and her kidnapping. Her performances opposite Robert Duvall and Faye Dunaway in The Handmaid 's Tale and Christopher Walken, Rupert Everett and Helen Mirren in The Comfort of Strangers (directed by Schrader) won her the 1990 Evening Standard British Film Award for Best Actress. In 1991, she appeared in The Favour, the Watch and the Very Big Fish alongside Bob Hoskins. He later credited her with giving him the best kiss of his life during the film. "She got hold of me and kissed me like I 've never been kissed before. I was gobsmacked ''.
Richardson was named Best Actress at the 1994 Karlovy Vary International Film Festival for Widows ' Peak, and that same year appeared in Nell opposite Jodie Foster and future husband Liam Neeson. Additional film credits include The Parent Trap (1998), Blow Dry (2001), Chelsea Walls (2001), Waking Up in Reno (2002), Maid in Manhattan (2002), Asylum (2005), which won her a second Evening Standard Award for Best Actress, The White Countess (2005), and Evening (2007). Her last screen appearance was as headmistress of a girls ' school in the 2008 comedy Wild Child. During the last week of January 2009, she recorded her offscreen role of the wife of climber George Mallory, who disappeared while climbing Mount Everest during a 1924 expedition, in the 2010 documentary film The Wildest Dream, for which Liam Neeson provided narration. Director Anthony Geffen described listening to the film since her death as "harrowing. ''
Richardson made her American television debut in a small role in the 1984 CBS miniseries Ellis Island. That same year she made her British television debut in an episode of the BBC series Oxbridge Blues. The following year she appeared as Violet Hunter alongside Jeremy Brett and David Burke in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, in the episode entitled "The Copper Beeches ''. She starred with Judi Dench, Michael Gambon and Kenneth Branagh in a 1987 BBC adaptation of the Henrik Ibsen play Ghosts; with Maggie Smith and Rob Lowe in a 1993 BBC adaptation of Suddenly, Last Summer by Tennessee Williams; portrayed Zelda Fitzgerald in the 1993 television movie Zelda; and starred in Haven (2001) on CBS and The Mastersons of Manhattan (2007) on NBC.
Richardson 's first marriage was to filmmaker Robert Fox, whom she had met in 1985, during the making of Anton Chekhov 's The Seagull; they were married from 1990 to 1992. She married actor Liam Neeson in the summer of 1994, at the home they shared near Millbrook, New York; and had become a naturalized American citizen. Richardson had two sons with Neeson: Micheál (born 1995) and Daniel (born 1996).
Richardson helped raise millions of dollars in the fight against AIDS; her father, director Tony Richardson, had died of AIDS - related causes in 1991. Richardson was also actively involved in AmfAR; she became a Board of Trustees member in 2006, and participated in many other AIDS charities including Bailey House, God 's Love We Deliver, Mothers ' Voices, AIDS Crisis Trust, and National AIDS Trust, for which she was an ambassador. Richardson received amfAR 's Award of Courage in November 2000.
A long - time smoker, although she had reportedly quit smoking, Richardson was an outspoken opponent of the ban on smoking in New York City restaurants.
On 16 March 2009, Richardson sustained a head injury when she fell while taking a beginner skiing lesson at the Mont Tremblant Resort in Mont - Tremblant, about 80 miles (130 km) from Montreal. She was flown to Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City, where she died on 18 March, aged 45. On 19 March, theatre lights were dimmed on Broadway in New York and in London 's West End as a mark of respect for Richardson. The following day, a private wake was held at the American Irish Historical Society in Manhattan. On 22 March, a private funeral was held at St. Peter 's Episcopal Church near Millbrook, New York, close to the family 's upstate home, and Richardson was buried near her maternal grandmother Rachel Kempson in the churchyard. Richardson 's aunt Lynn Redgrave was buried in the same churchyard on 8 May 2010, near Richardson and Kempson. Richardson 's family issued a statement the day of her death: "Liam Neeson, his sons, and the entire family are shocked and devastated by the tragic death of their beloved Natasha. They are profoundly grateful for the support, love, and prayers of everyone, and ask for privacy during this very difficult time. ''
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who pioneered the movement leading to the widow remarriage act | Hindu widows ' remarriage Act, 1856 - Wikipedia
The Hindu Widows ' Remarriage Act, 1856, also Act XV, 1856, enacted on 26 July 1856, legalised the remarriage of Hindu widows in all jurisdictions of India under East India Company rule.
To protect what it considered family honour and family property, upper - caste Hindu society had long disallowed the remarriage of widows, even child and adolescent ones, all of whom were expected to live a life of austerity and abnegation. The Hindu Widows ' Remarriage Act of 1856, enacted in response to the campaign of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for a remarrying Hindu widow, though, under the Act, the widow forsook any inheritance due her from her deceased husband. Especially targeted in the act were Hindu child widows whose husbands had died before consummation of marriage.
The preamble and sections 1, 2, and 5:
Whereas it is known that, by the law as administered in the Civil Courts established in the territories in the possession and under the Government of the East India Company, Hindu widows with certain exceptions are held to be, by reason of their having been once married, incapable of contracting a second valid marriage, and the offsprings of such widows by any second marriage are held to be illegitimate and incapable of inheriting property; and
Whereas many Hindus believe that this imputed legal incapacity, although it is in accordance with established custom, is not in accordance with a true interpretation of the precepts of their religion, and desire that the civil law administered by the Courts of Justice shall no longer prevent those Hindus who may he so minded from adopting a different custom, in accordance with the dictates of their own conscience, and
Where it is just to relieve all such Hindus from this legal incapacity of which they complain, and the removal of all legal obstacles to the marriage of Hindu widows will tend to the promotion of good morals and to the public welfare;
It is enacted as follows:
I. No marriage contracted between Hindus shall be invalid, and the issue of no such marriage shall be illegitimate, by reason of the woman having been previously married or betrothed to another person who was dead at the time of such marriage, any custom and any interpretation of Hindu Law to the contrary notwithstanding.
2. All rights and interests which any widow may have in her deceased husband 's property by way of maintenance, or by inheritance to her husband or to his lineal successors, or by virtue of any will or testamentary disposition conferring upon her, without express permission to remarry, only a limited interest in such property, with no power of alienating the same, shall upon her re-marriage cease and determine as if she had then died; and the next heirs of her deceased husband or other persons entitled to the property on her death, shall thereupon succeed to the same...
3. Except as in the three preceding sections is provided, a widow shall not by reason of her re-marriage forfeit any property or any right to which she would otherwise be entitled, and every widow who has re-married shall have the same rights of inheritance as she would have had, had such marriage been her first marriage.
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what nfl players have the most superbowl rings | Super Bowl ring - wikipedia
The Super Bowl ring is an award in the National Football League given to the winners of the league 's annual championship game, the Super Bowl. Since only one Vince Lombardi Trophy is awarded to the team (ownership) itself, the Super Bowl ring offers a collectable memento for the actual players and team members to keep for themselves to symbolise their victory.
These rings are typically made of yellow or white gold with diamonds. They usually include the team name, team logo, and Super Bowl number (usually indicated in Roman numerals). The NFL contributes up to $5,000 per ring for up to 150 rings for the winning team; any additional costs are borne by the team. Most rings are manufactured by memorabilia company Jostens. In 2015, the rings for the New England Patriots reportedly cost $36,500 each, making them the most expensive rings Jostens has ever produced.
The winning team can typically present rings to whomever they choose, including usually, but not limited to: players (active roster or injured), coaches, trainers, executives, personnel, and general staff. Some teams have given rings to former players and coaches that were on the team at some point during the season, despite not having been on the winning roster for the Super Bowl itself. Sometimes a team will give rings to fans as part of a charity raffle. Teams can distribute any number of rings. A recent trend over the last 15 -- 20 years has been lesser rings awarded to front office staff. These are commonly called "B '' and "C '' level rings and are smaller and contain fewer diamonds or contain faux diamonds. The first instance of this was the Redskins Super Bowl XVII ring when many in the front office received rings that were not solid gold and contained cubic zirconia stones (which resemble diamonds). When Tampa Bay won Super Bowl XXXVII, the players and coaches received rings with a diamond - centered Lombardi trophy. Some staff received rings with a metal Lombardi trophy and real diamonds surrounding the trophy and the "C '' level ring did not contain any diamonds.
Many rings feature diamonds in the shape of the Vince Lombardi Trophy or a football. Some feature diamonds or gold in the shape of a team logo. Others illustrate the number of Super Bowls that franchise has won. Also, the rings are customized with the player 's name and uniform number.
The Green Bay Packers Super Bowl XLV ring contained more than 100 diamonds. The Packer logo, in the center of the ring, made up 13 diamonds, one for each title the team has won, dating back to 1929. In a break from tradition, this is the first Super Bowl ring to be made of platinum, not gold.
The New England Patriots Super Bowl LI ring has 283 diamonds, to commemorate their comeback from being down 28 - 3 versus the Atlanta Falcons late in the 3rd quarter.
Replicas of the rings for various years are popular collectibles, along with genuine rings. Dave Meggett is known to have placed his ring for sale on eBay. Two Super Bowl rings from the 1970 Steelers sold on eBay for over $69,000 apiece in mid-2008. Patriots safety Je'Rod Cherry raffled his ring from Super Bowl XXXVI in November 2008 to benefit several charities working to help children in Africa and Asia. Tight end Shannon Sharpe, meanwhile, gave his first Super Bowl ring to his brother Sterling, who had his career cut short by injury.
In 2011, a Super Bowl ring belonging to Steve Wright, a lineman for the Green Bay Packers in the 1960s, sold for over $73,000 at auction. Three Super Bowl rings belonging to former Raiders ' punter Ray Guy brought over $96,000 at auction. In 2012, Lawrence Taylor 's son sold his father 's Super Bowl ring from 1990 for more than $250,000.
As of 2017, ten players have won championships in both the NFL and Canada 's equivalent Canadian Football League (CFL).
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when is the last time the lions won in green bay | Lions -- Packers rivalry - wikipedia
GB leads 2 -- 0
The Lions -- Packers rivalry is an NFL rivalry between the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers. They first met in 1930 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans and based in Portsmouth, Ohio. The team eventually moved to Detroit for the 1934 season. The Lions and Packers have been division rivals since 1933 and have always met at least twice a season since 1932, without any cancelled games between both rivals (as of today). This is therefore the longest continuously - running rivalry in the NFL.
Updated January 1, 2017.
Other rivalries involving the two teams:
does not include 1966 or 1967 NFL championships
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who played bruno on christmas in the city | James Remar - wikipedia
William James Remar (born December 31, 1953) is an American actor and voice actor. He played Richard, the on - off tycoon boyfriend of Kim Cattrall 's character in Sex and the City, Ajax in The Warriors (1979), homicidal maniac Albert Ganz in the thriller 48 Hrs. (1982), gangster Dutch Schultz in The Cotton Club (1984), Lord Raiden in Mortal Kombat: Annihilation (1997), Jack Duff in Miracle on 34th Street (1994), and Harry Morgan in the Showtime TV series Dexter. Since 2009, he has done voiceover work in ads for Lexus luxury cars. Remar studied acting at The Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City.
Remar was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Elizabeth Mary, a mental health state official originally from West Kirby, England, and S. Roy Remar, an attorney. His paternal grandparents were Russian Jewish immigrants (the family name was originally "Remarman '').
Remar has spent the majority of his film career playing villains. He portrayed the violent and sexually aggressive character Ajax in the cult film The Warriors (1979), and the murdering sociopath Albert Ganz in the hit 48 Hrs. (1982). (Both films were directed by Walter Hill and co-starred David Patrick Kelly, whose character is named Luther in both). Remar also played real - life 1930s - era gangster Dutch Schultz in The Cotton Club (1984).
In contrast to these roles, Remar starred in the film Windwalker (1980) as the young Cheyenne Windwalker, for which he spoke his lines in the Cheyenne language. He also portrayed a gay man in the film Cruising (1980). In the same year, Remar had a cameo in the Western The Long Riders (1980); his character faced David Carradine 's character in a bar fight over a woman Remar 's character was married to.
He was the star of the 1986 film Quiet Cool (1986) and was cast as Corporal Hicks in the science - fiction / horror film Aliens (1986), but was replaced by Michael Biehn shortly after filming began, due to Remar 's having a drug problem. For several years, the reason behind his dismissal was reported as "creative differences '' with director James Cameron. At least one piece of footage featuring Remar made it into the final version of the film: when the Marines enter the processing station, and the camera tilts down from the Alien nest, though Remar is not seen in close - up. He is also filmed from the back as the Marines first enter the compound on LV - 426 and when "Hicks '' approaches the cocooned woman, again filmed from the rear so the viewer is unable to tell it is Remar and not Michael Biehn.
He played Quill, one of the main villains in The Phantom (1996). He appeared in Mortal Kombat: Annihilation (1997), the sequel to the film Mortal Kombat (1995), taking over the role of Raiden from Christopher Lambert. He then followed this with a role in the direct - to - video science fiction movie Robo Warriors (1996). Other films include Psycho (1998), in which he played the patrolman, Drugstore Cowboy (1989), Tales from the Darkside: The Movie (1990), Wedlock (1991), Boys on the Side (1995), The Quest (1996), Rites of Passage (1999), Hellraiser: Inferno (2000), 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003), Fear X (2003), Blade: Trinity (2004), The Girl Next Door (2004). He played a brief role as General Bratt in the prologue of Pineapple Express (2008). He also had a role in the horror movie The Unborn (2009), alongside C.S. Lee, who portrays Vince Masuka in Dexter).
Remar was featured in the film X-Men: First Class (2011) and voiced the Autobot Sideswipe in the film Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011), replacing André Sogliuzzo. He was also cast in the heist film Setup (2011) and starred in the film Arena (2011).
Remar played two different, unrelated characters in Quentin Tarantino 's film Django Unchained (2012): his first character, Ace Speck, is killed near the beginning of the film by lead character, King Schultz (played by Christoph Waltz); Remar 's second character, Butch Pooch, kills King Schultz near the end of the film. He starred, alongside Emma Roberts, Lucy Boynton, and Lauren Holly, in the thriller film The Blackcoat 's Daughter (2015).
Remar 's television appearances include the series Miami Vice, Hill Street Blues, Sex and the City (as the on - again, off - again boyfriend of Kim Cattrall 's character), Tales from the Crypt, Jericho, Third Watch, Justice League Unlimited, and Battlestar Galactica. He also appeared as a possessed mental patient in The X-Files ninth - season episode "Daemonicus ''. He starred as Tiny Bellows on the short - lived television series, The Huntress (2000 -- 2001). He appeared in the miniseries The Grid (2004) as Hudson "Hud '', the love interest of Julianna Margulies ' character. He had a recurring guest role in the 2006 television series Jericho on CBS. Remar guest - starred in the CBS crime drama Numbers, playing a weapons dealer who later turns good and helps the FBI.
From 2006 to 2013, Remar co-starred in Dexter on Showtime. Remar was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Dexter Morgan 's adoptive father, Harry Morgan.
In 2010, he played guest roles as Giuseppe Salvatore in The CW series The Vampire Diaries and as James Ermine, a general for Jericho, a black - ops military contractor, on FlashForward.
He also voiced Vilgax in the animated television series Ben 10: Alien Force and Ben 10: Ultimate Alien, replacing Steve Blum. He guest - starred in Private Practice in 2010, playing a physician named Gibby who works with Doctors Without Borders. On July 23, 2017 Remar was subsequently cast as Peter Gambi on the superhero drama Black Lightning.
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when did the federal government first adopt an income tax | Taxation history of the United States - Wikipedia
The history of taxation in the United States begins with the colonial protest against British taxation policy in the 1760s, leading to the American Revolution. The independent nation collected taxes on imports ("tariffs ''), whiskey, and (for a while) on glass windows. States and localities collected poll taxes on voters and property taxes on land and commercial buildings. There are state and federal excise taxes. State and federal inheritance taxes began after 1900, while the states (but not the federal government) began collecting sales taxes in the 1930s. The United States imposed income taxes briefly during the Civil War and the 1890s. In 1913, the 16th amendment was ratified.
Taxes were low at the local, colonial and imperial levels throughout the colonial era. The issue that led to the Revolution was whether parliament had the right to impose taxes on the Americans when they were not represented in parliament.
The Stamp Act of 1765 was the fourth Stamp Act to be passed by the Parliament of Great Britain and required all legal documents, permits, commercial contracts, newspapers, wills, pamphlets, and playing cards in the American colonies to carry a tax stamp. The exact date the Act was enacted was on November 1, 1765. The Act was enacted in order to defray the cost of maintaining the military presence protecting the colonies. Americans rose up in strong protest, arguing in terms of "No Taxation without Representation ''. Boycotts forced Britain to repeal the stamp tax, while convincing many British leaders it was essential to tax the colonists on something in order to demonstrate the sovereignty of Parliament.
The Townshend Revenue Act were two tax laws passed by Parliament in 1767; they were proposed by Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer. They placed a tax on common products imported into the American Colonies, such as lead, paper, paint, glass, and tea. In contrast to the Stamp Act of 1765, the laws were not a direct tax that people paid daily, but a tax on imports that was collected from the ship 's captain when he unloaded the cargo. The Townshend Acts also created three new admiralty courts to try Americans who ignored the laws.
The tax on sugar, cloth and coffee. These were non-British exports.
The Tea Act of 1773 received the royal assent on May 10, 1773. This act was a "drawback on duties and tariffs '' on tea. The act was designed to undercut tea smugglers to the benefit of the East India Company.
The Boston Tea Party was an act of protest by the American colonists against Great Britain for the Tea Act in which they dumped many chests of tea into Boston Harbor. The cuts to taxation on tea undermined American smugglers, who destroyed the tea in retaliation for its exemption from taxes. Britain reacted harshly, and the conflict escalated to war in 1775.
An assessment levied by the government upon a person at a fixed rate regardless of income or worth.
Tariffs have played different roles in trade policy and the economic history of the United States. Tariffs were the largest source of federal revenue from the 1790s to the eve of World War I, until it was surpassed by income taxes. Since the revenue from the tariff was considered essential and easy to collect at the major ports, it was agreed the nation should have a tariff for revenue purposes.
Another role the tariff played was in the protection of local industry; it was the political dimension of the tariff. From the 1790s to the present day, the tariff (and closely related issues such as import quotas and trade treaties) generated enormous political stresses. These stresses lead to the Nullification crisis during the 19th century, and the creation of the WTO.
When Alexander Hamilton was the United States Secretary of the Treasury he issued the Report on Manufactures, which reasoned that applying tariffs in moderation, in addition to raising revenue to fund the federal government, would also encourage domestic manufacturing and growth of the economy by applying the funds raised in part towards subsidies (called bounties in his time) to manufacturers. The main purposes sought by Hamilton through the tariff were to: (1) protect American infant industry for a short term until it could compete; (2) raise revenue to pay the expenses of government; (3) raise revenue to directly support manufacturing through bounties (subsidies). This resulted in the passage of three tariffs by Congress, the Tariff of 1789, the Tariff of 1790, and the Tariff of 1792 which progressively increased tariffs.
Tariffs contributed to sectionalism between the North and the South. The Tariff of 1824 increased tariffs in order to protect American industry in the face of cheaper imported commodities such as iron products, wool and cotton textiles, and agricultural goods from England. This tariff was the first in which the sectional interests of the North and the South truly came into conflict because the South advocated lower tariffs in order to take advantage of tariff reciprocity from England and other countries that purchased raw agricultural materials from the South.
The Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations, and the Tariff of 1832 accelerated sectionalism between the North and the South. For a brief moment in 1832, South Carolina made vague threats to leave the Union over the tariff issue. In 1833, to ease North - South relations, Congress lowered the tariffs. In the 1850s, the South gained greater influence over tariff policy and made subsequent reductions.
In 1861, just prior to the Civil War, Congress enacted the Morrill Tariff, which applied high rates and inaugurated a period of relatively continuous trade protection in the United States that lasted until the Underwood Tariff of 1913. The schedule of the Morrill Tariff and its two successor bills were retained long after the end of the Civil War.
In 1921, Congress sought to protect local agriculture as opposed to industry by passing the Emergency Tariff, which increased rates on wheat, sugar, meat, wool and other agricultural products brought into the United States from foreign nations, which provided protection for domestic producers of those items.
However, one year later Congress passed another tariff, the Fordney - McCumber Tariff, which applied the scientific tariff and the American Selling Price. The purpose of the scientific tariff was to equalize production costs among countries so that no country could undercut the prices charged by American companies. The difference of production costs was calculated by the Tariff Commission. A second novelty was the American Selling Price. This allowed the president to calculate the duty based on the price of the American price of a good, not the imported good.
During the outbreak of the Great Depression in 1930, Congress raised tariffs via the Smoot - Hawley Tariff Act on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels, and, in the opinion of most economists, worsened the Great Depression by causing other countries to reciprocate thereby plunging American imports and exports by more than half.
In 1948, the US signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which reduced tariff barriers and other quantitative restrictions and subsidies on trade through a series of agreements.
In 1993, the GATT was updated (GATT 1994) to include new obligations upon its signatories. One of the most significant changes was the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Whereas GATT was a set of rules agreed upon by nations, the WTO is an institutional body. The WTO expanded its scope from traded goods to trade within the service sector and intellectual property rights. Although it was designed to serve multilateral agreements, during several rounds of GATT negotiations (particularly the Tokyo Round) plurilateral agreements created selective trading and caused fragmentation among members. WTO arrangements are generally a multilateral agreement settlement mechanism of GATT.
Federal excise taxes are applied to specific items such as motor fuels, tires, telephone usage, tobacco products, and alcoholic beverages. Excise taxes are often, but not always, allocated to special funds related to the object or activity taxed.
During the presidency of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton proposed a tax on distilled spirits to fund his policy of assuming the war debt of the American Revolution for those states which had failed to pay. After a vigorous debate, the House decided by a vote of 35 - 21 to approve legislation imposing a seven cent per - gallon excise tax on whiskey. This marks the first time in American history that congress voted to tax an American product, which led to the Whiskey Rebellion.
The history of income taxation in the United States began in the 19th century with the imposition of income taxes to fund war efforts. However, the constitutionality of income taxation was widely held in doubt (Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Company, 157 U.S. 429 (1895)) "until 1913 with the ratification of the 16th Amendment.
Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution assigns Congress the power to impose "Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, '' but Article I, Section 8 requires that, "Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. ''
In addition, the Constitution specifically limited Congress ' ability to impose direct taxes, by requiring it to distribute direct taxes in proportion to each state 's census population. It was thought that head taxes and property taxes (slaves could be taxed as either or both) were likely to be abused, and that they bore no relation to the activities in which the federal government had a legitimate interest. The fourth clause of section 9 therefore specifies that, "No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. ''
Taxation was also the subject of Federalist No. 33 penned secretly by the Federalist Alexander Hamilton under the pseudonym Publius. In it, he explains that the wording of the "Necessary and Proper '' clause should serve as guidelines for the legislation of laws regarding taxation. The legislative branch is to be the judge, but any abuse of those powers of judging can be overturned by the people, whether as states or as a larger group.
What seemed to be a straightforward limitation on the power of the legislature based on the subject of the tax proved inexact and unclear when applied to an income tax, which can be arguably viewed either as a direct or an indirect tax. The courts have generally held that direct taxes are limited to taxes on people (variously called "capitation '', "poll tax '' or "head tax '') and property. All other taxes are commonly referred to as "indirect taxes ''.
In order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, Congress imposed its first personal income tax in 1861. It was part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3 % of all incomes over US $800; rescinded in 1872). Congress also enacted the Revenue Act of 1862, which levied a 3 % tax on incomes above $600, rising to 5 % for incomes above $10,000. Rates were raised in 1864. This income tax was repealed in 1872.
A new income tax statute was enacted as part of the 1894 Tariff Act. At that time, the United States Constitution specified that Congress could impose a "direct '' tax only if the law apportioned that tax among the states according to each state 's census population.
In 1895, the United States Supreme Court ruled, in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., that taxes on rents from real estate, on interest income from personal property and other income from personal property (which includes dividend income) were direct taxes on property and therefore had to be apportioned. Since apportionment of income taxes is impractical, the Pollock rulings had the effect of prohibiting a federal tax on income from property. Due to the political difficulties of taxing individual wages without taxing income from property, a federal income tax was impractical from the time of the Pollock decision until the time of ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment (below).
In response to the Supreme Court decision in the Pollock case, Congress proposed the Sixteenth Amendment, which was ratified in 1913, and which states:
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
The Supreme Court in Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad, 240 U.S. 1 (1916), indicated that the Sixteenth Amendment did not expand the federal government 's existing power to tax income (meaning profit or gain from any source) but rather removed the possibility of classifying an income tax as a direct tax on the basis of the source of the income. The Amendment removed the need for the income tax on interest, dividends and rents to be apportioned among the states on the basis of population. Income taxes are required, however, to abide by the law of geographical uniformity.
Congress enacted an income tax in October 1913 as part of the Revenue Act of 1913, levying a 1 % tax on net personal incomes above $3,000, with a 6 % surtax on incomes above $500,000. By 1918, the top rate of the income tax was increased to 77 % (on income over $1,000,000, equivalent of 15,300,000 in 2012 dollars) to finance World War I. The average rate for the rich however, was only 15 %. The top marginal tax rate was reduced to 58 % in 1922, to 25 % in 1925 and finally to 24 % in 1929. In 1932 the top marginal tax rate was increased to 63 % during the Great Depression and steadily increased, reaching 94 % (on all income over $200,000, equivalent of 2,500,000 in 2012 dollars) in 1945. During World War II, Congress introduced payroll withholding and quarterly tax payments.
Following World War II tax increases, top marginal individual tax rates stayed near or above 90 %, and the effective tax rate at 70 % for the highest incomes (few paid the top rate), until 1964 when the top marginal tax rate was lowered to 70 %. Kennedy explicitly called for a top rate of 65 percent, but added that it should be set at 70 percent if certain deductions were n't phased out at the top of the income scale. The top marginal tax rate was lowered to 50 % in 1982 and eventually to 28 % in 1988. It slowly increased to 39.6 % in 2000, then was reduced to 35 % for the period 2003 through 2012. Corporate tax rates were lowered from 48 % to 46 % in 1981 (PL 97 - 34), then to 34 % in 1986 (PL 99 - 514), and increased to 35 % in 1993.
Timothy Noah, senior editor of the New Republic, argues that while Ronald Reagan made massive reductions in the nominal marginal income tax rates with his Tax Reform Act of 1986, this reform did not make a similarly massive reduction in the effective tax rate on the higher marginal incomes. Noah writes in his ten part series entitled "The Great Divergence, '' that in 1979, the effective tax rate on the top 0.01 percent of taxpayers was 42.9 percent, according to the Congressional Budget Office, but that by Reagan 's last year in office it was 32.2 %. This effective rate on high incomes held steadily until the first few years of the Clinton presidency when it increased to a peak high of 41 %. However, it fell back down to the low 30s by his second term in the White House. This percentage reduction in the effective marginal income tax rate for the wealthiest Americans, 9 %, is not a very large decrease in their tax burden, according to Noah, especially in comparison to the 20 % drop in nominal rates from 1980 to 1981 and the 15 % drop in nominal rates from 1986 to 1987. In addition to this small reduction on the income taxes of the wealthiest taxpayers in America, Noah discovered that the effective income tax burden for the bottom 20 % of wage earners was 8 % in 1979 and dropped to 6.4 % under the Clinton Administration. This effective rate further dropped under the George W. Bush Administration. Under Bush, the rate decreased from 6.4 % to 4.3 %. Looking at the simple math, reductions in the effective income tax burden on the poor coinciding with modest reductions in the effective income tax rate on the wealthiest 0.01 % of tax payers could not alone have been the direct cause of increased income inequality that began in the 1980s. These figures also correspond to an analysis of effective tax rates from 1979 -- 2005 by the Congressional Budget Office.
Congress re-adopted the income tax in 1913, levying a 1 % tax on net personal incomes above $3,000, with a 6 % surtax on incomes above $500,000. By 1918, the top rate of the income tax was increased to 77 % (on income over $1,000,000) to finance World War I. The top marginal tax rate was reduced to 58 % in 1922, to 25 % in 1925, and finally to 24 % in 1929. In 1932 the top marginal tax rate was increased to 63 % during the Great Depression and steadily increased.
During World War II, Congress introduced payroll withholding and quarterly tax payments. In pursuit of equality (rather than revenue) President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a 100 % tax on all incomes over $25,000. When Congress did not enact that proposal, Roosevelt issued an executive order attempting to achieve a similar result through a salary cap on certain salaries in connection with contracts between the private sector and the federal government. For tax years 1944 through 1951, the highest marginal tax rate for individuals was 91 %, increasing to 92 % for 1952 and 1953, and reverting to 91 % for tax years 1954 through 1963.
For the 1964 tax year, the top marginal tax rate for individuals was lowered to 77 %, and then to 70 % for tax years 1965 through 1981. In 1978 income brackets were adjusted for inflation, so fewer people were taxed at high rates. The top marginal tax rate was lowered to 50 % for tax years 1982 through 1986. Reagan undid 40 % of his 1981 tax cut, in 1983 he hiked gas and payroll taxes, and in 1984 he raised tax revenue by closing loopholes for businesses. According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett, Reagan 's 12 tax increases over the course of his presidency took back half of the 1981 tax cut.
For tax year 1987, the highest marginal tax rate was 38.5 % for individuals. It was lowered to 28 % in revenue neutral fashion, eliminating many loopholes and shelters, along with in corporate taxes, (with a 33 % "bubble rate '') for tax years 1988 through 1990. Ultimately, the combination of base broadening and rate reduction raised revenue equal to about 4 % of existing tax revenue
For the 1991 and 1992 tax years, the top marginal rate was increased to 31 % in a budget deal President George H.W. Bush made with the Congress.
In 1993 the Clinton administration proposed and the Congress accepted (with no Republican support) an increase in the top marginal rate to 39.6 % for the 1993 tax year, where it remained through tax year 2000.
In 2001, President George W. Bush proposed and the Congress accepted an eventual lowering of the top marginal rate to 35 %. However, this was done in stages: with a highest marginal rate of 39.1 % for 2001, then 38.6 % for 2002 and finally 35 % for years 2003 through 2010. This measure had a sunset provision and was scheduled to expire for the 2011 tax year, when rates would have returned to those adopted during the Clinton years unless Congress changed the law; Congress did so by passing the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization and Job Creation Act of 2010, signed by President Barack Obama on December 17, 2010.
At first the income tax was incrementally expanded by the Congress of the United States, and then inflation automatically raised most persons into tax brackets formerly reserved for the wealthy until income tax brackets were adjusted for inflation. Income tax now applies to almost two - thirds of the population. The lowest earning workers, especially those with dependents, pay no income taxes as a group and actually get a small subsidy from the federal government because of child credits and the Earned Income Tax Credit.
While the government was originally funded via tariffs upon imported goods, tariffs now represent only a minor portion of federal revenues. Non-tax fees are generated to recompense agencies for services or to fill specific trust funds such as the fee placed upon airline tickets for airport expansion and air traffic control. Often the receipts intended to be placed in "trust '' funds are used for other purposes, with the government posting an IOU (' I owe you ') in the form of a federal bond or other accounting instrument, then spending the money on unrelated current expenditures.
Net long - term capital gains as well as certain types of qualified dividend income are taxed preferentially. The federal government collects several specific taxes in addition to the general income tax. Social Security and Medicare are large social support programs which are funded by taxes on personal earned income (see below).
Tax statutes passed after the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 are sometimes referred to as the "modern '' tax statutes. Hundreds of Congressional acts have been passed since 1913, as well as several codifications (i.e., topical reorganizations) of the statutes (see Codification).
The modern interpretation of the Sixteenth Amendment taxation power can be found in Commissioner v. Glenshaw Glass Co. 348 U.S. 426 (1955). In that case, a taxpayer had received an award of punitive damages from a competitor, and sought to avoid paying taxes on that award. The U.S. Supreme Court observed that Congress, in imposing the income tax, had defined income to include:
gains, profits, and income derived from salaries, wages, or compensation for personal service... of whatever kind and in whatever form paid, or from professions, vocations, trades, businesses, commerce, or sales, or dealings in property, whether real or personal, growing out of the ownership or use of or interest in such property; also from interest, rent, dividends, securities, or the transaction of any business carried on for gain or profit, or gains or profits and income derived from any source whatever.
The Court held that "this language was used by Congress to exert in this field the full measure of its taxing power '', id., and that "the Court has given a liberal construction to this broad phraseology in recognition of the intention of Congress to tax all gains except those specifically exempted. ''
The Court then enunciated what is now understood by Congress and the Courts to be the definition of taxable income, "instances of undeniable accessions to wealth, clearly realized, and over which the taxpayers have complete dominion. '' Id. at 431. The defendant in that case suggested that a 1954 rewording of the tax code had limited the income that could be taxed, a position which the Court rejected, stating:
The definition of gross income has been simplified, but no effect upon its present broad scope was intended. Certainly punitive damages can not reasonably be classified as gifts, nor do they come under any other exemption provision in the Code. We would do violence to the plain meaning of the statute and restrict a clear legislative attempt to bring the taxing power to bear upon all receipts constitutionally taxable were we to say that the payments in question here are not gross income.
In Conner v. United States, a couple had lost their home to a fire, and had received compensation for their loss from the insurance company, partly in the form of hotel costs reimbursed. The U.S. District Court acknowledged the authority of the IRS to assess taxes on all forms of payment, but did not permit taxation on the compensation provided by the insurance company, because unlike a wage or a sale of goods at a profit, this was not a gain. As the court noted, "Congress has taxed income, not compensation ''. By contrast, at least two Federal courts of appeals have indicated that Congress may constitutionally tax an item as "income, '' regardless of whether that item is in fact income. See Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner and Murphy v. Internal Revenue Serv.
The origins of the estate and gift tax occurred during the rise of the state inheritance tax in the late 19th century and the progressive era.
In the 1880s and 1890s many states passed inheritance taxes, which taxed the donees on the receipt of their inheritance. While many objected to the application of an inheritance tax, some including Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller supported increases in the taxation of inheritance.
At the beginning of the 20th century President Theodore Roosevelt advocated the application of a progressive inheritance tax on the federal level.
In 1916, Congress adopted the present federal estate tax, which instead of taxing the wealth that a donee inherited as occurred in the state inheritance taxes it taxed the wealth of a donor 's estate upon transfer.
Later, Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1924, which imposed the gift tax, a tax on gifts given by the donor.
In 1948 Congress allowed marital deductions for the estate and the gift tax. In 1981, Congress expanded this deduction to an unlimited amount for gifts between spouses.
Today, the estate tax is a tax imposed on the transfer of the "taxable estate '' of a deceased person, whether such property is transferred via a will or according to the state laws of intestacy. The estate tax is one part of the Unified Gift and Estate Tax system in the United States. The other part of the system, the gift tax, imposes a tax on transfers of property during a person 's life; the gift tax prevents avoidance of the estate tax should a person want to give away his / her estate just before dying.
In addition to the federal government, many states also impose an estate tax, with the state version called either an estate tax or an inheritance tax. Since the 1990s, the term "death tax '' has been widely used by those who want to eliminate the estate tax, because the terminology used in discussing a political issue affects popular opinion.
If an asset is left to a spouse or a charitable organization, the tax usually does not apply. The tax is imposed on other transfers of property made as an incident of the death of the owner, such as a transfer of property from an intestate estate or trust, or the payment of certain life insurance benefits or financial account sums to beneficiaries.
Prior to the Great Depression, the following economic problems were considered great hazards to working - class Americans:
In the 1930s, the New Deal introduced Social Security to rectify the first three problems (retirement, injury - induced disability, or congenital disability). It introduced the FICA tax as the means to pay for Social Security.
In the 1960s, Medicare was introduced to rectify the fourth problem (health care for the elderly). The FICA tax was increased in order to pay for this expense.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt introduced the Social Security (FICA) Program. FICA began with voluntary participation, participants would have to pay 1 % of the first $1,400 of their annual incomes into the Program, the money the participants elected to put into the Program would be deductible from their income for tax purposes each year, the money the participants put into the independent "Trust Fund '' rather than into the General operating fund, and therefore, would only be used to fund the Social Security Retirement Program, and no other Government program, and, the annuity payments to the retirees would never be taxed as income.
During the Lyndon B. Johnson administration Social Security moved from the trust fund to the general fund. Participants may not have an income tax deduction for Social Security withholding. Immigrants became eligible for Social Security benefits during the Carter administration. During the Reagan administration Social Security annuities became taxable.
The alternative minimum tax (AMT) was introduced by the Tax Reform Act of 1969, and became operative in 1970. It was intended to target 155 high - income households that had been eligible for so many tax benefits that they owed little or no income tax under the tax code of the time.
In recent years, the AMT has been under increased attention. With the Tax Reform Act of 1986, the AMT was broadened and refocused on home owners in high tax states. Because the AMT is not indexed to inflation and recent tax cuts, an increasing number of middle - income taxpayers have been finding themselves subject to this tax.
In 2006, the IRS 's National Taxpayer Advocate 's report highlighted the AMT as the single most serious problem with the tax code. The advocate noted that the AMT punishes taxpayers for having children or living in a high - tax state, and that the complexity of the AMT leads to most taxpayers who owe AMT not realizing it until preparing their returns or being notified by the IRS. (2)
The origins of the income tax on gains from capital assets did not distinguish capital gains from ordinary income. From 1913 to 1921, income from capital gains were taxed at ordinary rates, initially up to a maximum rate of 7 percent.
Congress began to distinguish the taxation of capital gains from the taxation of ordinary income according to the holding period of the asset with the Revenue Act of 1921, allowed a tax rate of 12.5 percent gain for assets held at least two years.
In addition to different tax rates depending on holding period, Congress began excluding certain percentages of capital gains depending on holding period. From 1934 to 1941, taxpayers could exclude percentages of gains that varied with the holding period: 20, 40, 60, and 70 percent of gains were excluded on assets held 1, 2, 5, and 10 years, respectively. Beginning in 1942, taxpayers could exclude 50 percent of capital gains from income on assets held at least six months or elect a 25 percent alternative tax rate if their ordinary tax rate exceeded 50 percent.
Capital gains tax rates were significantly increased in the 1969 and 1976 Tax Reform Acts.
The 1970s and 1980s saw a period of oscillating capital gains tax rates. In 1978, Congress reduced capital gains tax rates by eliminating the minimum tax on excluded gains and increasing the exclusion to 60 percent, thereby reducing the maximum rate to 28 percent. The 1981 tax rate reductions further reduced capital gains rates to a maximum of 20 percent.
Later in the 1980s Congress began increasing the capital gains tax rate and repealing the exclusion of capital gains. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 repealed the exclusion from income that provided for tax - exemption of long term capital gains, raising the maximum rate to 28 percent (33 percent for taxpayers subject to phaseouts). When the top ordinary tax rates were increased by the 1990 and 1993 budget acts, an alternative tax rate of 28 percent was provided. Effective tax rates exceeded 28 percent for many high - income taxpayers, however, because of interactions with other tax provisions.
The end of the 1990s and the beginning of the present century heralded major reductions in taxing the income from gains on capital assets. Lower rates for 18 - month and five - year assets were adopted in 1997 with the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997. In 2001, President George W. Bush signed the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001, into law as part of a $1.35 trillion tax cut program.
The United States ' corporate tax rate was at its highest, 52.8 percent, in 1968 and 1969. The top rate was hiked for the last time in 1993 to its current rate of 35 percent.
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do singaporeans need a visa to visit netherlands | Visa requirements for Singaporean citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Singaporean citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states which are imposed on citizens of Singapore.
As of May 2018, Singaporean citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 188 countries and territories, ranking the Singaporean passport 2nd in terms of travel freedom (tied with the German passport), according to the Henley Passport Index. Arton 's Passport Index 2018 ranked the Singaporean passport 1st in the world with a visa - free score of 164 countries and territories.
Besides the Singaporean passport, there are only 3 other passports that provide either visa - free entry, or entry via an electronic travel authorisation, to the world 's four largest economies: China (visa - free, 15 days), India (e-Visa, 60 days), the European Union (visa - free, 90 days within 180 days), and the United States (ESTA, 90 days): those of Brunei, Japan, and San Marino. The Singaporean passport also provides visa - free access to all ASEAN nations.
Requirements for Singaporean citizens to have visas were recently lifted by Suriname (January 2016), Azerbaijan (February 2016), Cuba (May 2016), Myanmar (December 2016), Belarus (February 2017), Paraguay (October 2017), Uzbekistan (10 February 2018), and Angola (30 March 2018).
India made Singaporean citizens eligible for the e-Visa in November 2014 after phasing out its previous visa on arrival (VOA) policy, although VOA access for Singaporean citizens might be reinstated under a new policy in the future. In August 2017, electronic visas for up to 8 days for Singaporean citizens were introduced Russia for the Primorye, Kamchatka and Sakhalin regions of the Russian Far East for tourism, business and humanitarian purposes.
Visa requirements for holders of normal passports travelling for tourist purposes:
Pre-approved visas can be picked up on arrival in the following countries instead in embassy or consulate.
Visa requirements for Singaporean citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
Singapore citizens are also eligible for automated immigration clearance in selected countries.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages which oftentimes appear after the visa pages are not counted.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries including Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea and the United States demand all travellers, or all foreign travellers, to be fingerprinted on arrival.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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where was the island scene in skyfall filmed | Hashima island - wikipedia
Hashima Island (端島, or simply Hashima -- - shima is a Japanese suffix for island), commonly called Gunkanjima (軍艦 島; meaning Battleship Island), is an abandoned island lying about 15 kilometers (9 miles) from the city of Nagasaki, in southern Japan. It is one of 505 uninhabited islands in Nagasaki Prefecture. The island 's most notable features are its abandoned concrete buildings, undisturbed except by nature, and the surrounding sea wall. While the island is a symbol of the rapid industrialization of Japan, it is also a reminder of its history as a site of forced labor prior to and during the Second World War.
The 6.3 - hectare (16 - acre) island was known for its undersea coal mines, established in 1887, which operated during the industrialization of Japan. The island reached a peak population of 5,259 in 1959. In 1974, with the coal reserves nearing depletion, the mine was closed and all of the residents departed soon after, leaving the island effectively abandoned for the following three decades. Interest in the island re-emerged in the 2000s on account of its undisturbed historic ruins, and it gradually became a tourist attraction. Certain collapsed exterior walls have since been restored, and travel to Hashima was re-opened to tourists on April 22, 2009. Increasing interest in the island resulted in an initiative for its protection as a site of industrial heritage.
The island was formally approved as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in July 2015, as part of Japan 's Sites of Japan 's Meiji Industrial Revolution: Iron and Steel, Shipbuilding and Coal Mining.
Battleship Island is an English translation of the Japanese nickname for Hashima Island, Gunkanjima (gunkan meaning battleship, jima being the rendaku form of shima, meaning island). The island 's nickname came from its resemblance to the Japanese battleship Tosa.
Coal was first discovered on the island around 1810, and the island was continuously inhabited from 1887 to 1974 as a seabed coal mining facility. Mitsubishi Goshi Kaisha bought the island in 1890 and began extracting coal from undersea mines, while seawalls and land reclamation (which tripled the size of the island) were constructed. Four main mine - shafts (reaching up to 1 kilometre deep) were built, with one actually connecting it to a neighbouring island. Between 1891 and 1974 around 15.7 million tons of coal were excavated in mines with temperatures of 30 ° C and 95 % humidity.
In 1916 the company built Japan 's first large reinforced concrete building (a 7 floor miner 's apartment block), to accommodate their burgeoning ranks of workers. Concrete was specifically used to protect against typhoon destruction. Over the next 55 years, more buildings were constructed, including apartment blocks, a school, kindergarten, hospital, town hall, and a community centre. For entertainment, a clubhouse, cinema, communal bath, swimming pool, rooftop gardens, shops, and a pachinko parlour were built for the miners and their families.
Beginning in the 1930s and until the end of the Second World War, Korean conscripted civilians and Chinese prisoners of war were forced to work under very harsh conditions and brutal treatment at the Mitsubishi facility as forced laborers under Japanese wartime mobilization policies. During this period, it is estimated that about 1,300 of those conscripted laborers died on the island due to various dangers, including underground accidents, exhaustion, and malnutrition.
In 1959, the 6.3 - hectare (16 - acre) island 's population reached its peak of 5,259, with a population density of 835 people per hectare (83,500 people / km, 216,264 people per square mile) for the whole island, or 1,391 per hectare (139,100 people / km) for the residential district.
As petroleum replaced coal in Japan in the 1960s, coal mines began shutting down across the country, and Hashima 's mines were no exception. Mitsubishi officially closed the mine in January 1974, and the island was cleared of inhabitants by April. Today its most notable features are the abandoned and still mostly - intact concrete apartment buildings, the surrounding sea wall, and its distinctive profile shape. The island has been administered as part of Nagasaki city since the merger with the former town of Takashima in 2005. Travel to Hashima was re-opened on April 22, 2009, after 35 years of closure.
The island was owned by Mitsubishi until 2002, when it was voluntarily transferred to Takashima Town. Currently, Nagasaki City, which absorbed Takashima Town in 2005, exercises jurisdiction over the island. On August 23, 2005 landing was permitted by the city hall to journalists only. At the time, Nagasaki City planned the restoration of a pier for tourist landings in April 2008. In addition a visitor walkway 220 metres (722 feet) in length was planned, and entry to unsafe building areas was to be prohibited. Due to the delay in development construction, however, at the end of 2007 the city announced that public access was delayed until spring 2009. Additionally the city encountered safety concerns, arising from the risk of collapse of the buildings on the island due to significant aging.
It was estimated that landing of tourists would only be feasible for fewer than 160 days per year because of the area 's harsh weather. For reasons of cost - effectiveness the city considered cancelling plans to extend the visitor walkway further -- for an approximate 300 metres (984 feet) toward the eastern part of the island and approximately 190 meters (623 feet) toward the western part of the island -- after 2009. A small portion of the island was finally reopened for tourism in 2009, but more than 95 % of the island is strictly delineated as off - limits during tours. A full reopening of the island would require substantial investment in safety, and detract from the historical state of the aged buildings on the property.
The island is increasingly gaining international attention not only generally for its modern regional heritage, but also for the undisturbed housing complex remnants representative of the period from the Taishō period to the Shōwa period. It has become a frequent subject of discussion among enthusiasts for ruins. Since the abandoned island has not been maintained, several buildings have collapsed mainly due to typhoon damage, and other buildings are in danger of collapse. However, some of the collapsed exterior walls have been restored with concrete.
Japan 's 2009 request to include Hashima Island, along with 22 other industrial sites, in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list was initially opposed by South Korean authorities on the grounds that Korean and Chinese forced laborers were used on the island prior to and during World War II. North Korea also criticized the World Heritage bid because of this issue.
A week before the beginning of the 39th UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC) meeting in Bonn, Germany, Korea and Japan came to a compromised agreement that Japan would include the use of forced labor in the explanation of facilities in relevant sites and both nations would cooperate towards the approval of each other 's World Heritage Site candidates.
In July 2015, during the WHC meeting, South Korea withdrew its opposition after Japan 's acknowledgement of this issue as part of the history of the island, specifically noting that "there were a large number of Koreans and others who were brought against their will and forced to work under harsh conditions in the 1940s at some of the sites (including Hashima island) '' and that Japan was "prepared to incorporate appropriate measures into the interpretive strategy to remember the victims such as the establishment of information center ''. The site was subsequently approved for inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage list on July 5.
However, on the same day immediately after the UNESCO WHC meeting, Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida publicly announced that "the remarks (forced to work under harsh conditions) by the Japanese government representative did not mean ' forced labor ' ''.
A monitoring mechanism for the implementation of ' the measures to remember the victims ' was set up by the World Heritage Committee and it was assessed during the World Heritage Committee Session in June 2018. In this meeting, the UNESCO committee concluded that Japan 's effort and progress to implement appropriate measures to commemorate the victims and acknowledge the full history of the island were unsatisfactory and "strongly urged '' Japan to keep their promises. The official tourism website and tour program for the island operated by Nagasaki City do not currently mention this acknowledgement.
When people resided on the island, the Nomo Shosen line served the island from Nagasaki Port via Iōjima Island and Takashima Island. Twelve round - trip services were available per day in 1970. It took 50 minutes to travel from the island to Nagasaki. After all residents left the island, this direct route was discontinued.
Since 2009 the island has been open once again for public visits. Sightseeing boat trips around or to the island are currently provided by five operators; Gunkanjima Concierge, Gunkanjima Cruise Co., Ltd., Yamasa - Kaiun, and Takashima Kaijou from Nagasaki Port, and a private service from the Nomozaki Peninsula. Landing access to the island costs ¥ 300 per person, exclusive of the cost of boat travel.
In 2002, Swedish filmmaker Thomas Nordanstad visited the island with a Japanese man named Dotokou, who grew up on Hashima. Nordanstad documented the trip in a film called Hashima, Japan, 2002.
During the 2009 Mexican photography festival FotoSeptiembre, Mexican photographers Guillaume Corpart Muller and Jan Smith, along with Venezuelan photographer Ragnar Chacin, showcased images from the island in the exhibition "Pop. Density 5,000 / km ''. The exhibition traced urban density and the rise and fall of cities around the world.
In 2009, the island was featured in History Channel 's Life After People, first - season episode "The Bodies Left Behind '' as an example of the decay of concrete buildings after only 35 years of abandonment.
The island was again featured in 2011 in episode six of a 3D production for 3net, Forgotten Planet, discussing the island 's current state, history and unauthorized photo shoots by urban explorers. The Japanese Cultural Institute in Mexico used the images of Corpart Muller and Smith in the photography exhibition "Fantasmas de Gunkanjima '', organized by Daniela Rubio, as part of the celebrations surrounding 200 years of diplomacy between Mexico and Japan.
More recently, in 2015, the island was featured in the fourth episode of the Science Channel 's series What on Earth. Discussed were the island 's history and it being the most densely populated place on the planet at one time, and included satellite images and a tour of many of the buildings.
In the 2018 Netflix series Dark Tourist (television series), the host David Farrier explores the island as a location for dark tourism, guided by former Japanese residents of the community before it was abandoned.
Sony featured the island in a video promoting one of its video cameras. The camera was mounted onto a mini multi-rotor radio - controlled helicopter and flown around the island and through many buildings. The video was posted on YouTube in April 2013.
In 2013 Google sent an employee to the island with a Street View backpack to capture its condition in panoramic 360 - degree views and allow users to take a virtual walk across the island. Google also took pictures inside the abandoned buildings, which still contain such items as old black - and - white television sets and discarded soda bottles.
The island has appeared in a number of recent feature films. External shots of the island were used in the 2012 James Bond film Skyfall. The 2015 live - action Japanese films based on the manga Attack on Titan used the island for filming multiple scenes, and 2013 Thai horror film Hashima Project was filmed here. The 2017 South Korean World War II film The Battleship Island fictitiously depicts an attempt by Korean forced labourers to escape the labour camp on the island.
Media related to Hashima (Nagasaki) at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 32 ° 37 ′ 40 '' N 129 ° 44 ′ 18 '' E / 32.62778 ° N 129.73833 ° E / 32.62778; 129.73833
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jaron and the long road to love pray for you lyrics | Pray for You (Jaron and the Long Road to Love song) - wikipedia
"Pray for You '' is a song written by Joel Brentlinger & Jaron Lowenstein and recorded by American singer Jaron Lowenstein, credited to Jaron and the Long Road to Love. It is Lowenstein 's first solo single release, following three singles in the duo Evan and Jaron. The song is included on Jaron 's debut album, Getting Dressed in the Dark.
The song was nominated for Single by New / Breakthrough Artist at the first - annual 2010 American Country Awards.
In "Pray for You, '' the narrator is told to pray for those who have wronged him, so he prays for unfavorable events on his former lover (e.g. "I pray your brakes go out running down a hill '').
Jaron told Technorati that the song "was n't started or pushed by some major label or organization. I would love to take the credit for its success, but honestly this is something fans want and they are the ones calling radio to have them play it. ''
The song has been met with positive reviews. Matt Bjorke of Roughstock called the lyrics "clever '' and thought that it was "unique enough lyrically '' to be a hit. Jim Malec of The 9513 gave it a thumbs - up, with his review saying that it "demonstrates a delightful disdain for mainstream protocol -- the song is sinister, and that 's a wonderful respite among a seemingly never - ending pipeline of songs that heavy - handedly tell us how to live and what to believe. '' Brian Mansfield gave a positive review in USA Today. In his review Mansfield called the song "a twisted novelty that combines country 's fondness for spiritual themes and relational revenge. ''
The song has had two music videos. The first was directed by Hank Friedmann and aired on January 4, 2010. A second, issued on April 8, 2010 under the direction of Mark Klasfeld, includes a guest appearance from actress Jaime Pressly. The first music video is about a man who gets revenge on his ex-lover over a voodoo web site. The second music video is about a man who lives with this woman who abuses him in multiple ways.
"Pray for You '' debuted at number 58 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week ending December 5, 2009, and peaked at number 13. On the chart dated for the week ending April 10, 2010, "Pray for You '' entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 87, and has since peaked at number 34, providing the singer with his second Top 40 pop hit (he achieved his first as part of Evan and Jaron).
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how many unesco world heritage sites in uk | List of World Heritage sites in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972.
There are 31 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom and the British Overseas Territories. The UNESCO list contains one designated site in both England and Scotland (the Frontiers of the Roman Empire) plus seventeen exclusively in England, five in Scotland, three in Wales, one in Northern Ireland, and one in each of the overseas territories of Bermuda, Gibraltar, the Pitcairn Islands, and Saint Helena. The first sites in the UK to be inscribed on the World Heritage List were Giant 's Causeway and Causeway Coast; Durham Castle and Cathedral; Ironbridge Gorge; Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey; Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites; and the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd in 1986. The latest site to be inscribed was the Lake District in England in July 2017.
The constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (commonly referred to as UNESCO) was ratified in 1946 by 26 countries, including the UK. Its purpose was to provide for the "conservation and protection of the world 's inheritance of books, works of art and monuments of history and science ''. The UK contributes £ 130,000 annually to the World Heritage Fund which finances the preservation of sites in developing countries. Some designated properties contain multiple sites that share a common geographical location or cultural heritage.
The United Kingdom National Commission for UNESCO advises the British government, which is responsible for maintaining its World Heritage Sites, on policies regarding UNESCO. The UK National Commission for UNESCO conducted research in 2014 - 15 on the Wider Value of UNESCO to the UK, and found that the UK 's World Heritage Sites generated an estimated £ 85 million from April 2014 to March 2015 through their association with the global network.
World Heritage Site selection criteria i -- vi are culturally related, and selection criteria vii -- x are the natural criteria. Twenty - three properties are designated as "cultural '', four as "natural '', and one as "mixed ''. The breakdown of sites by type was similar to the overall proportions; of the 890 sites on the World Heritage List, 77.4 % are cultural, 19.8 % are natural, and 2.8 % are mixed. St Kilda is the only mixed World Heritage Site in the UK. Originally preserved for its natural habitats alone, in 2005 the site was expanded to include the crofting community that once inhabited the archipelago; the site became one of only 25 mixed sites worldwide. The natural sites are the Dorset and East Devon Coast; Giant 's Causeway and Causeway Coast; Gough and Inaccessible Islands; and Henderson Island. The rest are cultural.
In 2012, the World Heritage Committee added Liverpool -- Maritime Mercantile City to the List of World Heritage in Danger citing threats to the site 's integrity from planned urban development projects.
The UNESCO list contains one designated site in both England and Scotland (the Frontiers of the Roman Empire, which is also in Germany) with another sixteen in England, five in Scotland, three in Wales, one in Northern Ireland, and one in each of the overseas territories of Bermuda, Gibraltar, the Pitcairn Islands, and Saint Helena. The maps below show all current World Heritage Sites.
The table lists information about each World Heritage Site:
In addition, one world heritage site falling within the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia is regarded as a site of Cyprus. This is as the 1960 treaty with Cyprus stipulates that "the ancient monuments and antiquity will be administered and maintained by the Republic of Cyprus ''.
The Tentative List is an inventory of important heritage and natural sites that a country is considering for inscription on the World Heritage List, thereby becoming World Heritage Sites. The Tentative List can be updated at any time, but inclusion on the list is a prerequisite to being considered for inscription within a five - to ten - year period.
The UK 's Tentative List was last updated on 25 July 2014, and consisted of 11 sites. The properties on the Tentative List are as follows:
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when was the last time a volcano erupted in iceland | Volcanology of Iceland - wikipedia
Volcanology of Iceland includes a high concentration of active volcanoes due to Iceland 's location on the mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary, and also due to its location over a hot spot. The island has 30 active volcanic systems, of which 13 have erupted since the settlement of Iceland in AD 874.
Of these 30 active volcanic systems, the most active / volatile is Grímsvötn. Over the past 500 years, Iceland 's volcanoes have erupted a third of the total global lava output.
The most fatal volcanic eruption of Iceland 's history was the so - called Skaftáreldar (fires of Skaftá) in 1783 - 84. The eruption was in the crater row Lakagígar (craters of Laki) southwest of Vatnajökull glacier. The craters are a part of a larger volcanic system with the subglacial Grímsvötn as a central volcano. Roughly a quarter of the Icelandic nation died because of the eruption. Most died not because of the lava flow or other direct effects of the eruption, but from indirect effects, including changes in climate and illnesses in livestock in the following years caused by the ash and poisonous gases from the eruption. The 1783 eruption in Lakagígar is thought to have erupted the largest quantity of lava from a single eruption in historic times.
The eruption under Eyjafjallajökull ("glacier of Eyjafjöll '') in 2010 was notable because the volcanic ash plume disrupted air travel in northern Europe for several weeks; however this volcano is minor in Icelandic terms. In the past, eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed by eruption of the larger volcano Katla, but after the 2010 eruption no signs of an imminent eruption of Katla were seen.
The eruption in May 2011 at Grímsvötn under the Vatnajökull glacier sent thousands of tonnes of ash into the sky in a few days, raising concerns of a repeat of the travel chaos seen across northern Europe.
The eruption series that started on August 17, 2014, under the Bárðarbunga system started with an extremely heavy earthquake swarm followed by clusters of volcanic activity that went on for an extended period. This resulted in multiple lava fountain eruptions in Holuhraun. Lava flow was between 250 and 350 cubic meters per second and came from a dyke over 40 km long. There was very limited ash output from this eruption unlike numerous glacial eruptions which are common in Iceland. The primary concern with this eruption was the large plumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere which adversely affected breathing conditions across Iceland, depending on wind direction.
The smooth flowing basaltic lava pāhoehoe is in Iceland called helluhraun. It forms rather flat surfaces that are quite easy to pass.
On the other hand, there is less flowing lava, ʻaʻā, on Iceland called apalhraun. The loose, broken, sharp, spiny surface of an ʻaʻā flow makes hiking difficult and slow.
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rick and morty season 3 episode 3 wiki | Rick and Morty (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the animated television series Rick and Morty originally aired in the United States on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim. It premiered with "The Rickshank Rickdemption '', which aired unannounced on April 1, 2017 as part of Adult Swim 's annual April Fools ' prank. The remaining episodes began airing weekly four months later, on July 30, 2017. The season concluded on October 1, 2017 and consisted of ten episodes.
The actors and actresses listed below lend their voices to the corresponding animated characters.
Other cast members of the season, who each have voiced one or more characters, include: Dan Harmon, Brandon Johnson, Tom Kenny, Maurice LaMarche, Nolan North, Cassie Steele, Kari Wahlgren, Laura Bailey, John DiMaggio, Ryan Ridley, Scott Chernoff, Dan Benson, Clancy Brown, Echo Kellum, Melique Berger, William Holmes, Tara Strong, Jeff B. Davis, Jonas Briedis, Phil Hendrie, Rob Paulsen, Alex Jayne Go, Jennifer Hale and Mariana Wise.
Rick is interrogated via a mind - computer link, inside a galactic federal prison. Summer and Morty attempt to rescue him, but they are captured by SEAL Team Ricks, who take them to the Citadel of Ricks and decide to assassinate Rick. Back at the prison, Rick tricks both the federal agents and his aspiring assassins by switching bodies with them. He then teleports the entire Citadel into the federal prison, prompting a massive battle. Amid the confusion, Rick rescues Morty and Summer and uses the Galactic Federation 's mainframe to make its currency worthless. The Federation falls into chaos and collapses as a result, with the aliens leaving Earth. Rick, Morty, and Summer return home, where Jerry gives Beth an ultimatum to choose between him and Rick. Beth chooses Rick and they decide to get a divorce. After the new status quo is established, Rick reveals to Morty that his ulterior motive was to become his de facto male influence. This escalates into a nonsensical angry rant, centered around Rick 's desire to find more of the discontinued McDonald 's Szechuan sauce, a promotional product for the 1998 film Mulan.
Rick takes Morty and Summer to a Mad Max-esque version of Earth, where they are chased by a group of scavengers, known as Death Stalkers. Rick notices that the group is carrying a valuable rock of Isotope 322, so he and the kids join them in hope of stealing it. Summer falls in love with the Death Stalkers ' leader, while Morty is given the strength of a giant arm, which takes him in search of its previous owner 's killer. Rick leaves and replaces the kids with androids to fool Beth. When he returns, he helps the Death Stalkers use the Isotope to power a more advanced civilization. Summer does n't like how the change softens the Death Stalkers, and she decides to follow Rick and Morty back home. Before leaving, Rick steals the Isotope. The experience helps the kids overcome their parents ' divorce. Summer reconciles with Jerry, and Morty realizes he must live his own life.
Rick turns himself into a pickle to get out of attending school - ordered family therapy, but Beth takes Rick 's serum which would revert the transformation. Left alone, Rick eventually rolls down into an open sewer drain, where he manages to manipulate the nervous systems of dead roaches and rats to build himself a mobile exoskeleton, with added weapons such as razors and drills. He unwittingly escapes into a foreign government agency. The guards try to kill Rick, under orders from the agency director, but Rick kills them all. In the process, Rick battles and ultimately befriends a prisoner named Jaguar. Rick changes his mind and decides to attend the therapy session, arriving towards the end. Dr. Wong gives her diagnosis, observing that Rick crafts relationships that punish emotions and vulnerability. On their way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for deceiving her and uses the serum to turn human again. Morty and Summer wish to continue seeing Dr. Wong, but Rick and Beth ignore them.
At Morty 's insistence, Rick agrees to join the Vindicators, a group of intergalactic superheroes, to fight their arch - nemesis, Worldender. Rick can not hide his disdain for the superheroes, while Morty is thrilled. The next morning, the Vindicators enter Worldender 's base, only to find that the previous night a blackout drunk Rick had killed him and set up a variety of puzzles that the Vindicators must solve to survive. They start arguing and kill one another, while Morty solves all the puzzles, as he knows what Rick had in mind when he put them up. After all puzzles are solved, the only ones left alive are Rick, Morty and Supernova, a member of the Vindicators. Supernova tries to kill Rick and Morty, but before she can do so, the three of them are transported to a party that Rick also set up while blackout drunk, where she gets away.
To bolster Jerry 's self - esteem, Rick takes him on an adventure at Morty 's request. They visit an otherworldly resort within an immortality field so Jerry wo n't be harmed while away. Jerry encounters Risotto Groupon, an alien who blames Rick for his kingdom being usurped. Risotto enlists Jerry in a plot to kill Rick, but Jerry backs out after Rick apologizes for ruining his marriage. Meanwhile, Summer deals with self - esteem issues as well. Her boyfriend, Ethan, leaves her for a larger - breasted girlfriend, and Summer attempts to enlarge her own breasts using one of Rick 's devices. Her aim is off, and she grows to freakish proportions. Morty wants to call Rick for assistance, but Beth refuses. Arrogantly trying to prove her own self - worth, Beth repeatedly fails to fix the problem and is tricked into releasing three tiny technical support workers that were trapped inside the machine. Once Morty figures out how the machine works, he restores Summer 's size and spitefully uses it to deform Ethan in an act of vengeance.
After a six - day outer space adventure that leaves them on the verge of psychological collapse, Rick and Morty decide to spend some time at an alien spa. There, they use a machine that extracts a person 's negative personality traits. However, without Rick and Morty knowing, those traits are transposed into toxic physical counterparts, characterized by Rick 's arrogance and Morty 's self - loathing. On the other hand, the true Rick becomes more considerate, and Morty 's confidence soars, which allows him to start dating girls. Toxic Rick uses a moonlight tower to remake the whole Earth in his own image, but the true Rick reverts the situation by merging back with him. Morty avoids merging back with his toxic counterpart and goes on to live a life as a stock broker in New York City. Rick tracks him down with the help of Jessica, Morty 's classmate, and restores order by re-injecting the negative personality traits into him.
After Morty requests to have a traumatic memory deleted, Rick reveals a room where he has been storing a number of memories he has removed from Morty 's mind. However, as it turns out, besides the memories that Morty did n't want to keep from their adventures, the room also contains memories of moments where Rick was made to look foolish, so he had them forcibly removed. This revelation prompts a fight, during which Rick and Morty have their memories accidentally erased. Morty scours the memories to replace the ones he lost, but he is displeased with the truth he finds, and convinces Rick to both kill themselves. Summer enters the room moments before they commit suicide. At this point, it is revealed that Rick has a contingency plan should this happen. Summer, following written instructions, tranquilizes Rick and Morty, restores their memories and drags them to the living room. Rick and Morty wake up on the couch, believing that they slept through an entire "Interdimensional Cable '' episode.
Rick and Beth enter Froopyland, a fantasy world created by Rick for young Beth. Their goal is to recover Tommy, Beth 's childhood friend who 's been trapped in Froopyland, and prevent the execution of his father, who is being falsely accused of eating him. Tommy, who has survived all these years by resorting to bestiality, incest and cannibalism, refuses to return to the real world. Rick and Beth manage to save his father 's life by creating a clone of Tommy. Back at home, Beth is presented with the option of having a replacement clone of her created, so that she will be free to travel the world. Meanwhile, Jerry dates an alien hunter named Kiara, to Morty and Summer 's dismay. When he decides to get out of the relationship, Kiara is enraged and tries to kill the kids, whom she holds responsible. The situation is resolved following the revelation that Kiara was using Jerry to get over her previous boyfriend, much like Jerry was doing with her.
The President calls on Rick and Morty to defeat a monster in the tunnels underneath the White House, which they do with little effort. Annoyed that he constantly calls on them without any gratitude, they go back home, with the President quickly finding out. The resulting argument leads to a battle of egos that culminates in a fight in the White House between Rick and the President 's security. Meanwhile, fearing she might be a clone made by Rick, Beth reunites with Jerry to figure out the truth. Shortly after, the entire family gets together to hide from Rick, but he tracks them down. Rick eventually submits to Jerry once again being a family - member. Rick ends his conflict with the President by pretending to be Fly Fishing Rick, a Rick from a different reality, and calling a truce. The episode ends with the family happy to be together again, except for Rick who is disappointed by this outcome.
On August 12, 2015, Adult Swim announced that the series had been renewed for a third season. Roiland reportedly began writing on November 2, 2015. Mike McMahan announced that the first episode was recorded on February 18, 2016. On February 5, 2017, Dan Harmon, answering questions regarding the delayed release, announced on his podcast, Harmontown, that the show was in the animation process, after a long period of writing. On June 24, 2017, Harmon wrote a series of posts on Twitter, explaining that the writing process took that long to complete because of his perfectionism. As a result, the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended.
The season currently holds a 98 % approval rating from review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 8.81 out of 10 and an audience score average of 4.7 out of 5. Julia Alexander of Polygon highlights the philosophical conflict between nihilist realism and life in ignorant bliss as the season 's main theme, and notes that "after an introspective season built on the importance of self - realization and reflection, Rick and Morty 's third year ended on a total reset '', with Beth and the kids seeking comfort through escapism and ignoring the realities of their lives.
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st cloud state hockey players in the nhl | St. Cloud State Huskies - wikipedia
The St. Cloud State Huskies are the athletic teams for St. Cloud State University. The university is primarily a member of the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference (NSIC), and currently sponsors 18 NCAA Division II teams. SCSU also sponsors a women 's Nordic skiing team through membership in the CCSA, as well as men 's and women 's Division I ice hockey teams that are members of the National Collegiate Hockey Conference (men) and Western Collegiate Hockey Association (women). The teams go by the nickname Huskies, and the school 's mascot is a husky named Blizzard.
St. Cloud State was a charter member of the Northern Intercollegiate Conference (which has since become known as the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference) in 1932, St. Cloud State competed as a member of the North Central Conference at the NCAA Division II level from 1982 to 2008. The North Central Conference disbanded at the end of the 2007 - 08 academic year, and St. Cloud State 's NCAA Division II sports once again became members of the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference in 2008 - 09.
The St. Cloud Athletic Department sponsors the following intercollegiate sports:
The St. Cloud State men 's hockey program made the move to the NCAA Division I level in 1987 - 88, and it joined the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA) in 1990 - 91. The Huskies men 's team have played in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference (NCHC) since the 2013 - 2014 season. The women 's hockey team, which began its first season of intercollegiate competition in 1998 - 1999, remain members of the WCHA. The Huskies hockey teams play all of their home games in the Herb Brooks National Hockey Center (5,371 capacity), which was opened on December 16, 1989.
With one of the best wrestling programs in Division II year after year, the Huskies have won the NCAA Wrestling Championship in 2015, 2016, and 2018 placing second in 2017, 2013, 2012 and 2011.
Huskie Head Wrestling coach is Steve Costanzo who will begin his 11th season as head coach at St. Cloud State in 2016 - 17. He is the 13th coach in the history of the St. Cloud State University wrestling program, which dates back to 1949 - 50.
The main athletic facilities at St. Cloud State University include Husky Stadium (football and soccer), Halenbeck Hall (indoor track and field, swimming and diving, volleyball, wrestling and basketball), the Herb Brooks National Hockey Center (ice hockey) and Selke Field (softball). Baseball is played off - campus at a City of St. Cloud ballpark called Joe Faber Field.
As of 2009, St. Cloud State was working on a $29.3 million renovation of its National Hockey Center. The Minnesota Legislature has funded $6.5 million of that total, with the balance to come from fundraising. The two - phase construction project, the first phase of which is completed, has transformed the building into the Herb Brooks National Hockey Center, expanding a predominately hockey - only facility into a multi-purpose event center. Among the renovations are expanded luxury suites, a new main entrance, and improvements to the ticketing, administration, university store, concourses, restrooms and concession areas. Ths school is currently working on the second phase of fundraising for the renovations
Van Nelson, United States Track and Field Olympian, competed in Cross Country and Track and Field for St. Cloud State University from 1964 - 1969. Along with Chuck Spoden and Kenny Mitchell, Nelson founded the first SCSU cross country team. His freshman year he qualified for the national meet and finished 8th. While at St. Cloud State, Nelson set a new collegiate record of 13: 45.8 for 3 miles in Sioux Falls, SD. Van was a three - year, double gold medal winner at the Drake Relays and twice won the Drake Relays Outstanding Athlete Award. Nelson still holds the SCSU records for the 5,000 m, 10,000 m, 15,000 m, 20,000 m and 30,000 m runs. Van qualified to represent the United States at the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games. Going into the games Van was ranked 4th in the world in the 5,000 m and 8th in the 10,000 m.
Former St. Cloud State football player Todd Bouman was a veteran quarterback in the NFL. He played for the Minnesota Vikings, New Orleans Saints, Green Bay Packers, Jacksonville Jaguars, Baltimore Ravens, and finished his career with a second stint with the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2010. Other former St. Cloud State players to play professional football in the NFL include Keith Nord (Minnesota), Ben Nelson (Minnesota), Jeff Hazuga (Minnesota), Harry Jackson (Green Bay), John Kimbrough (Buffalo, New England and Oakland) and Fred Williams (Kansas City). Of note, Ben Nelson was named the 2006 Arena Football League Rookie of the Year while playing for the San Jose SaberCats.
St. Cloud State women 's basketball player Erika Quigley was named the NCAA Division II Player of the Year in 2007. Diver Nate Jimmerson won the NCAA Division II men 's one - and three - meter diving titles in 2008. Former St. Cloud State athlete Mary Ahlin won the NCAA Division II titles in women 's one - and three - meter diving in 1998 and 1999, while Sarah Loquai won the NCAA Division II women 's one - meter diving in 1997. In 2004, the St. Cloud State softball team placed third in the nation at the NCAA Division II softball championships. Former St. Cloud State women 's ice hockey player Jessica Kresa is now a professional wrestler under the name ODB.
Garrett Bender plays rugby for the United States rugby sevens national team.
A total of 24 former St. Cloud State ice hockey players have gone on to play professionally in the NHL. Hockey Hall of Famer Frank Brimsek played for the Huskies in 1933 - 34 before going on to a sterling professional career with the Boston Bruins and Chicago from 1938 - 50. He helped the Boston Bruins win two Stanley Cup titles and he is a member of both the international and United State Hockey Hall of Fames.
Other former St. Cloud State players to skate in the NHL include Sam LoPresti, Len Esau, Steve Martinson, Tyler Arnason, Casey Borer, Tim Conboy, Matt Cullen, Jeff Finger, Bret Hedican, Joe Jensen, Fred Knipscheer, Ryan Malone, Joe Motzko, Mark Parrish, Duvie Westcott, Mark Hartigan, Andreas Nodl, Nate Raduns, Matt Hendricks, Andrew Gordon, Oliver Lauridsen, Ben Hanowski, and Drew LeBlanc. In recent years, Matt Cullen and Bret Hedican helped the Carolina Hurricanes win the Stanley Cup in 2006, while Mark Hartigan and Joe Motzko won the Stanley Cup in 2007 with the Anaheim Ducks. Hartigan was later a member of the Detroit Red Wings during their Stanley Cup championship season in 2008.
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1 foot is equal to how many m | Foot (unit) - wikipedia
The foot (pl. feet; abbreviation: ft; symbol: ′, the prime symbol) is a unit of length in the imperial and US customary systems of measurement. Since 1959, both units have been defined by international agreement as equivalent to 0.3048 meters exactly. In both systems, the foot comprises 12 inches and three feet compose a yard.
Historically the "foot '' was a part of many local systems of units, including the Greek, Roman, Chinese, French, and English systems. It varied in length from country to country, from city to city, and sometimes from trade to trade. Its length was usually between 250 mm and 335 mm and was generally, but not always, subdivided into 12 inches or 16 digits.
The United States is the only industrialized nation that uses the international foot and the survey foot (a customary unit of length) in preference to the meter in its commercial, engineering, and standards activities. The foot is legally recognized in the United Kingdom; road signs must use imperial units (however distances on road signs are always marked in miles or yards, not feet), while its usage is widespread among the British public as a measurement of height. The foot is recognized as an alternative expression of length in Canada officially defined as a unit derived from the meter although both the U.K. and Canada have partially metricated their units of measurement. The measurement of altitude in international aviation is one of the few areas where the foot is used outside the English - speaking world.
The length of the international foot corresponds to a human foot with shoe size of 13 (UK), 14 (US male), 15.5 (US female) or 46 (EU sizing).
Historically the human body has been used to provide the basis for units of length. The foot of a white male is typically about 15.3 % of his height, giving a person of 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) a foot of 245 mm and one of 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) a foot of 275 mm. These figures are less than the foot used in most cities over time, suggesting that the "foot '' was actually a synonym for a "shoe ''.
Archeologists believe that the Egyptians, Ancient Indians and Mesopotamians preferred the cubit while the Romans and the Greeks preferred the foot. Under the Harappan linear measures, Indus cities during the Bronze Age used a foot of 13.2 inches (333.5 mm) and a cubit of 20.8 inches (528.3 mm). The Egyptian equivalent of the foot -- a measure of four palms or 16 digits -- was known as the djeser and has been reconstructed as about 30 cm (12 in).
The Greek foot (πούς, pous) had a length of ⁄ of a stadion, one stadion being about 181.2 m, therefore a foot being at the time about 302 mm. Its exact size varied from city to city and could range as much as between 270 mm and 350 mm, but lengths used for temple construction appear to have been about 295 mm to 325 mm, the former being close to the size of the Roman foot.
The standard Roman foot (pes) was normally about 295.7 mm (97 % of today 's measurement), but in the provinces, the pes Drusianus (foot of Nero Claudius Drusus) was used, with a length of about 334 mm. (In reality, this foot predated Drusus.)
Originally both the Greeks and the Romans subdivided the foot into 16 digits, but in later years, the Romans also subdivided the foot into 12 unciae (from which both the English words "inch '' and "ounce '' are derived).
After the fall of the Roman Empire, some Roman traditions were continued but others fell into disuse. In AD 790 Charlemagne attempted to reform the units of measure in his domains. His units of length were based on the toise and in particular the toise de l'Écritoire, the distance between the fingertips of the outstretched arms of a man. The toise has 6 pieds (feet) each of 326.6 mm (12.86 in).
He was unsuccessful in introducing a standard unit of length throughout his realm: an analysis of the measurements of Charlieu Abbey shows that during the 9th century the Roman foot of 296.1 mm was used; when it was rebuilt in the 10th century, a foot of about 320 mm was used. At the same time, monastic buildings used the Carolingian foot of 340 mm.
The procedure for verification of the foot as described in the 16th century by Jacob Koebel in his book Geometrei. Von künstlichem Feldmessen und absehen is:
Stand at the door of a church on a Sunday and bid 16 men to stop, tall ones and small ones, as they happen to pass out when the service is finished; then make them put their left feet one behind the other, and the length thus obtained shall be a right and lawful rood to measure and survey the land with, and the 16th part of it shall be the right and lawful foot.
The measures of Iron Age Britain are uncertain and proposed reconstructions such as the Megalithic Yard are controversial. Later Welsh legend credited Dyfnwal Moelmud with the establishment of their units, including a foot of 9 inches. The Belgic or North German foot of 335 mm (13.2 inches) was introduced to England either by the Belgic Celts during their invasions prior to the Romans or by the Anglo - Saxons in the 5th & 6th century.
Roman units were introduced following their invasion in AD 43. The Roman foot had been previously standardized by Agrippa at around 296 mm or 11.65 inches. Following the Roman withdrawal and Saxon invasions, the Roman foot continued to be used in the construction crafts while the Belgic foot was used for land measurement. Both the Welsh and Belgic feet seem to have been based on multiples of the barleycorn, but by as early as 950 the English kings seem to have (ineffectually) ordered measures to be based upon an iron yardstick at Winchester and then London. Henry I was said to have ordered a new standard to be based upon his own arm and, by the c. 1300 Act concerning the Composition of Yards and Perches traditionally credited to Edward I or II, the statute foot was a different measure exactly ⁄ of the old foot. The barleycorn, inch, ell, and yard were likewise shrunk, while rods and furlongs remained the same. The ambiguity over the state of the mile was resolved by the 1593 Act against Converting of Great Houses into Several Tenements and for Restraint of Inmates and Inclosures in and near about the City of London and Westminster, which codified the statute mile as comprising 5,280 feet. The differences among the various physical standard yards around the world, revealed by increasingly powerful microscopes, eventually led to the 1959 adoption of the international foot defined in terms of the meter.
The international yard and pound agreement of July 1959 defined the length of the international yard in the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations as exactly 0.9144 meters. Consequently, the international foot is defined to be equal to exactly 0.3048 meters. This was 2 ppm shorter than the previous U.S. definition and 1.7 ppm longer than the previous British definition.
The international standard symbol for a foot is "ft '' (see ISO 31 - 1, Annex A). In some cases, the foot is denoted by a prime, which is often marked by an apostrophe, and the inch by a double prime; for example, 2 feet 4 inches is sometimes denoted as 2 ′ − 4 '', 2 ′ 4 '' or 2 ′ 4 ''. (See ' minute ' for another case where prime and double prime symbols are used to denote first and second cuts in refining measurement.)
In the United States, the foot was defined as 12 inches, with the inch being defined by the Mendenhall Order of 1893 by 39.37 inches = 1 m. In Imperial units, the foot was defined as ⁄ yard, with the yard being realized as a physical standard (separate from the standard meter).
The yard standards of the different Commonwealth countries were periodically compared with one another. The value of the United Kingdom primary standard of the yard was determined in terms of the meter by the National Physical Laboratory in 1964 as 6999914396900000000 ♠ 0.914 3969 m, implying a pre-1959 foot in the UK of approximately 6999304798966667000 ♠ 0.304 798 966 667 m.
When the international foot was defined in 1959, a great deal of survey data was already available based on the former definitions, especially in the United States and in India. The small difference between the survey and the international foot would not be detectable on a survey of a small parcel, but becomes significant for mapping, or when the state plane coordinate system (SPCS) is used in the US, because the origin of the system may be hundreds of thousands of feet (hundreds of miles) from the point of interest. Hence the previous definitions continued to be used for surveying in the United States and India for many years, and are denoted survey feet to distinguish them from the international foot. The United Kingdom was unaffected by this problem, as the retriangulation of Great Britain (1936 -- 62) had been done in meters.
The United States survey foot is defined as exactly ⁄ meters, approximately 6999304800609601000 ♠ 0.304 800 609 601 m. Out of the 50 states, 24 have legislated that surveying measures should be based on the U.S. survey foot, eight have legislated that they be made on the basis of the international foot, and 18 have not specified the conversion factor from metric units.
In 1986 the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) released the North American Datum of 1983, which underlies the state plane coordinate systems and is entirely defined in meters. An NGS policy from 1991 has this to say about the units used with the new datum to define the SPCS 83:
In preparation for the adjustment of the North American Datum of 1983, 31 states enacted legislation for the State Plane Coordinate System of 1983 (SPCS 83). All states defined SPCS 83 with metric parameters. Within the legislation, the U.S. Survey Foot was specified in 11 states and the International Foot was specified in 6 states. In all other states the meter is the only referenced unit of measure in the SPCS 83 legislation. The remaining 19 states do not yet have any legislation concerning SPCS 83.
Since then, 42 states have abandoned the non-metric versions of SPCS 83: seven states continue to keep location data in survey feet as well as in meters, while one state keeps data in international feet as well as in meters. State legislation is also important for determining the conversion factor to be used for everyday land surveying and real estate transactions, although the difference (2 ppm) is of no practical significance given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile).
The Indian survey foot is defined as exactly 6999304799600000000 ♠ 0.304 7996 m, presumably derived from a measurement of the previous Indian standard of the yard. The current National Topographic Database of the Survey of India is based on the metric WGS - 84 datum, which is also used by the Global Positioning System.
An ISO 2848 measure of 3 basic modules (30 cm) is called a "metric foot '', but there were earlier distinct definitions of a metric foot during metrication in France and Germany.
In 1799 the meter became the official unit of length in France. This was not fully enforced, and in 1812 Napoleon introduced the system of mesures usuelles which restored the traditional French measurements in the retail trade, but redefined them in terms of metric units. The foot, or pied métrique, was defined as one third of a meter. This unit continued in use until 1837.
In southwestern Germany in 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was founded and three different reformed feet were defined, all of which were based on the metric system:
Prior to the introduction of the metric system, many European cities and countries used the foot, but it varied considerably in length: the voet in Ieper, Belgium, was 273.8 millimetres (10.78 in) while the piede in Venice was 347.73 millimetres (13.690 in). Lists of conversion factors between the various units of measure were given in many European reference works including:
Many of these standards were peculiar to a particular city, especially in Germany (which, before German Unification in 1871, consisted of many kingdoms, principalities, free cities and so on). In many cases the length of the unit was not uniquely fixed: for example, the English foot was stated as 11 pouces 2.6 lignes (French inches and lines) by Picard, 11 pouces 3.11 lignes by Maskelyne and 11 pouces 3 lignes by D'Alembert.
Most of the various feet in this list ceased to be used when the countries adopted the metric system. The Netherlands and modern Belgium adopted the metric system in 1817, having used the mesures usuelles under Napoleon and the newly formed German Empire adopted the metric system in 1871.
The palm (typically 200 mm to 280 mm) was used in many Mediterranean cities instead of the foot. Horace Doursther, whose reference was published in Belgium which had the smallest foot measurements, grouped both units together, while J.F.G. Palaiseau devoted three chapters to units of length: one for linear measures (palms and feet), one for cloth measures (ells) and one for distances traveled (miles and leagues). In the table below, arbitrary cut - off points of 270 mm and 350 mm have been chosen.
(In Belgium, the words pied (French) and voet (Dutch) would have been used interchangeably.)
Notes
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when did the united nations general assembly adopt the udhr | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - wikipedia
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.
The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual 's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law. However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law. '' Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law.
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment.
The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles:
These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.
During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion ''.
When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II, the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter 's provisions on human rights.
In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.
The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years.
Canadian John Peters Humphrey, Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary - General to work on the project and became the Declaration 's principal drafter. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.
Other well - known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P.C. Chang of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
According to Allan Carlson, the Declaration 's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement 's influence on Cassin and Malik.
Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council, the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States.
British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation. (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.)
The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain.
The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate. South Africa 's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated several articles in the Declaration. The Saudi Arabian delegation 's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration 's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief ''; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights. The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism. Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.
The 48 countries which voted in favour of the Declaration are:
8 countries abstained:
Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later, which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote, and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles.
The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year - long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us ''.
In 1948, the UN Resolution A / RES / 217 (III) (A) adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French, and official translations in Chinese, Russian and Spanish. In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world 's "Most Translated Document '' (370 different languages and dialects). The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017).
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
For the first time in international law, the term "the rule of law '' was used in the preamble of the Declaration. The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration reads as follows: "Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law. ''
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms '' and "human rights '' appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community '' to all persons. The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, and many more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights.
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of importance '', while Eleanor Roosevelt -- first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration -- stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere. '' In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time '' but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration. In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community. ''
Turkey -- which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population -- signed the Declaration in 1948. However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration, claiming that it violated Sharia law. Pakistan -- which had signed the declaration -- disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position. Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie - Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '' which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia. On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah '', without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations ''.
Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR. Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women 's rights.
A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration 's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riffat Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has argued:
What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality '' of the assumptions on which it is based is -- at the very least -- problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.
Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics.
Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights. ''
Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs, played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self - determination.
Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill '' to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from -- but not yet explicit in -- Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit, but -- to date (2017) -- those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride -- Assistant Secretary - General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate -- has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is ' The Right to Refuse to Kill '. ''
The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West 's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism: "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences '', "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered '', and "3. Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. ''
During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments ' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights -- in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.
The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators, musicians, and producers created a 20 - minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to bring to life the Declaration 's 30 articles.
Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up! '' event.
The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC) is a non-profit, nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world.
The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights. Censorship, the invasion of privacy, and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA.
In response to violations of human rights, the ALA asserts the following principles:
The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. Such restrictions, whether enforced by statutes or regulations, contractual stipulations, or voluntary agreements, pervert the function of the library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians.
The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form. Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression, strengthens the hand of the oppressor, and undermines the cause of justice.
The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles. We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice, and contributes to the demise of freedom.
Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world.
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hillary scott & the scott family love remains | Love Remains (Hillary Scott album) - wikipedia
Love Remains is a studio album by American singer and songwriter Hillary Scott, a founding member of American country music trio Lady Antebellum, released in collaboration with her father, Lang Scott; her mother, Linda Davis; and her sister Rylee Scott (credited collectively as ' The Scott Family '). It was released on July 29, 2016, by EMI Nashville and Capitol Nashville. The faith - based record incorporates elements of gospel, bluegrass, country, and pop genres and is produced by Ricky Skaggs.
Upon release, Love Remains achieved moderate commercial success, including a top - 10 debut on the all - genre Billboard 200 chart. It additionally bowed atop the Billboard Christian Albums chart and at number 2 on the Country Albums chart. The record 's lead single, "Thy Will '', was released in April 2016 and reached the top of the Hot Christian Songs chart that summer.
Love Remains won the Grammy for Best Contemporary Christian Music Album and "Thy Will '' won for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance / Song at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards.
In 2011, following the passing of Hillary Scott 's grandfather, W.M. Scott Jr., the Scott family leaned on their faith and used traditional hymns to comfort one another. They began recording the songs with the intention of sharing those messages of joy with friends and family. This project eventually developed into a full - length album which includes classic hymns, popular Contemporary Christian songs, and newly - written original tracks such as the project 's lead single, "Thy Will ''. This song was inspired by a miscarriage Scott experienced in 2015 while on tour. The family reached out to Ricky Skaggs to produce the album and Skaggs additionally provided instrumentation and guest vocals. Christian musicians Steven Curtis Chapman and Cheryl White also make appearances.
"Thy Will '', one of three tracks co-written by Scott, was released to digital retailers, country radio, and Christian radio on April 22, 2016, as the album 's lead single. Its music video premiered June 20, 2016. The song has since reached 27 on the Hot Country Songs chart and number one on the Hot Christian Songs chart.
"Beautiful Messes '', "Love Remains '', and "Still '' all debuted on the Hot Christian Songs chart following the album 's release at 28, 38, and 50, respectively.
Love Remains debuted at number 7 on the Billboard 200 with 28,000 units sold in its first week. It was the fourth best - selling album of the week. The album also debuted at numbers one and 2 on the Top Christian Albums and Top Country Albums charts, respectively. The album has sold 165,000 copies in the United States as of December 2017.
Internationally, the album debuted at number 69 in Canada and at number 81 in Australia.
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who is the general manager of the los angeles lakers | Mitch Kupchak - Wikipedia
Mitchell Kupchak (born May 24, 1954) is an American former basketball player and the former general manager of the Los Angeles Lakers.
Kupchak played for Brentwood High School in New York. He was an All - American on the North Carolina Tar Heels men 's basketball team, and was named Atlantic Coast Conference Player of the Year in his senior season. Kupchak played on the gold medal - winning team at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.
Kupchak was drafted by the Washington Bullets in 1976 and was named to the NBA All - Rookie Team. He had four productive seasons with Washington and was part of the team that won the NBA championship in 1978. He signed a long term contract with the Lakers in 1981 at the behest of Earvin "Magic '' Johnson, who told owner Jerry Buss, "If we could get Mitch Kupchak, I know we could win '', after the team 's playoff upset. Unfortunately, 26 games into the season, Kupchak injured his knee and did not play again until the 1983 -- 84 season.
However, Kupchak played a key role in the Showtime Lakers ' 1985 championship team against the Boston Celtics, who had intimidated them in the prior year 's Finals. Kupchak retired after the 1985 -- 86 season, having played 510 regular season and 68 playoff games, with regular season averages of 10.2 points per game and 5.4 rebounds per game (7.7 points per game and 4.7 rebounds per game in the playoffs). During his final game, Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals, a brawl broke out between the Lakers and the Houston Rockets, which saw Kupchak and Hakeem Olajuwon ejected.
Kupchak showed remarkable forethought in planning for his "life after '' being an NBA player -- pursuing a focused program to learn the trade of running NBA team operations. While still under his initial player contract, he worked with the front office, developing strong working relationships with Laker management, beginning to "apprentice '' with Jerry West, and starting studies that led to his MBA from the UCLA Anderson School of Management in 1987.
Kupchak retired from playing in 1986, and became the Lakers ' assistant general manager (under GM and Basketball Hall of Famer Jerry West). He later succeeded West as General Manager, but was not considered to have all of the traditional powers of an NBA GM until 2000 (when West resigned as Vice President of Basketball Operations, for the challenge of trying to replicate the Lakers ' level of success as GM of the recently relocated, last - place Memphis Grizzlies).
On July 16, 2003, after the Lakers failed to reach the NBA Finals for the first time in 3 years, Kupchak 's first major deal was the off - season acquisitions of superstars Karl Malone and Gary Payton (who had both failed to win an NBA championship despite long, Hall of Fame - caliber careers). After a number of controversial trade transactions over the years, including the trade of Shaquille O'Neal to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant -- as well as the decision to not trade young center Andrew Bynum for point guard Jason Kidd -- Kupchak faced severe criticism from Lakers franchise star Kobe Bryant, who urged his firing. However, Kupchak reportedly still had the support of the team 's owner.
In 2007, Kupchak traded Brian Cook and Maurice Evans for Trevor Ariza, and the Lakers started the season off with the best record in the west. After an injury to Andrew Bynum cast their recent success in doubt, his February 2008 deal to obtain Spanish Power Forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies for Kwame Brown, Javaris Crittenton, Aaron McKie, and draft picks (one of which was the right to Marc Gasol) earned him praise (and scorn) from league insiders and fans alike. Bryant later conceded, "He goes from a (n) F to an A-plus. '', while Gregg Popovich, coach of Western Conference rival San Antonio Spurs, went so far as to argue that "there should be a trade committee that can scratch all trades that make no sense ''. That year, the Lakers reached the NBA Finals for the 5th time in 9 years, but would eventually lose to the Boston Celtics. The following year, they returned and won in a 4 - 1 rout over the Orlando Magic.
In 2009, Kupchak signed 2004 Defensive Player of the Year Ron Artest, famous for his role in the Pacers - Pistons Brawl, as a free agent. The Lakers made it to their seventh NBA Finals in 11 years, winning in a championship re-match against the Celtics in the 2010 NBA Finals. 2011 saw the retirement of longtime coach Phil Jackson, replacing him with Mike Brown, as well as an attempted three - team trade of Odom and Gasol to the Houston Rockets, in exchange for the New Orleans Hornets ' All - Star point guard, Chris Paul Because the Hornets (a financial failure for its previous owners) was still owned by the NBA, Commissioner David Stern vetoed the trade for unspecified "basketball reasons '' -- leaving the Lakers with a publicly disgruntled Odom, and shocked Gasol (both of whom intended to end their careers as Lakers, and had not known that they were about to be traded).
On July 4, 2012, after two consecutive playoff exits in the semi-final round, Kupchak used a traded player exception (gained by trading Odom to the Dallas Mavericks) on two - time, former NBA Most Valuable Player, Steve Nash. The deal to get Nash in a Laker uniform was finalized for a package of future draft picks and cash considerations. That same summer, Kupchak dealt Andrew Bynum, who had just been voted to his first All - Star team, in a four - way trade for his Eastern Conference counterpart, three - time Defensive Player of the Year Dwight Howard. The move was announced August 10, 2012. But the flurry of personnel changes did not stop there: Kupchak had also convinced former All - Star and Sixth Man of the Year winner Antawn Jamison to sign for a veteran - minimum contract. He later, along with owner Jerry Buss and Vice President of Basketball Operations Jim Buss (Jerry 's son), also fired defense - minded head coach Mike Brown and replaced him with Nash 's former head coach, offense - minded Mike D'Antoni.
During the 2013 -- 14 season, Kupchak and the Lakers gave Kobe Bryant a 2 - year, $48.5 million extension despite him being out due to an Achilles injury. The deal was reportedly endorsed by team president Jeanie Buss. Mike D'Antoni resigned after the season, leaving Kupchak and Jim Buss the task of hiring a 3rd coach in 4 years. They decided on former Lakers point guard Byron Scott. The Lakers announced in April 2014 that Kupchak 's own contract had been extended for multiple years. It was scheduled to expire after the 2014 season. Terms of the contract were not released.
On February 21, 2017, Kupchak was fired as general manager of the Lakers.
In 2002, Kupchak was inducted into the National Polish American Sports Hall of Fame. He is married to Claire, with whom he had two children. His daughter, Alina Claire Kupchak, died on January 5, 2015, after a lengthy illness. His son Maxwell is a forward on the UC Santa Barbara basketball team.
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what brought the usa into the war on the side of the allies | Allies of World war II - wikipedia
The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War (1939 -- 1945). The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese and Italian aggression.
At the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. After the start of the German invasion of North Europe till the Balkan Campaign, the Netherlands, Belgium, Greece and Yugoslavia joined the Allies. After first having cooperated with Germany in invading Poland whilst remaining neutral in the Allied - Axis conflict, the Soviet Union perforce joined the Allies in June 1941 after being invaded by Germany. The United States provided war materiel and money all along, and officially joined in December 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. China had already been in a prolonged war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, but officially joined the Allies in 1941.
The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942. However, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the "Big Three '' -- the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States -- controlled Allied strategy; relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were especially close. China and the Big Three were referred as a "trusteeship of the powerful '', then were recognized as the Allied "Big Four '' in a Declaration by United Nations and later as the "Four Policemen '' of the United Nations.
In 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations.
The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I and cooperation of the victorious powers at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republic 's legitimacy became shaken. However, the 1920s were peaceful.
With the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression, political unrest in Europe soared including the rise in support of revanchist nationalists in Germany who blamed the severity of the economic crisis on the Treaty of Versailles. By the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the immediate cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German - populated Austria, and German - populated territories of Czechoslovakia. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement.
In Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933. After four quiet years, the Sino - Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japan 's actions and initiated sanctions on Japan. The United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China.
In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, and demonstrating that the appeasement policy was a failure. Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo - Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country. Also, the French had a long - standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the western powers, but Hitler ended the risk of a war with Stalin by signing the Nazi -- Soviet non-aggression pact in August 1939. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. A Polish government - in - exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and France. Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini. In June 1941, Hitler broke the non-aggression agreement with Stalin and Germany invaded the Soviet Union. In December, Japan attacked the US and Britain. The main lines of World War II had formed.
During December 1941, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt devised the name "United Nations '' for the Allies and proposed it to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. He referred to the Big Three and China as a "trusteeship of the powerful '', and then later the "Four Policemen ''. The Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942 was the basis of the modern United Nations (UN). At the Potsdam Conference of July -- August 1945, Roosevelt 's successor, Harry S. Truman, proposed that the foreign ministers of China, France, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and the United States "should draft the peace treaties and boundary settlements of Europe '', which led to the creation of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the "Big Five '', and soon thereafter the establishment of those states as the permanent members of the UNSC.
Great Britain and other members of the British Commonwealth, most known as the Dominions, declared war on Germany separately from 3 September 1939 with the UK first, all within one week of each other; these countries were Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and the Union of South Africa.
British West Africa and the British colonies in East and Southern Africa participated, mainly in the North African, East African and Middle - Eastern theatres. Two West African and one East African division served in the Burma Campaign.
Southern Rhodesia was a self - governing colony, having received responsible government in 1923. It was not a sovereign dominion. It governed itself internally and controlled its own armed forces, but had no diplomatic autonomy, and, therefore, was officially at war as soon as Britain was at war. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government issued a symbolic declaration of war nevertheless on 3 September 1939, which made no difference diplomatically, but preceded the declarations of war made by all other British dominions and colonies.
These included: the British West Indies, British Honduras, British Guiana and the Falkland Islands.
Newfoundland was ruled as a royal colony in 1933 -- 49, with a governor appointed by London who made the decisions.
British India included the areas and peoples covered by later India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and (until 1937) Burma / Myanmar, which later became a separate colony.
British Malaya covers the areas of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, while British Borneo covers the area of Brunei, including Sabah and Sarawak of Malaysia.
Territories controlled by the Colonial Office, namely the Crown Colonies, were controlled politically by the UK and therefore also entered hostilities with Britain 's declaration of war. At the outbreak of World War II, the British Indian Army numbered 205,000 men. Later during World War II, the Indian Army became the largest all - volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in size. (10) These forces included tank, artillery and airborne forces. Indian soldiers earned 30 Victoria Crosses during the Second World War. It suffered 87,000 military casualties (more than any Crown colony but fewer than the United Kingdom). The UK suffered 382,000 military casualties.
Protectorates included: Kuwait was a protectorate of the United Kingdom formally established in 1920. The Trucial States were protectorates in the Persian Gulf.
Palestine was a mandate dependency created in the peace agreements after World War I from former territory of the Ottoman Empire. Iraq
The Cyprus Regiment was formed by the British Government during the Second World War and made part of the British Army structure. It was mostly Greek Cypriots volunteers and Turkish speaking Cypriot inhabitants of Cyprus but also included other Commonwealth nationalities. On a brief visit to Cyprus in 1943, Winston Churchill praised the "soldiers of the Cyprus Regiment who have served honourably on many fields from Libya to Dunkirk ''. About 30,000 Cypriots served in the Cyprus Regiment. The regiment was involved in action from the very start and served at Dunkirk, in the Greek Campaign (Battle of Greece) (about 600 soldiers were captured in Kalamata in 1941), North Africa (Operation Compass), France, the Middle East and Italy. Many soldiers were taken prisoner especially at the beginning of the war and were interned in various POW camps (Stalag) including Lamsdorf (Stalag VIII - B), Stalag IVC at Wistritz bei Teplitz and Stalag 4b near Most in the Czech Republic. The soldiers captured in Kalamata were transported by train to prisoner of war camps.
In the 1920s the Soviet Union provided military assistance to Kuomintang, or the Nationalists and helped reorganize their party along Leninist lines: a unification of party, state, and army. In exchange the Nationalists agreed to let members of the Chinese Communist Party join the Nationalists on an individual basis. However, following the nominal unification of China at the end of the Northern Expedition in 1928, Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek purged leftists from his party and fought against the revolting Chinese Communist Party, former warlords, and other militarist factions. A fragmented China provided easy opportunities for Japan to gain territories piece by piece without engaging in total war. Following the 1931 Mukden Incident, the puppet state of Manchukuo was established. Throughout the early to mid-1930s, Chiang 's anti-communist and anti-militarist campaigns continued while he fought small, incessant conflicts against Japan, usually followed by unfavorable settlements and concessions after military defeats.
In 1936 Chiang was forced to cease his anti-communist military campaigns after his kidnap and release by Zhang Xueliang, and reluctantly formed a nominal alliance with the Communists, while the Communists agreed to fight under the nominal command of the Nationalists against the Japanese. Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 7 July 1937, China and Japan became embroiled in a full - scale war. The Soviet Union, wishing to keep China in the fight against Japan, supplied China with military assistance until 1941, when it signed a non-aggression pact with Japan. Continuous clashes between the Communists and Nationalists behind enemy lines cumulated in a major military conflict between these two former allies that effectively ended their cooperation against the Japanese, and China had been divided between the internationally recognized Nationalist China under the leadership of Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek and the Communist China under the leadership of Mao Zedong until the Japanese surrendered in 1945.
Prior to the alliance of Germany and Italy to Japan, the Nationalist Government held close relations with both Germany and Italy. In the early 1930s, Sino - German cooperation between the Nationalist Government and Germany in military and industrial matters. Nazi Germany provided the largest proportion of Chinese arms imports and technical expertise. Relations between the Nationalist Government and Italy during the 1930s varied, however even after the Nationalist Government followed League of Nations sanctions against Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia, the international sanctions proved unsuccessful, and relations between the Fascist government in Italy and the Nationalist Government in China returned to normal shortly afterwards. Up until 1936, Mussolini had provided the Nationalists with Italian military air and naval missions to help the Nationalists fight against Japanese incursions and communist insurgents. Italy also held strong commercial interests and a strong commercial position in China supported by the Italian concession in Tianjin. However, after 1936 the relationship between the Nationalist Government and Italy changed due to a Japanese diplomatic proposal to recognize the Italian Empire that included occupied Ethiopia within it in exchange for Italian recognition of Manchukuo, Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano accepted this offer by Japan, and on 23 October 1936 Japan recognized the Italian Empire and Italy recognized Manchukuo, as well as discussing increasing commercial links between Italy and Japan.
The Nationalist Government held close relations with the United States. The United States opposed Japan 's invasion of China in 1937 that it considered an illegal violation of China 's sovereignty, and offered the Nationalist Government diplomatic, economic, and military assistance during its war against Japan. In particular, the United States sought to bring the Japanese war effort to a complete halt by imposing a full embargo on all trade between the United States to Japan, Japan was dependent on the United States for 80 percent of its petroleum, resulting in an economic and military crisis for Japan that could not continue its war effort with China without access to petroleum. In November 1940, American military aviator Claire Lee Chennault upon observing the dire situation in the air war between China and Japan, set out to organize a volunteer squadron of American fighter pilots to fight alongside the Chinese against Japan, known as the Flying Tigers. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted dispatching them to China in early 1941. However, they only became operational shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
The Soviet Union recognised the Republic of China but urged reconciliation with the Communist Party of China and inclusion of Communists in the government. The Soviet Union also urged military and cooperation between Nationalist China and Communist China during the war.
Even though the Republic of China had been fighting the longest among all the Allied powers, it only officially joined the Allies after the attack on Pearl Harbor, on 7 December 1941. China fought the Japanese Empire before joining the Allies In the Pacific War. Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek thought Allied victory was assured with the entrance of the United States into the war, and he declared war on Germany and the other Axis nations. However, Allied aid remained low because the Burma Road was closed and the Allies suffered a series of military defeats against Japan early on in the campaign. General Sun Li - jen led the R.O.C. forces to the relief of 7,000 British forces trapped by the Japanese in the Battle of Yenangyaung. He then reconquered North Burma and re-established the land route to China by the Ledo Road. But the bulk of military aid did not arrive until the spring of 1945. More than 1.5 million Japanese troops were trapped in the China Theatre, troops that otherwise could have been deployed elsewhere if China had collapsed and made a separate peace.
Communist China had been tacitly supported by the Soviet Union since the 1920s, though the Soviet Union diplomatically recognised the Republic of China, Joseph Stalin supported cooperation between the Nationalists and the Communists -- including pressuring the Nationalist Government to grant the Communists state and military positions in the government. This was continued into the 1930s that fell in line with the Soviet Union 's subversion policy of popular fronts to increase communists ' influence in governments. The Soviet Union urged military and cooperation between Soviet China and Nationalist China during China 's war against Japan. Initially Mao Zedong accepted the demands of the Soviet Union and in 1938 had recognized Chiang Kai - shek as the "leader '' of the "Chinese people ''. In turn, the Soviet Union accepted Mao 's tactic of "continuous guerilla warfare '' in the countryside that involved a goal of extending the Communist bases, even if it would result in increased tensions with the Nationalists.
After the breakdown of their cooperation with the Nationalists in 1941, the Communists prospered and grew as the war against Japan dragged on, building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade and fighting the Japanese at the same time.
The Communist Party 's position in China was boosted further upon the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945 against the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo and the Japanese Kwantung Army in China and Manchuria. Upon the intervention of the Soviet Union against Japan in World War II in 1945, Mao Zedong in April and May 1945 had planned to mobilize 150,000 to 250,000 soldiers from across China to work with forces of the Soviet Union in capturing Manchuria.
After Germany invaded Poland, France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. In January 1940, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier made a major speech denouncing the actions of Germany:
At the end of five months of war, one thing has become more and more clear. It is that Germany seeks to establish a domination of the world completely different from any known in world history.
The domination at which the Nazis aim is not limited to the displacement of the balance of power and the imposition of the supremacy of one nation. It seeks the systematic and total destruction of those conquered by Hitler and it does not treaty with the nations which it has subdued. He destroys them. He takes from them their whole political and economic existence and seeks even to deprive them of their history and culture. He wishes only to consider them as vital space and a vacant territory over which he has every right.
The human beings who constitute these nations are for him only cattle. He orders their massacre or migration. He compels them to make room for their conquerors. He does not even take the trouble to impose any war tribute on them. He just takes all their wealth and, to prevent any revolt, he scientifically seeks the physical and moral degradation of those whose independence he has taken away.
France experienced several major phases of action during World War II:
In Africa these included: French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, the League of Nations mandates of French Cameroun and French Togo, Madagascar, French Somaliland, and the protectorates of French Tunisia and French Morocco.
French Algeria was then not a colony or dependency but a fully - fledged part of metropolitan France.
In Asia these included: French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, French Indochina, French India, the mandates of Greater Lebanon and French Syria. The French government in 1936 attempted to grant independence to its mandate of Syria in the Franco - Syrian Treaty of Independence of 1936 signed by France and Syria. However, opposition to the treaty grew in France and the treaty was not ratified. Syria had become an official republic in 1930 and was largely self - governing. In 1941, a British - led invasion supported by Free French forces expelled Vichy French forces in operation Exporter.
In the Americas these included: Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana and Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
German invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, began on 22 June 1941. General Secretary Joseph Stalin and the government of the Soviet Union described the Soviet war effort as a war being fought by the Soviet people for their survival. Stalin had supported popular front movements of anti-fascists including communists and non-communists from 1935 to 1939. The popular front strategy was terminated from 1939 to 1941 when the Soviet Union cooperated with Germany in 1939 in the occupation and partitioning of Poland while the Soviet Union refused to endorse either the Allies or the Axis from 1939 to 1941, as it called the Allied - Axis conflict an "imperialist war ''. After the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Stalin endorsed the Western Allies as part of a renewed popular front strategy against Germany and called for the international communist movement to make a coalition with all those who opposed the Nazis.
The Soviet Union intervened against Japan and its client state in Manchuria in 1945, cooperating with the Nationalist Government of China and Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai - shek; though also cooperating, preferring, and encouraging the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong to take effective control of Manchuria after expelling Japanese forces.
In the lead up to the war between the Soviet Union and Germany, relations between the Soviet Union and Germany underwent several stages. Stalin studied Hitler, including reading Mein Kampf and from it knew of Hitler 's desire to destroy the Soviet Union. In 1933, the Soviet Union had immediate concerns with the threat of a potential German invasion of the country should Germany attempt a conquest of the Baltic states, and in December of that year, Polish - Soviet negotiations began for the issuing of a joint declaration by the two countries guaranteeing the sovereignty of the Baltic states. However, Poland withdrew from the negotiations following German and Finnish objections. The Soviet Union and Germany at this time competed with each other for influence in Poland. The Soviet government also was concerned with the anti-Soviet sentiment in Poland and particularly Józef Piłsudski 's proposed Polish federation that would include the territories of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine within it that threatened the territorial integrity of the Soviet Union.
On 20 August 1939, forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics under General Georgy Zhukov, together with the People 's Republic of Mongolia eliminated the threat of conflict in the east with a decisive victory over Japan at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in eastern Mongolia.
On the same day, Soviet party leader Joseph Stalin received a telegram from German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, suggesting that German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop fly to Moscow for diplomatic talks. (After receiving a lukewarm response throughout the spring and summer, Stalin abandoned attempts for a better diplomatic relationship with France and the United Kingdom.)
On 23 August, Ribbentrop and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov signed the non-aggression pact including secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into defined "spheres of influence '' for the two regimes, and specifically concerning the partition of the Polish state in the event of its "territorial and political rearrangement ''.
On 15 September 1939, Stalin concluded a durable ceasefire with Japan, to take effect the following day (it would be upgraded to a nonaggression pact in April 1941). The day after that, 17 September, Soviet forces invaded Poland from the east. Although some fighting continued until 5 October, the two invading armies held at least one joint military parade on 25 September, and reinforced their non-military partnership with a German -- Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation on 28 September.
On 30 November, the Soviet Union attacked Finland, for which it was expelled from the League of Nations. In the following year of 1940, while the world 's attention was focussed upon the German invasion of France and Norway, the USSR militarily occupied the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania as well as parts of Romania.
German - Soviet treaties were brought to an end by the German surprise attack on the USSR on 22 June 1941. The Soviet Union soon entered in alliance with the United Kingdom. Following the USSR, a number of other communist, pro-Soviet or Soviet - controlled forces fought against the Axis powers during the Second World War. They were as follows: the Albanian National Liberation Front, the Chinese Red Army, the Greek National Liberation Front, the Hukbalahap, the Malayan Communist Party, the People 's Republic of Mongolia, the Polish People 's Army, the Tuvan People 's Republic (annexed by Soviet Union in 1944), the Viet Minh and the Yugoslav Partisans.
The United States had indirectly supported Britain 's war effort against Germany up to 1941 and declared its opposition to territorial aggrandizement. Materiel support to Britain was provided while the U.S. was officially neutral via the Lend Lease Act starting in 1941.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in August 1941 promulgated the Atlantic Charter that pledged commitment to achieving "the final destruction of Nazi tyranny ''. Signing the Atlantic Charter, and thereby joining the "United Nations '' was the way a nation joined the Allies, and also became eligible for membership in the United Nations world body that formed in 1945.
The US strongly supported the Nationalist Government in China in its war with Japan, and provided military equipment, supplies, and volunteers to the Nationalist Government of China to assist in its war effort. In December 1941 Japan opened the war with its attack on Pearl Harbor, the US declared war on Japan, and Japan 's allies Germany and Italy declared war on the US, bringing the US into World War II.
On 8 December 1941, following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States Congress declared war on Japan at the request of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. This was followed by Germany and Italy declaring war on the United States on 11 December, bringing the country into the European theatre.
The US led Allied forces in the Pacific theatre against Japanese forces from 1941 to 1945. From 1943 to 1945, the US led and coordinated the Western Allies ' war effort in Europe under the leadership of General Dwight Eisenhower.
The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor followed by Japan 's swift attacks on Allied locations throughout the Pacific, resulted in major US losses in the first several months in the war, including losing control of the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island and several Aleutian islands including Attu and Kiska to Japanese forces. American naval forces attained some early successes against Japan. One was the bombing of Japanese industrial centres in the Doolittle Raid. Another was repelling a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby in New Guinea during the Battle of the Coral Sea. A major turning point in the Pacific War was the Battle of Midway where American naval forces were outnumbered by Japanese forces that had been sent to Midway to draw out and destroy American aircraft carriers in the Pacific and seize control of Midway that would place Japanese forces in proximity to Hawaii. However American forces managed to sink four of Japan 's six large aircraft carriers that had initiated the attack on Pearl Harbor along with other attacks on Allied forces. Afterwards the US began an offensive against Japanese - captured positions. The Guadalcanal Campaign from 1942 to 1943 was a major contention point where American and Japanese forces struggled to gain control of Guadalcanal.
The United States held multiple dependencies in the Americas, such as Alaska, the Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
In the Pacific it held multiple island dependencies such as American Samoa, Guam, Hawaii, Midway Islands, Wake Island and others. These dependencies were directly involved in the Pacific campaign of the war.
The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a sovereign protectorate referred to as an "associated state '' of the United States. From late 1941 to 1944, the Philippines was occupied by Japanese forces, who established the Second Philippine Republic as a client state that had nominal control over the country.
Australia was a sovereign Dominion under the Australian monarchy, as per the Statute of Westminster 1931. At the start of the war Australia followed Britain 's foreign policies, and accordingly declared war against Germany on 3 September 1939. Australian foreign policy became more independent after the Australian Labor Party formed government in October 1941, and Australia separately declared war against Finland, Hungary and Romania on 8 December 1941 and against Japan the next day.
Before the war, Belgium had pursued a policy of neutrality and only became an Allied member after being invaded by Germany on 10 May 1940. During the ensuing fighting, Belgian forces fought alongside French and British forces against the invaders. While the British and French were struggling against the fast German advance elsewhere on the front, the Belgian forces were pushed into a pocket to the north. Finally, on 28 May, the King Leopold III surrendered himself and his military to the Germans, having decided the Allied cause was lost. The legal Belgian government was reformed as a government in exile in London. Belgian troops and pilots continued to fight on the Allied side as the Free Belgian Forces. Belgium itself was occupied, but a sizeable Resistance was formed and was loosely coordinated by the government in exile and other Allied powers.
British and Canadian troops arrived in Belgium in September 1944 and the capital, Brussels, was liberated on 6 September. Because of the Ardennes Offensive, the country was only fully liberated in early 1945.
Belgium had the colony of the Belgian Congo and the League of Nations mandate of Ruanda - Urundi. The Belgian Congo was not occupied and remained loyal to the Allies as an important economic asset while its deposits of uranium were useful to the Allied efforts to develop the atomic bomb. Troops from the Belgian Congo participated in the East African Campaign against the Italians. The colonial Force Publique also served in other theatres including Madagascar, the Middle - East, India and Burma within British units.
Initially, Brazil maintained a position of neutrality, trading with both the Allies and the Axis Powers, while Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas 's quasi-Fascist policies indicated a leaning toward the Axis powers. However, as the war progressed, trade with the Axis countries became almost impossible and the United States initiated forceful diplomatic and economic efforts to bring Brazil onto the Allied side.
At the beginning of 1942, Brazil permitted the United States to set up air bases on its territory, especially in Natal, strategically located at the easternmost corner of the South American continent, and on 28 January the country severed diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy. After that, 36 Brazilian merchant ships were sunk by the German and Italian navies, which led the Brazilian government to declare war against Germany and Italy on 22 August 1942.
Brazil then sent a 25,700 strong Expeditionary Force to Europe that fought mainly on the Italian front, from September 1944 to May 1945. Also, the Brazilian Navy and Air Force acted in the Atlantic Ocean from the middle of 1942 until the end of the war. Brazil was the only South American country to send troops to fight in the European theatre in the Second World War.
Canada was a sovereign Dominion under the Canadian monarchy, as per the Statute of Westminster 1931. In a symbolic statement of autonomous foreign policy Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King delayed parliament 's vote on a declaration of war for seven days after Britain had declared war. Canada was the last member of the Commonwealth to declare war on Germany on 10 September 1939.
Because of Cuba 's geographical position at the entrance of the Gulf of Mexico, Havana 's role as the principal trading port in the West Indies, and the country 's natural resources, Cuba was an important participant in the American Theater of World War II, and subsequently one of the greatest beneficiaries of the United States ' Lend - Lease program. Cuba declared war on the Axis powers in December 1941, making it one of the first Latin American countries to enter the conflict, and by the war 's end in 1945 its military had developed a reputation as being the most efficient and cooperative of all the Caribbean nations. On 15 May 1943, the Cuban patrol boat CS - 13 sank the German submarine U-176.
Czechoslovakia along with the United Kingdom and France attempted to resolve German irredentist claims to the Sudetenland region in 1938 with the Munich Agreement, however in March 1939, Czechoslovakia was invaded by Germany and partitioned between Germany, Hungary, Poland, and a German client state of Slovakia. The Czechoslovak government - in - exile joined the Allies, the occupation and partition of Czechoslovakia amongst the Axis powers was not accepted by the Allied powers. Czechoslovakian military units took part in the war.
Greece was invaded by Italy on 28 October 1940 and subsequently joined the Allies. The Greek Army managed to stop the Italian offensive from Italy 's protectorate of Albania, and Greek forces pushed Italian forces back into Albania. However, after the German invasion of Greece in April 1941, German forces managed to occupy mainland Greece and, a month later, the island of Crete. The Greek government went into exile, while the country was placed under a puppet government and divided into occupation zones run by Italy, Germany and Bulgaria. From 1942, a strong Resistance movement appeared, chiefly in the mountainous interior, where it established a "Free Greece '' by mid-1943. Following the Italian capitulation in September 1943, the Italian zone was taken over by the Germans. Axis forces left mainland Greece in October 1944, although some Aegean islands, notably Crete, remained under German occupation until the end of the war.
Free Luxembourgish Forces and the Government in Exile
Before the war, Luxembourg had pursued a policy of neutrality and only became an Allied member after being invaded by Germany on 10 May 1940. The Government in Exile fled, winding up in England. It made Luxembourgish language broadcasts to the occupied country on BBC radio. In 1944, the government in exile signed a treaty with the Belgian and Dutch governments, creating the Benelux Economic Union and also signed into the Bretton Woods system.
Mexico declared war on Germany in 1942 after German submarines attacked the Mexican oil tankers Potrero del Llano and Faja de Oro that were transporting crude oil to the United States. These attacks prompted President Manuel Ávila Camacho to declare war on the Axis powers.
Mexico formed Escuadrón 201 fighter squadron as part of the Fuerza Aérea Expedicionaria Mexicana (FAEM -- "Mexican Expeditionary Air Force ''). The squadron was attached to the 58th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces and carried out tactical air support missions during the liberation of the main Philippine island of Luzon in the summer of 1945.
Some 300,000 Mexican citizens went to the United States to work on farms and factories. Some 15,000 US nationals of Mexican origin and Mexican residents in the US enrolled in the US Armed Forces and fought in various fronts around the world.
The Netherlands became an Allied member after being invaded on 10 May 1940 by Germany. During the ensuing campaign, the Netherlands were defeated and occupied by Germany. The Netherlands was liberated by Canadian, British, American and other allied forces during the campaigns of 1944 and 1945. The Princess Irene Brigade, formed from escapees from the German invasion, took part in several actions in 1944 in Arromanches and in 1945 in the Netherlands. Navy vessels saw action in the British Channel, the North Sea and the Mediterranean, generally as part of Royal Navy units. Dutch airmen flying British aircraft participated in the air war over Germany.
The Dutch East Indies (modern - day Indonesia) was the principal Dutch colony in Asia, and was attacked by Japan in 1942. During the Dutch East Indies Campaign, the Netherlands played a significant role in the Allied effort to halt the Japanese advance as part of the American - British - Dutch - Australian (ABDA) Command. The ABDA fleet finally encountered the Japanese surface fleet at the Battle of Java Sea, at which Doorman gave the order to engage. During the ensuing battle the ABDA fleet suffered heavy losses, and was mostly destroyed after several naval battles around Java; the ABDA Command was later dissolved. The Japanese finally occupied the Dutch East Indies in February -- March 1942. Dutch troops, aircraft and escaped ships continued to fight on the Allied side and also mounted a guerrilla campaign in Timor.
New Zealand was a sovereign Dominion under the New Zealand monarchy, as per the Statue of Westminster 1931. It quickly entered World War II, officially declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939, just hours after Britain. Unlike Australia, which had felt obligated to declare war, as it also had not ratified the Statute of Westminster, New Zealand did so as a sign of allegiance to Britain, and in recognition of Britain 's abandonment of its former appeasement policy, which New Zealand had long opposed. This led to then Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage declaring two days later:
With gratitude for the past and confidence in the future we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we march with a union of hearts and souls to a common destiny.
Because of its strategic location for control of the sea lanes in the North Sea and the Atlantic, both the Allies and Germany worried about the other side gaining control of the neutral country. Germany ultimately struck first with operation Weserübung on 9 April 1940, resulting in the two - month - long Norwegian Campaign, which ended in a German victory and their war - long occupation of Norway.
Units of the Norwegian Armed Forces evacuated from Norway or raised abroad continued participating in the war from exile.
The Norwegian merchant fleet, then the fourth largest in the world, was organized into Nortraship to support the Allied cause. Nortraship was the world 's largest shipping company, and at its height operated more than 1000 ships.
Norway was neutral when Germany invaded, and it is not clear when Norway became an Allied country. Great Britain, France and Polish forces in exile supported Norwegian forces against the invaders but without a specific agreement. Norway 's cabinet signed a military agreement with Britain on 28 May 1941. This agreement allowed all Norwegian forces in exile to operate under UK command. Norwegian troops in exile should primarily be prepared for the liberation of Norway, but could also be used to defend Britain.
The invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, started the war in Europe, and the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. Poland fielded the third biggest army among the European Allies, after the Soviet Union and United Kingdom, but before France. The country never officially surrendered to the Third Reich, nor to the Soviet Union, primarily because neither of the totalitarian powers requested an official surrender, and continued the war effort under the Polish government in exile. However, the Soviet Union unilaterally considered the flight to Romania of President Ignacy Mościcki and Marshal Edward Rydz - Śmigły on 17 September as an evidence of debellatio causing the extinction of Polish State, and consequently declared itself allowed to invade (according to Soviet position: "to protect '') Eastern Poland starting from the same day. It must be noted that the Red Army had invaded the Second Polish Republic several hours before Polish president fled to Romania. The Soviets invaded on 17 September at 3 a.m., l while president Mościcki crossed the Polish - Romanian border at 21: 45 on the same day. The Polish military continued to fight, and the last major battle of the war, the battle of Kock, ended at 1 a.m. on 6 October 1939 with the Independent Operational Group "Polesie, '' a field army, surrendering due to lack of ammunition.
Polish soldiers fought under their own flag but under the command of the British military. They were major contributors to the allies in the theatre of war west of Germany and in the theatre of war east of Germany, with the Soviet Union. The Polish armed forces in the West created after the fall of Poland played minor roles in the Battle of France, and important ones in the Italian and North African Campaigns. The Polish People 's Army took part in the Battle of Berlin, the closing battle of the European theater of war. They occupied the city alongside the Soviet Red Army.
Home Army, the largest underground force in Europe, and other resistance organizations in occupied Poland provided intelligence that enabled successful operations later in the war and led to uncovering of Nazi war crimes (i.e., death camps) to the Western Allies. Notable Polish units fought in every campaign in North Africa and Europe (outside the Balkans). The Soviet Union recognized the London - based government at first. But it broke diplomatic relations after the Katyn massacre of Polish nationals was revealed. In 1943, the Soviet Union organized the Polish People 's Army under Zygmunt Berling, around which it constructed the post-war successor state People 's Republic of Poland.
The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established on April 13th, 1919. During the time when the Provisional Government was created, Korea was under the Japanese rule. The Provisional Government had governmental tasks and created important organizations for their independence movement, such as the Korean Liberation Army (KLA) on September 17th, 1940. The Provisional Government also declared war against the Empire of Japan on December 10th, 1941. The Provisional Government is also the first democratic government of Korea.
The KLA participated in the battles ongoing in China with the Kuomintang forces. In 1943, KLA underground activists, cooperating with British forces in Burma and India, initiated joint operations with British forces.
The KLA failed to initiate Operation Eagle, a plan to liberate the Korean Peninsula by first attacking the capital region (Seoul and Incheon), on August 18th, 1945. The Office of Strategic Services of the United States also promised to assist the KLA with warplanes, submarines, and airborne troops during the operation. However, the plan failed due to the early surrender of Japan on August 15th, 1945. The Provisional Government also faced heavy oppositions against the United States Army Military Government in Korea after World War II. In addition, other governments in the Treaty of San Francisco did not recognize the Provisional Government as the member of the allies. The government of the Republic of Korea was established on August 15th, 1948, under President Syngman Rhee, and the Provisional Government was disbanded officially.
South Africa was a sovereign Dominion under the South African monarchy, as per the Statue of Westminster 1931. South Africa held authority over the mandate of South - West Africa.
Yugoslavia entered the war on the Allied side after the invasion of Axis powers on 6 April 1941. Royal Yugoslav Army was thoroughly defeated in less than two weeks and the country was occupied. The Italian - backed Croatian fascist leader Ante Pavelić declared the Independent State of Croatia before the invasion was over. King Peter II and much of the Yugoslavian government had left the country. In the United Kingdom, they joined numerous other governments in exile from Nazi - occupied Europe. Beginning with the uprising in Herzegovina in June 1941, there was continuous anti-Axis resistance in Yugoslavia until the end of the war.
Before the end of 1941, the anti-Axis resistance movement split between the royalist Chetniks and the communist Yugoslav Partisans of Josip Broz Tito who fought both against each other during the war and against the occupying forces. The Yugoslav Partisans managed to put up considerable resistance to the Axis occupation, forming various liberated territories during the war. In August 1943, there were over 30 Axis divisions on the territory of Yugoslavia, not including the forces of the Croatian puppet state and other quisling formations. In 1944, the leading Allied powers persuaded Tito 's Yugoslav Partisans and the royalist Yugoslav government led by Prime Minister Ivan Šubašić to sign the Treaty of Vis that created Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.
The Partisans were a major Yugoslav resistance movement against the Axis occupation and partition of Yugoslavia. Initially the Partisans were in rivalry with the Chetniks over control of the resistance movement. However, the Partisans were recognized by both the Eastern and Western Allies as the primary resistance movement in 1943. After that, their strength increased rapidly, from 100,000 at the beginning of 1943 to over 648,000 in September 1944. In 1945 they were transformed into Yugoslav army, organized in 4 field armies with 800,000 fighters.
The Chetniks, the short name given to the movement titled the Yugoslav Army of the Fatherland, were initially a major Allied Yugoslav resistance movement. However, due to their royalist and anti-communist views, Chetniks were considered to have begun collaborating with the Axis as a tactical move to focus on destroying their Partisan rivals. The Chetniks presented themselves as a Yugoslav movement, but were primarily a Serb movement. They reached their peak in 1943 with 93,000 fighters. Their major contribution was Operation Halyard in 1944. In collaboration with the OSS, 413 Allied airmen shot down over Yugoslavia were rescued and evacuated.
The Kingdom of Egypt was nominally an independent state since 1922 but effectively remained in a British sphere of influence with the British Mediterranean fleet being stationed in Alexandria and British army forces being stationed in the Suez Canal zone. Egypt faced an Axis campaign led by Italian and German forces during the war. Frustration by the UK over Egypt 's King Farouk 's rule resulted in the Abdeen Palace Incident of 1942 where British army forces surrounded the Abdeen palace, a residence of King Farouk, demanding a new government be established, that nearly forced the abdication of Farouk until he submitted to British demands.
At the outbreak of World War II, the Indian army numbered 205,000 men. Later during World War II the Indian Army became the largest all - volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in size. (10) These forces included tank, artillery and airborne forces. Indian soldiers earned 30 Victoria Crosses during the Second World War. During the war it suffered 1,500,000 civilian casualties (more than the United Kingdom), mainly from the Bengal famine of 1943 and 87,000 military casualties (more than any Crown colony but fewer than the United Kingdom). The UK suffered 382,000 military casualties.
After a period of neutrality, Bulgaria joined the Axis powers from 1941 to 1944. The Orthodox church and others convinced King Boris to not allow the Bulgarian Jews to be exported to concentration camps. The king died shortly afterwards, suspected of being poisoned after a visit to Germany. Bulgaria abandoned the Axis and joined the Allies when the Soviet Union invaded, offering no resistance to the incoming forces. In the 1947 peace treaties, Bulgaria gained a small area near the Black Sea from Romania, making it the only former German ally to gain territory from WWII.
Mongolia fought against Japan during Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and the Soviet -- Japanese War in August 1945 to protect its independence and to liberate Southern Mongolia from Japan and China. Mongolia had been a Soviet sphere of influence since the 1920s.
By 1944, Poland entered the Soviet sphere of influence with Władysław Gomułka forming a communist government. Polish forces fought alongside Soviet forces against Germany.
Romania had initially been a member of the Axis powers but switched allegiance upon facing invasion by the Soviet Union. In a radio broadcast to the Romanian people and army on the night of 23 August 1944 King Michael issued a cease - fire, proclaimed Romania 's loyalty to the Allies, announced the acceptance of an armistice (to be signed on 12 September) offered by Great Britain, the United States, and the USSR, and declared war on Germany. The coup accelerated the Red Army 's advance into Romania, but did not avert a rapid Soviet occupation and capture of about 130,000 Romanian soldiers, who were transported to the Soviet Union where many perished in prison camps. The armistice was signed three weeks later on 12 September 1944, on terms virtually dictated by the Soviet Union. Under the terms of the armistice, Romania announced its unconditional surrender to the USSR and was placed under occupation of the Allied forces with the Soviet Union as their representative, in control of media, communication, post, and civil administration behind the front.
Tannu Tuva was a partially recognized state founded from the former Tuvan protectorate of Imperial Russia. It was a client state of the Soviet Union and was annexed into the Soviet Union in 1944.
Italy initially had been a leading member of the Axis powers, however after facing multiple military losses including the loss of all of Italy 's colonies to advancing Allied forces, Duce Benito Mussolini was deposed and arrested in July 1943 by order of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in co-operation with members of the Grand Council of Fascism who viewed Mussolini as having led Italy to ruin by allying with Germany in the war. Victor Emmanuel III dismantled the remaining apparatus of the Fascist regime and appointed Field Marshal Pietro Badoglio as Prime Minister of Italy. On 8 September 1943, Italy signed the Armistice of Cassibile with the Allies, ending Italy 's war with the Allies and ending Italy 's participation with the Axis powers. Expecting immediate German retaliation, Victor Emmanuel III and the Italian government relocated to southern Italy under Allied control. Germany viewed the Italian government 's actions as an act of betrayal, and German forces immediately occupied all Italian territories outside of Allied control, in some cases even massacring Italian troops.
Italy became a co-belligerent of the Allies, and the Italian Co-Belligerent Army was created to fight against the German occupation of Northern Italy, where German paratroopers rescued Mussolini from arrest and he was placed in charge of a German puppet state known as the Italian Social Republic (RSI). Italy descended into civil war until the end of hostilities after his deposition and arrest, with Fascists loyal to him allying with German forces and helping them against the Italian armistice government and partisans.
Albania was recognized as an "Associated Power '' at the 1946 Paris conference and officially signed the treaty ending WWII between the "Allied and Associated Powers '' and Italy in Paris, on 10 February 1947.
The alliance was formalised in the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942. There were 26 signatories:
The United Nations began growing immediately after their formation. In 1942, Mexico, the Philippines and Ethiopia adhered to the declaration. The African nation had been restored in its independence by British forces after the Italian defeat on Amba Alagi in 1941, while the Philippines, still dependent on Washington but granted international diplomatic recognition, was allowed to join on 10 June despite their occupation by Japan.
During 1943, the Declaration was signed by Iraq, Iran, Brazil, Bolivia and Colombia. A Tripartite Treaty of Alliance with Britain and USSR formalised Iran 's assistance to the Allies. In Rio de Janeiro, Brazilian dictator Getúlio Vargas was considered near to fascist ideas, but realistically joined the United Nations after their evident successes.
In 1944, Liberia and France signed. The French situation was very confused. Free French forces were recognized only by Britain, while the United States considered Vichy France to be the legal government of the country until Operation Overlord, while also preparing US occupation francs. Winston Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to its status of a major Power after the liberation of Paris in August 1944; the Prime Minister feared that after the war, Britain could remain the sole great Power in Europe facing the Communist threat, as it was in 1940 and 1941 against Nazism.
During the early part of 1945, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Uruguay, Turkey, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Syria (these latter two French colonies had been declared independent nations by British occupation troops, despite big protests by Pétain before, and De Gaulle after) and Ecuador became signatories. Ukraine and Belarus, which were not independent nations but parts of the Soviet Union, were accepted as members of the United Nations as way to provide greater influence to Stalin, who had only Yugoslavia as a communist partner in the alliance.
The Charter of the United Nations was agreed to during the war at the United Nations Conference on International Organization, held between April and July 1945. The Charter was signed by 50 nations on 26 June (Poland had its place reserved and later became the 51st "original '' signatory), and was formally ratified shortly after the war on 24 October 1945. In 1944, the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference where the formation and the permanent seats (for the "Big Five '', China, France, the UK, USA and USSR) of the United Nations Security Council were decided. The Security Council met for the first time in the immediate aftermath of war on 17 January 1946.
These are the original 51 signatories (UNSC permanent members are asterisked):
The following list denotes dates on which nations declared war on Axis powers, or on which an Axis power declared war on them. Nepal was formally independent. Indian Empire had a status less independent than the Dominions.
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raindrops keep falling on my head butch cassidy video | Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head - wikipedia
"Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' is a song written by Hal David and Burt Bacharach for the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. It won an Academy Award for Best Original Song. David and Bacharach also won Best Original Score. The song was recorded by B.J. Thomas in seven takes, after Bacharach expressed dissatisfaction with the first six. In the film version of the song, Thomas had been recovering from laryngitis, which made his voice sound hoarser than in the 7 - inch release. The film version featured a separate vaudeville - style instrumental break in double time while Paul Newman performed bicycle stunts.
The single by B.J. Thomas reached number 1 on charts in the United States, Canada, Norway and reached number 38 in the UK Singles Chart. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks in January 1970 and was also the first American number - one hit of the 1970s. The song also spent seven weeks atop the Billboard adult contemporary chart. Billboard ranked it as the No. 4 song of 1970. According to Billboard magazine, Thomas ' single had sold over 2 million copies by March 14, 1970, with eight - track and cassette versions also climbing the charts.
Ray Stevens was first offered the opportunity to record it for the film, but turned it down. He chose instead to record the song "Sunday Morning Coming Down '', written by Kris Kristofferson. Bob Dylan is supposed to have been approached for the song, but he, too, reportedly declined. The trumpet solos in the song are performed by Chuck Findley.
In 2004, it finished at number 23 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema. In 2008, the single was ranked 85th on Billboard 's Hot 100 All - Time Top Songs and placed 95th in the 55th Anniversary edition of the All - Time Hot 100 list in 2013. Billboard Magazine also ranked the song 15th on its Top 50 Movie Songs of All Time list in 2014.
On December 3, 2013, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences announced that the single would be inducted into the 2014 Grammy Hall Of Fame.
"Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' was used in the film Spy Hard, which parodied the scene in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. Police Constable Pan-Am sings the opening lines at the end of his appearance in Series 2, Episode 4 of Monty Python 's Flying Circus. It is on the soundtracks to Forrest Gump and Spider - Man 2, in the latter accentuating Peter Parker 's blissful mood after abandoning his Spider - Man identity and its responsibilities. It was used in the Kevin Smith film Clerks II. The first episode of the second season of the popular medical drama Grey 's Anatomy is named after the song. It is also used in The Simpsons, episode 16 of the fourth season, called "Duffless '', at the end of the episode, while credits are presented. It was also used in a season 1 episode of Arrested Development entitled "Altar Egos ''. It was also used in the 2003 film The In - Laws starring Michael Douglas and Albert Brooks, which was a remake of the 1979 Peter Falk / Alan Arkin film.
Johnny Farnham version
The song has been covered numerous times. From January 24 to March 13, 1970, it was a number - one hit (for seven weeks) in Australia on the Go - Set National Top 40 for local pop singer, Johnny Farnham. In 1970, it was also covered by Dionne Warwick on her album I 'll Never Fall in Love Again, by Engelbert Humperdinck on his album We Made It Happen, Johnny Mathis on his album Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head, Perry Como on his album It 's Impossible, The Four Tops on their album Changing Times, Andy Williams on his album, Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head, and The Free Design on their album Stars / Time / Bubbles / Love. Portuguese - born television and radio presenter Pedro Biker released a Danish version re-entitled "Regndråber Drypper I Mit Hår '' in 1970. A Swedish version was also made in 1970, "Regnet det bara öser ner '' sung by Siw Malmkvist. Genesis referenced the song title in their lyrics of In the Cage '' in 1974.
It has been covered in French by French singer Sacha Distel, whose version Toute La Pluie Tombe Sur Moi was a number 10 hit in the UK Singles Chart, and number 13 in Ireland, as well as number 10 in France. Distel also recorded a version with the original English lyrics, and another in Italian, Gocce Di Pioggia Su Di Me. Bobbie Gentry 's version reached number 40 in the UK chart. Paul Mauriat recorded it with his Grand Orchestra it 1973. It was the only known cover in the USSR.
The Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers cover version is credited with adding greater nuance to the song, the Financial Times citing their recording as transforming the song from carefree optimism to "an exhortation to keep going in the face of tragedy '' and noting that Bradfield 's voice "added grit to the facile lyric ''. The group often spent their downtime on the tour bus watching the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, and incorporated the song into live sets. After the disappearance of lyricist Richey Edwards, the band decided to continue rather than split up. Having booked studio time in France to record their fourth album, Everything Must Go, they were invited to record for the War Child album The Help Album. The project required all songs to be recorded in one day. While band biographer Simon Price has described the recording and release of the record as a "coded message '' that the band still existed, Bradfield recalls the events differently: "... us putting it out was n't planned as us saying ' We 're OK, guys! ', but the deadline was the next day after we 'd arrived in this place, for some kind of new beginning. '' The band 's recorded version of the song contains the first recorded instance of drummer Sean Moore performing on trumpet, and also appears on their 2003 B - sides and rarities compilation album Lipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers). The Manics further reference the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid with the B - side "Sepia ''.
The Barry Sisters covered the song in a Yiddish version ("Trop'ns Fin Regen Oif Mein Kop '') on their 1973 album Our Way.
Lisa Miskovsky covered the song in the extended version of her self - titled (2004) album.
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when is a medical certificate required for work | Medical certificate - wikipedia
A medical certificate or doctor 's certificate is a written statement from a physician or other medically qualified health care provider which attests to the result of a medical examination of a patient. It can serve as a "sick note '' (documentation that an employee is unfit for work) or evidence of a health condition.
An aegrotat (/ ˈiːɡroʊtæt /; from Latin aegrotat, meaning ' he / she is ill ') or sick note is a type of medical certificate excusing a student 's absence from school for reasons of illness.
Medical certificates are sometimes required to obtain certain health benefits from an employer, to make an insurance claim, for tax purposes, or for certain legal procedures. Medical certificates are used to indicate eligibility of activity, such as the use of disabled parking. Medical certificates can also be used to describe a medical condition a person has, such as blindness. Medical certificates are often used to certify that someone is free of contagious diseases, drug addiction, mental illness, or other health issues.
Health criteria are often required when making an application for something, such as an eye examination to get a driver 's license. Other times medical criteria are presented voluntarily by an applicant in a self - assessment, without either a doctor or access to the person 's medical record. Specific health criteria or medical history are required for certain jobs.
In the United States, most aviators are required to possess a valid medical certificate that certifies sound health as part of the requirements for piloting an airplane or helicopter. While airman certificates are issued for life, the medical certificate expires and must be renewed periodically in order continue flying privileges. Sport pilots may use a valid state driver 's license in place of a medical certificate, and glider and hot air balloon pilots are not required to obtain them.
The term aegrotat (abbreviated as aegrot) is used primarily in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations. In the context of British undergraduate degrees a student who is too ill to finish may be awarded an aegrotat degree if the student otherwise would have passed exams or other requirements.
Except in certain unique circumstances, a holder of a medical certificate in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration may not "act as pilot in command or in any other capacity as a required flight crewmember of an aircraft ''.
A patient with conditions such as: measles, chicken - pox, hepatitis A, leprosy, typhoid fever, and whooping cough, can return to work immediately after their healing phase or medical tests. Almost always the patient may only be allowed to return to work upon submission of a medical certificate.
Sometimes, there are standards and procedures in place, for workers in a certain field to be eligible to receive a medical certificate. Any airman at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration must give their employees access to the National Driver Register. On top of this, other tests which are required for first -, second - and third - class airmen are: eye, ear / nose / throat / equilibrium, mental, neurologic, and cardiovascular.
The India List and India Office List 1905 explains that officers on "Long Leave in Europe '' must, among other things, provide a medical certificate, which is obtained at the Medical Board of India Office.
Practical Guide to Employees ' State Insurance Act, Rules and Regulations explains that under the ESI Act, the employee must obtain a medical certificate via the ESI Dispensary / Hospital, which then gets deposited at the nearest office of the ESI Corporation.
As many illnesses can come about suddenly, sometimes the worker will not have enough time to receive a medical certificate, or may be too sick to obtain one. In other cases, the worker may not be bothered to go to the trouble of getting one, or may be lying about their illness and want to falsify a certificate to back up their story to their boss.
There have been discussions regarding whether it is okay to fire someone for submitting a fabricated medical certificates. In many cases, it is deemed wrong, such as in Australia where a bank officer was dismissed after handing in a forged certificate, which prompted a Fair Work Australia Commissioner to say they had a "continued lack of regard for the truth ''. Another example is a WA police officer who was stood down after committing the same offense. Sometimes it is not so black and white. In one case, a woman claimed she was "coerced into falsifying (a) medical certificate (which ultimately led to her being fired) because she was ' being bullied and treated unfairly ' by two managers ''.
There are some companies that sell fake medical certificates. Although the site Doctors Note Store sells "fake sick notes and medical certificates for workers in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom '', they add that the "fakes are for ' novelty use only ' ''.
At Flinders University, "providing a forged medical certificate '' is viewed as academic misconduct.
In New South Wales, medical professionals who "deliberately issue a false, misleading or inaccurate certificate '' can be charged under the Medical Practice Act. This is in response to The New South Wales Medical Board "receiving numerous complaints from employers, insurers, the courts, etc regarding the quality, accuracy and truthfulness of sickness certificates ''.
In order to prove that one 's medical certificate is authentic, the following should be done and taken into consideration:
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us army corps of engineers laurel river lake | Laurel River lake - wikipedia
Laurel River Lake, located west of Corbin, Kentucky, in the USA, is a reservoir built in 1977 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on the Laurel River, a tributary of the Cumberland River, in the Daniel Boone National Forest. The lake covers parts of Laurel and Whitley counties.
The 282 foot (86 m) high dam was built between 1964 and 1974. It is a combination earth and rock - fill dam. Hydropower production began in 1977. As of 2006, it produced an average annual energy of 67 gigawatt hours of hydroelectricity.
The Army Corps of Engineers and the Forest Service cooperate on developing recreational facilities around the reservoir. Today most of the lake is managed by the Forest Service as part of Daniel Boone National Forest. The Army Corps of Engineers manages the operation of the dam itself, and runs recreational facilities at the dam.
Laurel River Lake 's drainage area is 282 square miles (730 km2). The area of the lake changes based on how full it is, but it is about 19 miles (31 km) long, with 206 miles (332 km) of shoreline. Its area ranges from about 5,600 to 6,060 acres (23 to 25 km2), with a maximum flood - control size of 6,650 acres (27 km2). The reservoir 's storage capacity (volume) also changes, but is about 435,000 acre feet (537,000,000 m).
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who is the princess in princess and the frog | The Princess and the Frog - wikipedia
The Princess and the Frog is a 2009 American animated musical film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 49th Disney animated feature film, the film is loosely based on the novel The Frog Princess by E.D. Baker, which is in turn based on the Brothers Grimm fairy tale "The Frog Prince ''. Written and directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, the film features an ensemble voice cast that stars Anika Noni Rose, Bruno Campos, Keith David, Michael - Leon Wooley, Jennifer Cody, and Jim Cummings, with Peter Bartlett, Jenifer Lewis, Oprah Winfrey, Terrence Howard, and John Goodman. Set in 1920s New Orleans, the film tells the story of a hardworking waitress named Tiana who dreams of owning her own restaurant. After kissing a prince who has been turned into a frog by an evil voodoo sorcerer, Tiana becomes a frog herself and must find a way to turn back into a human before it is too late.
The Princess and the Frog began production under the working title The Frog Princess. It marked Disney 's return to traditional animation, as it was the studio 's first traditionally animated film since Home on the Range (2004). Co-directors Ron Clements and John Musker, directors of Disney 's highly successful films The Little Mermaid (1989) and Aladdin (1992), returned to Disney to direct The Princess and the Frog. The studio returned to a Broadway musical - style format frequently used during the Disney Renaissance, and features music written by composer Randy Newman, well known for his musical involvement in Pixar films such as A Bug 's Life (1998), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Cars (2006), and the Toy Story trilogy (1995, 1999 and 2010). The film also marked the return of Disney animated musical films based on well - known stories since the Disney Renaissance.
The Princess and the Frog opened in limited release in New York and Los Angeles on November 25, 2009, and in wide release on December 11, 2009. The film was successful at the box - office, ranking first place on its opening weekend in North America, and grossing $267 million worldwide. It received three Academy Award nominations at the 82nd Academy Awards: one for Best Animated Feature and two for its achievement in music (Original Song). It lost to Up and Crazy Heart, respectively.
In 1912 New Orleans a seamstress, Eudora, is reading the story of The Frog Prince to her daughter, Tiana, and her friend, Charlotte La Bouff. Charlotte finds the story to be romantic, while Tiana proclaims she will never kiss a frog. Fourteen years later, Tiana has grown into an aspiring young chef who works as a waitress for two local diners, so she can save enough money to start her own restaurant, a dream she shared with her deceased father James.
Prince Naveen of Maldonia arrives in New Orleans to better his financial situation. After being cut off by his parents, Naveen intends to marry a rich southern belle, and Charlotte is the perfect candidate. Eli "Big Daddy '' La Bouff, a rich sugar baron and Charlotte 's father, is hosting a masquerade ball in Naveen 's honor. Charlotte hires Tiana to make beignets for the ball, giving her enough money to buy an old sugar mill to convert into her restaurant.
Meanwhile, Naveen and his valet, Lawrence, meet Dr. Facilier, a voodoo witch doctor who plans to rule the city of New Orleans. Inviting them into his emporium, Facilier convinces them that he can make their dreams come true, but neither man gets what they are expecting; Naveen is transformed into a frog, while Lawrence is given a voodoo charm that makes him resemble Naveen. Facilier intends for Lawrence to marry Charlotte, after which he will kill Big Daddy and claim his fortune.
At the ball, Tiana discovers she may lose the mill to a higher bidder. Tiana then meets Naveen, who, believing her to be a princess because of her costume, asks her to kiss him and break Facilier 's spell. In exchange for the money needed, Tiana accepts, but when she kisses Naveen, she is turned into a frog herself. A chase ensues, and Tiana and Naveen escape to a bayou.
At the bayou, Tiana and Naveen meet Louis, a trumpet - playing alligator who longs to be human, and Ray, a Cajun firefly who is in love with the morning star, whom he calls Evangeline. Louis and Ray offer to lead Tiana and Naveen to the hoodoo priestess Mama Odie, who they believe can undo the curse. During this time, Tiana and Naveen develop feelings for each other. Meanwhile, Facilier makes a deal with the voodoo spirits, offering them the souls of the people of New Orleans in exchange for finding Naveen.
When the four find Mama Odie, she tells them that Naveen must kiss a true princess in order to break the spell. They return to New Orleans to find Charlotte, who is the princess of the Mardi Gras Parade, but only until midnight. Naveen tells Ray he loves Tiana and is willing to give up his dreams for her, but before he can tell her, he is captured by the demons and brought to Facilier.
After Ray tells Tiana that Naveen loves her, Tiana goes to the Mardi Gras parade to find a human "Naveen '' marrying Charlotte; but Ray rescues the real Naveen and steals the charm that disguises Lawrence. Ray finds Tiana, gives her the charm and attempts to hold off the demons so she can escape, but Facilier stomps on him. Facilier then offers Tiana to make her restaurant dream come true in exchange for the charm. Realizing she would rather be with Naveen, and realizing Facilier 's true intentions, Tiana destroys the charm. The angered voodoo spirits claim Facilier himself as payment for his debts to them and drag him to his death in hell.
Tiana and Naveen then reveal their love to each other and explain the situation to Charlotte, who agrees to kiss Naveen, as Lawrence is taken away by the police. However, the clock strikes midnight before she can kiss him, but the two decide they are content to live together as frogs. Then they bid farewell to Ray along with Louie, later to find out Ray finally joined Evangeline. Tiana and Naveen are wed by Mama Odie; and because of Tiana 's new status as princess, they are restored back to human form after their kiss. Later, the couple returns to New Orleans to legally get married and celebrate, and together the two open their new restaurant. The movie ends with Tiana and Naveen dancing as the two stars, Ray and Evangeline, twinkle in the sky.
Disney had once announced that 2004 's Home on the Range would be their last traditionally animated film. After the company 's acquisition of Pixar in early 2006, Ed Catmull and John Lasseter, the new president and chief creative officer of Disney Animation Studios, reversed this decision and reinstated hand - drawn animation at the studio. Many animators who had either been laid off or had left the studio when the traditional animation units were dissolved in 2003 were located and re-hired for the project. Lasseter also brought back directors Ron Clements and John Musker, whose earlier works include The Great Mouse Detective (1986), The Little Mermaid (1989), Aladdin (1992), Hercules (1997), and Treasure Planet (2002). The duo had left the company in 2005, but Lasseter requested their return to Disney to direct and write the film and had let them choose the style of animation (traditional or CGI) they wanted to use.
The story for the film began development by merging two separate projects in development at Disney and Pixar at the time, both based around the "Frog Prince '' fairy tale. One of the projects was based on E.D. Baker 's The Frog Princess, in which the story 's heroine (Princess Emma) kisses a prince turned frog (Prince Eadric), only to become a frog herself. The Princess and the Frog returns to the musical film format used in many of the previously successful Disney animated films, with a style Musker and Clements declared, like with Aladdin and The Little Mermaid, had inspiration from Golden Age Disney features such as Cinderella.
Musker and Clements thought that given all fairy tales were set in Europe, they could do an American fairy tale. They stated that they chose New Orleans as a tribute to the history of the city, for its "magical '' qualities, and because it was Lasseter 's favorite city. The directors spent ten days in Louisiana before starting to write the film.
The Princess and the Frog was originally announced as The Frog Princess in July 2006, and early concepts and songs were presented to the public at the Walt Disney Company 's annual shareholders ' meeting in March 2007. These announcements drew criticism from African - American media outlets, due to elements of the Frog Princess story, characters, and settings considered distasteful. African - American critics disapproved of the original name for the heroine, "Maddy '', due to its similarity to the derogatory term "mammy ''. Also protested were Maddy 's original career as a chambermaid, the choice to have the black heroine 's love interest be a non-black prince, which upset opponents of on - screen interracial romance, and the use of a black male voodoo witchdoctor as the film 's villain. The Frog Princess title was also thought by critics to be a slur on French people. Also questioned was the film 's setting of New Orleans, which had been heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, resulting in the expulsion of a large number of mostly black residents. Critics claimed the choice of New Orleans as the setting for a Disney film with a black heroine was an affront to the Katrina victims ' plight.
In response to these early criticisms, the film 's title was changed in May 2007 from The Frog Princess to The Princess and the Frog. The name "Maddy '' was changed to "Tiana '', and the character 's occupation was altered from chambermaid to waitress. Talk show host Oprah Winfrey was hired as a technical consultant for the film, leading to her taking a voice acting role in the film as Tiana 's mother Eudora.
The head of story, Don Hall, described the plot as a fairy tale "twisted enough that it seems new and fresh '', with a kingdom that is a modern city, a handsome prince that is a "knuckleheaded playboy '' and a variation on the fairy godmother with Mama Odie. Co-writer Rob Edwards also said The Princess and the Frog was "a princess movie for people who do n't like princess movies ''. As the writers thought Tiana 's character motivation of simply dreaming of having her own restaurant was not appealing enough, they expanded so it was her father 's as well, with the extra philosophy of "food bringing people together from all walks of life ''. Musker and Clements stated that while Tiana already starts as a sympathetic character, the events of the plot make her "understand things in a deeper level '' and change people around her. Both protagonists would learn from each other -- Naveen to take responsibilities, Tiana to enjoy life -- as well as figuring from Ray 's passion for Evangeline that the perfect balance is brought by having someone you love to share the experience. Tiana became the first African - American Disney Princess.
On December 1, 2006, a detailed casting call was announced for the film at the Manhattan Theatre Source forum. The casting call states the film as being an American fairy tale musical set in New Orleans during the 1920s Jazz Age and provides a detailed list of the film 's major characters.
In February 2007, it was reported that Dreamgirls actresses Jennifer Hudson and Anika Noni Rose were top contenders for the voice of Tiana, and that Alicia Keys directly contacted Walt Disney Studios chairman Dick Cook about voicing the role. It was later reported that Tyra Banks was considered for the role as well. By April 2007, it was confirmed that Rose would be voicing Tiana. Three months later, it was reported that Keith David would be doing the voice of Dr. Facilier, the villain of the film.
Clements and Musker had agreed from very early on that the style they were aiming for was primarily that of Lady and the Tramp (1955), a film which they and John Lasseter feel represents "the pinnacle of Disney 's style ''. "After that, everything started becoming more stylized, like Sleeping Beauty, 101 Dalmatians -- which are fantastic films as well, but there 's a particular style (to ' Lady and the Tramp ') that 's so classically Disney. '' Lady and the Tramp also heavily informed the style of the New Orleans scenes, while Disney 's Bambi (1942) served as the template for the bayou scenes. Bambi was described as a stylistic reference for the painted backgrounds, as according to art director Ian Gooding "Bambi painted what it feels like to be in the forest instead of the forest '' so The Princess and the Frog would in turn try capturing the essence of roaming through New Orleans.
The former trend in Disney 's hand - drawn features where the characters and cinematography were influenced by a CGI - look has been abandoned. Andreas Deja, a veteran Disney animator who supervised the character of Mama Odie, says "I always thought that maybe we should distinguish ourselves to go back to what 2D is good at, which is focusing on what the line can do rather than volume, which is a CG kind of thing. So we are doing less extravagant Treasure Planet kind of treatments. You have to create a world but (we 're doing it more simply). What we 're trying to do with Princess and the Frog is hook up with things that the old guys did earlier. It 's not going to be graphic... ''. Deja also mentions that Lasseter was aiming for the Disney sculptural and dimensional look of the 1950s: "All those things that were non-graphic, which means go easy on the straight lines and have one volume flow into the other -- an organic feel to the drawing. '' Lasseter also felt that traditional animation created more character believability. For example, with Louis the alligator, created by Eric Goldberg, Lasseter said: "It 's the believability of this large character being able to move around quite like that. '' Choreographer Betsy Baytos was brought by the directors to lead a team of eccentric dancers that gave reference to make each character a different style of movement. The character design tried to create beautiful drawings through subtle shapes, particularly for most characters being human. For the frog versions of Tiana and Naveen, while the animators started with realistic designs, they eventually went for cutesy characters "removing all that is unappealing in frogs '', similar to Pinocchio 's Jiminy Cricket.
Toon Boom Animation 's Toon Boom Harmony software was used as the main software package for the production of the film, as the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) system that Disney developed with Pixar in the 1980s for use on their previous traditionally animated films had become outdated. The Harmony software was augmented with a number of plug - ins to provide CAPS - like effects such as shading on cheeks and smoke effects. The reinstated traditional unit 's first production, a 2007 Goofy cartoon short entitled How to Hook Up Your Home Theater, was partly animated without paper by using Harmony and Wacom Cintiq pressure - sensitive tablets. The character animators found some difficulty with this approach, and decided to use traditional paper and pencil drawings, which were then scanned into the computer systems, for The Princess and the Frog.
The one exception to the new Toon Boom Harmony pipeline was the "Almost There '' dream sequence, which utilized an Art Deco graphic style based on the art of Harlem Renaissance painter Aaron Douglas. Supervised by Eric Goldberg and designed by Sue Nichols, the "Almost There '' sequence 's character animation was done on paper without going through the clean - up animation department, and scanned directly into Photoshop. The artwork was then enhanced to affect the appearance of painted strokes and fills, and combined with backgrounds, using Adobe After Effects.
The visual effects and backgrounds for the film were created digitally using Cintiq tablet displays. Marlon West, one of Disney 's veteran animation visual effects supervisors, says about the production; "Those guys had this bright idea to bring back hand - drawn animation, but everything had to be started again from the ground up. One of the first things we did was focus on producing shorts, to help us re-introduce the 2D pipeline. I worked as vfx supervisor on the Goofy short, How to Hook Up Your Home Theater. It was a real plus for the effects department, so we went paperless for The Princess and the Frog. '' The backgrounds were painted digitally using Adobe Photoshop, and many of the architectural elements were based upon 3D models built in Autodesk Maya. Much of the clean - up animation, digital ink - and - paint, and compositing were outsourced to third - party companies in Orlando, Florida (Premise Entertainment), Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Yowza Digital Animation), and Brooklin, São Paulo, Brazil (HGN Produções)
During Disney 's 2007 shareholder meeting, Randy Newman and the Dirty Dozen Brass Band performed the film 's opening number, "Down in New Orleans '', with famous New Orleans singer Dr. John singing, while slides of pre-production art from the film played on a screen. Other songs in the film include "Almost There '' (a solo for Tiana), "Dig a Little Deeper '' (a song for Mama Odie), "When We 're Human '' (a song for Louis, Tiana and Naveen (as frogs)), "Friends on the Other Side '' (a solo for Doctor Facilier), and "Gonna Take You There '' and "Ma Belle Evangeline '' (two solos for Ray). Newman composed, arranged, and conducted the music for the film, a mixture of jazz, zydeco, blues, and gospel styles performed by the voice cast members for the respective characters while R&B singer - songwriter Ne - Yo wrote and performed the end title song "Never Knew I Needed '', an R&B love song referring to the romance between the film 's two main characters, Tiana and Naveen. Supported by a music video by Melina, "Never Knew I Needed '' was issued to radio outlets as a commercial single from the Princess and the Frog soundtrack.
The film 's soundtrack album, The Princess and the Frog: Original Songs and Score, contains the ten original songs from the film and seven instrumental pieces. The soundtrack was released on November 23, 2009, the day before the limited release of the film in New York and Los Angeles.
The film premiered in theaters with a limited run in New York and Los Angeles beginning on November 25, 2009, followed by wide release on December 11, 2009. The film was originally set for release on Christmas Day 2009, but its release date was changed due to a competing family film, Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel, scheduled for release the same day. The Princess and the Frog enjoyed a limited re-release in AMC Theatres, lasting from October 6 -- 12, 2017 as part of the Dream Big, Princess campaign.
The Princess and the Frog was supported by a wide array of merchandise leading up to and following the film 's release. Although Disney 's main marketing push was not set to begin until November 2009, positive word - of - mouth promotion created demand for merchandise well in advance of the film. Princess Tiana costumes were selling out prior to Halloween 2009, and a gift set of Tiana - themed hair - care products from Carol 's Daughter sold out in seven hours on the company 's website. Other planned merchandise includes a cookbook for children and even a wedding gown. Princess Tiana was also featured a few months before the release in the Disney on Ice: Let 's Celebrate! show. The film itself was promoted through advertisements, including one from GEICO where Naveen, as a frog, converses with the company 's gecko mascot.
A live parade and show called Tiana 's Showboat Jubilee! premiered on October 26, 2009, at the Magic Kingdom theme park at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida, and on November 5 at Disneyland in California. In Disneyland, actors in New Orleans Square paraded to the Rivers of America and boarded the park 's steamboat. From there, the cast, starring Princess Tiana, Prince Naveen, Louis the alligator, and Doctor Facilier, would sing songs from the movie, following a short storyline taking place after the events of the film. The Disneyland version 's actors actually partook in singing, while the Walt Disney World rendition incorporated lip - syncing.
Tiana 's Showboat Jubilee! ran at both parks until January 3, 2010. At Disneyland Park, the show was replaced by a land - based event called Princess Tiana 's Mardi Gras Celebration, which features Princess Tiana along with five of the original presentation 's "Mardi Gras dancers '' and the park 's "Jambalaya Jazz Band '' as they perform songs from the movie. "Tiana 's Mardi Gras Celebration '' officially ended on October 3, 2010. However, it returned to Disneyland from 2011 - 2013 as part of the "Limited Time Magic '' family - fun weekends.
Tiana also appears in Disneyland Paris ' New Generation Festival. Some of the characters appear frequently during World of Color, the nightly fountain and projection show presented at Disney California Adventure. Disney announced on June 4, 2009, that they would release a video game inspired by the film and it was released on November 2009 exclusively for Wii and Nintendo DS platforms. It has been officially described an "adventure through the exciting world of New Orleans in a family - oriented video game '', featuring events from the film and challenges for Princess Tiana.
The Princess and the Frog was released in North America on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on March 16, 2010.
The film is available on DVD, Blu - ray Disc, and Blu - ray Disc combo pack editions; the combo pack includes DVD and digital copies of the film, along with the Blu - ray Disc version. The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc in Australia on June 2, 2010, and on June 21, 2010, in the United Kingdom. As of December 2010 the DVD has sold 4,475,227 copies and has made $71.3 million in DVD sales, making it the ninth - best - selling DVD of 2010.
The financial and critical success of The Princess and the Frog persuaded Disney to green - light at least one new hand - drawn animated film to be released every two years. However, the blog / Film noted in July 2014 with the release of hand - drawn concept art for the 2013 computer animated film Frozen, that any future hand - drawn animated films have been "killed '' for the time being due to The Princess and the Frog failing "to ignite the box office ''. Two months later, however, many Disney artists announced they were working on a new independent hand drawn animated film, Hullabaloo as part of an attempt to bring back hand - drawn animation. Despite such speculation, Walt Disney Animation Studios has continued to use both hand - drawn animation and computer animation in subsequent films.
On its limited day release, the film grossed $263,890 at two theaters and grossed $786,190 its opening weekend. On its opening day in wide release, the film grossed $7 million at 3,434 theaters. It went on to gross $24.2 million over the opening weekend averaging $7,050 per theater, ranking at # 1 for the weekend, and making it the highest - grossing start to date for an animated movie in December, a record previously held by Beavis and Butt - Head Do America. The film went on to gross $104.4 million (in the United States and Canada) and $267 million (worldwide), making it a box office success, and became the fifth - highest - grossing animated film of 2009. While the film did out - gross Disney 's more recent hand - drawn films such as The Emperor 's New Groove, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, Treasure Planet, Brother Bear, and Home on the Range, it was less auspicious than the animated films from Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 1990s heyday. Disney animator Tom Sito compared the film 's box office performance to that of The Great Mouse Detective (1986), which was a step up from the theatrical run of the 1985 box office bomb The Black Cauldron.
Looking back on the experience four years later, Catmull acknowledged that Disney had made a "serious mistake '' in the process of marketing and releasing the film. The Walt Disney Studios ' marketing department had warned Disney Animation that the word "princess '' in the title "would lead moviegoers to think that the film was for girls only, '' but the animation studio 's management insisted on keeping the "princess '' title because they truly believed that the film 's excellent quality and beautiful hand - drawn animation would bring in all quadrants anyway. In Catmull 's words, this belief "was our own version of a stupid pill. '' The marketing department turned out to be correct in their prediction that many moviegoers would and did avoid the film because they thought it was "for little girls only. '' This error was further compounded by the fact that the film opened five days before Avatar.
Looking back seven years later, Lasseter told Variety: "I was determined to bring back (hand - drawn animation) because I felt it was such a heritage of the Disney studio, and I love the art form... I was stunned that Princess did n't do better. We dug into it and did a lot of research and focus groups. It was viewed as old - fashioned by the audience. ''
The film received largely positive reviews from critics, praising the animation, characters, music and themes. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 85 % of 185 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.4 out of 10. The site 's general consensus is that "The warmth of traditional Disney animation makes this occasionally lightweight fairy - tale update a lively and captivating confection for the holidays. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 0 -- 100 from film critics, has a rating score of 73 based on 29 reviews.
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A '' grade and applauded the film 's creative team for "uphold (ing) the great tradition of classic Disney animation ''. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised Walt Disney Animation for "rediscovering its traditional hand - drawn animation '' and for "a thing called story ''. David Germain of the Associated Press wrote that "The Princess and the Frog is not the second coming of Beauty and the Beast or The Lion King. It 's just plain pleasant, an old - fashioned little charmer that 's not straining to be the next glib animated compendium of pop - culture flotsam. '' Justin Chang of Variety was less receptive, stating "this long - anticipated throwback to a venerable house style never comes within kissing distance of the studio 's former glory ''. Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film 3 / 5 stars while saying "The Princess and the Frog breaks the color barrier for Disney princesses, but is a throwback to traditional animation and her story is a retread ''. Village Voice 's Scott Foundas found that "the movie as a whole never approache (d) the wit, cleverness, and storytelling brio of the studio 's early - 1990s animation renaissance (Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King) or pretty much anything by Pixar ''. Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review claiming that "the dialogue is fresh - prince clever, the themes are ageless, the rhythms are riotous and the return to a primal animation style is beautifully executed. '' Chicago Sun - Times film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and admired Disney 's step back to traditional animation, writing, "No 3 - D! No glasses! No extra ticket charge! No frantic frenzies of meaningless action! And... good gravy! A story! Characters! A plot! This is what classic animation once was like! '', but stated that the film "inspires memories of Disney 's Golden Age it does n't quite live up to, as I 've said, but it 's spritely and high - spirited, and will allow kids to enjoy it without visually assaulting them. ''
S. Jhoanna Robledo of Common Sense Media gave the film three out of five stars, writing, "First African - American Disney princess is a good role model ''. Saint Bryan of the NBC - TV Seattle praised the film and called it "The Best Disney Movie Since The Lion King ''.
Upon its release, the film created controversy among some Christians over its use of Louisiana Voodoo as a plot device. Christianity Today 's review of the film cited its sexual undertones and use of voodoo, arguing that the scenes with Dr. Facilier and his "friends on the other side '' contain many horror elements and that young children might be frightened by the film. The film 's treatment of Louisiana voodoo as a type of magic instead of a religion also drew criticism from non-Christian factions.
The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and twice for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, but lost to Up and Crazy Heart, respectively. It was also nominated for eight Annie Awards and, at the 37th Annie Awards Ceremony on February 6, 2010, won three.
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who appoints the head of civil service in kenya | Public service Commission (Kenya) - wikipedia
The Public Service Commission (PSC) of Kenya is an Independent government Commission established under the Constitution of Kenya to manage human resources in the Kenya Civil Service and the Local Authorities.
Article 234 of the Constitution outlines the functions and powers of the Public Service Commission. According to the article the Commission is expected to:
The Constitution of Kenya, 2010 further bestows upon the Commission other functions which include the following:
The current membership of the Commission is as follows:
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what is the smell of a stink bug | Brown marmorated stink bug - wikipedia
Halyomorpha halys, also known as the brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), or simply the stink bug, is an insect in the family Pentatomidae that is native to China, Japan, the Koreas, and Taiwan. It was accidentally introduced into the United States, with the first specimen being collected in September 1998. The brown marmorated stink bug is considered to be an agricultural pest, and by 2010 -- 11 had become a season - long pest in U.S. orchards. It has recently established itself also in Europe and South America.
The adults are approximately 1.7 centimetres (0.67 in) long and about as wide, forming the shield shape characteristic of other stink bugs. They are various shades of brown on both the top and undersides, with gray, off - white, black, copper, and bluish markings. Markings unique to this species include alternating light bands on the antennae and alternating dark bands on the thin outer edge of the abdomen. The legs are brown with faint white mottling or banding. The stink glands are located on the underside of the thorax, between the first and second pair of legs, and on the dorsal surface of the abdomen.
The brown marmorated stink bug is an agricultural pest that can cause widespread damage to fruit and vegetable crops. In Japan it is a pest to soybean and fruit crops. In the U.S., the brown marmorated stink bug feeds, beginning in late May or early June, on a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and other host plants including peaches, apples, green beans, soybeans, cherries, raspberries, and pears. It is a sucking insect, a "true bug '', that uses its proboscis to pierce the host plant in order to feed. This feeding results, in part, in the formation of dimpled or necrotic areas on the outer surface of fruits, leaf stippling, seed loss, and possible transmission of plant pathogens.
The brown marmorated stink bug is more likely to invade homes in the fall than others in the family. The bug survives the winter as an adult by entering houses and structures when autumn evenings become colder, often in the thousands. In one home more than 26,000 stinkbugs were found overwintering. Adults can live from several months to a year. They will enter under siding, into soffits, around window and door frames, chimneys, or any space which has openings big enough to fit through. Once inside the house, they will go into a state of hibernation. They wait for winter to pass, but often the warmth inside the house causes them to become active, and they may fly clumsily around light fixtures. Two important vectors of this pest are the landscape ornamentals Tree of Heaven and Princess Tree.
The odor from the stink bug is due to trans - 2 - decenal and trans - 2 - Octenal. The smell has been characterized as a "pungent odor that smells like coriander. '' The stink bug 's ability to emit an odor through holes in its abdomen is a defense mechanism meant to prevent it from being eaten by birds and lizards. However, simply handling the bug, injuring it, or attempting to move it can trigger it to release the odor.
During courtship, the male emits pheromones and vibrational signals to communicate with a female, which replies with her own vibrational signals, as in all stink bugs. The insects use the signals to recognize and locate each other. Vibrational signals of this species are noted for their low frequency, and one male signal type is much longer than any other previously described signals in stink bugs, although the significance of this is not yet clear.
The brown marmorated stink bug was accidentally introduced into the United States from China or Japan. It is believed to have hitched a ride as a stowaway in packing crates or on various types of machinery. The first documented specimen was collected in Allentown, Pennsylvania, in September 1998. Several Muhlenberg College students were reported to have seen these bugs as early as August of that same year. Between 2001 and 2010 there were fifty - four reported sightings of BMSB at shipping ports in the United States. However, stink bugs are listed as non-reportable, meaning that they do not need to be reported or have any required action taken to remove the insect. This allowed the insect to enter the United States relatively easily as they are able to survive long periods of time in hot or cold conditions.
Other reports have the brown marmorated stink bug recovered as early as 2000 in New Jersey from a black light trap run by the Rutgers Cooperative Extension (RCE) Vegetable Integrated Pest Management program in Milford, New Jersey. In 2002, it was again collected in New Jersey from black light traps located in Phillipsburg and Little York and was found on plant material in Stewartsville. It was quickly documented and established in many counties in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Connecticut and New York on the eastern coast of the United States. By 2009, this agricultural pest had reached Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, and Oregon. In 2010 this pest was found in additional states including Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, and other states. As of November 2011 it had spread to 34 U.S. states and by 2012 to 40 and showed an increase of 60 % in total numbers over 2011.
As of 2010, seventeen states had been categorized as having established BMSB populations, and several other states along the eastern half of the United States were reported as having more than normal numbers of stink bugs. Stink bug populations rise because the climate in the United States is ideal for their reproduction. In optimal conditions an adult stink bug will develop within 35 to 45 days after hatching. Female stink bugs are capable of laying four hundred eggs in their lifetime. BMSB is also capable of producing at least one successful generation per year in all areas of the United States, no matter the climate. In warmer climates, multiple generations can occur annually, which can range from two generations in states such as Virginia to six generations in states such as California, Arizona, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas.
The addition of two more generations allowed the population to explode, leading to the establishment of several other populations in neighboring states. Currently there does not appear to be any environmental limiting factors that are slowing their distribution across the United States. They also are extremely mobile insects capable of moving from host to host without causing disruption in their reproductive processes. Currently it is estimated that BMSB populations will continue to grow and spread to other states, especially during unusual periods of warm weather.
The brown marmorated stink bug is a serious agricultural pest that has been readily causing damage to crops across the Eastern United States. They feed on a wide array of plants including apples, apricots, Asian pears, cherries, corn, grapes, lima beans, peaches, peppers, tomatoes, and soybeans. This makes them extremely versatile as they do not require a specific plant to feed on. To obtain their food stink bugs use their stylets to pierce the plant tissue in order to extract the plant fluids. In doing so, the plant loses necessary fluids that can lead to deformation of seeds, destruction of seeds, destruction of fruiting structures, delayed plant maturation, and increased vulnerability to harmful pathogens. While harvesting the plant 's juices, the stink bug injects saliva into the plant creating a dimpling of the fruit 's surface, and rotting of the material underneath.
The most common signs of stink bug damage are pitting and scarring of the fruit, leaf destruction, and a mealy texture to the harvested fruits and vegetables. In most cases the signs of stink bug damage makes the plant unsuitable for sale in the market as the insides are usually rotten. In field crops such as corn and soy beans the damage may not be as evident as the damage seen in fruit plants. When stink bugs feed on corn they go through the husk before eating the kernels, hiding the damage until the husks are removed during harvesting. The same damage is seen in soy beans as the stink bug goes through the seed pods to acquire the juices of the seeds. One visual cue of stink bug damage to soybean crops is the "stay green '' effect, where damaged soybean plants stay green late into season, while other plants in the field die off normally. One can usually tell that a field of crops is infected because stink bugs are known for the "edge effect '', in which they tend to infest crops thirty to forty feet from the edge of the field. Farmers or individuals who suspect having stink bugs in their crops should contact their respective State Department of Agriculture for information on how to manage the infestation and possible ways to prevent future incidences.
Control of stink bugs is a priority of the Department of Agriculture which has developed an artificial pheromone which can be used to bait traps. Because the bugs insert their proboscis below the surface of fruit and then feed, some insecticides are ineffective; in addition, the bugs are mobile, and a new population may fly in after the resident population has been killed, making permanent removal nearly impossible. In the case of soybean infestations research shows that spraying only the perimeter of a field may be the most effective method of preventing stinkbugs from damaging the crops. However even this method is limited as new populations move back into the area, or the existing population simply moves to unaffected areas. There is also evidence that stink bugs are developing a resistance to pyrethroid insecticides, a common chemical used to combat infestations. Other insecticides currently in field trials that are showing promising results are oxamly (96 % mortality rate) and moribund (67 % mortality rate). Many other commonly used insecticides are merely used to keep the insects out of fields, rather than actually killing them. The most successful method of protecting apples found thus far is the use of Kaolin clay. As of 2012, native predators such as wasps and birds were showing increased signs of feeding on the bugs as they adapt to the new food source. Managing this pest species is challenging because there are currently few effective pesticides that are labeled for use against them. Researchers are looking into ways to effectively control this species but many more experiments are needed to develop a consistent pesticide.
Easily confused with Brochymena and Euschistus, the best identification for adults is the white band on the antennae. It is similar in appearance to other native species of shield bug including Acrosternum, Euschistus, and Podisus, except that several of the abdominal segments protrude from beneath the wings and are alternatively banded with black and white (visible along the edge of the bug even when wings are folded) and a white stripe or band on the next to last (4th) antennal segment. The adult rice stink bug (Oebalus pugnax) is distinguishable from the brown marmorated stink bug by noting the straw color, the smaller size, and the elongated shape of the rice stink bug.
In China, Trissolcus japonicus, a parasitoid wasp species in the family Scelionidae, is a primary predator. This species is not currently present in the U.S., but is undergoing study for possible introduction. The major problem with this idea is the possibility that japonicus will also become an invasive species with no native predators. Before introducing the Chinese wasp, scientists are trying to find natural predators of the stink bug already present in the United States. To do so they have studied other species of parasitoid wasps native to the United States. They found that several other species of the parasitoid wasps attacked stink bug eggs in Virginia soybean fields. Researchers have also experimented with different spider species as well as the Wheel bug. Several spider species attacked both the eggs as well as live stink bugs. Pill bugs eat stinkbug eggs. The Wheel bug, however, was the most voracious predator and attacked the eggs as well as stink bugs more consistently. Scientists are hoping that other animals such as birds will eventually begin preying on stink bugs as populations continue to rise.
Eggs on leaf
Newly hatched eggs
Newly hatched eggs
Nymph
5th instar nymph
Last instar nymph
Adult
Halyomorpha halys
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which statement about telecommunications act of 1996 is true | Telecommunications Act of 1996 - wikipedia
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was the first significant overhaul of telecommunications law in more than sixty years, amending the Communications Act of 1934. The Act, signed by President Bill Clinton, represented a major change in American telecommunication law, since it was the first time that the Internet was included in broadcasting and spectrum allotment. One of the most controversial titles was Title 3 ("Cable Services ''), which allowed for media cross-ownership. According to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the goal of the law was to "let anyone enter any communications business -- to let any communications business compete in any market against any other. '' The legislation 's primary goal was deregulation of the converging broadcasting and telecommunications markets. However, the law 's regulatory policies have been questioned, including the effects of dualistic re-regulation of the communications market.
Previously, the Communications Act of 1934 ("1934 Act '') was the statutory framework for U.S. communications policy, covering telecommunications and broadcasting. The 1934 Act created the FCC, the agency formed to implement and administer the economic regulation of the interstate activities of the telephone monopolies and the licensing of spectrum used for broadcast and other purposes. The Act left most regulation of intrastate telephone services to the states.
In the 1970s and 1980s, a combination of technological change, court decisions, and changes in U.S. policy permitted competitive entry into some telecommunications and broadcast markets. In this context, the 1996 Telecommunications Act was designed to allow fewer, but larger corporations, to operate more media enterprises within a sector (such as Clear Channel 's dominance in radio), and to expand across media sectors (through relaxation of cross-ownership rules), thus enabling massive and historic consolidation of media in the United States. These changes amounted to a near - total rollback of New Deal market regulation.
The 1996 Act 's stated objective was to open up markets to competition by removing regulatory barriers to entry: The conference report refers to the bill "to provide for a pro-competitive, de-regulatory national policy framework designed to accelerate rapidly private sector deployment of advanced information technologies and services to all Americans by opening all telecommunications markets to competition ''.
The Act was approved by the 104th Congress on January 3, 1996, and was signed into law on February 8, 1996, by President Bill Clinton. It was the first bill signed in cyberspace and the first bill signed at the Library of Congress.
A purpose of the 1996 Act was to foster competition among companies that use similar underlying network technologies (e.g., circuit - switched telephone networks) to provide a single type of service (e.g., voice). For example, it creates separate regulatory regimes for carriers providing voice telephone service and providers of cable television, and a third for information services.
Preemption. One key provision allowed the FCC to preempt state or local legal requirements that acted as a barrier to entry in the provision of interstate or intrastate telecommunications service.
Interconnectedness. Since communications services exhibit network effects and positive externalities, new entrants would face barriers to entry if they could not interconnect their networks with those of the incumbent carriers. Thus, another key provision of the 1996 Act sets obligations for incumbent carriers and new entrants to interconnect their networks with one another, imposing additional requirements on the incumbents because they might desire to restrict competitive entry by denying such interconnection or by setting terms, conditions, and rates that could undermine the ability of the new entrants to compete.
Intercarrier compensation. Under these conditions, many calls will arise between parties on different networks. While it might be possible to have the calling party pay its carrier and the called party pay its carrier, for various reasons it has been traditional in the United States for the calling party 's carrier to pay the called party 's carrier for completing the call -- this is called intercarrier compensation -- and, in turn, recover those costs in the rates charged to its subscribers. The 1996 Act requires that intercarrier compensation rates among competing local exchange carriers (CLECs) be based on the "additional costs of terminating such calls ''. However, the framework created by the 1996 Act set different intercarrier compensation rates for services that were not competing at that time but do compete today.
RBOCs may enter long distance. To foster competition in both the long distance and local markets, the 1996 Act created a process by which the Regional Bell Operating Companies ("RBOCs '') would be free to offer long distance service (which was not permitted under one of the terms of the 1982 Modified Final Judgement settling the government 's antitrust case against the former Bell System monopoly) once they made a showing that their local markets had been opened up to competition. The list of Bell Operating Companies in the bill are: Bell Telephone Company of Nevada, Illinois Bell Telephone Company, Indiana Bell Telephone Company, Incorporated, Michigan Bell Telephone Company, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company, New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, New York Telephone Company, US West Communications Company, South Central Bell Telephone Company, Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company, Southwestern Bell Telephone Company, The Bell Telephone Company of Pennsylvania, The Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company, The Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company of Maryland, The Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company of Virginia, The Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company of West Virginia, The Diamond State Telephone Company, The Ohio Bell Telephone Company, The Pacific Telephone and Telegraph Company, or Wisconsin Telephone Company
Wholesale access to incumbents ' networks. To allow new entrants enough time to fully build out their own networks, the Act requires the incumbent local exchange carriers to make available to entrants, at cost - based wholesale rates, those elements of their network to which entrants needed access in order not to be impaired in their ability to offer telecommunications services.
Universal service support made explicit. Prior to enactment of the Act, universal service had been funded through implicit subsidies, levied as above - cost business rates, urban rates, and above - cost rates for the "access charges '' that long distance carriers paid as intercarrier compensation to local telephone companies for originating and terminating their subscribers ' long - distance calls. Recognizing that new entrants would target those services that had above - cost rates, and thus erode universal service support, Congress included in the 1996 Act a provision requiring universal service support to be explicit, rather than hidden in above - cost rates. This requirement has only been partially implemented, however, and therefore significant implicit universal services subsidies still remain in above - cost rates for certain services.
The regulatory framework created by the 1996 Act was intended to foster "intramodal '' competition within distinct markets, i.e., among companies that used the same underlying technology to provide service. For example, competition was envisioned between the incumbent local and long distance wireline carriers plus new competitive local exchange carriers, all of which used circuit - switched networks to offer voice services.
It did not envision the intermodal competition that has subsequently developed, such as wireless service competing with both local and long distance wireline service, VoIP competing with wireline and wireless telephony, IP video competing with cable television. Providers from separate regulatory regimes have been brought into competition with one another as a result of subsequent deployment of digital broadband technologies in telephone and cable networks. Voice and video services can now be provided using Internet protocol and thus might be classified as unregulated information services, but these services compete directly with regulated traditional voice and video services. Moreover, these digital technologies do not recognize national borders, much less state boundaries.
Given the focus on intramodal competition and the lack of intermodal competition, there was little concern about statutory or regulatory language that set different regulatory burdens for different technology modes. As a result, the current statutory and regulatory framework may be inconsistent with, or unresponsive to, current market conditions in several ways:
Generally speaking, the number of broadband networks is limited by cost constraint up - front, fixed costs -- which do not apply to applications providers. In this new environment, there will be three broad categories of competition:
These three areas of competition will all be affected by a common factor: will there be entry by a third broadband network to compete with the broadband networks of the local telephone company and the local cable operator?
There are four general approaches to the regulation of broadband network providers vis - a-vis independent applications providers (At present, the FCC follows the last two approaches):
There is consensus that the current universal service and intercarrier compensation mechanisms need to be modified to accommodate the new market conditions. For example, the current universal service funding mechanism is assessed only on telecommunications services, and carriers can receive universal service funding only in support of telecommunications services. Thus, if services that had been classified as telecommunications services are re-classified as information services, as recently occurred for high - speed digital subscriber line ("DSL '') services, then the universal service assessment base will decline and carriers that depend on universal service funding may see a decline in support. It therefore may be timely to consider whether the scope of universal service should be expanded to include universal access to a broadband network at affordable rates, not just to basic telephone service.
The 1996 Telecommunications Act is divided into seven Titles:
Title I, "Telecommunications Service '': Helps to outline the general duties of the telecommunication carriers as well as the obligations of all local exchange carriers (LECs) and the additional obligations of incumbent local exchange carriers (ILECs).
Title II, "Broadcast Services '': Outlines the granting and licensing of broadcast spectrum by the government, including a provision to issue licenses to current television stations to commence digital television broadcasting, the use of the revenues generated by such licensing, the terms of broadcast licenses, the process of renewing broadcast licenses, direct broadcast satellite services, automated ship distress and safety systems, and restrictions on over-the - air reception devices
Title III, "Cable Services '': Outlines the Cable Act reform, cable services provided by telephone companies, the preemption of franchising authority regulation of telecommunication services, VHS home video programming accessibility, and competitive availability of navigation devices.
Title IV, "Regulatory Reform '': Outlines regulatory forbearance, a biennial review of regulations, regulatory relief, and the elimination of unnecessary Commission regulations and functions.
Title V, "Obscenity and Violence '':
Outlines regulations regarding obscene programming on cable television, the scrambling of cable channels for nonsubscribers, the scrambling of sexually explicit adult video service programming, the cable operators ' refusal to carry certain programs, coercion and enticement of minors, and online family empowerment, including a requirement for the manufacture of televisions that block programs using V - chip technology. Title V also gives a clarification of the current laws regarding communication of obscene materials through the use of a computer.
Title VI, "Effect on Other Laws '': Outlines the applicability of consent decrees and other laws and the preemption of local taxation with respect to direct - to - home sales.
Title VII, "Miscellaneous Provisions '': Outlines provisions relating to the prevention of unfair billing practices for information or services provided over toll - free telephone calls, privacy of consumer information, pole attachments, facilities siting, radio frequency emission standards, mobile services direct access to long distance carriers, advanced telecommunications incentives, the telecommunications development fund, the National Education Technology Funding Corporation, a report on the use of advance telecommunications services for medical purposes, and outlines the authorization of appropriations.
The Act makes a significant distinction between providers of telecommunications services and information services. The term ' telecommunications service ' means the offering of telecommunications for a fee directly to the public, or to such classes of users as to be effectively available directly to the public, regardless of the facilities used. ' On the other hand, the term ' information service ' means the offering of a capability for generating, acquiring, storing, transforming, processing, retrieving, utilizing, or making available information via telecommunications, and includes electronic publishing, but does not include any use of any such capability for the management, control, or operation of a telecommunications system or the management of a telecommunications service. The distinction comes into play when a carrier provides information services. A carrier providing information services is not a ' telecommunications carrier ' under the act. For example, a carrier is not a ' telecommunications carrier ' when it is selling broadband Internet access. This distinction becomes particularly important because the act enforces specific regulations against ' telecommunications carriers ' but not against carriers providing information services. With the convergence of telephone, cable, and internet providers, this distinction has created much controversy.
The Act both deregulated and created new regulations. Congress forced local telephone companies to share their lines with competitors at regulated rates if "the failure to provide access to such network elements would impair the ability of the telecommunications carrier seeking access to provide the services that it seeks to offer '' (Section 251 (3) (2) (B)). This led to the creation of a new group of telephone companies, "Competitive Local Exchange Carriers '' (CLECs), that compete with "ILECs '' or incumbent local exchange carriers.
Most media ownership regulations were eased, and the cap on radio station ownership was eliminated.
Title V of the 1996 Act is the Communications Decency Act, aimed at regulating Internet indecency and obscenity, but was ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court for violating the First Amendment. Portions of Title V remain, including the Good Samaritan Act, which protects ISPs from liability for third - party content on their services, and legal definitions of the Internet.
The Act codified the concept of universal service and led to creation of the Universal Service Fund and E-rate. The Act employs the following terms of art: "Information service '' which is defined as:
When the smaller CLECs faced financial problems, the trend toward competition slowed, turning into a decade of reconsolidation. (Marcus) The two largest CLECs, Teleport Communications Group (TCG) and Metropolitan Fiber Systems (MFS) were acquired by AT&T and MCI / WorldCom.
Looking back five years after the bill was passed, the Consumers Union reported that wire to wire competition, the reason that sold the bill, had not succeeded as legislators had hoped. CLECs had captured just under seven percent of total lines in the country, and only three percent of homes and small businesses. Wire to wire competition accounted for only one percent of total lines nationwide.
The Consumers Union also raises one other major point. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 did not foster competition among ILECs as the bill had hoped. Instead, of ILECs encroaching on each other, the opposite occurred -- mergers. Before the 1996 Act was passed, the largest four ILECs owned less than half of all the lines in the country while, five years later, the largest four local telephone companies owned about 85 % of all the lines in the country.
Robert Crandall has argued that the forced - access provisions of the 1996 Act have had little economic value, and that the primary, sustainable competitive forces in phone and related, non - ' radio ', telecommunications are the wireline telephone companies, the cable companies, and the wireless companies.
The Act was claimed to foster competition. Instead, it continued the historic industry consolidation reducing the number of major media companies from around 50 in 1983 to 10 in 1996 and 6 in 2005. An FCC study found that the Act had led to a drastic decline in the number of radio station owners, even as the actual number of commercial stations in the United States had increased. This decline in owners and increase in stations has reportedly had the effect of radio homogenization, where programming has become similar across formats.
Consumer activist Ralph Nader argued that the Act was an example of corporate welfare spawned by political corruption, because it gave away to incumbent broadcasters valuable licenses for broadcasting digital signals on the public airwaves. There was a requirement in the Act that the FCC not auction off the public spectrum which the FCC itself valued at $11 -- $70 billion.
It had been specifically named in the Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace as an act "which repudiates your own (i.e. American) Constitution and insults the dreams of Jefferson, Washington, Mill, Madison, DeToqueville, and Brandeis ''.
In later years, criticism of the Telecommunications Act continued. One commentator, Warren J. Sirota criticized the media 's coverage of the bill and noted one provision that had n't been covered. He wrote that: "Rightfully, this major change (the Telecommunications Act) in the nation 's regulatory structure is receiving considerable media and press attention. Unfortunately... most of the attention is going to the wrong issue, the Decency Act. '' He described this provision as "blatantly unconstitutional '' and noted that the balance of the Act would "shape our future '' by eliminating "barriers between the industry 's segments, e.g., local and long - distance services, broadcast and cable television, etc. ''
MCI and the other inter-exchange carriers (IXC) were all severely impacted by the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The original intent of the Act was to provide more competition but the bill actually did the reverse. The implementation of the Act led to a complete reversal of the growth of the telecommunications sector. Where the divestiture of AT&T (Ma Bell) in 1984 led to dozens of long distance companies being formed, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 provided for the consolidation where in 2006 only Cingular, Sprint & Verizon exist. Within two years of the act, MCI was part of a consolidation effort that started with Worldcom purchasing them and ultimately led to bankruptcy and loss of retirements for their loyal employees and finally absorption into Verizon.
The end of MCI marked the end of an era in which the global telecommunications market prospered through wide spread innovation, customer service, and high growth fostered by a free market open to a wide number of competitors. Today, the telecommunications market is an oligopoly ushered in by the opposite form of government involvement that created the breakup of Ma Bell in 1984.
The now - defunct Kill Your Television website that advocated people turn off their television sets, had a criticism of the law as well. They wrote:
"thanks to the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the business is about to get bigger... Mergers, takeovers and acquisitions are becoming the norm in the television industry. The new law has stripped down the television ownership rules so much, that big media players can and will be more aggressive in buying out smaller stations... A new legislative fight is brewing on the horizon as the broadcast industry gears up for the introduction of digital television... The Telecommunications Act ('s)... highlights include: Deregulation of most cable TV rates by 1999... End (of) the FCC partial ban on broadcast networks owning cable systems... Extends TV and radio station license terms to eight years... Eases one - to - a-market rule to allow ownership of TV and radio combos... in the top 50 markets. ''
In the 2003 edition of his book, A People 's History of the United States, Howard Zinn wrote about alternative media, community newspapers and the creation of street newspapers trying the break the corporate control of information. On that topic, he talked about the Telecommunications Act of 1996:
the Telecommunications Act of 1996... enabled the handful of corporations dominating the airwaves to expand their power further. Mergers enabled tighter control of information... The Latin American writer Eduardo Galeano commented... "Never have so many been held incommunicado by so few. ''
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who sings don't it make your brown eyes blue | Do n't it Make My Brown Eyes Blue - wikipedia
"Do n't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue '' is a song written by Richard Leigh, and recorded by American country music singer Crystal Gayle. It was released in March 1977 as the first single from Gayle 's album We Must Believe in Magic. Despite the title, Gayle herself has blue eyes.
"Do n't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue '' composer Richard Leigh had been responsible for all three of Crystal Gayle 's previous Top Ten C&W hits, the third of which "I 'll Get Over You '' had reached number 1. According to Gayle 's regular producer Allen Reynolds, he was advised by Leigh 's landlady, songwriter Sandy Mason Theoret, that Leigh was "a little down in the dumps lately because nothing much (was) happening '' after the success of "I 'll Get Over You ''. At Theoret 's suggestion, Reynolds visited Leigh to cheer him up. Reynolds explained, "we were sittin ' on the floor... singing songs to one another. (Leigh) mentioned a song that his publisher was gon na get to Shirley Bassey... (and) sang it for me: ' Do n't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue '. I said, ' Shirley Bassey my ass, I want that song! ' '' Reynolds recalls that when he played "Do n't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue '' for Gayle "she was just as excited (by the song) as I was. ''
The track was recorded at Jack 's Tracks in Nashville on October 27, 1976. As Reynolds ' regular session keyboardist Charles Cochran had suffered a stroke with some resultant numbness in his hands, Reynolds hired Hargus "Pig '' Robbins to play keyboards, and Robbins instantly devised the song 's signature acoustic piano riff; Cochran was also featured on the session playing the horn parts on a Wurlitzer. Reynolds noted "it was just one of those charmed sessions... (After) we presented the song to the musicians... it was about the third time running (through) that song that we ran tape... (Gayle) sang (the song) wonderfully. It came so fast that she was n't sure that she had done her best job. I had to let her try to sing it again on two or three different occasions until she was comfortable with the original (vocal take), and that 's what we went with. Everything on that recording was the original take as it went down, except the string section I added later. ''
In a 2004 Country Music Television interview, Gayle stated that Leigh wrote the song because his dog had one brown eye and one blue eye.
The song became a worldwide hit single. In the United States, it topped the Billboard country music chart and was Gayle 's first (and biggest) crossover pop hit, reaching number 1 on the Cashbox Top 100 for two weeks, and number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for 3 weeks, behind Debby Boone 's smash hit, "You Light Up My Life ''. The album received Platinum status, the first by a female country singer. The song became Gayle 's signature piece throughout her career. In 1978, the song won Gayle a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. In 1999, the song was recognized by ASCAP as one of the ten most - performed songs of the 20th century. The song has a jazzy feel to it when compared to many other country songs of that era. Gayle had many more hit singles for the next ten years, such as "Talking in Your Sleep '', "Half the Way '' "You and I '' (a duet with Eddie Rabbitt) and "I 'll Get Over You '', but none have achieved the same level of success as "Do n't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue ''.
The song has been covered by Lorrae Desmond, Laura Fygi, Anita Meyer, the Nolans, Tessanne Chin, Alison Statton (aka Devine & Statton), Wendy Van Wanten, Georgia White and Dana Winner. Mireille Mathieu has recorded the song first in French as "Un peu de bleu '' in 1977 then in German as "Tränen Würden Mir Nicht Stehn '' in 1980, another French rendering "Mes yeux bleus sont gris '' was recorded by Michèle Torr, Matell, and a Cantonese version titled "你 說 是 甜 我 說 苦 (Your Words Are Sweet, Mine Are Bitter) '' was recorded by Prudence Liew for her Jokingly Saying album.
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who plays greg's mom and dad on american housewife | American Housewife - Wikipedia
American Housewife is an American sitcom television series that debuted on October 11, 2016 on ABC. Created and written by Sarah Dunn and co-executive produced with Aaron Kaplan, Kenny Schwartz, Rick Wiener, and Ruben Fleischer, the Kapital Entertainment -- ABC Studios co-production was greenlighted to series order on May 12, 2016. A preview was released on May 17, 2016. On November 4, 2016, ABC gave a full - season order of 22 episodes with an additional episode ordered on December 13, 2016 for a 23 - episode first season.
On May 11, 2017, ABC renewed American Housewife for a second season, which premiered on September 27, 2017. On October 31, ABC ordered two additional episodes.
The series chronicles the daily life of Katie Otto, a wife and mother who tries to stand out among the wealthy, pretentious, arrogant housewives and their privileged children after moving to her new hometown of Westport, Connecticut. She lives with Greg, her level - headed husband and a university professor, and their three children. Taylor is their athletic oldest daughter who wants to fit in with her peers; Oliver, their savvy, ambitious, and snarky son, is the middle child; and Anna - Kat, sweet but obsessive - compulsive, is the youngest and Katie 's blatant favorite. Katie frequently vents to her two closest friends: Doris, whose strict parenting style sharply contrasts with Katie 's, and Angela, a mom who is also a lesbian.
American Housewife has received mixed reviews from television critics, with Katy Mixon 's performance being praised as the show 's highlight. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 54 %, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "American Housewife is boosted by a strong and enjoyable lead performance by Katy Mixon, yet her performance alone strains to sustain an excessively quirky show that relies too heavily on stereotypes. '' Metacritic reported a score of 60 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
In November 2017, the episode "Boo '' featured character Taylor Otto dressed up as a "pregnant Norwalk prom girl '', poking fun at the city of Norwalk, Connecticut, which borders the show 's location of Westport. Before this incident, there were various other episodes in which Norwalk was mocked: The characters refused to swim in a Norwalk swimming pool, acting like the pool water was diseased because of Norwalk people; one of the children took bets on how many of the girlfriends of Norwalk 's basketball team would be pregnant post season; and the family used a Hispanic housekeeper to sell fake Polo shirts to Norwalk students, since they believed that no Westport resident would buy them (the family ended up earning a lot of money). This brought condemnation from residents, school officials, and politicians of Norwalk. After a petition calling for the producers to stop "bullying '' Norwalk got over 500 signatures and media coverage, a Disney spokesperson released a statement saying "As a comedy, ' American Housewife ' is n't intended to offend anyone. We 've heard the concerns of the people of Norwalk and have made the decision to omit any mentions of the city from future episodes ''.
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behavioral risk factor surveillance system (brfss) data | Behavioral risk Factor Surveillance System - wikipedia
The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) is a United States health survey that looks at behavioral risk factors. It is run by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and conducted by the individual state health departments. The survey is administered by telephone and is the world 's largest such survey. In 2009, the BRFSS began conducting surveys by cellular phone in addition to traditional "landline '' telephones.
The BRFSS is a cross-sectional telephone survey conducted by state health departments with technical and methodological assistance provided by the CDC. In addition to all 50 states, the BRFSS is also conducted by health departments in The District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Individual states can add their own questions to the survey instrument, which consists of a core set of questions on certain topics like car safety, obesity, or exercise. States get funding from the federal government to administer these questionnaires, and they pay for the additional questions themselves.
The U.S. federal government can then compare states based on the core questions to allocate funding and focus interventions. The states themselves also use the survey results to focus interventions for the public and to decide what is worth their while to focus on. City, county, tribal, and local governments also rely on BRFSS data for information about their jurisdictions.
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who was the singer on the graham norton show last night | List of the Graham Norton show episodes - wikipedia
The Graham Norton Show is a British comedy chat show broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom. It was shown on BBC Two from February 2007 to May 2009 and has been on BBC One since October 2009. Presented by Irish comedian Graham Norton, the show 's format is very similar to his previous Channel 4 programmes, So Graham Norton and V Graham Norton, both of which were also produced by So Television.
The show 's latest series, the twenty - third, premiered on 6 April 2018. As of 15 June 2018, 367 episodes of The Graham Norton Show have aired.
Viewing figures sourced from BARB.
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what's the difference between bowser and king koopa | Bowser (character) - wikipedia
Bowser (クッパ, Kuppa, "Koopa ''), or King Koopa, is a fictional character and the main antagonist of Nintendo 's Mario franchise. In Japan, the character bears the title of Daimaō (大 魔王, Great Demon King). In the U.S., the character was first referred to as "Bowser, King of the Koopas '' and "The sorcerer king '' in the instruction manual. Bowser is the leader of the turtle - like Koopa race, and has been the archenemy of Mario since his first appearance, in the 1985 video game Super Mario Bros.
His ultimate goals are to kidnap Princess Peach, defeat Mario, and conquer the Mushroom Kingdom. Since his debut, he has appeared in almost every Mario franchise game, usually serving as the main antagonist. Bowser is voiced by Kenny James. In addition to his usual animated and video game appearances, he also appears in the 1993 live - action film, where he is portrayed by Dennis Hopper.
Bowser was created by Nintendo designer and producer Shigeru Miyamoto. Miyamoto had first envisioned Bowser as an ox, basing him on the Ox King from the Toei Animation film Alakazam the Great. However, Nintendo designer Takashi Tezuka pointed out that the character looked a lot more like a turtle than an ox. Miyamoto and Tezuka then began to work together to define Bowser 's appearance. Since the character was the leader of the turtle - like Koopa Troopas the two began to base his new appearance on them, creating a new illustration. In his final design, Miyamoto commented that he could make Bowser "look cool now ''.
Miyamoto named him 大 魔 王 クッパ Daimaō Kuppa. Kuppa came from the Japanese name for 국 밥, gukbap, a Korean dish. Miyamoto had also considered the names ユッケ Yukke and ビビンバ Bibinba, also Japanese names of Korean dishes (육회 yukhoe and 비빔밥 bibimbap respectively). The Korean name for the character Bowser / Kuppa is not Gukbap, but 쿠파 Kupa, which is essentially a phonetic round - trip translation. The name was anglicized Kuppa rather than Koopa in the Japanese versions up until the release of Super Mario World.
In the Super Mario Bros. film, Bowser is portrayed by Dennis Hopper and is called President Koopa. He is also briefly referred to as King Koopa. This incarnation is almost entirely human in appearance, with blonde hair he gels in the shape of a crown, and he frequently wears a black business suit and tie. However, after brief exposure to his own evolution - reversing device by the Mario Bros., he starts occasionally possessing some reptilian traits. The climax of the film sees Koopa devolve into an enormous Green Tyrannosaurus Rex to battle the Mario Bros., but he is further devolved into primordial ooze.
Bowser is portrayed as the "King of the Koopas '', anthropomorphic turtles that inhabit the world of the Mushroom Kingdom. Bowser differs greatly from the rest of the Koopa clan, which consists mainly of bipedal tortoises. He is characterized by a large, spiked turtle shell, horns, a draconic muzzle, razor - sharp fangs, taloned fingers, three clawed toes on each foot, and a shock of red hair.
He is physically endowed with immense strength, nearly indestructible and can breathe fire. He can also jump surprisingly high for his large size, although his speed and agility are most of the time lacking. He is also qualified in black magic, thanks to which he can teleport himself or summon objects, fly, generate a huge amount of electricity, use telekinesis or metamorphose.
Bowser 's physical size tends to vary from game to game. In most games, he towers over the majority of characters, but there are exceptions. In Super Mario RPG, he stands only slightly taller than Mario. He is shown changing his size at will or through others ' sorcery in games including Yoshi 's Island, Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario Galaxy 2.
Bowser aspires to take over the Mushroom Kingdom and merge it with his own realm. He is infatuated with Princess Peach, and routinely kidnaps her as part of his plans for domination. Sometimes, he kidnaps Peach simply to lure Mario into a trap, but occasionally he hopes to marry her.
The character 's role in the franchise varies. He is typically the main antagonist in the main series, but in the RPG series, he sometimes works with the heroes to defeat a greater evil. The RPGs also portray Bowser in a more humorous light as a blustering, buffoonish bully with a hidden softer side. He also cares for his minions.
Bowser has a son, Bowser Jr., who helps his father kidnap Princess Peach. Bowser Jr. 's mother is unknown, as Bowser is n't officially confirmed as having a previous marriage yet. Originally in Super Mario Bros. 3, Bowser was stated to be the father of the Koopalings with subsequent official sources adding that he was their biological father, but since their return in New Super Mario Bros. Wii they have been referred to as Bowser 's minions. In a 2012 interview, Shigeru Miyamoto stated that "Our current story is that the seven Koopalings are not Bowser 's children. Bowser 's only child is Bowser Jr., and we do not know who the mother is. ''.
Up until the release of Super Mario Sunshine, Bowser 's voice consisted of mostly computer generated roars, snarls, and laughs. Then, in the 2002 release of Super Mario Sunshine, radio personality and voice actor Scott Burns gave Bowser his first spoken dialogue and continued portraying him for several more years. With the late 2005 release of Super Mario Strikers, Kenneth W. James became the new voice actor for Bowser. Although, for a few years, old recordings of Burns were reused for games after James took the role, such as Mario Party DS. Between Burns and James, Bowser was briefly voiced by Eric Newsome in Super Paper Mario.
Bowser 's first appearance was in Super Mario Bros. as the main antagonist who kidnaps Princess Peach and as the final boss with several false versions of him appearing as lesser bosses. In addition to breathing fire, he also throws hammers in later levels, similar to the Hammer Bros. He reappears in Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels, in which he uses the same battle tactics as in the previous game. Although he was absent in Super Mario Bros. 2 (where he was replaced by Wart as the final boss), he appears in Super Mario Bros. 3, and along with the Koopalings, he transforms the kings of seven worlds into various different creatures and eventually capturing Princess Peach yet again. Bowser and his seven koopalings reappear in Super Mario World, where they conquer Dinosaur Land and kidnap Peach while she and Mario are on vacation on Yoshi 's Island. He makes his first 3D appearance in Super Mario 64, where he takes over Peach 's castle and steals 120 Power Stars (150 in Super Mario 64 DS), scattering them through various worlds linked using the castle. He returns in Super Mario Sunshine, in which his youngest, but favorite son, Bowser Jr., who is disguised as an evil version of Mario, kidnaps Peach. Bowser himself eventually appears in the final boss battle of the game. In New Super Mario Bros., Bowser is the boss of the first world, which features a battle similar to that of Super Mario Bros. After being defeated, he falls into lava and is reduced to a skeleton called Dry Bowser. He is eventually restored by Bowser Jr. and acts as the final world 's boss along with his son. In Super Mario Galaxy, Bowser steals the Power Stars from Rosalina 's Comet Observatory and kidnaps Peach, taking her to the center of the universe to recreate it, with the intention of taking over the universe. He also appears in New Super Mario Bros. Wii as the final boss and primary antagonist of the game. After being defeated at the end, he grows to a much greater size, chasing Mario through the castle by breathing fireballs before Mario defeats him again. Bowser appears in the sequel Super Mario Galaxy 2, once again as the main antagonist. Here, however, Bowser has grown to giant size, requiring the player to dodge more powerful attacks such as meteors and bolts of lightning. Bowser also appears in Super Mario 3D Land as the main antagonist once again where he steals Peach and uses the Super Leaf to create tailed minions. Dry Bowser also returns in this game as well. Bowser also appeared in New Super Mario Bros. 2 along with his Koopalings in order to capture Peach once more. Dry Bowser also makes an appearance in this game. Bowser returns as the main antagonist of New Super Mario Bros. and Luigi U along with the Koopalings and his son, but this time, they invade Castle Toadstool. Bowser returns once again in Super Mario 3D World as the main antagonist who is fought thrice, including as the final boss in a form known as Meowser, and this time, he will take over the Sprixie Kingdom by kidnapping the seven Sprixies so that he may steal the kingdom 's treasures. He appears once more in Super Mario Odyssey as the main antagonist, kidnapping Peach so he can marry her. He goes about various kingdoms, stealing items for his use at the wedding. He also enlisted the aid of a band of anthropomorphic rabbits named "The Broodals '' as his wedding planners and also to stop Mario from thwarting Bowser 's wedding plans. He serves as a boss midway through the game and also as the final boss. Once all Power Moons are obtained, an alternate final battle with Bowser can be unlocked.
Bowser appears as a child in various games. Known as Baby Bowser (not to be confused with Bowser Jr.), he antagonizes the Baby Mario brothers and various members of the Yoshi species. He first appears in Super Mario World 2: Yoshi 's Island where Kamek predicts the brothers will become problems in the future, so he attempts to kidnap them. He appears yet again in the sequel Yoshi 's Story, stealing the "Super Happy Tree '' from a group of Yoshis. He appeared yet again in Yoshi 's Island DS as a playable character to recover his castle. Baby Bowser and his older self also appeared in Yoshi 's New Island as the final boss. Baby Bowser makes an appearance in Yoshi 's Wooly World as the main antagonist. Baby Bowser also appears alongside adult Bowser in early installments of the Mario Party series, typically as a flunky for adult Bowser but also stealing coins from players on the game boards.
In Super Mario Maker, Bowser can now be placed in any non-castle level. Although he can not throw hammers, a winged Bowser Jr. can be stacked on top of him for that purpose. A Bowser costume can also be unlocked for use in the Super Mario Bros. style.
Due largely to the success of the Mario franchise, Bowser has become one of the most iconic and easily recognizable video game antagonists of all time. He frequently appears in lists for greatest video game antagonists. IGN placed him at # 2 out of 100, and GamePro placed him at # 9 out of 47. GameSpot listed him at # 9 in their "Top 10 Video Game Villains '' article, stating "Of all the villains to make an appearance on this list, Bowser... has got to be the most interesting, '' later adding "While some people say Bowser 's life may have gotten into a rut, the man has simply refined his game down to an everyday thing. He 's focused, he 's dedicated, and worst of all, he 's patient. '' Bowser ranked in the first slot on GameDaily 's top 10 Nintendo characters that deserve their own games list, explaining if Yoshi and Wario get their own games, Bowser should too due to his being one of gaming 's most nefarious villains. In GameDaily 's top 10 Smash Bros. characters list, he ranked sixth. GameDaily also included him in their most persistent video game villains list. However, Bowser has been also rated as the 4th biggest douchebag in gaming history by ScrewAttack, who said that he wants to "take Mario down ''. IGN editor Craig Harris described Bowser as being a household name. In 2011, Empire ranked him as the 23rd greatest video game character while Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2013 featured Bowser first in their list of top 50 Villains.
Bowser 's role in Super Mario Galaxy has been met with significant praise. Eurogamer editor Margaret Robertson commented that after years of being a "comedy villain '', Galaxy put him back at his "scaly, scabrous best ''. PALGN editor Chris Sell called him the best boss in Mario Galaxy, stating that it was n't just because of the battles with him being "superb, screen filling affairs '', but also because he is "back to being mean again ''. Nintendo World Report editor Aaron Kaluszka commented that battling Bowser has never been "this intense and engaging ''. IGN editor Cam Shea praised his physical appearance in Super Mario Galaxy, describing him as "imposing and weighty ''. Another IGN editor, Matt Casamassina, praised the visual quality of the characters, citing Bowser in particular and mentioning how his "funky red fur waggles in the wind ''. Game Positive editor Travis Simmons concurred, commenting that his hair "gives him a touch of personality ''.
Bowser 's role in Mario & Luigi: Bowser 's Inside Story has been met with highly positive reception. He has frequently been referenced as the main character of the game due to his prominence in it. Eurogamer editor Christian Donlan commented that it felt good to play as Bowser, and that "After years of picking a path carefully around threats, jumping out of harm 's way, and tackling challengers mostly from above, it 's a pleasure to put those cares aside and relish a few hours of spiky, tortoise - shelled power. '' Destructoid editor Jim Sterling described Bowser 's gameplay as "brilliant comic relief ''. He also described the dialogue of the game as being "laugh out loud funny '', specifically praising Bowser 's ego. RPGamer editor Michael Cunningham praised the game for Bowser "stealing the show '', but also decried it for not having quite enough of him. Nintendo World Report editor Pedro Hernandez commented that the plot and humour of the game make iconic characters "more enduring, including Bowser ''. NGamer Magazine editor Matthew Castle commented that all Mario role - playing games make good use of Bowser, but that this is the first game where Bowser takes the center stage. Game Style editor Drew Middlemas commented that Bowser stole the show, being portrayed as a "creature of pure, blustering ego who reminds us of why he 's one of gaming 's greatest baddies. '' N - Europe editor called him the "real star '' of the game, calling him a "fantastic character '' with "so much more to give than what we 've seen from him so far, even in the other Mario RPGs ''. He added that his "foul mood and lack of intelligence '' as well as his interactions with other characters are well written. ``
Kombo editor commented that he became a more sympathetic character as the game progresses, adding that his "massive ego pushes him towards heroism ''. Wired.com editor Chris Kohler called Bowser awesome, adding that his segments are funnier than Mario and Luigi 's. Giant Bomb editor Brad Shoemaker states that Bowser steals the show, commenting that playing as him gives players an inside glimpse of his ego and megalomania. IGN editor Craig Harris described Bowser as the only "core Nintendo character over the past couple decades '' to not have a starring role in a video game, and this game acts as his "big break ''. 1UP.com editor Jeremy Parish stated that Bowser makes the game, describing him as more interesting than Bowser 's Inside Story predecessor 's partners, the baby forms of Mario and Luigi. GamePro editor Alicia Ashby called Bowser one of the most "lovable characters in the Nintendo universe '', and praising Bowser 's Inside Story for giving him "much deserved time in the spotlight ''. GameSpy editor Phil Theobald called him the breakout star of the game, stating that "the gruff, quick - to - anger pro / antagonist is a treat to watch as he continuously becomes infuriated with the incompetence of his minions. '' GamesRadar editor Henry Gilbert stated that he is "home to the most drastic change to the formula '' in this game, stating that while he is still a "humorously incapable villain '', the game allows players to switch between Bowser and the Mario Bros. at their discretion. '' ScrewAttack listed Bowser as the number one Top 10 Reptiles / Amphibians in Video Games. IGN names Bowser one of the "oldest villains in gaming history, not to mention one of the most iconic. ''
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sagrada familia ( expiatory temple of the holy family ) | Sagrada Família - Wikipedia
The Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família (Catalan pronunciation: (səˈɣɾaðə fəˈmiɫiə); Spanish: Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia; English: Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family) is a large unfinished Roman Catholic church in Barcelona, designed by Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí (1852 -- 1926). Gaudí 's work on the building is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and in November 2010 Pope Benedict XVI consecrated and proclaimed it a minor basilica, as distinct from a cathedral, which must be the seat of a bishop.
In 1882, construction of Sagrada Família started under architect Francisco de Paula del Villar. In 1883, when Villar resigned, Gaudí took over as chief architect, transforming the project with his architectural and engineering style, combining Gothic and curvilinear Art Nouveau forms. Gaudí devoted the remainder of his life to the project, and at the time of his death at age 73 in 1926, less than a quarter of the project was complete.
Relying solely on private donations, Sagrada Familia 's construction progressed slowly and was interrupted by the Spanish Civil War, only to resume intermittent progress in the 1950s. Since commencing construction in 1882, advancements in technologies such as computer aided design and computerised numerical control (CNC) have enabled faster progress and construction passed the midpoint in 2010. However, some of the project 's greatest challenges remain, including the construction of ten more spires, each symbolising an important Biblical figure in the New Testament. It is anticipated that the building can be completed by 2026 -- the centenary of Gaudí 's death.
The basilica has a long history of dividing the citizens of Barcelona: over the initial possibility it might compete with Barcelona 's cathedral, over Gaudí 's design itself, over the possibility that work after Gaudí 's death disregarded his design, and the 2007 proposal to build an underground tunnel of Spain 's high - speed rail link to France which could disturb its stability. Describing Sagrada Família, art critic Rainer Zerbst said "it is probably impossible to find a church building anything like it in the entire history of art '', and Paul Goldberger describes it as "the most extraordinary personal interpretation of Gothic architecture since the Middle Ages ''.
The Basilica of the Sagrada Família was the inspiration of a bookseller, Josep Maria Bocabella, founder of Asociación Espiritual de Devotos de San José (Spiritual Association of Devotees of St. Joseph).
After a visit to the Vatican in 1872, Bocabella returned from Italy with the intention of building a church inspired by the basilica at Loreto. The apse crypt of the church, funded by donations, was begun 19 March 1882, on the festival of St. Joseph, to the design of the architect Francisco de Paula del Villar, whose plan was for a Gothic revival church of a standard form. The apse crypt was completed before Villar 's resignation on 18 March 1883, when Gaudí assumed responsibility for its design, which he changed radically. Antoni Gaudí began work on the church in 1883 but was not appointed Architect Director until 1884.
On the subject of the extremely long construction period, Gaudí is said to have remarked: "My client is not in a hurry. '' When Gaudí died in 1926, the basilica was between 15 and 25 percent complete. After Gaudí 's death, work continued under the direction of Domènec Sugrañes i Gras until interrupted by the Spanish Civil War in 1936.
Parts of the unfinished basilica and Gaudí 's models and workshop were destroyed during the war by Catalan anarchists. The present design is based on reconstructed versions of the plans that were burned in a fire as well as on modern adaptations. Since 1940 the architects Francesc Quintana, Isidre Puig Boada, Lluís Bonet i Gari and Francesc Cardoner have carried on the work. The illumination was designed by Carles Buïgas. The current director and son of Lluís Bonet, Jordi Bonet i Armengol, has been introducing computers into the design and construction process since the 1980s. Mark Burry of New Zealand serves as Executive Architect and Researcher. Sculptures by J. Busquets, Etsuro Sotoo and the controversial Josep Maria Subirachs decorate the fantastical façades. Barcelona - born Jordi Fauli took over as chief architect in 2012.
The central nave vaulting was completed in 2000 and the main tasks since then have been the construction of the transept vaults and apse. As of 2006, work concentrated on the crossing and supporting structure for the main tower of Jesus Christ as well as the southern enclosure of the central nave, which will become the Glory façade.
The church shares its site with the Sagrada Família Schools building, a school originally designed by Gaudí in 1909 for the children of the construction workers. Relocated in 2002 from the eastern corner of the site to the southern corner, the building now houses an exhibition.
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1930. Aerial photograph by Walter Mittelholzer, ETH - Bibliothek.
Chief architect Jordi Fauli announced in October 2015 that construction is 70 percent complete and has entered its final phase of raising six immense towers. The towers and most of the church 's structure are to be completed by 2026, the centennial of Gaudí 's death; decorative elements should be complete by 2030 or 2032. Visitor entrance fees of 15 -- 20 euros ($17 -- 22) finance the annual construction budget of 25 million euros ($28.38 million).
Computer - aided design technology has been used to accelerate construction of the building. Current technology allows stone to be shaped off - site by a CNC milling machine, whereas in the 20th century the stone was carved by hand.
In 2008, some renowned Catalan architects advocated halting construction, to respect Gaudí 's original designs, which although they were not exhaustive and were partially destroyed, have been partially reconstructed in recent years.
Since 2013, AVE high - speed trains have passed near the Sagrada Família through an underground tunnel that runs beneath the centre of Barcelona.
The tunnel 's construction, which began on 26 March 2010, was controversial. The Ministry of Public Works of Spain (Ministerio de Fomento) claimed the project posed no risk to the church. Sagrada Família engineers and architects disagreed, saying there was no guarantee that the tunnel would not affect the stability of the building. The Board of the Sagrada Família (Patronat de la Sagrada Família) and the neighborhood association AVE pel Litoral (AVE by the Coast) had led a campaign against this route for the AVE, without success.
In October 2010, the tunnel boring machine reached the church underground under the location of the building 's principal façade. Service through the tunnel was inaugurated on 8 January 2013. Track in the tunnel makes use of a system by Edilon Sedra in which the rails are embedded in an elastic material to dampen vibrations. No damage to the Sagrada Família has been reported to date.
The main nave was covered and an organ installed in mid-2010, allowing the still - unfinished building to be used for religious services. The church was consecrated by Pope Benedict XVI on 7 November 2010 in front of a congregation of 6,500 people. A further 50,000 people followed the consecration Mass from outside the basilica, where more than 100 bishops and 300 priests were on hand to offer Holy Communion. Starting on 9 July 2017, there is an international Mass celebrated at the basilica on every Sunday and holy day of obligation, at 9 a.m, open to the public (until the church should be full). Occasionally, Mass is celebrated at other times, where attendance requires an invitation. When Masses are scheduled, instructions to obtain an invitation are posted on the basilica 's website. In addition, visitors may pray at the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament and Penitence.
On 19 April 2011, an arsonist started a small fire in the sacristy which forced the evacuation of tourists and construction workers; the sacristy was damaged, and the fire took 45 minutes to contain.
The style of la Sagrada Família is variously likened to Spanish Late Gothic, Catalan Modernism and to Art Nouveau or Catalan Noucentisme. While the Sagrada Família falls within the Art Nouveau period, Nikolaus Pevsner points out that, along with Charles Rennie Macintosh in Glasgow, Gaudí carried the Art Nouveau style far beyond its usual application as a surface decoration.
While never intended to be a cathedral (seat of a bishop), the Sagrada Família was planned from the outset to be a cathedral - sized building. Its ground - plan has obvious links to earlier Spanish cathedrals such as Burgos Cathedral, Leon Cathedral and Seville Cathedral. In common with Catalan and many other European Gothic cathedrals, the Sagrada Família is short in comparison to its width, and has a great complexity of parts, which include double aisles, an ambulatory with a chevet of seven apsidal chapels, a multitude of towers and three portals, each widely different in structure as well as ornament. Where it is common for cathedrals in Spain to be surrounded by numerous chapels and ecclesiastical buildings, the plan of this church has an unusual feature: a covered passage or cloister which forms a rectangle enclosing the church and passing through the narthex of each of its three portals. With this peculiarity aside, the plan, influenced by Villar 's crypt, barely hints at the complexity of Gaudí 's design or its deviations from traditional church architecture.
Gaudí 's original design calls for a total of eighteen spires, representing in ascending order of height the Twelve Apostles, the Virgin Mary, the four Evangelists and, tallest of all, Jesus Christ. Eight spires have been built as of 2010, corresponding to four apostles at the Nativity façade and four apostles at the Passion façade.
According to the 2005 "Works Report '' of the project 's official website, drawings signed by Gaudí and recently found in the Municipal Archives, indicate that the spire of the Virgin was in fact intended by Gaudí to be shorter than those of the evangelists. The spire height will follow Gaudí 's intention, which according to the report will work with the existing foundation.
The Evangelists ' spires will be surmounted by sculptures of their traditional symbols: a winged bull (Saint Luke), a winged man (Saint Matthew), an eagle (Saint John), and a winged lion (Saint Mark). The central spire of Jesus Christ is to be surmounted by a giant cross; its total height (170 metres (560 ft)) will be one metre less than that of Montjuïc hill in Barcelona as Gaudí believed that his creation should not surpass God 's. The lower spires are surmounted by communion hosts with sheaves of wheat and chalices with bunches of grapes, representing the Eucharist.
The completion of the spires will make Sagrada Família the tallest church building in the world.
The Church will have three grand façades: the Nativity façade to the East, the Passion façade to the West, and the Glory façade to the South (yet to be completed). The Nativity Façade was built before work was interrupted in 1935 and bears the most direct Gaudí influence. The Passion façade was built according to the design that Gaudi created in 1917. The construction began in 1954, and the towers, built over the elliptical plan, were finished in 1976. It is especially striking for its spare, gaunt, tormented characters, including emaciated figures of Christ being scourged at the pillar; and Christ on the Cross. These controversial designs are the work of Josep Maria Subirachs. The Glory façade, on which construction began in 2002, will be the largest and most monumental of the three and will represent one 's ascension to God. It will also depict various scenes such as Hell, Purgatory, and will include elements such as the Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven Heavenly Virtues.
Constructed between 1894 and 1930, the Nativity façade was the first façade to be completed. Dedicated to the birth of Jesus, it is decorated with scenes reminiscent of elements of life. Characteristic of Gaudí 's naturalistic style, the sculptures are ornately arranged and decorated with scenes and images from nature, each a symbol in its own manner. For instance, the three porticos are separated by two large columns, and at the base of each lies a turtle or a tortoise (one to represent the land and the other the sea; each are symbols of time as something set in stone and unchangeable). In contrast to the figures of turtles and their symbolism, two chameleons can be found at either side of the façade, and are symbolic of change.
The façade faces the rising sun to the northeast, a symbol for the birth of Christ. It is divided into three porticos, each of which represents a theological virtue (Hope, Faith and Charity). The Tree of Life rises above the door of Jesus in the portico of Charity. Four towers complete the façade and are each dedicated to a Saint (Matthias the Apostle, Saint Barnabas, Jude the Apostle, and Simon the Zealot).
Originally, Gaudí intended for this façade to be polychromed, for each archivolt to be painted with a wide array of colours. He wanted every statue and figure to be painted. In this way the figures of humans would appear as much alive as the figures of plants and animals.
Gaudí chose this façade to embody the structure and decoration of the whole church. He was well aware that he would not finish the church and that he would need to set an artistic and architectural example for others to follow. He also chose for this façade to be the first on which to begin construction and for it to be, in his opinion, the most attractive and accessible to the public. He believed that if he had begun construction with the Passion Façade, one that would be hard and bare (as if made of bones), before the Nativity Façade, people would have withdrawn at the sight of it. Some of the statues were destroyed in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War, and subsequently were reconstructed by the Japanese artist Etsuro Sotoo.
In contrast to the highly decorated Nativity Façade, the Passion Façade is austere, plain and simple, with ample bare stone, and is carved with harsh straight lines to resemble the bones of a skeleton. Dedicated to the Passion of Christ, the suffering of Jesus during his crucifixion, the façade was intended to portray the sins of man. Construction began in 1954, following the drawings and instructions left by Gaudí for future architects and sculptors. The towers were completed in 1976, and in 1987 a team of sculptors, headed by Josep Maria Subirachs, began work sculpting the various scenes and details of the façade. They aimed to give a rigid, angular form to provoke a dramatic effect. Gaudí intended for this façade to strike fear into the onlooker. He wanted to "break '' arcs and "cut '' columns, and to use the effect of chiaroscuro (dark angular shadows contrasted by harsh rigid light) to further show the severity and brutality of Christ 's sacrifice.
Facing the setting sun, indicative and symbolic of the death of Christ, the Passion Façade is supported by six large and inclined columns, designed to resemble Sequoia trunks. Above there is a pyramidal pediment, made up of eighteen bone - shaped columns, which culminate in a large cross with a crown of thorns. Each of the four towers is dedicated to an apostle (James, Thomas, Philip, and Bartholomew) and, like the Nativity Façade, there are three porticos, each representing the theological virtues, though in a much different light.
The scenes sculpted into the façade may be divided into three levels, which ascend in an S form and reproduce the Via Crucis of Christ. The lowest level depicts scenes from Jesus ' last night before the crucifixion, including The Last Supper, Kiss of Judas, Ecce Homo, and the Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus. The middle level portrays the Calvary, or Golgotha, of Christ, and includes The Three Marys, Saint Longinus, Saint Veronica, and a hollow - face illusion of Christ on the Veil of Veronica. In the third and final level the Death, Burial and the Resurrection of Christ can be seen. A bronze figure situated on a bridge creating a link between the towers of Saint Bartholomew and Saint Thomas represents the Ascension of Jesus.
Model of the completed Temple, the Glory façade is on the foreground.
Model showing the entrance as wished by Gaudi.
Ground model, showing Carrer de Mallorca running underground.
Glory Façade under construction (in 2016).
The Glory façade from inside.
The largest and most striking of the façades will be the Glory Façade, on which construction began in 2002. It will be the principal façade and will offer access to the central nave. Dedicated to the Celestial Glory of Jesus, it represents the road to God: Death, Final Judgment, and Glory, while Hell is left for those who deviate from God 's will. Aware that he would not live long enough to see this façade completed, Gaudí made a model which was demolished in 1936, whose original fragments were base for the development of the design for the façade. The completion of this façade may require the partial demolition of the block with buildings across the Carrer de Mallorca.
To reach the Glory Portico the large staircase will lead over the underground passage built over Carrer de Mallorca with the decoration representing Hell and vice. On other projects Carrer de Mallorca will have to go underground. It will be decorated with demons, idols, false gods, heresy and schisms, etc. Purgatory and death will also be depicted, the latter using tombs along the ground. The portico will have seven large columns dedicated to spiritual gifts. At the base of the columns there will be representations of the Seven Deadly Sins, and at the top, The Seven Heavenly Virtues.
Standing in the transept and looking northeast (2011)
Detail of the roof in the nave. Gaudí designed the columns to mirror trees and branches.
The church plan is that of a Latin cross with five aisles. The central nave vaults reach forty - five metres (150 ft) while the side nave vaults reach thirty metres (100 ft). The transept has three aisles. The columns are on a 7.5 metre (25 ft) grid. However, the columns of the apse, resting on del Villar 's foundation, do not adhere to the grid, requiring a section of columns of the ambulatory to transition to the grid thus creating a horseshoe pattern to the layout of those columns. The crossing rests on the four central columns of porphyry supporting a great hyperboloid surrounded by two rings of twelve hyperboloids (currently under construction). The central vault reaches sixty metres (200 ft). The apse is capped by a hyperboloid vault reaching seventy - five metres (250 ft). Gaudí intended that a visitor standing at the main entrance be able to see the vaults of the nave, crossing, and apse; thus the graduated increase in vault loft.
There are gaps in the floor of the apse, providing a view down into the crypt below.
The columns of the interior are a unique Gaudí design. Besides branching to support their load, their ever - changing surfaces are the result of the intersection of various geometric forms. The simplest example is that of a square base evolving into an octagon as the column rises, then a sixteen - sided form, and eventually to a circle. This effect is the result of a three - dimensional intersection of helicoidal columns (for example a square cross-section column twisting clockwise and a similar one twisting counter-clockwise).
Essentially none of the interior surfaces are flat; the ornamentation is comprehensive and rich, consisting in large part of abstract shapes which combine smooth curves and jagged points. Even detail - level work such as the iron railings for balconies and stairways are full of curvaceous elaboration.
In 2010 an organ was installed in the presbytery by the Blancafort Orgueners de Montserrat organ builders. The instrument has 26 stops (1,492 pipes) on two manuals and a pedalboard.
To overcome the unique acoustical challenges posed by the church 's architecture and vast size, several additional organs will be installed at various points within the building. These instruments will be playable separately (from their own individual consoles) and simultaneously (from a single mobile console), yielding an organ of some 8000 pipes when completed.
The towers on the Nativity façade are crowned with geometrically shaped tops that are reminiscent of Cubism (they were finished around 1930), and the intricate decoration is contemporary to the style of Art Nouveau, but Gaudí 's unique style drew primarily from nature, not other artists or architects, and resists categorization.
Gaudí used hyperboloid structures in later designs of the Sagrada Família (more obviously after 1914), however there are a few places on the nativity façade -- a design not equated with Gaudí 's ruled - surface design -- where the hyperboloid crops up. For example, all around the scene with the pelican there are numerous examples (including the basket held by one of the figures). There is a hyperboloid adding structural stability to the cypress tree (by connecting it to the bridge). And finally, the "bishop 's mitre '' spires are capped with hyperboloid structures. In his later designs, ruled surfaces are prominent in the nave 's vaults and windows and the surfaces of the Passion façade.
Themes throughout the decoration include words from the liturgy. The towers are decorated with words such as "Hosanna '', "Excelsis '', and "Sanctus ''; the great doors of the Passion façade reproduce words from the Bible in various languages including Catalan; and the Glory façade is to be decorated with the words from the Apostles ' Creed. The three entrances symbolize the three virtues: Faith, Hope and Love. Each of them is also dedicated to a part of Christ 's life. The Nativity Façade is dedicated to his birth; it also has a cypress tree which symbolizes the tree of life. The Glory façade is dedicated to his glory period. The Passion façade is symbolic of his suffering. The apse tower bears Latin text of Hail Mary. All in all, the Sagrada Família is symbolic of the lifetime of Christ.
Areas of the sanctuary will be designated to represent various concepts, such as saints, virtues and sins, and secular concepts such as regions, presumably with decoration to match.
The art historian Nikolaus Pevsner, writing in the 1960s, referred to Gaudí 's buildings as growing "like sugar loaves and anthills '' and describes the ornamenting of buildings with shards of broken pottery as possibly "bad taste '' but handled with vitality and "ruthless audacity ''.
The building 's design itself has been polarizing. Assessments by Gaudí 's fellow architects were generally positive; Louis Sullivan greatly admired it, describing Sagrada Família as the "greatest piece of creative architecture in the last twenty - five years. It is spirit symbolised in stone! '' Walter Gropius also praised the Sagrada Família, describing the building 's walls as "a marvel of technical perfection ''. Time Magazine called it "sensual, spiritual, whimsical, exuberant '', George Orwell called it "one of the most hideous buildings in the world '', James A. Michener called it "one of the strangest - looking serious buildings in the world '' and British historian Gerald Brenan stated about the building "Not even in the European architecture of the period can one discover anything so vulgar or pretentious. '' The building 's distinctive silhouette has nevertheless become symbolic of Barcelona itself, drawing an estimated 2.5 million visitors annually.
Together with six other Gaudí buildings in Barcelona, part of la Sagrada Família is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as testifying "to Gaudí 's exceptional creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology '', "having represented el Modernisme of Catalonia '' and "anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century ''. The inscription only includes the Crypt and the Nativity Façade.
Visitors can access the Nave, Crypt, Museum, Shop, and the Passion and Nativity towers. Entrance to either of the towers requires a reservation and advance purchase of a ticket. Access is possible only by lift (elevator) and a short walk up the remainder of the towers to the bridge between the towers. Descent is via a very narrow spiral staircase of over 300 steps. There is a posted caution for those with medical conditions.
As of June 2017, on - line ticket purchase has been available. As of August 2010, there had been a service whereby visitors could buy an entry code either at Servicaixa ATM kiosks (part of "La Caixa '') or online. During the peak season, May to October, reservation delays for entrance of up to a few days are not unusual.
Construction on Sagrada Família is not supported by any government or official church sources. Private patrons funded the initial stages. Money from tickets purchased by tourists is now used to pay for the work, and private donations are accepted through the Friends of the Sagrada Família.
The construction budget for 2009 was € 18 million.
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who is ella from house of payne married to | Cassi Davis - Wikipedia
Cassandra "Cassi '' Davis Patton is an American actress and singer who is best known for her role as Ella Payne on Tyler Perry 's House of Payne and its spin - off series The Paynes. She has also starred in several other productions under the direction of Tyler Perry.
Born in Holly Springs, Mississippi, Davis ' acting career began in 1988 with her role in the Spike Lee film School Daze. Her early television credits include appearances on Living Single, Married... with Children, Kenan & Kel, Boycott, and The PJ 's. She established her acting career by appearing in Tyler Perry productions such as Madea 's Family Reunion, Madea Goes to Jail, Daddy 's Little Girls, and Tyler Perry 's House of Payne.
Davis attended Spelman College in Atlanta and majored in music. She left the college one credit short of graduation, because she was not allowed to perform religious music during her senior recital. Davis returned to Spelman in 2008 to complete her degree, graduating in November of that year.
She has credited her devout, born - again Christian faith as the main reason behind her professional success.
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when did drake put out his first album | Drake (musician) - Wikipedia
Aubrey Drake Graham (born October 24, 1986) is a Canadian rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, and actor. Drake first gained recognition as an actor on the teen drama television series Degrassi: The Next Generation in the early 2000s. Intent on pursuing a career as a rapper, he departed the series in 2007 following the release of his debut mixtape, Room for Improvement. He released two further independent projects, Comeback Season and So Far Gone, before signing to Lil Wayne 's Young Money Entertainment in June 2009.
His debut studio album, Thank Me Later (2010), debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, and was subsequently certified platinum. His next two releases, 2011 's Take Care and 2013 's Nothing Was the Same, were both critically and commercially successful; the former earned him his first Grammy Award for Best Rap Album. In 2015, he released two mixtapes -- the trap - influenced If You 're Reading This It 's Too Late and a collaboration with Future titled What a Time to Be Alive -- both of which earned platinum certification in the U.S.
His fourth album, Views (2016), broke several chart records. It became the first album by a male solo artist to remain atop the Billboard 200 for 13 nonconsecutive weeks in over 10 years. That year, Drake led both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Billboard 200 charts simultaneously for eight weeks. The album 's second single, "One Dance '', became his first number - one single as a lead artist. Views achieved quadruple platinum status in the US. Its lead single, "Hotline Bling '', received Grammy Awards for Best Rap / Sung Performance and Best Rap Song. Described by Drake as a "playlist '', his 2017 mixtape More Life became his seventh consecutive number one on the Billboard 200, and set multiple streaming records. His next release, the double album Scorpion (2018), also broke several streaming records, and housed the number - one singles "God 's Plan '', "Nice for What '', and "In My Feelings ''. It also became the first album to spend five consecutive weeks at number one since Views.
Drake holds several Billboard chart records; he has the most charted songs (186) among solo artists in the history of the Billboard Hot 100, the most simultaneously charted Hot 100 songs in a single week (27), the most time on the Hot 100 (431 weeks), and the most Hot 100 debuts in a week (22). He also has the most number one singles on the Hot Rap Songs, Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay and Rhythmic Charts. Drake has received many accolades, including three Grammy Awards, three Juno Awards, six American Music Awards, and thirteen Billboard Music Awards. He is the RIAA 's top certified digital singles artist, having moved 142 million units of digital singles in the US. He is one of the best - selling music artists of the 21st century, with more than 10 million albums and 86 million singles global sales. In 2018, USA Today declared him the biggest artist of the year. As an entrepreneur, Drake founded the OVO Sound record label with longtime collaborator 40, as well as a radio program on Beats 1 and a clothing line, both utilizing using the "OVO '' moniker.
Aubrey Drake Graham was born on October 24, 1986, in Toronto, Ontario. His father, Dennis Graham, an African American and a practising Catholic from Memphis, Tennessee, worked as a drummer, performing alongside country musician Jerry Lee Lewis. Drake 's mother, Sandra "Sandi '' Graham (née Sher), an Ashkenazi Jewish Canadian, worked as an English teacher and florist. His parents met after Dennis performed at Clue Bluenote in Toronto, where he first interacted with Sandra, who was in attendance. In his youth, Drake attended a Jewish day school, and had a Bar Mitzvah ceremony. He is also a dual citizen of the United States and Canada.
Drake 's parents divorced when he was five years old. After the divorce, he and his mother remained in Toronto, while his father returned to Memphis, where he suffered incarceration for a number of years on drug - related charges. Dennis ' limited finances and legal issues caused him to remain in the United States until Drake 's early adulthood. Prior to his arrest, however, Dennis would travel to Toronto and bring Drake to Memphis every summer. His father later collaborated with Canadian music group Arkells on the music video for a song titled "Drake 's Dad ''.
Drake was raised in two polarizing Toronto neighbourhoods; he lived on Weston Road in the city 's working - class west end, until grade six. In his youth, he played minor hockey with the Weston Red Wings. Drake then moved to one of the city 's affluent neighbourhoods, Forest Hill, in 2000. When asked about the move, Drake replied, "(We had) a half of a house we could live in. The other people had the top half, we had the bottom half. I lived in the basement, my mom lived on the first floor. It was not big, it was not luxurious. It was what we could afford. ''
He attended Forest Hill Collegiate Institute, where he demonstrated an affinity for the arts, first acting while an active student at the school. He later attended Vaughan Road Academy in the city 's multicultural Oakwood -- Vaughan neighbourhood. Due to the economic status associated with the neighbourhood, Drake described the school as "not by any means the easiest school to go to. (It 's tough). '' Drake was often bullied in school for his racial and religious background, and upon realizing that his busy class schedule was detrimental to his burgeoning acting career, Drake dropped out of school. He later graduated in October 2012.
At 15, eager to find work as an actor, a high school friend Jesse Abrams introduced Drake to his father Norbert, who was an acting agent. The agent secured Drake a role on Canadian teen drama series Degrassi: The Next Generation. On the series, Drake portrayed Jimmy Brooks, a basketball star who became physically disabled after he was shot by a classmate. When asked about his early acting career, Drake replied, "My mother was very sick. We were very poor, like broke. The only money I had coming in was off of Canadian TV ''.
He would continue to appear on the show until 2007, returning for sporadic appearances until his character graduated from school. Overall, he appeared in a total of 145 episodes.
After becoming musically inspired by Jay Z and Clipse, Drake self - released his debut mixtape, Room for Improvement, in 2006. The mixtape featured Trey Songz and Lupe Fiasco, and included vast production from Canadian producers Boi - 1da, and Frank Dukes. When asked about the mixtape, Drake described the project as "pretty straightforward, radio friendly, (and) not much content to it. '' The mixtape was released for sale only, and confirmed to have sold over 6,000 copies. In 2007, he released his second mixtape, Comeback Season. Released from his recently founded October 's Very Own label, it spawned the single "Replacement Girl '', featuring Trey Songz. The song made Drake become the first ever unsigned Canadian rapper to have his music video featured on BET, with "Replacement Girl '' being featured on the channel 's "New Joint of the Day '' segment on April 30, 2007. The song also saw Drake sample "Man of the Year '' by Brisco, Flo Rida, and Lil Wayne, retaining Lil Wayne 's verse, and adjoined his own to the song 's earlier half. This caused Jas Prince to gift Lil Wayne the song, which prompted the rapper to invite Drake to Houston in order to join his Tha Carter III tour. Throughout the duration of the tour, Drake and Lil Wayne recorded multiple songs together, including "Ransom '', "I Want This Forever '', and a remix to "Brand New ''. Despite the collaborations between the duo, Drake was yet to be signed by Young Money Entertainment.
Drake 's third mixtape, So Far Gone, was released in 2009 as a free download through his OVO blog website; it featured Lil Wayne, Trey Songz, Omarion, Lloyd, and Bun B. Upon release, the mixtape found mainstream commercial success due to the singles "Best I Ever Had '' and "Successful '', both gaining Gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), with the former also peaking at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. This prompted the mixtape 's re-release as an EP, featuring only four songs from the original, as well as the additions of the songs "I 'm Goin ' In '' and "Fear ''. It debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, and won the Rap Recording of the Year at the 2010 Juno Awards.
Due to the success of the mixtape, Drake was the subject of a bidding war from various labels, often reported as "one of the biggest bidding wars ever ''. Despite this, Drake was rumoured to have secured a recording contract with Young Money Entertainment on June 29, 2009. This was later confirmed following a planned lawsuit from Young Money, in conjunction with Drake, against an unauthorized album titled The Girls Love Drake, which was released on iTunes under dubious means.
Drake then joined the rest of the label 's roster on the America 's Most Wanted Tour in July 2009. However, during a performance of "Best I Ever Had '' in Camden, New Jersey, Drake fell on stage, and tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his right knee. He underwent surgery later that year.
Drake planned to release his debut album, Thank Me Later, in late 2008, but the album 's release date was postponed, first to March 2010, and then to May 25, 2010. Young Money and Universal Motown had then released a statement that the album had again been pushed back another three weeks, culminating in a June 15, 2010 release.
On March 9, 2010, Drake released the debut single "Over '', which peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as topping the Rap Songs chart. It also received a nomination for Best Rap Solo Performance at the 53rd Grammy Awards. His second single, "Find Your Love '', became an even bigger success; peaking at number five on the Hot 100, and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The music video for the single was shot in Kingston, Jamaica, and was criticized by Jamaica 's minister of tourism, Edmund Bartlett. Bartlett condemned the portrayal of the island in the video, saying, "care has to be taken by all, including our creative artists, in (showcasing) images of our destination and people. Gun culture, while not unique to Jamaica, is not enhancing (the island 's image). ''
The third single and fourth singles, "Miss Me '' and "Fancy '' respectively, attained moderate commercial success, however, the latter garnered Drake his second nomination at the 53rd Grammy Awards, for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group. On April 29, it was reportedly announced that Drake had finished Thank Me Later during a show in Kansas City, Missouri.
Thank Me Later was released on June 15, 2010, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 with sales of over 447,000 copies in its first week. Upon the album 's release, 25,000 fans gathered at New York City 's South Street Seaport for a free concert, hosted by Drake and Hanson, which was later cancelled by police after a near - riot ensued due to overflowing crowds. The album became the top selling debut album for any artist in 2010, and featured Lil Wayne, Kanye West, and Jay Z.
It was soon announced that Drake would have a prominent role in military science fiction video game, Gears of War 3. He was scheduled to play the part of Jace Stratton, but scheduling conflicts with his upcoming Away from Home Tour prevented Drake from accepting the role. He began the tour on September 20, 2010, in Miami, Florida, performing at 78 shows over four different legs. It concluded in Las Vegas in November 2010.
Due to the success of the Away from Home Tour, Drake hosted the first OVO Festival in 2010. It would soon become a regular event during the summer, with the Molson Amphitheatre in Toronto playing host to the festival on its annual cycle. Drake also had an eco-friendly college tour to support the album, beginning with Eastern Illinois University in Charleston, Illinois. It concluded in Plymouth, New Hampshire on May 8, and he had also performed at The Bamboozle on May 1.
Beginning his second effort in fall 2010, Drake announced his intentions to allow for Noah "40 '' Shebib to handle most of the production and record a more cohesive sound than on Thank Me Later, which featured disparate production duties by Shebib and others. In November 2010, Drake revealed the title of his next studio album will be Take Care. In comparison to his debut album, Drake revealed to Y.C Radio 1 that Thank Me Later was a rushed album, stating, "I did n't get to take the time that I wanted to on that record. I rushed a lot of the songs and sonically I did n't get to sit with the record and say, ' I should change this verse. ' Once it was done, it was done. That 's why my new album is called Take Care, because I get to take my time this go - round. '' Drake sought to expand on the low - tempo, sensuous, and dark sonic esthetic of Thank Me Later. Primarily a hip hop album, Drake also attempted to incorporate R&B and pop to create a languid, grandiose sound.
In January 2011, Drake was in negotiations to join Eva Green and Susan Sarandon as a member of the cast in Nicholas Jarecki 's Arbitrage, before ultimately deciding against starring in the movie, to focus on the album. "Dreams Money Can Buy '' and "Marvins Room '' were released on Drake 's October 's Very Own Blog, on May 20 and June 9, respectively. Acting as promotional singles for Take Care, the former was eventually unincluded on the album 's final track listing, while "Marvins Room '' gained Gold certification by the RIAA, as well as peaking at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100, and reaching the top 10 of the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart, coupled with extensive play on contemporary urban radio. Drake would soon release the song 's music video on June 28.
"Headlines '' was released on August 9, acting as the lead single for Take Care. It was met with positive critical and commercial response, reaching number thirteen on the Hot 100, as well as becoming his tenth single to reach the summit of the Billboard Hot Rap Songs, making Drake the artist with the most number - one singles on the chart, with 12. It was eventually certified Platinum in both the United States and Canada. The music video for the single was released on October 2, and foresaw Drake performing the song during the second intermission of the 59th National Hockey League All - Star Game in January 2012. "Make Me Proud '' was released as the album 's second single, on October 16. It was the final single to be released prior to the launch of the album, and debuted at number 97 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song reached number nine the following week, tying the record for the largest jump on the Billboard Hot 100 for a male artist, with 88. "Make Me Proud '' soon became Drake 's fourth consecutive single to receive Platinum certification by the RIAA.
Prior to the album 's release, Drake had planned to record a collaborative album with Lil Wayne, however, it was ultimately scrapped due to the success of Watch the Throne. He had also begun collaborations with Rick Ross for a mixtape titled Y.O.L.O., but the duo decided against the project, in favor of increased concern for their respective studio albums.
Take Care was released on November 15, 2011, and received generally positive reviews from music critics. John McDonnell of NME dubbed it "an affecting masterpiece '' and commended its "delicate, mellifluous sound and unashamedly candid, emotive lyrics. '' Pitchfork 's Ryan Dombal found Drake 's "technical abilities '' to be improved and stated, "Just as his thematic concerns have become richer, so has the music backing them up. '' Andy Hutchins of The Village Voice called it "a carefully crafted bundle of contradictory sentiments from a conflicted rapper who explores his own neuroses in as compelling a manner as anyone not named Kanye West. '' Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot complimented the depth of Drake 's "moral psychodramas '' and stated, "the best of it affirms that Drake is shaping a pop persona with staying power. '' It also won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, and achieved great commercial success, eventually being certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA in 2016, with sales for the album marking 2.6 million in the US.
The album 's third and fourth singles, "The Motto '' and Take Care ", were released on November 29, and February 21, 2012 respectively. Each song was subject to commercial success, while also having large societal impacts, with "The Motto '' credited for popularizing the phrase "YOLO '' in the United States. The music video for "Take Care '' saw widespread acclaim, with MTV stating, "None of his contemporaries -- not even the ever - obtuse Kanye (West) - make videos like this, mostly because no one else can get away with it. '' The video received four nominations at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards, for Best Male Video, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Video of the Year. The song was also featured on the channel 's "Pop Songs You Must Hear '' list of 2011. "HYFR '' was the final single to be released from the album, and became certified Gold. It would later win the MTV Video Music Award for Best Hip - Hop Video in 2012, and the channel also ranked him at number two on their "Hottest MCs in the Game '' list.
In promotion of his second album, Drake embarked on the worldwide Club Paradise Tour. It became the most successful hip hop tour of 2012, grossing over $42 million. He then returned to acting, starring in Ice Age: Continental Drift as Ethan.
During the European leg of the Club Paradise Tour, Drake spoke in an interview stating that he had begun working on his third studio album. Revealing his intentions to remain with 40 as the album 's executive producer, Drake spoke fondly about Jamie xx, hoping to include and expand the British producer 's influence over his next album. Drake had also revealed that the album would stylistically differ from Take Care, departing from the ambient production and despondent lyrics prevalent previously.
In January 2013, Drake announced that he would release the first single off of his third album at the conclusion of the 55th Annual Grammy Awards. Despite an initial delay, it was released in the wake of his win for the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album at the event, and it foresaw Drake announcing Nothing Was the Same as the title of his third album. The album 's second single, "Hold On, We 're Going Home '', was released in August 2013, becoming the most successful single off of the album, peaking at number - one on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. Drake sought inspiration from the 1980s television series Miami Vice during the composition of the song 's music video, incorporating the dramatic elements seen in the show en route to winning his second MTV Video Music Award in 2014 for the video. Drake appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, performing the album 's third single, "Too Much '', alongside featured artist Sampha.
Nothing Was the Same was released on September 24, 2013, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200, with 658,000 copies sold in its first week of release. The album debuted atop the charts in Canada, Denmark, Australia and the United Kingdom. The album also enjoyed generally favourable reviews by contemporary music critics, commending the musical shift in terms of the tone and subject matter, comparing it to the distinct change showcased in 808s & Heartbreak. The album was also reported to have sold over 1,720,000 copies in the United States, and was further promoted by the "Would You like a Tour? '' throughout late 2013, to early 2014. It became the 22nd-most successful tour of the year, grossing an estimated $46 million. Drake then returned to acting in January 2014, hosting Saturday Night Live, as well as serving as the musical guest. His versatility, acting ability and comedic timing were all praised by critics, describing it as what "kept him afloat during the tough and murky SNL waters ''. Drake also performed in Dubai, being one of the only artists ever to perform in the city. In late 2014, Drake announced that he had begun recording sessions for his fourth studio album.
On February 12, 2015, Drake released If You 're Reading This It 's Too Late onto iTunes, with no prior announcement. Despite debate on whether it is an album or a mixtape, its commercial stance quantifies it as his fourth retail project with Cash Money Records, a scheme that was rumored to allow Drake to leave the label. However, he eventually remained with Cash Money, and If You 're Reading This It 's Too Late sold over 1 million units in 2015, making Drake the first artist with a platinum project in 2015, as well as his fourth overall.
In late summer 2015, Drake released new singles: Charged Up, Back to Back, Hotline Bling, and Right Hand.
Drake then released a collaborative mixtape with Future, which was recorded in Atlanta in just under a week.
What a Time to Be Alive debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making Drake the first hip hop artist to have two projects reach number one in the same year since 2004. It was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for combined sales, streaming and track - sales equivalent of over 1 million units. Drake also appeared on the cover of The Fader for their 100th issue.
Drake announced in January 2016 that his fourth studio album would be launched during the spring, releasing the promotional single "Summer Sixteen '' later that month. The album was originally titled Views from the 6, but would later be shortened to Views. "Summer Sixteen '' debuted at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100, and proved controversial, with Drake comparing his standing in hip hop to more tenured artists. This move divided many contemporary music critics, describing his self - comparison as "goodly brash '' or "conventionally disrespectful. '' It was also interpreted as a diss track towards Tory Lanez, who was unhappy at Drake popularizing the term "The Six '' when referencing Toronto. Drake also crashed a Bat Mitzvah in New York City on February 20, performing at the event.
Drake soon released the album 's lead singles, "Pop Style '' and the dancehall - infused "One Dance '', on April 5. Both debuted within the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100, however, the latter proved more commercially successful, with "One Dance '' becoming Drake 's first number - one single in Canada and the US as a leading artist. The single also became Drake 's first number one single as a lead artist in the United Kingdom, and peaked at number one in Germany, France, Australia, Brazil, Sweden, Belgium, Norway and the Netherlands. During an episode for OVO Sound Radio, Drake confirmed the album 's release date of April 29, and followed it up with various promotional videos. On October 15, "One Dance '' became Spotify 's most - streamed song ever, amassing over 882 million plays as of October 2016.
Views was previewed in London, before its premiere on Beats 1 a day later. It was released as an Apple Music and iTunes exclusive on April 29, before being made available to various other platforms later that week. Views would become Drake 's most commercially successful album, sitting atop the Billboard 200 for ten nonconsecutive weeks, as well as simultaneously leading the Billboard Hot 100 and the Billboard 200 for eight weeks. It also achieved double - platinum status in the US, and earned over 1 million album - equivalent units in the first week of its release, as well as gaining over half - billion overall streams of the album. Despite its success, critical opinion towards the album remained much divided, drawing criticism for being overlong and lacking in a cohesive theme, while also claiming Drake was not challenging himself artistically, as opposed to his contemporaries. He would later plan to release a short film titled Please Forgive Me.
Drake returned to host Saturday Night Live on May 14, serving as the show 's musical guest. Later, Drake was named as a member of the Forbes Five, which ranks the wealthiest artists in hip - hop, placing fifth after Birdman, Jay Z, Dr. Dre, and Diddy respectively. Drake and Future then announced the Summer Sixteen Tour to showcase their collective mixtape, as well as their respective studio albums. This marked Drake 's third co-headlining tour, which began in Austin, Texas on July 20. On July 23, Drake announced that he was working on a new project, scheduled to be released in early 2017, and was later named as the headline act for the 2016 iHeartRadio Music Festival. The latter dates of the Summer Sixteen Tour were postponed, however, due to Drake suffering an ankle injury.
During the 2016 OVO Festival, Kanye West confirmed that he and Drake had begun working on a collaborative album. Soon after, the music video for "Child 's Play '' was released, depicting Drake and Tyra Banks playing a couple encountering relationship issues at the Cheesecake Factory in a reference to one of the song 's lyrics. On September 26, Please Forgive Me was released as an Apple Music exclusive. It ran a total of 25 minutes, and featured music from Views.
At the 2016 BET Hip - Hop Awards, Drake received the most nominations, with 10, winning the awards for Album of the Year and Best Hip - Hop Video. Drake later announced the Boy Meets World Tour on October 10, with twenty - six dates announced for the course of the tour in Europe. Seven additional dates were added a day later due to overwhelming demand. Soon after, during an episode of OVO Sound Radio, Drake confirmed he would be releasing a project titled More Life in December, however he later pushed the date back to the new year. The project was described as a "playlist of original music '', rather than being classified as a traditional mixtape or solo album. He was later revealed to be Spotify 's most streamed artist for the second consecutive year in 2016, amassing a total 4.7 billion streams for all projects on the service, which is more than double the amount of streams he had in 2015. Drake later secured his second and third Grammy Awards, winning for Best Rap / Sung Performance and Best Rap Song at the 59th ceremony.
Despite multiple setbacks, Drake announced More Life would be released on March 18, 2017, via a series of multiple video commercials released through Instagram. Upon release, More Life received mostly positive reviews, and debuted atop the Billboard 200, earning 505,000 album - equivalent units in its first week. It also set a streaming record, becoming the highest ever streamed album in 24 hours, with a total of 89.9 million streams on Apple Music alone. The album also garnered 61.3 million streams on Spotify, dethroning Ed Sheeran 's ÷ as the highest opening on the service in a single day. He later won 13 awards at the 2017 Billboard Music Awards in May, which saw him breaking the record for the most wins in a single show. Billboard also reported Drake had been present on the Hot 100 chart for eight consecutive years, and has the most recorded entries by a solo artist. He then released the single "Signs '' on June 24, as well as reuniting with Metro Boomin on a single with Offset.
After rumours circulated of Drake possibly collaborating with various artists, including rapper Trippie Redd and producer Pi'erre Bourne, for his new studio album, multiple snippets of songs were leaked near the closing end of 2017. Two songs would later be released as members of a mini EP, titled Scary Hours, on January 20, 2018, marking Drake 's first solo release since More Life, as well as his first appearance on any song after featuring on a remix of the Jay - Z song "Family Feud '' with Lil Wayne, as the lead single of the latter 's Dedication 6: Reloaded mixtape. Scary Hours featured the songs "Diplomatic Immunity '' and "God 's Plan '', which both debuted within the top - ten, with the latter eventually breaking various streaming records as it debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song was Drake 's second as a solo artist to reach number one.
Drake earned his 70th top 40 hit after featuring on the Migos song "Walk It Talk It '', which debuted at number eighteen, and peaked at number ten. He later featured on BlocBoy JB 's debut single, "Look Alive '', which was released on February 9, 2018. The song 's entry at number six on the Hot 100 made Drake the rapper with the most top 10 hits on the Hot 100, with 23. He then featured on a remix to "Lemon '', a song originally released as a collaboration between band N.E.R.D and Rihanna. On April 5, Drake announced he was finishing his fifth studio album and he was releasing a single later that night.
On April 6, "Nice for What '' was released, alongside a music video, which featured several female celebrities. After "Nice For What '' replaced his own "God 's Plan '' on the Billboard Hot 100 at number one, making him the first artist to have a new number - one debut replace their former number - one debut, Drake announced the title of his fifth studio album as Scorpion, with a planned release date of June 29, 2018. He then released "I 'm Upset '' on May 26, as the album 's third and final single.
Scorpion was then released as a double - album, and marked Drake 's longest project, with a run - time of just under 90 minutes. The album broke both the one - day global records on Spotify and Apple Music, as it gained 132.45 million and 170 million plays on each streaming service, respectively. It eventually sold 749,000 album equivalent units in its first week of sales, and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. Shortly thereafter, Drake collaborated with British hip hop promotion Link Up TV on July 7, releasing a freestyle as a part of the promotion 's ' Behind Barz ' segment, before releasing another freestyle a week later after featuring on Charlie Sloth 's long - running Fire in the Booth program on BBC Radio 1Xtra.
Drake secured his sixth number one hit with "In My Feelings '' on July 21, which also spawned the viral "# InMyFeelingsChallenge '' or "# KiKiChallenge ''. The success of "In My Feelings '' also made Drake the record holder for most number one hits among rappers. Soon after, he released the music video for "Nonstop '', which was filmed in London during his surprise performance at the Wireless Festival.
He then appeared on the album Astroworld, featuring on the song "Sicko Mode ''.
Drake has cited several hip hop artists as influencing his rapping style, including Kanye West, Jay Z, and Lil Wayne, while also attributing various R&B artists as influential to the incorporation of the genre into his own music, including Aaliyah, and Usher. Drake has also credited several dancehall artists for later influencing his Caribbean - inflected style, including Vybz Kartel, whom he has called one of his "biggest inspirations ''.
Drake is known for his egotistical lyrics, technical ability, and integration of personal backstory when dealing with relationships with women. His vocal abilities have been lauded for an audible contrast between typical hip - hop beats and melody, with sometimes abrasive rapping coupled with softer accents, delivered on technical lyricism. His songs often include audible changes in lyrical pronunciation in parallel with his upbringing in Toronto, and connections with Caribbean and Middle Eastern countries which include such phrases as "ting '', "touching road '', "talkin ' boasy '' and "gwanin ' wassy ''. Most of his songs contain R&B and Canadian hip hop elements, and he combines rapping with singing. He credits his father with the introduction of singing into his rap mixtapes, which have become a staple in his musical repertoire. His incorporation of melody into technically complex lyrics was supported by Lil Wayne, and has subsequently been a critically acclaimed component to Drake 's singles and albums. His rapping ability has been noted as "polarizing '', and has contributed to him being named one of the most divisive rappers of his generation by multiple critics and media publications.
The lyrical content that Drake deploys is typically considered to be emotional or boastful. However, Drake is often revered for incorporating "degrading '' themes of money, drug use, and women into newer, idealized contexts. His songs often maintain tension between "pause and pace, tone timbre, and volume and vocal fermata. '' Drake is credited with innovating what has been referred to as "hyper - reality rap '', which is characterized by its focus on themes of celebrity as being distinct from the "real world ''.
The Washington Post editor Maura Judkis credits Drake for popularizing the phrase "YOLO '' in the United States, with his single, "The Motto '', which includes, "You only live once: that 's the motto, nigga, YOLO. ''
Drake later popularized the term "The Six '' in 2015 in relation his hometown Toronto, subsequently becoming a point of reference to the city. Furthermore, the subject matter of his artistry often revolving around relationships, have had widespread impact on social media through photo captions commonly used to reference emotions or personal situations. However, his lyrical contents have had a negative reception from fans and critics deeming him as sensitive; a trait that is understood as being antithetical to hip hop culture. June 10 was declared "Drake Day '' in Houston, Texas.
In 2016, Drake visited Drake University after a show in Des Moines, in response to an extensive social media campaign by students that began in 2009, advocating for his appearance. In 2016, Drake spoke on the shooting of Alton Sterling, publishing an open letter expressing his concern for the safety of ethnic minorities against police brutality in the United States. He would also donate $200,000 in order to aid relief efforts in Houston as a result of Hurricane Harvey.
In February 2018, following the debut of "God 's Plan '' at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, Drake donated $50,000 to a Miami homeless shelter and $50,000 to a University of Miami student to help with her tuition. Drake then "kept up the spending spree '' by donating the rest of the song 's video budget, $996,631.90, to several charitable causes and regular people across Miami.
The music video for "Hotline Bling '' went viral, due to Drake 's eccentric choices in dancing. The video has been remixed, memed, and was heavily commented on due to Drake 's unconventional nature on the song, causing it to gain popularity on YouTube, spawning several parodies. Drake has also been critiqued for his expensive, product placement - heavy attire, exampled by the video for "Hotline Bling ''; Drake modelled a $1,500 Moncler Puffer Jacket, a $400 Acne Studios turtleneck, and limited edition Timberland 6 '' Classic Boots. This foresaw collaborations between OVO and Canada Goose, in which various items of clothing were produced.
Drake had also released his own collection of Air Jordans, dubbed the "Air Jordan OVOs ''. Moreover, his style and dress sense have caused GQ magazine to describe him as "(one of) the most stylish men alive ''.
In 2012, singer Ericka Lee filed a lawsuit against Drake for the usage of her voice on "Marvins Room ''. Claiming to have provided the female vocals, Lee also alleged she was owed songwriting credits and royalties. Despite Drake 's legal team countering by claiming that Lee simply requested a credit in the liner notes of the album, the matter was resolved in February 2013, with both parties agreeing to an out - of - court settlement. In 2014, Drake was sued for $300,000 for sampling "Jimmy Smith Rap '', a 1982 single by jazz musician, Jimmy Smith. The suit was filed by Smith 's estate, who stated Drake never asked for permission when sampling it for the intro on "Pound Cake / Paris Morton Music 2 '', claiming Smith himself would have disagreed as he disliked hip hop. Drake would win the lawsuit in 2017, with federal judge William Pauley ruling the content used was transformative, and there was no liability for copyright infringement. Also in 2014, it emerged that Drake was sued by rapper Rappin ' 4 - Tay, claiming Drake misused his lyrics on when collaborating with YG on the song "Who Do You Love? ''. He sought $100,000 for mistreatment and artistic theft, which Drake paid to the rapper later that year. In 2016, Drake caused a nightclub in Oklahoma City to close down, due to his usage of marijuana and other illegal drugs being prevalent at the club.
In 2017, Drake was embroiled in another lawsuit, being sued by producer Detail (Noel Fisher) over an alleged assault in 2014. Fisher claimed Drake 's bodyguard, Nessel "Chubbs '' Beezer, punched him in the face and allegedly broke his jaw over musical and financial disputes. Fisher also says the injuries caused him to be hospitalized for days and had to undergo several surgeries, following which he sued for damages related to medical bills and physical and emotional suffering. The case, which was set to undergo trial in May 2018, was eventually dismissed by Superior Court Judge Elaine Lu, after Fisher failed to show up for a final status conference, and ruled Beezer solely acted in self - defense.
Drake and Chris Brown were allegedly involved in a physical altercation in June 2012, when Drake and his entourage threw glass bottles at Brown in a SoHo nightclub in Manhattan, New York City. Chris Brown tweeted about the incident and released a song criticizing Drake weeks later. Despite no response from Drake, he and Brown both appeared in a comedic skit for the 2014 ESPY Awards, and rehearsed the skit together prior to the televised airing, virtually ending the dispute.
In December 2014, Drake was involved in another altercation, being punched by Diddy outside the LIV nightclub in Miami, Florida. The altercation was reported to be over Drake 's usage of the instrumental for "0 to 100 / The Catch Up '', allegedly produced by Boi - 1da for Diddy, before Drake appropriated the track for his own use. Drake was later rushed to the ER after aggravating an old arm injury during the dispute. Drake was also involved in a feud with Tyga, stemming from Tyga 's negative comments towards him during an interview with Vibe. Drake would later respond on "6 God '' and "6PM in New York '', which has been interpreted as directly involved in Tyga 's abrupt removal from Young Money Entertainment.
Further controversy arose in July 2015, when it was alleged by Meek Mill that Drake had used ghostwriters during recording sessions for "RICO '', one of the lead singles off of Mill 's second studio album. This proceeded further allegations that Drake did not help in promotion of the album, due to Mill discovering the ghostwriter, widely believed to be Quentin Miller. Despite Miller collaborating with Drake and receiving past credits, Mill assured that Miller had written Drake 's verse for "R.I.C.O. ''. Soon after, Funkmaster Flex aired reference tracks in support of Mill 's claims, notably for "R.I.C.O. '', "10 Bands '', and "Know Yourself ''. This prompted Drake to respond with two diss tracks, titled "Charged Up '' and "Back to Back '', in the space of four days. Mill would later respond with "Wanna Know '', before removing it from SoundCloud weeks later. Despite subliminal disses from either artist, the feud has not been officially reignited. Drake would further seek to denounce Funkmaster Flex during his Madison Square Garden shows on the Summer Sixteen Tour. Following Meek Mill 's sentencing of two to four years for probation violation, Drake stated "Free Meek Mill '' at a concert in Australia, while also seeming to end their rivalry on "Family Feud ''. Pusha T would also used the same rationale to criticize Drake in songs in 2018, prompting Drake to respond with the "Duppy Freestyle '' diss track on May 25. Pusha T would directly respond to the track through "The Story of Adidon '' on May 29, and presented several claims, including an accusation of Drake fathering a secret child. The pair have been considered to have been in a rivalry since 2012, with Drake yet to respond to "The Story of Adidon ''.
In 2016, Drake was embroiled in a feud with Joe Budden, stemming from Budden 's derogatory comments when reviewing Views. Drake would allegedly respond to Budden through "4PM in Calabasas '', prompting Budden to respond with two diss tracks in the space of five days, echoing the same sentiment Drake deployed during his feud with Meek Mill. Drake would later appear on "No Shopping '' alongside French Montana, directly referencing Budden throughout the song. However, French Montana claimed that Drake 's verse was recorded before the release of Budden 's diss tracks. Despite Budden releasing two further songs in reference to Drake, he has yet to officially respond to Budden. In the same year, Drake mocked Kid Cudi for his mental health, drug use and suicidal urges on "Two Birds, One Stone '' after Cudi launched an expletive - filled rant on the artist on Twitter. Cudi later checked into a rehabilitation facility following the release of the song, and continued to disparage Drake in further tweets.
Drake has purported to have been in reported feuds with DMX, Kendrick Lamar, Common, The Weeknd, XXXTentacion, Kanye West, Jay Z, Tory Lanez, and Ludacris, although the latter three have been reported to be resolved.
Prior to venturing into business, Drake garnered several endorsement deals with various companies, notably gaining one with Sprite following his mention of drinking purple drank, a concoction that contains Sprite as a key ingredient. In the aftermath of his highly publicized feud with Meek Mill, Drake was also endorsed by fast food restaurants Burger King and Whataburger. Business magazine Forbes commented his endorsement deals and business partnerships "combined heavily '' for Drake 's reported pre-tax earnings at $94 million between June 2016 to June 2017, being one of the highest - paid celebrities during that period.
During the composition of Nothing Was the Same, Drake started his own record label in late 2012 with producer Noah "40 '' Shebib, and business partner, Oliver El - Khatib. Drake sought for an avenue to release his own music, as well helping in the nurturing of other artists, while Shebib and El - Khatib yearned to start a label with a distinct sound, prompting the trio to team up to form OVO Sound. The name is an abbreviation derived from the October 's Very Own moniker Drake used to publish his earlier projects. The label is currently distributed by Warner Bros. Records.
Drake, 40 and PartyNextDoor were the label 's inaugural artists. The label houses artists including Drake, PartyNextDoor, Majid Jordan, OB O'Brien, Roy Woods, dvsn, Plaza, and Kash Doll, as well as producers including 40, Boi - 1da, T - Minus, Mike Zombie, Nineteen85, and Future the Prince. OVO Sound has released six albums, with two certified platinum or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
On September 30, 2013, Drake was announced as the new "global ambassador '' for the Toronto Raptors, thereby joining the executive committee of the NBA franchise, in conjunction with the announcement of the 2016 NBA All - Star Game being awarded to the Air Canada Centre in Toronto. This would also be the setting where Drake was given The Key to the City. In the role, it was announced that Drake would help to promote and serve as a host of festivities, beginning with the All - Star Game. He would also provide consulting services to rebrand the team, helping to redesign its image and clothing line in commemoration of the franchise 's 20th anniversary. When attending the press conference hosted by Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment CEO, Tim Leiweke, to formally announce Drake 's hiring by the franchise, Drake stated, "obviously, I wo n't be able to be in the building every day but I am extremely dedicated to it. I do take it very seriously as a new job and a new chapter in my life. '' He began by hosting an annual "Drake Night '' segment with the organization, which began in 2013.
Following the launch of Apple Music, a music and video streaming service developed by Apple Inc., the company announced Drake as the figurehead for the platform at their Worldwide Developers Conference in 2015, with the artist also penning an exclusivity deal with the service worth a reported $19 million. This saw all future solo releases by Drake becoming available first on Apple Music, before seeing roll out to other streaming services and music retailers. Drake had also developed the OVO Sound Radio station on Beats 1, which is utilized as the primary avenue for debuting singles and projects, with the station overseeing over 300 million unique users when it debuted More Life. Drake 's partnership with Apple Music has largely been credited for the platform 's sharp success, as it attained 10 million subscribers after six months, as well as giving birth to exclusivity from artists, with many independent and signed artists, such as Frank Ocean and The Weeknd, also brokering exclusivity deals with streaming services. Through signing with the company, Drake was one of the artists, alongside Pharrell and Katy Perry, to exclusively own an Apple Watch before the smartwatch saw public release.
Two months prior to the release of Views, Drake announced the development of Virginia Black, a bourbon - based whiskey. This would be his second foray into selling foodstuffs, previously partnering with celebrity chef Susur Lee to open Fring 's Restaurant in Toronto. The beverage was created and also distributed alongside Proximo Spirits, as well as with Brent Hocking, a spirits producer who founded DeLeón Tequila in 2008. The company described the partnership as "fruitful (as they) share a passion for style, music, and the pursuit of taste (on) a quest to redefine whiskey. ''
The product was launched in June 2016, and contained two, three and four - year old Bourbon whiskies. The company sold over 4,000 bottles in the first week domestically. The brand was also promoted and marketed through Drake 's music and various tours, such as being part of the "Virginia Black VIP Lounge '' additional package available for purchase during the Summer Sixteen Tour. Virginia Black shipped a further 30,000 units when rollout was extended to select international markets in late 2016. The company later aired commercials with Dennis Graham which featured the tagline of "The Realest Dude Ever '' (in reference toward "The Most Interesting Man in the World '' tagline employed by Dos Equis) after extending the sale of the drink to various European countries in 2017.
Drake has lived in Hidden Hills, California since 2012. He also owns a property in Toronto, which was built from the ground - up in 2017.
Drake 's paternal uncles are bass guitarist Larry Graham and musician Teenie Hodges. Graham achieved both critical and commercial success as a member of the band Sly and the Family Stone, while Hodges featured as the lead guitarist and songwriter for Al Green, and contributed heavily on much of his work in the 1970s, including the hits "Take Me to the River '', "Love and Happiness '', and "Here I Am (Come and Take Me) ''.
Drake is a father to son Adonis, who was born on October 11, 2017, to French artist and former adult actress Sophie Brussaux. Brussaux 's pregnancy was the subject of several rumors after featuring in a TMZ article in early 2017, before Adonis was mentioned by name during Drake 's highly publicized feud with Pusha T. Drake eventually confirmed his fatherhood on the album Scorpion in 2018.
In August 2018, Drake made a surprise visit to child heart patient Sofia Sanchez at Chicago 's Lurie Children 's Hospital, after Sanchez invited him to visit on her birthday. Sanchez received a heart transplant shortly thereafter on August 27, 2018.
Studio albums
Drake is the highest - certified digital singles artist in the US, having moved 142 million units. He has had seven songs certified triple platinum in the US for combined sales plus streaming units, as of June 2018, with "Over '', "Too Good '', "Passionfruit '', "Nice for What '', "Marvin 's Room '', "Find Your Love '', and "Energy ''. He has also had three exceed 4 million in equivalent units, with "Take Care '', "Headlines '', and "Best I Ever Had ''. Three have reached quintuple platinum, with "Jumpman '', "Started from the Bottom '', and "The Motto ''. "Hold On, We 're Going Home '' marked his first single to accumulate over six million units, while "Forever '' became his second in 2018. Two of his singles have reached septuple platinum, which "Hotline Bling '' and "One Dance '', while his highest - certified single is "God 's Plan '', which was certified octuple platinum, having moved 8 million units, in under a year. Drake 's five solo studio albums, all of which have gone multi-platinum, have received generally positive reviews. Scorpion, his fifth solo album, became his fifth consecutive number one album in the U.S.
As of 2017, Drake has won three Grammy Awards from 27 nominations. He has also won two MTV Video Music Awards. Complex ranked him at number one on their "Best Rapper Alive Every Year Since 1979 '' list for 2011, 2012, and 2015. Billboard editor Ernest Baker stated "Drake managed to rule hip - hop in 2014 '', adding "the best rapper in 2014 did n't need a new album or hit single to prove his dominance ''. Drake was listed fourth on the Billboard year - end chart for Top Artists of 2015, third on the same chart in 2016 and was named the IFPI Global Recording Artist of 2016. In 2017, he surpassed singer Adele 's record for most wins at the Billboard Music Awards in one night, winning 13 awards from 22 nominations. Pitchfork have ranked him in the fifth position in the publication 's list of the "Top 10 Music Artists '' since 2010.
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who is the bride and who is the groom | Bridegroom - wikipedia
A bridegroom (often shortened to groom) is a man who will soon be or has recently been married. A bridegroom is typically attended by a best man and groomsmen.
The style of the bridegroom 's clothing can be influenced by many factors, including the time of day, the location of the ceremony, the ethnic backgrounds of the bride and bridegroom, the type of ceremony, and whether the bridegroom is a member of the Armed Forces.
In Anglo - American weddings, the bridegroom will often give a short speech after the reception, thanking the guests for attending, complimenting the bride, thanking members of the wedding party, and possibly sharing a "roast toast '', in which he makes jokes at the expense of himself or a member of his party. His speech will normally be followed by one from the best man.
The first mention of the term bridegroom dates to 1604, from the Old English brȳdguma, a compound of brȳd (bride) and guma (man, human being, hero). It is related to the Old Saxon brūdigomo, the Old High German brūtigomo, the German Bräutigam, and the Old Norse brúðgumi.
In Christianity, Jesus Christ is called a bridegroom in relation to the Church as his bride. In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist speaks of Jesus Christ as the bridegroom and mentions the bride.
He that hath the bride is the bridegroom: but the friend of the bridegroom, which standeth and heareth him, rejoiceth greatly because of the bridegroom 's voice: this my joy therefore is fulfilled.
Also see Matthew 9: 15; 25: 1 - 13; Mark 2: 19 - 20; Luke 5: 34 - 35; John 2: 9; 3: 29.
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when was goal line technology first introduced in the premier league | Goal - line technology - wikipedia
In association football, goal - line technology (sometimes referred to as a Goal Decision System) is the use of electronic aid to determine if a goal has been scored or not. In detail, it is a method used to determine when the ball has completely crossed the goal line in between the goal - posts and underneath the crossbar with the assistance of electronic devices and at the same time assisting the referee in awarding a goal or not. The objective of goal - line technology (GLT) is not to replace the role of the officials, but rather to support them in their decision - making. The GLT must provide a clear indication as to whether the ball has fully crossed the line, and this information will serve to assist the referee in making his final decision.
Compared to similar technology in other sports, goal - line technology is a relatively recent addition to association football; its integration having been opposed by the sport 's authorities. In July 2012, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) officially approved the use of goal line technology, amending the Laws of the Game to permit (but not require) its use. Due to its expense, goal - line technology is only used at the highest levels of the game. Goal - line technology is currently used in the top European domestic leagues, and at major international competitions such as the 2014 Men 's, 2018 Men 's and 2015 Women 's FIFA World Cups.
In association football, a goal is scored if the whole of the ball crosses the goal line between the goalposts and under the crossbar. In most cases, this is relatively unambiguous (goal nets being a low - tech way of verifying that the ball passed the correct side of the goalposts). Occasionally however situations occur when it is difficult for referees and their assistants to tell if a goal has been scored before a rebound, save, or defender 's clearance from the goal area.
Since 2012, goal - line technology has been permitted in matches. Text relating to goal - line technology can now be found within four of the Laws of the Game:
The Laws themselves are not specific as to the nature of Goal Line technology systems, however other documentation from FIFA, which is cited by the Laws, goes into more detail. The FIFA Quality Programme for GLT Testing Manual precisely define the requirements of the systems. Four basic requirements of a system are stipulated:
FIFA have a system whereby a particular technology provider needs to show effectiveness to successfully obtain a license for their technology, then an installation within a particular stadium must pass a "final installation test '' before use, and before each game the referee must check that the system is functional.
Due to the expense of goal - line technology systems, the technology is only currently used at the very top levels of the game. In domestic competition, goal - line technology is only regularly used in a few major European leagues: Serie A, Ligue 1, the Bundesliga, and the Premier League.
As of January 2018, FIFA 's website list 144 stadiums with licensed GLT installations, all of which use the Hawk - Eye system. GoalControl is also licensed for use, but is not currently installed in any stadium
Prior to 2012, competitions were unable to implement technology as provision was not made for it in the Laws. The Laws of association football are controlled by the International Football Association Board (IFAB), a body on which FIFA holds 50 % of the voting power, sufficient to veto any changes to the laws.
Compared to other sports, association football was late to allow technology to assist with in - game decisions. The matter was a subject of debate within the game for over a decade with the game 's lawmakers resisting calls for its implementation.
Throughout the 2000s various incidents incited discussion as to the potential for goal - line technology in the game. The lack of use of technology in association football was contrasted with other sports, which had incorporated video replays and other systems into their rules.
In response to this, FIFA decided to test a system by Adidas in which a football with an embedded microchip would send a signal to the referee if it crossed a sensor going through the goal. According to FIFA president Sepp Blatter, "We did different tests at the Under - 17 World Cup in Peru but the evidence was n't clear so we will carry out trials in junior competitions in 2007 ''. However, those trials did not materialise and by 2008, Blatter had rejected the system outright, describing the technology as ' only 95 % accurate '. FIFA and IFAB were resistant to introducing technology in the game, voting in March 2010 to permanently ditch the technology.
Following several refereeing errors at the 2010 FIFA World Cup -- including the disallowed goal in Germany 's 4 -- 1 victory over England, when Frank Lampard hit a shot from outside of the penalty box that bounced off the crossbar and over the line; the ball came back out and the goal was disallowed because the assistant referee did not call for a goal -- Blatter announced that FIFA would reopen the goal - line technology discussion.
Before Euro 2012, UEFA president Michel Platini dismissed the need for goal - line technology, instead arguing for placing additional assistant referees behind the goal. However, in a Group D match with Ukraine losing 1 -- 0 to England, the on - field officials did not see Ukraine 's Marko Dević 's shot briefly cross the line before it was cleared by England 's John Terry, although an offside in the build - up to the incident was too unnoticed by the match officials.
Heeding calls for the use of technology, in July 2011 FIFA began a process of sanctioned tests that eventually resulted in the approval of the systems used in the current game.
The first stage of testing considered multiple goal - line technology systems, with the requirement that the system notified the referee of the decision within one second of the incident happening. The message needed to be relayed via a visual signal and vibration. Tests were conducted by Empa between September and December 2011. Tested systems included:
On 3 March 2012, IFAB announced that two of the eight proposed systems had proceeded to the second stage of testing. These were Hawk - Eye and GoalRef. In the second phase of testing, the manufacturer of the technology chose a stadium to test its technology in a number of imagined scenarios. Testing was also conducted in professional training sessions and in laboratories to account for different climatic conditions and other magnetic field distortions. Tests on the watch to be worn by referees were also be undertaken. The systems also each underwent testing in some competitive matches.
GoalRef technology underwent match testing in some Danish Superliga matches in the first half of 2012. Following the second phase trials, on 5 July 2012 IFAB approved GoalRef in principle, making it available for use in professional matches under a set of revised Laws of the Game. Each installation however would also require licensing approval for use in the individual stadium, on a 12 - month basis. The 2012 FIFA Club World Cup was the first tournament where GoalRef was used by a match referee. Goal Ref was used for the first time on 6 December 2012 in the first match of the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup.
The first match to use the Hawk - Eye goal - line technology was Eastleigh F.C. versus A.F.C. Totton in the Hampshire Senior Cup final at St Mary 's Stadium, Southampton in England on 16 May 2012. Although it used Hawk - Eye, the system had no bearing on the referee 's decisions and the system readings were only available to FIFA 's independent testing agency. The system was also in place for the technology 's second test on 2 June for England 's friendly match against Belgium.
Following the success of the trials, in July 2012 IFAB voted unanimously to officially amend the Laws of the Game to permit (but not require) goal - line technology.
In December 2012, FIFA announced it would introduce goal - line technology at the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup in Japan. Hawk - Eye technology was employed at Toyota Stadium, while GoalRef was used at International Stadium Yokohama.
GoalControl, a camera - based system which uses 14 high - speed cameras located around the pitch and directed at both goals, was used at 2013 Confederations Cup, partly as a trial for use at the next year 's World Cup.
The Football Association announced that Hawk - Eye would be used in the 2013 -- 14 Premier League season. On 16 December 2013, it was announced that Hawk - Eye would be used in three of the four quarter - finals and any subsequent matches in the League Cup. The system was used when, on the very next day, in the Sunderland -- Chelsea quarter - final, a goal from Frank Lampard was allowed. The first goal to be decisively awarded using goal - line technology in the English Premier League was Edin Džeko 's goal for Manchester City against Cardiff City on 18 January 2014.
Following success at the Confederations Cup, GoalControl was used at the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The first goal given by the technology was in the 15 June 2014 group stage match between France and Honduras.
Goal Line Technology was implemented across the major European competitions. In December 2014, the Bundesliga clubs approved goal - line technology that will be introduced at the start of the 2015 -- 16 Bundesliga season. The league picked the cheaper Hawk - Eye system over two German technologies. GoalControl was introduced for Ligue 1 for the start of the 2015 -- 16 Ligue 1 season. Ligue 1 later switched to using Hawk - Eye in 2018 after the GoalControl system made errors.
Goal Line Technology was used in the UEFA Europa League final, UEFA Champions League, European Championship and Copa America for the first time in 2016.
While advocates for goal - line technology maintain that it would significantly reduce refereeing errors during play, there are also criticisms of the technology. Much of the criticism came from within FIFA itself including former FIFA president Sepp Blatter. Apart from the criticisms revolving around the technical aspects of the two proposed technologies, critics point out that such technology would impact on the human element of the game and remove the enjoyment of debating mistakes. Sepp Blatter has been quoted as saying "Other sports regularly change the laws of the game to react to the new technology... We do n't do it and this makes the fascination and the popularity of football ''.
A study suggested that in the 2010 -- 11 Premier League season "errors took place nearly 30 % of the time that video replays could help prevent '', but some people claim that instant replays would interrupt the flow of the game and take away possible plays.
Other critics believe it would be prohibitively expensive to implement the technology at all levels of the game and particularly for smaller / poorer football associations. FIFA officials have expressed a preference for ' better refereeing ' as well as more match officials over implementing the technology. Advocates in turn cite the many examples of incorrect goal - line decisions deciding important games and point out that the technology has improved much since the initial trials carried out by FIFA. Advocates contend that any extra help for the referee should outweigh arguments that it would lead to non-uniform rules (since not all football associations would be able to implement it).
Blatter had been opposed to goal - line technology until Frank Lampard 's disallowed goal in the 2010 World Cup where the ball clearly crossed the line.
The introduction of additional assistant referees, who are mostly positioned beside the goal - line, was partly in order to facilitate in such situations.
In April 2013, MLS commissioner Don Garber confirmed that MLS would not adopt goal - line technology for the 2014 season, citing cost as the overriding factor. GoalControl installation would cost about $260,000 per stadium, and a further $3,900 for each game.
In early 2014, the vast majority of teams in the two divisions of the German Bundesliga voted against introducing goal - line technology for financial reasons. The costs per club would have ranged from € 250,000 for a chip inside the ball up to € 500,000 for Hawk - Eye or GoalControl. The manager of 1. FC Köln, Jörg Schmadtke, summarized the vote with "The cost is so exorbitant, that using this (technology) is not acceptable ''.
World governing body FIFA are set to make £ 300,000 from the Premier League 's decision to install goal - line technology in all top - flight stadiums before the start of next season. Each of the 20 clubs will have to pay FIFA £ 15,000 to install, test and receive the ' FIFA quality seal ' for Hawk - Eye 's camera - based system, which is expected to cost around £ 250,000 per ground in total. FIFA will also make an extra £ 15,000 from Wembley Stadium, which will have the technology installed for use in events such as the FA Cup semi-finals and final.
The Scottish Professional Football League stated in December 2017 that it would not be implementing goal - line technology, as it is only affordable for the richest leagues in Europe.
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where did agatha christie wrote death on the nile | Old Cataract hotel - wikipedia
Coordinates: 24 ° 04 ′ 50 '' N 32 ° 52 ′ 52 '' E / 24.080442 ° N 32.881172 ° E / 24.080442; 32.881172
The Sofitel Legend Old Cataract Hotel, also known as the Old Cataract Hotel, is a historic British colonial - era 5 - star luxury resort hotel located on the banks of the River Nile in Aswan, Egypt.
The hotel was built in 1899 by Thomas Cook to house European travelers. Its guests have included Tsar Nicholas II, Winston Churchill, Howard Carter, Margaret Thatcher, Jimmy Carter, Princess Diana, Queen Noor and Agatha Christie, who set portions of her novel Death on the Nile at the hotel. The 1978 film of the novel was shot at the hotel.
A new modern tower wing was built in 1961, it operated as a budget wing of the hotel for many years, known as the New Cataract Hotel. The hotel was closed from 2008 to 2011 for a complete restoration, during which the tower was combined with the historic Old Cataract wing into one hotel. The Old Cataract wing, which had 131 rooms and eight suites, was renamed the Palace Wing, with 76 rooms and 45 suites. The New Cataract Wing, which had 144 rooms, was turned into the Nile Wing, with 62 rooms including 37 suites, all with a balcony with a river view.
Egypt 's CBC used the Old Cataract as the primary filming location for its musalsal adaptation of the popular Spanish series Grand Hotel in 2016.
Outdoor view of the Old Cataract dining room.
Inside the Old Cataract dining room.
Old Cataract from the Nile.
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what is gm crop explain with suitable example | Genetically modified crops - Wikipedia
Genetically modified crops (GMCs, GM crops, or biotech crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. It is the fastest adopted crop technology in the world. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12 % of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (soybean, maize, canola and cotton) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of GM maize were under cultivation (almost 1 / 3 of the maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5 % higher with less mycotoxins (− 28.8 %), fumonisin (− 30.6 %) and thricotecens (− 36.5 %). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for Braconidae, represented by a parasitoid of European corn borer, the target of Lepidoptera active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher.
A 2014 meta - analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37 %, increased crop yields by 22 %, and increased farmer profits by 68 %. This reduction in pesticide use has been ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse. Yield gains and pesticide reductions are larger for insect - resistant crops than for herbicide - tolerant crops. Yield and profit gains are higher in developing countries than in developed countries.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case - by - case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
However, opponents have objected to GM crops on grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether they are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries and concerns over subjecting crops to intellectual property law. Safety concerns led 38 countries, including 19 in Europe, to officially prohibit their cultivation.
Multiple natural mechanisms allow gene flow from one species to another. These occur in nature on a large scale -- for example, it is one mechanism for the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This is facilitated by transposons, retrotransposons, retroviruses, proviruses and other mobile genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to new loci in a genome. Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.
Traditional crop breeders have long introduced foreign germplasm into crops by creating novel crosses. A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye. Since then traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced in that manner. Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter the makeup of plant genomes.
The term genetic engineering is applied to genetic modifications made using biotechnology. The first plant produced in that way came in 1982, an antibiotic - resistant tobacco plant. The first field trials occurred in France and the USA in 1986, using tobacco plants engineered for herbicide resistance. In 1987, Plant Genetic Systems (Ghent, Belgium), founded by Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell, was the first company to genetically engineer insect - resistant (tobacco) plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
The People 's Republic of China was the first country to allow commercialized transgenic plants, introducing a virus - resistant tobacco in 1992, which was withdrawn in 1997. The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S., in 1994, was the FlavrSavr tomato. It had a longer shelf life, because it took longer to soften after ripening. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to tolerate the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first commercially genetically engineered crop marketed in Europe.
In 1995, Bt Potato was approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency, making it the country 's first - pesticide producing crop. In 1995 canola with modified oil composition (Calgene), Bt maize (Ciba - Geigy), bromoxynil - tolerant cotton (Calgene), Bt cotton (Monsanto), glyphosate - tolerant soybeans (Monsanto), virus - tolerant squash (Asgrow), and additional delayed ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca / Peto and Monsanto) were approved. As of mid-1996, 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU. In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was developed, though as of 2016 it was not yet in commercial production.
In 2013 the leaders of the three research teams that first applied genetic engineering to crops, Robert Fraley, Marc Van Montagu and Mary - Dell Chilton, were awarded the World Food Prize for improving the "quality, quantity or availability '' of food in the world.
In the US, by 2014, 94 % of the planted area of soybeans, 96 % of cotton and 93 % of corn were genetically modified varieties. In developing countries, about 18 million farmers planted 54 % of GM crops worldwide by 2013.
Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques, originally including gene guns, electroporation, microinjection and agrobacterium. More recently, CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient editing techniques.
Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot '' (direct high energy particles or radiations against) target genes into plant cells. It is the most common method. DNA is bound to tiny particles of gold or tungsten which are subsequently shot into plant tissue or single plant cells under high pressure. The accelerated particles penetrate both the cell wall and membranes. The DNA separates from the metal and is integrated into plant DNA inside the nucleus. This method has been applied successfully for many cultivated crops, especially monocots like wheat or maize, for which transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been less successful. The major disadvantage of this procedure is that serious damage can be done to the cellular tissue.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens - mediated transformation is another common technique. Agrobacteria are natural plant parasites. Their natural ability to transfer genes provides another engineering method. To create a suitable environment for themselves, these Agrobacteria insert their genes into plant hosts, resulting in a proliferation of modified plant cells near the soil level (crown gall). The genetic information for tumor growth is encoded on a mobile, circular DNA fragment (plasmid). When Agrobacterium infects a plant, it transfers this T - DNA to a random site in the plant genome. When used in genetic engineering the bacterial T - DNA is removed from the bacterial plasmid and replaced with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium is a vector, enabling transportation of foreign genes into plants. This method works especially well for dicotyledonous plants like potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Agrobacteria infection is less successful in crops like wheat and maize.
Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses. ''
Microinjection is used to directly inject foreign DNA into cells.
Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are conventionally bred crops.
In research tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana are the most frequently modified plants, due to well - developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes. They serve as model organisms for other plant species.
Introducing new genes into plants requires a promoter specific to the area where the gene is to be expressed. For instance, to express a gene only in rice grains and not in leaves, an endosperm - specific promoter is used. The codons of the gene must be optimized for the organism due to codon usage bias.
Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant to plant) or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to correctly and efficiently express in the host organism. Transgenic plants are used to express proteins like the cry toxins from B. thuringiensis, herbicide resistant genes, antibodies and antigens for vaccinations A study led by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) found also viral genes in transgenic plants.
Transgenic carrots have been used to produce the drug Taliglucerase alfa which is used to treat Gaucher 's disease. In the laboratory, transgenic plants have been modified to increase photosynthesis (currently about 2 % at most plants versus the theoretic potential of 9 -- 10 %). This is possible by changing the rubisco enzyme (i.e. changing C3 plants into C4 plants), by placing the rubisco in a carboxysome, by adding CO pumps in the cell wall, by changing the leaf form / size. Plants have been engineered to exhibit bioluminescence that may become a sustainable alternative to electric lighting.
Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics.
Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat 's hexaploid genome. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used to modify white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus).
With multiple trait integration, several new traits may be integrated into a new crop.
GM food 's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn. This was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby. Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus (increased by) $240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59 %) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21 %), followed by US consumers (9 %), the rest of the world (6 %), and the germplasm supplier, Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi (5 %). ''
According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri - biotech Applications (ISAAA), in 2014 approximately 18 million farmers grew biotech crops in 28 countries; about 94 % of the farmers were resource - poor in developing countries. 53 % of the global biotech crop area of 181.5 million hectares was grown in 20 developing countries. PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries.
Critics challenged the claimed benefits to farmers over the prevalence of biased observers and by the absence of randomized controlled trials. The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location ''.
In 2013 the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked the EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water, and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU 's "time - consuming and expensive regulatory framework '' and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies.
Participants in agriculture business markets include seed companies, agrochemical companies, distributors, farmers, grain elevators and universities that develop new crops / traits and whose agricultural extensions advise farmers on best practices. According to a 2012 review based on data from the late 1990s and early 2000s, much of the GM crop grown each year is used for livestock feed and increased demand for meat leads to increased demand for GM feed crops. Feed grain usage as a percentage of total crop production is 70 % for corn and more than 90 % of oil seed meals such as soybeans. About 65 million metric tons of GM corn grains and about 70 million metric tons of soybean meals derived from GM soybean become feed.
In 2014 the global value of biotech seed was US $15.7 billion; US $11.3 billion (72 %) was in industrial countries and US $4.4 billion (28 %) was in the developing countries. In 2009, Monsanto had $7.3 billion in sales of seeds and from licensing its technology; DuPont, through its Pioneer subsidiary, was the next biggest company in that market. As of 2009, the overall Roundup line of products including the GM seeds represented about 50 % of Monsanto 's business.
Some patents on GM traits have expired, allowing the legal development of generic strains that include these traits. For example, generic glyphosate - tolerant GM soybean is now available. Another impact is that traits developed by one vendor can be added to another vendor 's proprietary strains, potentially increasing product choice and competition. The patent on the first type of Roundup Ready crop that Monsanto produced (soybeans) expired in 2014 and the first harvest of off - patent soybeans occurs in the spring of 2015. Monsanto has broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include the glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products. About 150 companies have licensed the technology, including Syngenta and DuPont Pioneer.
In 2014, the largest review yet concluded that GM crops ' effects on farming were positive. The meta - analysis considered all published English - language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014 for three major GM crops: soybean, maize, and cotton. The study found that herbicide - tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect - resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same.
Yields increased 9 % for herbicide tolerance and 25 % for insect resistant varieties. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69 % higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points.
The researchers considered some studies that were not peer - reviewed and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias, by considering sources beyond academic journals. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertilizer use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results.
GM crops grown today, or under development, have been modified with various traits. These traits include improved shelf life, disease resistance, stress resistance, herbicide resistance, pest resistance, production of useful goods such as biofuel or drugs, and ability to absorb toxins and for use in bioremediation of pollution.
Recently, research and development has been targeted to enhancement of crops that are locally important in developing countries, such as insect - resistant cowpea for Africa and insect - resistant brinjal (eggplant).
The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S. was the FlavrSavr tomato, which had a longer shelf life. It is no longer on the market.
In November 2014, the USDA approved a GM potato that prevents bruising.
In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA, becoming the first genetically modified apple approved for US sale. Gene silencing was used to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing enzymatic browning of the fruit after it has been sliced open. The trait was added to Granny Smith and Golden Delicious varieties. The trait includes a bacterial antibiotic resistance gene that provides resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. The genetic engineering involved cultivation in the presence of kanamycin, which allowed only resistant cultivars to survive. Humans consuming apples do not acquire kanamycin resistance, per arcticapple.com. The FDA approved the apples in March 2015.
Plants use non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) to protect them from excessive amounts of sunlight. Plants can switch on the quenching mechanism almost instantaneously but it takes much longer for it to switch off again. During the time that it is switched off, the amount of energy that is wasted increases. A genetic modification in three genes allows to correct this (in a trial with tobacco plants). As a result, yields were 14 - 20 % higher, in terms of the weight of the dry leaves harvested. The plants had bigger leaves, were taller and had more vigorous roots.
Another improvement that can be made on the photosynthesis process (with C3 pathway plants) is on photorespiration. By inserting the C4 pathway into C3 plants, productivity may increase by as much as 50 % for cereal crops, such as rice.
Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for processing. Camelina sativa has been modified to produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to fish oils.
Golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of vitamin A targeted at reducing vitamin A deficiency. As of January 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially in any country.
A genetically modified cassava under development offers lower cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other nutrients (called BioCassava).
In November 2014, the USDA approved a potato that prevents bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried. They do not employ genes from non-potato species. The trait was added to the Russet Burbank, Ranger Russet and Atlantic varieties.
Plants have been engineered to tolerate non-biological stressors, such as drought, frost, and high soil salinity. In 2011, Monsanto 's DroughtGard maize became the first drought - resistant GM crop to receive US marketing approval.
Drought resistance occurs by modifying the plant 's genes responsible for the mechanism known as the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which allows the plants to survive despite low water levels. This holds promise for water - heavy crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans and poplar to accelerate their adaptation to water - limited environments. Several salinity tolerance mechanisms have been identified in salt - tolerant crops. For example, rice, canola and tomato crops have been genetically modified to increase their tolerance to salt stress.
As of 1999, the most prevalent GM trait was glyphosate - tolerance. Glyphosate (the active ingredient in Roundup and other herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the shikimate pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. The shikimate pathway is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet. More specifically, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme 5 - enolpyruvylshikimate - 3 - phosphate synthase (EPSPS).
This trait was developed because the herbicides used on grain and grass crops at the time were highly toxic and not effective against narrow - leaved weeds. Thus, developing crops that could withstand spraying with glyphosate would both reduce environmental and health risks, and give an agricultural edge to the farmer.
Some micro-organisms have a version of EPSPS that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. One of these was isolated from an Agrobacterium strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant to glyphosate. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing the 5 ' end of the gene to a chloroplast transit peptide derived from the petunia EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans.
The plasmid used to move the gene into soybeans was PV - GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta - glucuronidase (GUS) from Escherichia coli as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle acceleration method. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the transformation.
Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil.
Crops have been commercialized that are resistant to the herbicide glufosinate, as well. Crops engineered for resistance to multiple herbicides to allow farmers to use a mixed group of two, three, or four different chemicals are under development to combat growing herbicide resistance.
In October 2014 the US EPA registered Dow 's Enlist Duo maize, which is genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and 2, 4 - D, in six states. Inserting a bacterial aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase gene, aad1 makes the corn resistant to 2, 4 - D. The USDA had approved maize and soybeans with the mutation in September 2014.
Monsanto has requested approval for a stacked strain that is tolerant of both glyphosate and dicamba. The request includes plans for avoiding herbicide drift to other crops. Significant damage to other non-resistant crops occurred from dicamba formulations intended to reduce volatilization drifting when sprayed on resistant soybeans in 2017. The newer dicamba formulation labels specify to not spray when average wind speeds are above 10 -- 15 miles per hour (16 -- 24 km / h) to avoid particle drift, average wind speeds below 3 miles per hour (4.8 km / h) to avoid temperature inversions, and rain or high temperatures are in the next day forecast. However, these conditions typically only occur during June and July for a few hours at a time.
Tobacco, corn, rice and some other crops have been engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The introduction of Bt crops during the period between 1996 and 2005 has been estimated to have reduced the total volume of insecticide active ingredient use in the United States by over 100 thousand tons. This represents a 19.4 % reduction in insecticide use.
In the late 1990s, a genetically modified potato that was resistant to the Colorado potato beetle was withdrawn because major buyers rejected it, fearing consumer opposition.
Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants. Virus resistant papaya were developed in response to a papaya ringspot virus (PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. They incorporate PRV DNA. By 2010, 80 % of Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified.
Potatoes were engineered for resistance to potato leaf roll virus and Potato virus Y in 1998. Poor sales led to their market withdrawal after three years.
Yellow squash that were resistant to at first two, then three viruses were developed, beginning in the 1990s. The viruses are watermelon, cucumber and zucchini / courgette yellow mosaic. Squash was the second GM crop to be approved by US regulators. The trait was later added to zucchini.
Many strains of corn have been developed in recent years to combat the spread of Maize dwarf mosaic virus, a costly virus that causes stunted growth which is carried in Johnson grass and spread by aphid insect vectors. These strands are commercially available although the resistance is not standard among GM corn variants.
In 2012, the FDA approved the first plant - produced pharmaceutical, a treatment for Gaucher 's Disease. Tobacco plants have been modified to produce therapeutic antibodies.
Algae is under development for use in biofuels. Researchers in Singapore were working on GM jatropha for biofuel production. Syngenta has USDA approval to market a maize trademarked Enogen that has been genetically modified to convert its starch to sugar for ethanol. Some trees have been genetically modified to either have less lignin, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds. Lignin is the critical limiting factor when using wood to make bio-ethanol because lignin limits the accessibility of cellulose microfibrils to depolymerization by enzymes. Besides with trees, the chemically labile lignin bonds are also very useful for cereal crops such as maize, barley, and oats.
Companies and labs are working on plants that can be used to make bioplastics. Potatoes that produce industrially useful starches have been developed as well. Oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.
Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (Arabidopsis thaliana) that contains genes from bacteria that could clean TNT and RDX - explosive soil contaminants in 2011. 16 million hectares in the US (1.5 % of the total surface) are estimated to be contaminated with TNT and RDX. However A. thaliana was not tough enough for use on military test grounds. Modifications in 2016 included switchgrass and bentgrass.
Genetically modified plants have been used for bioremediation of contaminated soils. Mercury, selenium and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Marine environments are especially vulnerable since pollution such as oil spills are not containable. In addition to anthropogenic pollution, millions of tons of petroleum annually enter the marine environment from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon - degrading activities of microbial communities. Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists, the so - called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB) that may offer useful genes.
Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes which genes get propagated to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high - quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year. Typically, the seed company maintains two inbred varieties and crosses them into a hybrid strain that is then sold. Related plants like sorghum and gamma grass are able to perform apomixis, a form of asexual reproduction that keeps the plant 's DNA intact. This trait is apparently controlled by a single dominant gene, but traditional breeding has been unsuccessful in creating asexually - reproducing maize. Genetic engineering offers another route to this goal. Successful modification would allow farmers to replant harvested seeds that retain desirable traits, rather than relying on purchased seed.
Genetic modifications to some crops also exist, which make it easier to process the crop. For instance, the "no tears '' onion prevents the synthesis of lachrymatory factor synthase in onions (otherwise put, it does not irritate the eyes when the onion is cut.
Also, some crops (such as tomatoes) have been genetic modified to contain no seed at all.
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Emulsifiers in packaged foods
high - fructose corn syrup
corn starch
Soybean oil
high - fructose corn syrup
corn starch
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Emulsifiers in packaged foods
high - fructose corn syrup
corn starch
Soybean oil
The number of USDA - approved field releases for testing grew from 4 in 1985 to 1,194 in 2002 and averaged around 800 per year thereafter. The number of sites per release and the number of gene constructs (ways that the gene of interest is packaged together with other elements) -- have rapidly increased since 2005. Releases with agronomic properties (such as drought resistance) jumped from 1,043 in 2005 to 5,190 in 2013. As of September 2013, about 7,800 releases had been approved for corn, more than 2,200 for soybeans, more than 1,100 for cotton, and about 900 for potatoes. Releases were approved for herbicide tolerance (6,772 releases), insect resistance (4,809), product quality such as flavor or nutrition (4,896), agronomic properties like drought resistance (5,190), and virus / fungal resistance (2,616). The institutions with the most authorized field releases include Monsanto with 6,782, Pioneer / DuPont with 1,405, Syngenta with 565, and USDA 's Agricultural Research Service with 370. As of September 2013 USDA had received proposals for releasing GM rice, squash, plum, rose, tobacco, flax, and chicory.
Constant exposure to a toxin creates evolutionary pressure for pests resistant to that toxin. Over-reliance on glyphosate and a reduction in the diversity of weed management practices allowed the spread of glyphosate resistance in 14 weed species in the US, and in soybeans.
To reduce resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, the 1996 commercialization of transgenic cotton and maize came with a management strategy to prevent insects from becoming resistant. Insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any (recessive) resistance genes are diluted within the population. Resistance lowers evolutionary fitness in the absence of the stressor, Bt. In refuges, non-resistant strains outcompete resistant ones.
With sufficiently high levels of transgene expression, nearly all of the heterozygotes (S / s), i.e., the largest segment of the pest population carrying a resistance allele, will be killed before maturation, thus preventing transmission of the resistance gene to their progeny. Refuges (i.e., fields of nontransgenic plants) adjacent to transgenic fields increases the likelihood that homozygous resistant (s / s) individuals and any surviving heterozygotes will mate with susceptible (S / S) individuals from the refuge, instead of with other individuals carrying the resistance allele. As a result, the resistance gene frequency in the population remains lower.
Complicating factors can affect the success of the high - dose / refuge strategy. For example, if the temperature is not ideal, thermal stress can lower Bt toxin production and leave the plant more susceptible. More importantly, reduced late - season expression has been documented, possibly resulting from DNA methylation of the promoter. The success of the high - dose / refuge strategy has successfully maintained the value of Bt crops. This success has depended on factors independent of management strategy, including low initial resistance allele frequencies, fitness costs associated with resistance, and the abundance of non-Bt host plants outside the refuges.
Companies that produce Bt seed are introducing strains with multiple Bt proteins. Monsanto did this with Bt cotton in India, where the product was rapidly adopted. Monsanto has also; in an attempt to simplify the process of implementing refuges in fields to comply with Insect Resistance Management (IRM) policies and prevent irresponsible planting practices; begun marketing seed bags with a set proportion of refuge (non-transgenic) seeds mixed in with the Bt seeds being sold. Coined "Refuge - In - a-Bag '' (RIB), this practice is intended to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional labor needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand. This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt - resistance occurring for corn rootworm, but may increase the risk of resistance for lepidopteran corn pests, such as European corn borer. Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects.
Best management practices (BMPs) to control weeds may help delay resistance. BMPs include applying multiple herbicides with different modes of action, rotating crops, planting weed - free seed, scouting fields routinely, cleaning equipment to reduce the transmission of weeds to other fields, and maintaining field borders. The most widely planted GM crops are designed to tolerate herbicides. By 2006 some weed populations had evolved to tolerate some of the same herbicides. Palmer amaranth is a weed that competes with cotton. A native of the southwestern US, it traveled east and was first found resistant to glyphosate in 2006, less than 10 years after GM cotton was introduced.
Farmers generally use less insecticide when they plant Bt - resistant crops. Insecticide use on corn farms declined from 0.21 pound per planted acre in 1995 to 0.02 pound in 2010. This is consistent with the decline in European corn borer populations as a direct result of Bt corn and cotton. The establishment of minimum refuge requirements helped delay the evolution of Bt resistance. However, resistance appears to be developing to some Bt traits in some areas.
By leaving at least 30 % of crop residue on the soil surface from harvest through planting, conservation tillage reduces soil erosion from wind and water, increases water retention, and reduces soil degradation as well as water and chemical runoff. In addition, conservation tillage reduces the carbon footprint of agriculture. A 2014 review covering 12 states from 1996 to 2006, found that a 1 % increase in herbicde - tolerant (HT) soybean adoption leads to a 0.21 % increase in conservation tillage and a 0.3 % decrease in quality - adjusted herbicide use.
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of each product. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.
In 2013, GM crops were planted in 27 countries; 19 were developing countries and 8 were developed countries. 2013 was the second year in which developing countries grew a majority (54 %) of the total GM harvest. 18 million farmers grew GM crops; around 90 % were small - holding farmers in developing countries.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports every year on the total area of GM crop varieties planted in the United States. According to National Agricultural Statistics Service, the states published in these tables represent 81 -- 86 percent of all corn planted area, 88 -- 90 percent of all soybean planted area, and 81 -- 93 percent of all upland cotton planted area (depending on the year).
Global estimates are produced by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri - biotech Applications (ISAAA) and can be found in their annual reports, "Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops ''.
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology (see figure). Between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,750,000 km (432 million acres). 10 % of the world 's arable land was planted with GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. One of the key reasons for this widespread adoption is the perceived economic benefit the technology brings to farmers. For example, the system of planting glyphosate - resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged provided farmers with the opportunity to dramatically increase the yield from a given plot of land, since this allowed them to plant rows closer together. Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage. Likewise, using Bt seeds means that farmers do not have to purchase insecticides, and then invest time, fuel, and equipment in applying them. However critics have disputed whether yields are higher and whether chemical use is less, with GM crops. See Genetically modified food controversies article for information.
In the US, by 2014, 94 % of the planted area of soybeans, 96 % of cotton and 93 % of corn were genetically modified varieties. Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide - tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely Bt protein). These constitute "input - traits '' that are aimed to financially benefit the producers, but may have indirect environmental benefits and cost benefits to consumers. The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimated in 2003 that 70 -- 75 % of all processed foods in the U.S. contained a GM ingredient.
Europe grows relatively few genetically engineered crops with the exception of Spain, where one fifth of maize is genetically engineered, and smaller amounts in five other countries. The EU had a ' de facto ' ban on the approval of new GM crops, from 1999 until 2004. GM crops are now regulated by the EU. In 2015, genetically engineered crops are banned in 38 countries worldwide, 19 of them in Europe. Developing countries grew 54 percent of genetically engineered crops in 2013.
In recent years GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54 % of worldwide GM crops in developing countries. 2013 's largest increase was in Brazil (403,000 km versus 368,000 km in 2012). GM cotton began growing in India in 2002, reaching 110,000 km in 2013.
According to the 2013 ISAAA brief: "... a total of 36 countries (35 + EU - 28) have granted regulatory approvals for biotech crops for food and / or feed use and for environmental release or planting since 1994... a total of 2,833 regulatory approvals involving 27 GM crops and 336 GM events (NB: an "event '' is a specific genetic modification in a specific species) have been issued by authorities, of which 1,321 are for food use (direct use or processing), 918 for feed use (direct use or processing) and 599 for environmental release or planting. Japan has the largest number (198), followed by the U.S.A. (165, not including "stacked '' events), Canada (146), Mexico (131), South Korea (103), Australia (93), New Zealand (83), European Union (71 including approvals that have expired or under renewal process), Philippines (68), Taiwan (65), Colombia (59), China (55) and South Africa (52). Maize has the largest number (130 events in 27 countries), followed by cotton (49 events in 22 countries), potato (31 events in 10 countries), canola (30 events in 12 countries) and soybean (27 events in 26 countries).
Direct genetic engineering has been controversial since its introduction. Most, but not all of the controversies are over GM foods rather than crops per se. GM foods are the subject of protests, vandalism, referenda, legislation, court action and scientific disputes. The controversies involve consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations and scientists.
Opponents have objected to GM crops on multiple grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether the are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries and concerns over subjecting crops to intellectual property law. Secondary issues include labeling, the behavior of government regulators, the effects of pesticide use and pesticide tolerance.
A significant environmental concern about using genetically modified crops is possible cross-breeding with related crops, giving them advantages over naturally occurring varieties. One example is a glyphosate - resistant rice crop that crossbreeds with a weedy relative, giving the weed a competitive advantage. The transgenic hybrid had higher rates of photosynthesis, more shoots and flowers, and more seeds than the non-transgenic hybrids. This demonstrates the possibility of ecosystem damage by GM crop usage.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case - by - case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
No reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population. GM crop labeling is required in many countries, although the United States Food and Drug Administration does not, nor does it distinguish between approved GM and non-GM foods. The United States enacted a law that requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018. It allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site.
Advocacy groups such as Center for Food Safety, Union of Concerned Scientists, Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Fund claim that risks related to GM food have not been adequately examined and managed, that GM crops are not sufficiently tested and should be labelled, and that regulatory authorities and scientific bodies are too closely tied to industry. Some studies have claimed that genetically modified crops can cause harm; a 2016 review that reanalyzed the data from six of these studies found that their statistical methodologies were flawed and did not demonstrate harm, and said that conclusions about GM crop safety should be drawn from "the totality of the evidence... instead of far - fetched evidence from single studies ''.
Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants '' (PDF). Environment International. 37 (4): 734 -- 42. doi: 10.1016 / j. envint. 2011.01. 003. PMID 21296423. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.
Krimsky, Sheldon (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment '' (PDF). Science, Technology, & Human Values. 40 (6): 1 -- 32. doi: 10.1177 / 0162243915598381. I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.
And contrast:
Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (14 January 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons ''. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 37 (2): 1 -- 5. doi: 10.3109 / 07388551.2015. 1130684. ISSN 0738 - 8551. PMID 26767435. Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.
and
Yang, Y.T.; Chen, B. (2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health ''. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 96 (6): 1851 -- 55. doi: 10.1002 / jsfa. 7523. PMID 26536836. It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA (citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GM food have been reported or substantiated in peer - reviewed literature to date. Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.
Pinholster, Ginger (25 October 2012). "AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers '' ". American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
"REPORT 2 OF THE COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods '' (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2016. Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and / or substantiated in the peer - reviewed literature. CS1 maint: BOT: original - url status unknown (link)
GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods. ''
"Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement '' (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2016. In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns can not, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available. When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case - by - case basis. Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects. The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.
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when does the first episode of power start | Power Rangers - wikipedia
Power Rangers is an American entertainment and merchandising franchise built around a live action superhero television series. Produced first by Saban Entertainment, later by BVS Entertainment and today by SCG Power Rangers, the television series takes much of its footage from the Japanese tokusatsu Super Sentai, produced by Toei Company. The first Power Rangers entry, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, debuted on August 28, 1993, and helped launch the Fox Kids programming block of the 1990s, during which it catapulted into popular culture along with a line of action figures and other toys by Bandai. As of 2001, the media franchise has generated over $6 billion in retail sales worldwide.
Despite initial criticism that its action violence targeted child audiences, the franchise has continued, and as of 2017 the show consists of 24 television seasons of 20 different themed series and three theatrical films released in 1995, 1997 and 2017. In 2010, Haim Saban, creator of the series, regained ownership of the franchise after seven years under The Walt Disney Company.
In 2018, shortly after naming Hasbro the new master toy licensee, Saban Brands and Hasbro announced that Hasbro would acquire the franchise in a $522 million deal, with the first products from Hasbro becoming available in early 2019.
Since Power Rangers derives most of its footage from the Super Sentai series, it features many hallmarks that distinguish it from other superhero series. Each series revolves around a team of youths recruited and trained by a mentor to morph into the eponymous Power Rangers, able to utilize special powers and pilot immense assault machines, called Zords, to overcome the periodic antagonists. In the original series Mighty Morphin, the wizard Zordon recruits "teenagers with attitude '' against Rita Repulsa.
When "morphed, '' the rangers become powerful superheroes wearing color - coded skin - tight spandex suits and helmets with opaque visors; identical except in individual rangers ' color and helmet design. Morphed Rangers generally possess enhanced strength, durability, agility and combat prowess. Some possess superhuman or psychic abilities such as super-speed, element manipulation, extra-sensory perception or invisibility. In addition, each individual ranger has a unique weapon, as well as common weaponry used for ground fighting. When enemies grow to incredible size (as nearly all do), Rangers utilize individual Zords that combine into a larger Megazord.
Rangers teams operate in teams of five or three, with more Rangers joining the team later. Each team of Rangers, with a few exceptions, obeys a general set of conventions, outlined at the beginning of Mighty Morphin and implied by mentors throughout many of the other series: Power Rangers may not use their Ranger powers for personal gain or for escalating a fight (unless the enemy does so), nor may the Power Rangers disclose their identities to the general public. The penalty for disobeying these rules is the loss of their power.
As in Super Sentai, the color palette of each Power Rangers team changes every series. Only Red and Blue appear in every Ranger team, while a Yellow Ranger has been present in every season except Power Rangers Dino Charge. Other colors and designations also appear throughout the series. A Rangers ' color designation also influences their wardrobe throughout the series: civilian clothing often matches Ranger color.
Before creating Power Rangers, the idea of adapting Sentai series to the American public emerged in the late 1970s after the agreement between Toei Company and Marvel Comics to exchange concepts to adapt them to their respective audiences. Toei, together with Marvel, created the Spider Man series, based on the comics of the same name, and produced three Super Sentai series, which had great success in Japan. While Stan Lee and Marvel tried to sell the Sun Vulcan series to various television stations, including HBO, but unlike what happened in Japan, this did not succeed and after three years, the agreement ended.
Several years later, another idea to adapt Super Sentai began in the 80s when Haim Saban made a business trip to Japan, in which, during his stay at the hotel, the only thing that was being transmitted on his television was the Japanese series "Super Sentai ''. At that time, Saban was fascinated by the concept of 5 people masked in spandex suits fighting monsters, so in 1985, he produced the pilot episode of Bio-Man, an American adaptation of Choudenshi Bioman, which was rejected by several of the largest American television stations.
Production of Power Rangers episodes involves extensive localization of and revision of original Super Sentai source material in order to incorporate American culture and conform to American television standards. Rather than making an English dub or translation of the Japanese footage, Power Rangers programs consist of scenes featuring English - speaking actors spliced with scenes featuring either Japanese actors dubbed into English or the action scenes from the Super Sentai Series featuring the Rangers fighting monsters or the giant robot (Zord and Megazord) battles with English dubbing. In some series, original fight scenes are filmed to incorporate characters or items unique to the Power Rangers production. Like many of Saban Entertainment previous ventures in localizing Japanese television for a Western audience, the plot, character names, and other names usually differ greatly from the source footage, though a few seasons have stayed close to the story of the original Super Sentai season.
Along with adapting the villains from the Super Sentai counterparts, most Power Rangers series also feature villains with no Sentai counterpart. Generally, the primary antagonist of a Power Rangers series (for example, Lord Zedd, Divatox, etc.) are not adapted from the Sentai. Exceptions to this includes Mighty Morphin, Zeo, Lightspeed Rescue and a few others which only use villains adapted from the Japanese shows.
The series that began the franchise, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (an American adaptation of the 1992 Japanese Super Sentai Series, Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger), began broadcasting as part of the Fox Kids block of programing that aired on the FOX network. It lasted for three seasons (from 1993 to 1996).
Saban Entertainment distributed the Power Rangers series from 1993 until the end of 2001, and Fox broadcast it until the fall of 2002. The Walt Disney Company purchased the franchise as part of a buyout that took place in 2001. This resulted in Fox Family Worldwide becoming ABC Family Worldwide Inc. This buyout also saw Saban Entertainment becoming BVS Entertainment in 2002, from News Corporation, Fox 's parent company, and Haim Saban. The show continued to air on Fox until the company replaced its Fox Kids package with "FoxBox '' in the United States. Since September 2002, all Power Rangers shows had aired on various Disney - owned networks (ABC Kids, Toon Disney and Jetix channels worldwide). When Wild Force ended, Disney moved production of the franchise from Los Angeles to New Zealand. This resulted in the closure of MMPR Productions and the dismissal of many members of the production. From Ninja Storm to date, Power Rangers is produced in New Zealand. ABC Family, another Disney - owned network, also used to air Power Rangers until it did away with its Jetix timeslot after August 31, 2006. On February 12, 2009, Toon Disney ended in the wake of Disney XD, ending cable airings of Power Rangers in certain areas of the United States. Several ABC affiliate broadcasting groups declined to air most of the Power Rangers series since 2006 due to the lack of FCC - compliant educational and informational content in the programs.
The Saban era seasons, starting with In Space, have gone under the "Saban 's Power Rangers '' moniker, up until Time Force. Since the re-acquisition of Power Rangers by Saban in 2010, this practice has continued once again starting with Samurai.
Starting in 2005, up until 2007, during its run on Jetix, Power Rangers reruns were aired under the moniker Power Rangers Generations, showcasing select episodes from Mighty Morphin through Dino Thunder.
An article in The New Zealand Herald published on March 7, 2009, identified Power Rangers RPM as the last season of the Power Rangers run. Production manager Sally Campbell stated in an interview, "... at this stage we will not be shooting another season. '' A September 1, 2009, revision to Disney A to Z: The Official Encyclopedia by Disney 's head archivist Dave Smith states that "production of new episodes (of Power Rangers) ceased in 2009 ''. Production of Power Rangers ceased and the last series by BVS Entertainment, RPM, ended on December 26, 2009.
On October 1, 2009, Bandai released a press release that Disney would re-broadcast Mighty Morphin Power Rangers starting in January 2010 on ABC Kids in lieu of a new series utilizing footage from the 2009 Super Sentai television series. A new toy line accompanied the series and appeared in stores in the later part of 2009. ABC 's over-the air telecasts ended on August 28, 2010, and turned the hour back to affiliates.
On May 12, 2010, Haim Saban bought back the Power Rangers franchise from Disney for $43 million and announced plans to produce a new season of the television series. The eighteenth season, Samurai, began airing on Nickelodeon on February 7, 2011, with the previous episodes beginning rebroadcast on Nicktoons later that year. It was also announced that Saban plans to make a new Power Rangers movie.
On July 2, 2012, it was announced that Saban Brands would launch a Saturday morning cartoon block on The CW, called Vortexx, on August 25, 2012, that would air Power Rangers Lost Galaxy. The series was removed before the season even finished, ending up doing so on the Vortexx website. The block itsel ended in fall 2014.
To commemorate the series ' 20th anniversary, Nickelodeon began airing Power Rangers Megaforce on February 2, 2013, featuring all of the past rangers from the series ' 20 - year history in the last episode of the season. On October 1, 2013, Saban Brands announced that it had extended agreements with Nickelodeon and Bandai America Incorporated through 2016 for its globally recognized Power Rangers franchise. The 90s Are All That aired Mighty Morphin Power Rangers as part of Mighty Morphin Weekend in 2013.
In May 2014, Saban Brands and Lionsgate announced that they are planning to produce a new Power Rangers feature film, and would hopefully launch a Power Rangers film franchise. The movie, titled simply Power Rangers, was released on March 24, 2017, with mixed reviews and a failure at the box office, as a result, the future of a cinematographic universe for the franchise is uncertain.
In January 2016, Saban and Nickelodeon extended their broadcast partnership through 2018. In February 2018, the companies announced that Power Rangers would continue airing on Nickelodeon through 2021.
The first six seasons, starting with Mighty Morphin Power Rangers and ending with In Space, were direct continuations of the preceding season with evolving storylines and character development. The second season began the annual tradition of the Power Rangers acquiring new Zords to battle enemies when they grow to an incredible size while the core suites from first season were used except for the White Ranger. The fourth season began the annual tradition of the Power Rangers receiving new powers and Zords similar to the Super Sentai series. Beginning with Lost Galaxy, although it had ties with the previous story arc, each Power Rangers series had its own self - contained storylines, independent of previous series. Crossover episodes between different series featuring rangers, villains, and other characters from past seasons also began with Lost Galaxy, with a few exceptions.
The Power Rangers franchise has also generated three theatrical motion pictures. The first two are distributed by 20th Century Fox, and the third film released in 2017 by Lionsgate.
Power Rangers has long had success in international markets and continues to air in many countries, with the exception of New Zealand, where the series filming takes place as of 2009. As of 2006, Power Rangers aired at least 65 times a week in more than 40 worldwide markets. Many markets carry or have carried the series on their respective Fox or later Jetix / Disney XD channels or have syndicated the program on regional children 's channels or blocks, either dubbed into the local language or broadcast in the original English. Since the 2010 acquisition by Saban Brands, international television distribution rights for Power Rangers have been managed by MarVista Entertainment.
Broadcast in East Asian territories has been treated differently from in other international markets due to the prevalence and familiarity of ' the Super Sentai brand originating in Japan. Power Rangers was briefly banned in Malaysia for supposedly encouraging the use of drugs because it contained the word "Morphin ' '' in its title, which could be associated with morphine. The show eventually aired without the offending word. In Japan, many Power Rangers television seasons and movies were dubbed into Japanese for television and video with the voice actors often pulled from past Super Sentai casts, leading to the English - dubbed action sequences being "re-dubbed '' or "restored '' back to Japanese as well. Power Rangers Mystic Force is the latest season to be broadcast in Japan on Toei Channel in January 2014, with the Magiranger cast voicing their counterparts. After broadcast of Power Rangers ended in South Korea with Wild Force, Bandai of Korea started airing dubbed Super Sentai series under the 파워 레인저 (Power Ranger) brand on JEI TV. Some seasons of Super Sentai broadcast in South Korea have similarly named titles as their American counterparts, such as Power Ranger Dino Thunder for Abaranger in 2007 and Power Ranger S.P.D. in place of Dekaranger.
As of October 2009, 33 Power Rangers DVD collections have been released in the United States:
Internationally, additional DVD releases have occurred (such as Lightspeed Rescue, Time Force and Wild Force in Germany) and as free DVDs attached to the Jetix magazine, published in the UK. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1, Season 2, and Season 3, Power Rangers Zeo, Power Rangers Turbo, and Power Rangers in Space have been released in Germany as well in both English and German, with Power Rangers Lost Galaxy only in German. Additionally, Ninja Storm, Dino Thunder, S.P.D., Mystic Force, and Operation Overdrive saw complete boxset releases in the UK. In France, Mighty Morphin Season 1 and Season 2 have been released in their entirety in 5 episode DVD volumes, and the first 25 episodes of Season 3 were released in May 2008. In Italy, Mighty Morphin, Zeo, Dino Thunder and S.P.D. have appeared in their entirety. Zeo and S.P.D. were made available as commercial DVDs, while Mighty Morphin and Dino Thunder were issued as bi-weekly volumes at newsstands.
The iTunes Store previously made Power Rangers episodes available: part of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, all of Power Rangers S.P.D., and the first 26 episodes of Power Rangers Mystic Force. Subsequent seasons and episodes of the program also made their appearances in the iTunes Store, but as of July 2009, Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie is the only Power Rangers film available. In 2012, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 volumes 1 & 2 were released on iTunes to coincide with the DVD releases. As of February 2013, all 3 seasons of MMPR were released on iTunes.
On June 15, 2011, all episodes of Power Rangers from Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 to Mighty Morphin Power Rangers re-version were made available for instant streaming on Netflix. As of 2018, all seasons through Ninja Steel have been made available on Netflix.
On March 12, 2012, Shout! Factory announced a home video distribution deal with Saban, which includes the first 17 series of Power Rangers. Shout! Factory released the first seven seasons on DVD in August 2012, seasons 8 - 12 on November 2013, a 20 - year collection on December 2013, and seasons 13 - 17 on April 2014.
On March 22, 2012 Lionsgate Home Entertainment reached a home media distribution deal with Saban to release Power Rangers Samurai to DVD and Blu - ray.
As of April 2015, all series through Super Megaforce are available on the iTunes Store.
As of 2016, Dino Charge became available on iTunes.
On February 15, 2018, Saban Brands announced that their 25 - year partnership with Bandai will end in 2019. The next day, it was confirmed that Hasbro will be the new "global master toy licensee '' for the franchise starting in April 2019, with a future option for Hasbro to buy the entire franchise.
Power Rangers has had several series of comics over the years.
In 2015, Boom Studios won the Power Rangers comics license, which brought a lot of award - winning publications.
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who played the female lead in silence of the lambs | Lorraine Bracco - wikipedia
Lorraine Bracco (born October 2, 1954) is an American actress. She is best known for her performances as Dr. Jennifer Melfi on the HBO series The Sopranos, and as Karen Friedman Hill in the 1990 Martin Scorsese film Goodfellas, for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. On television, she co-starred as Angela Rizzoli on the TNT series Rizzoli & Isles for seven seasons from 2010 -- 2016.
Bracco was born in the Brooklyn neighborhood of Bay Ridge. She is the daughter of Eileen (née Molyneux 1926 -- 2010) and Salvatore Bracco, Sr. She has a sister, Elizabeth Bracco, and brother, Salvatore Jr. Her mother was from England and met her father during World War II. Eileen came with Salvatore to the United States as a War bride. Bracco grew up in Westbury, on Maxwell Drive on Long Island. She graduated from Hicksville High School in 1972. Her father was of Italian descent, while her mother was born in England to French parents. Bracco is fluent in English, French and Italian.
In 1974, Bracco moved to France, where she became a fashion model for Jean - Paul Gaultier. While there, she was introduced to the director and novelist Lina Wertmüller. In the early 1970s, Wertmüller recruited Bracco in a new film production titled Camorra. "She dressed me up like an Italian woman of no means. A street woman clad in disheveled clothes, hair unkempt and all that, and threw me on the set. She was so creative. I mean, Lina accentuated my eyes with dark make - up, the way Sophia Loren used to appear in those epic roles in the ' 60s. And talk about talent. She 's so bright and perceptive. I mean, she 's just fantastic. And yes, I learned a lot from her. She 's a master of her profession, and I 've been blessed not only with her, but also with so many masters, '' recounted Bracco to Daniel Simone during a 2007 interview.
Bracco acted in several French - language films. She also once worked as a disc jockey for Radio Luxembourg. She appeared as Paul Guilfoyle 's hostage in the first season Crime Story episode, "Hide and Go Thief ''. Her sister Elizabeth played a hostage in the series pilot. Her other films include Someone to Watch Over Me, Riding in Cars with Boys, The Basketball Diaries, Medicine Man, Radio Flyer and Hackers.
Bracco received her big career break when offered the role as the mobster - wife Karen Hill in Goodfellas, which earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress -- Motion Picture. She won the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress.
Bracco is the owner of Bracco Wines, with association of Straight - Up Brands LLC. Her line of wines was featured on the Season 1 finale of Bravo 's show Top Chef in 2006. She appeared as a guest judge for the two - episode finale. She also appeared as a special judge on Top Chef: All Stars in the episode titled "An Offer They Ca n't Refuse '', which featured Italian cuisine. Bracco appeared on a season 6 episode of Throwdown! with Bobby Flay as a guest judge for the ravioli throwdown.
During the audition process for The Sopranos, David Chase wanted her to read for the lead female role of Carmela Soprano. However, Bracco had read the script and was drawn to the part of psychiatrist Dr. Jennifer Melfi. Bracco felt strongly enough about her ability and desire to play this part that she arranged a meeting with David Chase and talked him into letting her have a chance as Dr. Melfi. It netted her three consecutive nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the Emmy Awards in 1999, 2000 and 2001 and at the Golden Globe awards for Best TV Actress in a Drama in 2000, 2001 and 2002. She lost out at the Emmys in 1999 and 2001 and at the Golden Globes in 2000 to her co-star Edie Falco. She was nominated again at the 2007 Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, thus being pitted against The Sopranos co-star Aida Turturro for the award.
In October 2015, it was announced that Bracco would guest star opposite Adrien Brody on the upcoming Showtime comedy series Dice.
Bracco 's first marriage was to Daniel Guerard from the late 1970s to the early 1980s. They have one daughter, Margaux Guerard. She was in a 12 - year relationship with actor Harvey Keitel. They have one daughter, Stella Keitel (b. 1985). Bracco and Keitel fought a lengthy custody battle over Stella, resulting in Bracco 's depression, a loss of acting roles, and $2 million in legal fees. She married Edward James Olmos in 1994. They divorced in 2002.
Lorraine Bracco is a practitioner of Shotokan Karate. In 2015, she authored a self help book To the Fullest: The Clean Up Your Act Plan to Lose Weight, Rejuvenate, and Be the Best You Can Be.
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where do the french days of the week come from | Names of the days of the week - wikipedia
The names of the days of the week in many languages are derived from the names of the classical planets in Hellenistic astrology, which were in turn named after contemporary deities, a system introduced by the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity. In some other languages, the days are named after corresponding deities of the regional culture, either beginning with Sunday or with Monday. In the international standard ISO 8601, Monday is treated as the first day of the week.
Between the 1st and 3rd centuries, the Roman Empire gradually replaced the eight - day Roman nundinal cycle with the seven - day week. Our earliest evidence for this new system is a Pompeiian graffito referring to the 6th February (viii idus Februarius) of the year AD 60 as dies solis ("Sunday ''). Another early witness is a reference to a lost treatise by Plutarch, written in about AD 100, which addressed the question of Why are the days named after the planets reckoned in a different order from the actual order?.
The days were named after the planets of Hellenistic astrology, in the order Sun, Moon, Mars (Ares), Mercury (Hermes), Jupiter (Zeus), Venus (Aphrodite) and Saturn (Cronos).
The seven - day week spread throughout the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. By the 4th century, it was in wide use throughout the Empire, and it had also reached India and China.
The Greek and Latin names are as follows:
Except for modern Portuguese and Mirandese, the Romance languages preserved the Latin names, except for the names of Sunday, which was replaced by (dies) Dominicus (Dominica), i.e. "the Lord 's Day '' and of Saturday, which was named for the Sabbath. In Corsican, the Saturday is known either by Sabatu or De Sadorn.
Early Old Irish adopted the names from Latin, but introduced separate terms of Norse origin for Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, then later supplanted these with terms relating to church fasting practices.
Albanian adopted the Latin terms for Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday, adopted translations of the Latin terms for Sunday and Monday, and kept native terms for Thursday and Friday. Other languages adopted the week together with the Latin (Romance) names for the days of the week in the colonial period. Some constructed languages also adopted the Latin terminology.
The Germanic peoples adapted the system introduced by the Romans by substituting the Germanic deities for the Roman ones (with the exception of Saturday) in a process known as interpretatio germanica. The date of the introduction of this system is not known exactly, but it must have happened later than AD 200 but before the introduction of Christianity during the 6th to 7th centuries, i.e., during the final phase or soon after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. This period is later than the Common Germanic stage, but still during the phase of undifferentiated West Germanic. The names of the days of the week in North Germanic languages were not calqued from Latin directly, but taken from the West Germanic names.
Hindu astrology uses the concept of days under the regency of a planet under the term vāra, the days of the week being called āditya -, soma -, maṅgala -, budha -, guru -, śukra -, and śani - vāra. śukrá is a name of Venus (regarded as a son of Bhṛgu); guru is here a title of Bṛhaspati, and hence of Jupiter; budha "Mercury '' is regarded as a son of Soma, i.e. the Moon. Knowledge of Greek astrology existed since about the 2nd century BC, but references to the vāra occur somewhat later, during the Gupta period (Yājñavalkya Smṛti, c. 3rd to 5th century), i.e. at roughly the same period the system was introduced in the Roman Empire.
The Southeast Asian tradition also uses the Hindu names of the days of the week. Hindu astrology adopted the concept of days under the regency of a planet under the term vāra, the days of the week being called āditya -, soma -, maṅgala -, budha -, guru -, śukra -, and śani - vāra. śukrá is a name of Venus (regarded as a son of Bhṛgu); guru is here a title of Bṛhaspati, and hence of Jupiter; budha "Mercury '' is regarded as a son of Soma, i.e. the Moon.
The East Asian naming system for the days of the week closely parallels that of the Latin system and is ordered after the "Seven Luminaries '' (七曜 qī yào), which consists of the Sun, Moon and the five planets visible to the naked eye.
The Chinese seem to have adopted the seven - day week from the Hellenistic system by the 4th century, although by which route is not entirely clear. It was again transmitted to China in the 8th century by Manichaeans, via the country of Kang (a Central Asian polity near Samarkand). The 4th - century date, according to the Cihai encyclopedia, is due to a reference to Fan Ning (範 寧 / 范 宁), an astrologer of the Jin Dynasty. The renewed adoption from Manichaeans in the 8th century (Tang Dynasty) is documented with the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese Buddhist monk Bu Kong.
The Chinese transliteration of the planetary system was soon brought to Japan by the Japanese monk Kobo Daishi; surviving diaries of the Japanese statesman Fujiwara Michinaga show the seven day system in use in Heian Period Japan as early as 1007. In Japan, the seven day system was kept in use (for astrological purposes) until its promotion to a full - fledged (Western - style) calendrical basis during the Meiji era. In China, with the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, Monday through Saturday in China are now named after the luminaries implicitly with the numbers.
Sunday comes first in order in calendars shown in the table below. In the Judeo - Christian or Abrahamic tradition, the first day of the week is Sunday. Biblical Sabbath (corresponding to Saturday), when God rested from six - day Creation, made the day following Sabbath the first day of the week (corresponding to Sunday). Seventh - day Sabbaths were sanctified for celebration and rest. After the week was adopted in early Christianity, Sunday remained the first day of the week, but also gradually displaced Saturday as the day of celebration and rest, being considered the Lord 's Day.
Saint Martin of Dumio (c. 520 -- 580), archbishop of Braga, decided not to call days by pagan gods and to use ecclesiastic terminology to designate them. While the custom of numbering the days of the week was mostly prevalent in the Eastern Church, Portuguese and Galician, due to Martin 's influence, are the only Romance languages in which the names of the days come from numbers rather than planetary names.
Icelandic is a special case within the Germanic languages, maintaining only the Sun and Moon (sunnudagur and mánudagur respectively), while dispensing with the names of the explicitly heathen gods in favour of a combination of numbered days and days whose names are linked to pious or domestic routine (föstudagur, "Fasting Day '' and laugardagur, "Washing Day ''). The "washing day '' is also used in other North Germanic languages, but otherwise the names correspond to those of English.
The ISO prescribes Monday as the first day of the week with ISO - 8601 for software date formats.
The Slavic, Baltic and Uralic languages (except Finnish and partially Estonian) adopted numbering but took Monday rather than Sunday as the "first day ''. This convention is also found in some Austronesian languages whose speakers were converted to Christianity by European missionaries.
In Slavic languages, some of the names correspond to numerals after Sunday: compare Russian vtornik "Tuesday '' and vtoroj "the following '', chetverg "Thursday '' and chetvertyj "the fourth '', pyatnitsa "Friday '' and pyatyj "the fifth ''; see also the Notes.
In Standard Chinese, the week is referred to as the cycle of the stars (Chinese: 星期; pinyin: Xīngqī). The modern Chinese names for the days of the week are based on a simple numerical sequence. The word for "week '' (which is literally translated to "star day '') is followed by a number indicating the day: "Monday '' is literally "star day one '', "Tuesday '' is "star day two '', etc. The exception is Sunday, where rì (日), meaning "sun '' or "day '', is used instead of a number.
In Swahili, the day begins at sunrise, unlike in the Arabic and Hebrew calendars where the day starts at sunset (therefore an offset of twelve hours), and unlike in the Western world where the day starts at midnight (therefore an offset of six hours). Saturday is therefore the first day of the week, as it is the day that includes the first night of the week in Arabic.
Etymologically speaking, Swahili has two "fifth '' days. The words for Saturday through Wednesday contain the Bantu - derived Swahili words for "one '' through "five ''. The word for Thursday, Alhamisi, is of Arabic origin and means "the fifth '' (day). The word for Friday, Ijumaa, is also Arabic and means (day of) "gathering '' for the Friday noon prayers in Islam.
In the Žejane dialect of Istro - Romanian, lur (Monday) and virer (Friday) follow the Latin convention, while utorek (Tuesday), sredu (Wednesday), and četrtok (Thursday) follow the Slavic convention.
There are several systems in the different Basque dialects.
In Judaeo - Spanish (Ladino), which is mainly based on a medieval version of Spanish, the five days of Monday -- Friday closely follow the Spanish names. Sunday uses the Arabic name, which is based on numbering, because a Jewish language was not likely to adapt a name based on "Lord 's Day '' for Sunday. As in Spanish, the Ladino name for Saturday is based on Sabbath. However, as a Jewish language -- and with Saturday being the actual day of rest in the Jewish community -- Ladino directly adapted the Hebrew name, Shabbat.
From Latin Dominicus (Dominica) or Greek Κυριακή (Christian Sabbath) Holy Day and First - Day of the Week (Day of the Sun - > Light - > Resurrection - > Born again) (Christianity) Resurrection (Christianity) Bazaar Day Market Day No Work Full good day Borrowed from English week From an Old Burmese word, not of Indic origin.
After No Work. In Russian also "Day After Week (end) '' - see понедельник After Bazaar Head of Week Master (as in Pir, because Muhammad was born on a Monday) From an Old Burmese word, not of Indic origin.
Thing (Assembly), of which god Tyr / Ziu was the patron. Second day of the week (cf. Hungarian kettő "two '') Third day of the week. From Arabic "ath - Thalaathaaʼ '' (third day)
Mid-week or Middle The First Fast (Christianity)
The day between two fasts (An Dé idir dhá aoin, contracted to An Déardaoin) (Christianity) Five (Arabic) Fifth day of the week. Fourth day of the week.
The Fast (Celtic) or Fasting Day (Icelandic) (Christianity) Good Friday or Preparation (Christianity) Jumu'ah (Muslim Sabbath) Gathering / Assembly / Meeting (Islam) -- in Malta with no Islamic connotations Fifth day of the week
Shabbat (Jewish Sabbath) Wash or Bath day Sun - eve (Eve of Sunday) After the Gathering (Islam) End of the Week (Arabic Sabt = Rest) Week Half good day
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who wrote i feel like a natural woman | (You Make Me Feel Like) a Natural Woman - wikipedia
"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman '' is a 1967 single released by American soul singer Aretha Franklin on the Atlantic label. The song was co-written by Carole King and Gerry Goffin, with input from Atlantic producer Jerry Wexler. The record was a big hit for Franklin, reaching number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100, and became a standard song for her. Franklin also included a live recording on the album Aretha in Paris in 1968. Versions have also been performed and recorded by King herself, Mary J. Blige, Celine Dion, and many others. At the 2015 Kennedy Center Honors, Aretha Franklin performed the song to honor award - recipient Carole King.
Written by the celebrated partnership of Gerry Goffin and Carole King, the song was inspired by Atlantic Records co-owner and producer Jerry Wexler. As recounted in his autobiography, Wexler, a student of African - American musical culture, had been mulling over the concept of the "natural man '', when he drove by King on the streets of New York. He shouted out to her that he wanted a "natural woman '' song for Aretha Franklin 's next album. In thanks, Goffin and King granted Wexler a co-writing credit.
"Natural Woman '' was released by Peggy Lipton in 1968 on her self - titled album on Ode Records, and by Freddie Hughes in 1968 as "Natural Man '' (Wand Records 1192), and by George Benson on his album Goodies in 1968 (Verve Records V6 - 8771).
Peggy Lee released a version on her 1969 album A Natural Woman.
It was recorded by Carole King on her landmark 1971 album Tapestry. Celine Dion recorded the song in 1995 for the Tapestry Revisited: A Tribute to Carole King album, and released it as a single. Mary J. Blige also recorded the song that year for New York Undercover.
Rod Stewart covered the song on his album Smiler in 1974.
Joyce Sims recorded a version of the song for her 1989 album All About Love.
Beccy Cole covered the song live on her 2007 album, Live @ Lizotte 's.
Carole King and Gloria Estefan performed the song in May 2009 in the She 's Got a Friend concerts at the Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut. The audio from one of the performances was included on some editions of Estefan 's 2013 album, The Standards.
In 2012, Christine Anu covered the song on her album, Rewind: The Aretha Franklin Songbook.
In December 2015, Aretha Franklin gave a universally acclaimed performance at the 2015 Kennedy Center Honors during the section for honoree Carole King.
"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman '' was released as a promotional single by Celine Dion in November 1995 in North America and the United Kingdom. It was featured on a tribute album to Carole King, called Tapestry Revisited: A Tribute to Carole King issued on October 24, 1995. Later, Dion included this track on most editions of her 1996 album Falling into You. The track was produced by David Foster. Dion 's version enjoyed a moderate success on the adult contemporary charts, reaching number 4 in Canada and number 31 in the United States. In 2008, the song was featured on the US version of My Love: Ultimate Essential Collection. When Falling Into You won the Grammy for Album of the year in 1998, the song became the first to appear on two Album of the Year winners - following Tapestry 's success in 1971.
On April 14, 1998, Dion, Aretha Franklin, Mariah Carey, Shania Twain, Gloria Estefan and Carole King performed the song during a VH1 Divas concert at the Beacon Theatre, New York. The six vocalists were recruited by the cable music network VH1 to raise money for Save the Music, their education charity. Hyped extensively in the press, the event was a ratings winner for VH1 -- so successful, in fact, that the network arranged to have the concert released on disc and tape on October 6, 1998. At that time "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman '' (performed by all the divas) was released as a radio single in selected countries.
1995 promotional CD single
1998 promotional CD single
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who hoisted indian national flag for the first time | Flag of India - wikipedia
The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of India saffron, white and India green; with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24 - spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre. It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947, and it became the official flag of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947. The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term "tricolour '' (Hindi: तिरंगा, translit. Tiraṅgā) almost always refers to the Indian national flag. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya.
By law, the flag is to be made of khadi, a special type of hand - spun cloth or silk, made popular by Mahatma Gandhi. The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, who allocates it to regional groups. As of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag.
Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India and other laws relating to the national emblems. The original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day. In 2002, on hearing an appeal from a private citizen, Naveen Jindal, the Supreme Court of India directed the Government of India to amend the code to allow flag usage by private citizens. Subsequently, the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage. The code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing. The flag code also governs the protocol of flying the flag and its use in conjunction with other national and non-national flags.
According to the Flag code of India, the Indian flag has a ratio of two by three (where the length of the flag is 1.5 times that of the width). All three stripes of the flag (saffron, white and green) are to be equal in width and length. The size of the Ashoka Chakra is not specified in the Flag code, but it has twenty - four spokes that are evenly spaced. In section 4.3. 1 of "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '', there is a chart that details the size of the Ashoka Chakra on the nine specific sizes of the national flag. In both the Flag code and IS1, they call for the Ashoka Chakra to be printed or painted on both sides of the flag in navy blue. Below is the list of specified shades for all colours used on the national flag, with the exception of Navy Blue, from "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '' as defined in the 1931 CIE Colour Specifications with illuminant C. The navy blue colour can be found in the standard IS: 1803 - 1973.
Note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE 1931 color space. Approximate RGB values for use may be taken to be: India saffron # FF9933, white # FFFFFF, India green # 138808, navy blue # 000080. Pantone values closest to this are 130 U, White, 2258 C and 2735 C.
Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921. The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya. In the centre was a traditional spinning wheel, symbolising Gandhi 's goal of making Indians self - reliant by fabricating their own clothing. The design was then modified to include a white stripe in the centre for other religious communities, and provide a background for the spinning wheel. Subsequently, to avoid sectarian associations with the colour scheme, saffron, white and green were chosen for the three bands, representing courage and sacrifice, peace and truth, and faith and chivalry respectively.
A few days before India became independent on 15 August 1947, the specially constituted Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A modified version of the Swaraj flag was chosen; the tricolour remained the same saffron, white and green. However, the charkha was replaced by the Ashoka Chakra representing the eternal wheel of law. The philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India 's first Vice President and second President, clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows:
A number of flags with varying designs were used in the period preceding the Indian Independence Movement by the rulers of different princely states; the idea of a single Indian flag was first raised by the British rulers of India after the rebellion of 1857, which resulted in the establishment of direct imperial rule. The first flag, whose design was based on western heraldic standards, were similar to the flags of other British colonies, including Canada and Australia; its blue field included the Union Flag in the upper - left quadrant and a Star of India capped by the royal crown in the middle of the right half. To address the question of how the star conveyed "Indianness '', Queen Victoria created the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India to honour services to the empire by her Indian subjects. Subsequently, all the Indian princely states received flags with symbols based on the heraldic criteria of Europe including the right to fly defaced British red ensigns.
In the early twentieth century, around the coronation of Edward VII, a discussion started on the need for a heraldic symbol that was representative of the Indian empire. William Coldstream, a British member of the Indian Civil Service, campaigned the government to change the heraldic symbol from a star, which he considered to be a common choice, to something more appropriate. His proposal was not well received by the government; Lord Curzon rejected it for practical reasons including the multiplication of flags. Around this time, nationalist opinion within the realm was leading to a representation through religious tradition. The symbols that were in vogue included the Ganesha, advocated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Kali, advocated by Aurobindo Ghosh and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Another symbol was the cow, or Gau Mata (cow mother). However, all these symbols were Hindu - centric and did not suggest unity with India 's Muslim population.
The partition of Bengal (1905) resulted in the introduction of a new flag representing the Indian independence movement that sought to unite the multitude of castes and races within the country. The Vande Mataram flag, part of the Swadeshi movement against the British, comprised Indian religious symbols represented in western heraldic fashion. The tricolour flag included eight white lotuses on the upper green band representing the eight provinces, a sun and a crescent on the bottom red band, and the Vande Mataram slogan in Hindi on the central yellow band. The flag was launched in Calcutta bereft of any ceremony and the launch was only briefly covered by newspapers. The flag was not covered in contemporary governmental or political reports either, but was used at the annual session of the Indian National Congress. A slightly modified version was subsequently used by Madam Bhikaji Cama at the second International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart in 1907. Despite the multiple uses of the flag, it failed to generate enthusiasm amongst Indian nationalists.
Around the same time, another proposal for the flag was initiated by Sister Nivedita, a Hindu reformist and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. The flag consisted of a thunderbolt in the centre and a hundred and eight oil lamps for the border, with the Vande Mataram caption split around the thunderbolt. It was also presented at the Indian National Congress meeting in 1906. Soon, many other proposals were initiated, but none of them gained attention from the nationalist movement.
In 1909, Lord Ampthill, former Governor of the Madras Presidency, wrote to The Times of London in the run up to Empire Day pointing out that there existed "no flag representative of India as a whole or any Indian province... Surely this is strange, seeing that but for India there would be no Empire. ''
In 1916, Pingali Venkayya submitted thirty new designs, in the form of a booklet funded by members of the High Court of Madras. These many proposals and recommendations did little more than keep the flag movement alive. The same year, Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement. The flag included the Union Jack in the upper left corner, a star and crescent in the upper right, and seven stars displayed diagonally from the lower right, on a background of five red and four green alternating bands. The flag resulted in the first governmental initiative against any nationalistic flag, as a magistrate in Coimbatore banned its use. The ban was followed by a public debate on the function and importance of a national flag.
In the early 1920s, national flag discussions gained prominence across most British dominions following the peace treaty between Britain and Ireland. In November 1920, the Indian delegation to the League of Nations wanted to use an Indian flag, and this prompted the British Indian government to place renewed emphasis on the flag as a national symbol.
In April 1921, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wrote in his journal Young India about the need for an Indian flag, proposing a flag with the charkha or spinning wheel at the centre. The idea of the spinning wheel was put forth by Lala Hansraj, and Gandhi commissioned Pingali Venkayya to design a flag with the spinning wheel on a red and green banner, the red colour signifying Hindus and the green standing for Muslims. Gandhi wanted the flag to be presented at the Congress session of 1921, but it was not delivered on time, and another flag was proposed at the session. Gandhi later wrote that the delay was fortuitous since it allowed him to realise that other religions were not represented; he then added white to the banner colours, to represent all the other religions. Finally, owing to the religious - political sensibilities, in 1929, Gandhi moved towards a more secular interpretation of the flag colours, stating that red stood for the sacrifices of the people, white for purity, and green for hope.
On 13 April 1923, during a procession by local Congress volunteers in Nagpur commemorating the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the Swaraj flag with the spinning wheel, designed by Pingali Venkayya, was hoisted. This event resulted in a confrontation between the Congressmen and the police, after which five people were imprisoned. Over a hundred other protesters continued the flag procession after a meeting. Subsequently, on the first of May, Jamnalal Bajaj, the secretary of the Nagpur Congress Committee, started the Flag Satyagraha, gaining national attention and marking a significant point in the flag movement. The satyagraha, promoted nationally by the Congress, started creating cracks within the organisation in which the Gandhians were highly enthused while the other group, the Swarajists, called it inconsequential.
Finally, at the All India Congress Committee meeting in July, 1923, at the insistence of Jawaharlal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu, Congress closed ranks and the flag movement was endorsed. The flag movement was managed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel with the idea of public processions and flag displays by common people. By the end of the movement, over 1500 people had been arrested across all of British India. The Bombay Chronicle reported that the movement drew from diverse groups of society including farmers, students, merchants, labourers and "national servants ''. While Muslim participation was moderate, the movement enthused women, who had hitherto rarely participated in the independence movement.
While the flag agitation got its impetus from Gandhi 's writings and discourses, the movement received political acceptance following the Nagpur incident. News reports, editorials and letters to editors published in various journals and newspapers of the time attest to the subsequent development of a bond between the flag and the nation. Soon, the concept of preserving the honour of the national flag became an integral component of the independence struggle. While Muslims were still wary of the Swaraj flag, it gained acceptance among Muslim leaders of the Congress and the Khilafat Movement as the national flag.
Detractors of the flag movement, including Motilal Nehru, soon hailed the Swaraj flag as a symbol of national unity. Thus, the flag became a significant structural component of the institution of India. In contrast to the subdued responses of the past, the British Indian government took greater cognisance of the new flag, and began to define a policy of response. The British parliament discussed public use of the flag, and based on directives from England, the British Indian government threatened to withdraw funds from municipalities and local governments that did not prevent the display of the Swaraj flag. The Swaraj flag became the official flag of Congress at the 1931 meeting. However, by then, the flag had already become the symbol of the independence movement.
A few days before India gained its independence in August 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed. To select a flag for independent India, on 23 June 1947, the assembly set up an ad hoc committee headed by Rajendra Prasad and including Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi and B.R. Ambedkar as its members.
On 14 July 1947, the committee recommended that the flag of the Indian National Congress be adopted as the National Flag of India with suitable modifications, so as to make it acceptable to all parties and communities. It was also resolved that the flag should not have any communal undertones. The spinning wheel of the Congress flag was replaced by the Chakra (wheel) from the Lion Capital of Ashoka. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the chakra was chosen as it was representative of dharma and law. However, Jawaharlal Nehru explained that the change was more practical in nature, as unlike the flag with the spinning wheel, this design would appear symmetrical. Gandhi was not very pleased by the change, but eventually came around to accepting it.
The flag was proposed by Nehru at the Constituent Assembly on 22 July 1947 as a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron, white and dark green in equal proportions, with the Ashoka wheel in blue in the centre of the white band. Nehru also presented two flags, one in Khadi - silk and the other in Khadi - cotton, to the assembly. The resolution was approved unanimously. It served as the national flag of the Dominion of India between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950, and has served as the flag of the Republic of India since then.
The design and manufacturing process for the national flag is regulated by three documents issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). All of the flags are made out of khadi cloth of silk or cotton. The standards were created in 1968 and were updated in 2008. Nine standard sizes of the flag are specified by law.
In 1951, after India became a republic, the Indian Standards Institute (now the BIS) brought out the first official specifications for the flag. These were revised in 1964 to conform to the metric system which was adopted in India. The specifications were further amended on 17 August 1968. The specifications cover all the essential requirements of the manufacture of the Indian flag including sizes, dye colour, chromatic values, brightness, thread count and hemp cordage. The guidelines are covered under civil and criminal laws and defects in the manufacturing process can result in punishments that include fines or jail terms.
Khadi or hand - spun cloth is the only material allowed to be used for the flag, and flying a flag made of any other material is punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, besides a fine. Raw materials for khadi are restricted to cotton, silk and wool. There are two kinds of khadi used: The first is the khadi - bunting which makes up the body of the flag, and the second is the khadi - duck, which is a beige - coloured cloth that holds the flag to the pole. The khadi - duck is an unconventional type of weave that meshes three threads into a weave, compared to the two threads used in conventional weaving. This type of weaving is extremely rare, and there are fewer than twenty weavers in India professing this skill. The guidelines also state that there should be exactly 150 threads per square centimetre, four threads per stitch, and one square foot should weigh exactly 205 grams (7.2 oz).
There are four places in the country licensed to make the cloth for the national flag, they are in Karnataka, Marathwada, Barabanki in UP, and Banetha in Rajasthan. The woven khadi is obtained from two handloom units in the Dharwad and Bagalkot districts of northern Karnataka. Currently, Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha based in Hubli is the only licensed flag production and supply unit in India. Permission for setting up flag manufacturing units in India is allotted by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, though the BIS has the power to cancel the licences of units that flout guidelines. The hand - woven khadi for the National Flag was initially manufactured at Garag, a small village in the Dharwad district. A Centre was established at Garag in 1954 by a few freedom fighters under the banner of Dharwad Taluk Kshetriya Seva Sangh and obtained the Centre 's licence to make flags.
Once woven, the material is sent to the BIS laboratories for testing. After quality testing, the material, if approved, is returned to the factory. It is then separated into three lots which are dyed saffron, white and green. The Ashoka Chakra is screen printed, stencilled or suitably embroidered onto each side of the white cloth. Care also has to be taken that the chakra is completely visible and synchronised on both sides. Three pieces of the required dimension, one of each colour, are then stitched together according to specifications and the final product is ironed and packed. The BIS then checks the colours and only then can the flag be sold.
Display and usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India, 2002 (successor to the Flag Code -- India, the original flag code); the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950; and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. Insults to the national flag, including gross affronts or indignities to it, as well as using it in a manner so as to violate the provisions of the Flag Code, are punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, or a fine, or both.
Official regulation states that the flag must never touch the ground or water, or be used as a drapery in any form. The flag may not be intentionally placed upside down, dipped in anything, or hold any objects other than flower petals before unfurling. No sort of lettering may be inscribed on the flag. When out in the open, the flag should always be flown between sunrise and sunset, irrespective of the weather conditions. Prior to 2009, the flag could be flown on a public building at night under special circumstances; currently, Indian citizens can fly the flag even at night, subject to the restriction that the flag should be hoisted on a tall flagpole and be well - illuminated.
The flag should never be depicted, displayed or flown upside down. Tradition also states that when draped vertically, the flag should not merely be rotated 90degrees, but also reversed. One "reads '' a flag like the pages of a book, from top to bottom and from left to right, and after rotation the results should be the same. It is considered insulting to display the flag in a frayed or dirty state, and the same rule applies to the flagpoles and halyards used to hoist the flag, which should always be in a proper state of maintenance.
The original flag code of India did not allow private citizens to fly the national flag except on national days such as Independence Day or Republic Day. In 2001, Naveen Jindal, an industrialist used to the more egalitarian use of the flag in the United States where he studied, flew the Indian flag on his office building. The flag was confiscated and he was warned of prosecution. Jindal filed a public interest litigation petition in the High Court of Delhi; he sought to strike down the restriction on the use of the flag by private citizens, arguing that hoisting the national flag with due decorum and honour was his right as a citizen, and a way of expressing his love for the country.
At the end of the appeals process, the case was heard by the Supreme Court of India; the court ruled in Jindal 's favour, asking the Government of India to consider the matter. The Union Cabinet of India then amended the Indian Flag Code with effect from 26 January 2002, allowing private citizens to hoist the flag on any day of the year, subject to their safeguarding the dignity, honour and respect of the flag. It is also held that the code was not a statute and restrictions under the code ought to be followed; also, the right to fly the flag is a qualified right, unlike the absolute rights guaranteed to citizens, and should be interpreted in the context of Article 19 of the Constitution of India.
The original flag code also forbade use of the flag on uniforms, costumes and other clothing. In July 2005, the Government of India amended the code to allow some forms of usage. The amended code forbids usage in clothing below the waist and on undergarments, and forbids embroidering onto pillowcases, handkerchiefs or other dress material.
Disposal of damaged flags is also covered by the flag code. Damaged or soiled flags may not be cast aside or disrespectfully destroyed; they have to be destroyed as a whole in private, preferably by burning or by any other method consistent with the dignity of the flag.
The rules regarding the correct methods to display the flag state that when two flags are fully spread out horizontally on a wall behind a podium, their hoists should be towards each other with the saffron stripes uppermost. If the flag is displayed on a short flagpole, this should be mounted at an angle to the wall with the flag draped tastefully from it. If two national flags are displayed on crossed staffs, the hoists must be towards each other and the flags must be fully spread out. The flag should never be used as a cloth to cover tables, lecterns, podiums or buildings, or be draped from railings.
Whenever the flag is displayed indoors in halls at public meetings or gatherings of any kind, it should always be on the right (observers ' left), as this is the position of authority. So when the flag is displayed next to a speaker in the hall or other meeting place, it must be placed on the speaker 's right hand. When it is displayed elsewhere in the hall, it should be to the right of the audience. The flag should be displayed completely spread out with the saffron stripe on top. If hung vertically on the wall behind the podium, the saffron stripe should be to the left of the onlookers facing the flag with the hoist cord at the top.
The flag, when carried in a procession or parade or with another flag or flags, should be on the marching right or alone in the centre at the front. The flag may form a distinctive feature of the unveiling of a statue, monument, or plaque, but should never be used as the covering for the object. As a mark of respect to the flag, it should never be dipped to a person or thing, as opposed to regimental colours, organisational or institutional flags, which may be dipped as a mark of honour. During the ceremony of hoisting or lowering the flag, or when the flag is passing in a parade or in a review, all persons present should face the flag and stand at attention. Those present in uniform should render the appropriate salute. When the flag is in a moving column, persons present will stand at attention or salute as the flag passes them. A dignitary may take the salute without a head dress. The flag salutation should be followed by the playing of the national anthem.
The privilege of flying the national flag on vehicles is restricted to the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister, Governors and Lieutenant Governors of states, Chief Ministers, Union Ministers, members of the Parliament of India and state legislatures of the Indian states (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad), judges of the Supreme Court of India and High Courts, and flag officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force. The flag has to be flown from a staff affixed firmly either on the middle front or to the front right side of the car. When a foreign dignitary travels in a car provided by government, the flag should be flown on the right side of the car while the flag of the foreign country should be flown on the left side.
The flag should be flown on the aircraft carrying the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister on a visit to a foreign country. Alongside the National Flag, the flag of the country visited should also be flown; however, when the aircraft lands in countries en route, the national flags of the respective countries would be flown instead. When carrying the president within India, aircraft display the flag on the side the president embarks or disembarks; the flag is similarly flown on trains, but only when the train is stationary or approaching a railway station.
When the Indian flag is flown on Indian territory along with other national flags, the general rule is that the Indian flag should be the starting point of all flags. When flags are placed in a straight line, the rightmost flag (leftmost to the observer facing the flag) is the Indian flag, followed by other national flags in alphabetical order. When placed in a circle, the Indian flag is the first point and is followed by other flags alphabetically. In such placement, all other flags should be of approximately the same size with no other flag being larger than the Indian flag. Each national flag should also be flown from its own pole and no flag should be placed higher than another. In addition to being the first flag, the Indian flag may also be placed within the row or circle alphabetically. When placed on crossed poles, the Indian flag should be in front of the other flag, and to the right (observer 's left) of the other flag. The only exception to the preceding rule is when it is flown along with the flag of the United Nations, which may be placed to the right of the Indian flag.
When the Indian flag is displayed with non-national flags, including corporate flags and advertising banners, the rules state that if the flags are on separate staffs, the flag of India should be in the middle, or the furthest left from the viewpoint of the onlookers, or at least one flag 's breadth higher than the other flags in the group. Its flagpole must be in front of the other poles in the group, but if they are on the same staff, it must be the uppermost flag. If the flag is carried in procession with other flags, it must be at the head of the marching procession, or if carried with a row of flags in line abreast, it must be carried to the marching right of the procession.
The flag should be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. The decision to do so lies with the President of India, who also decides the period of such mourning. When the flag is to be flown at half mast, it must first be raised to the top of the mast and then slowly lowered. Only the Indian flag is flown half mast; all other flags remain at normal height.
The flag is flown half - mast nationwide on the death of the president, Vice-president or prime minister. It is flown half - mast in New Delhi and the state of origin for the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Union Ministers. On deaths of Governors, Lt. Governors and Chief Ministers, the flag is flown at half - mast in the respective states and union territories.
The Indian flag can not be flown at half - mast on Republic Day (26 January), Independence day (15 August), Gandhi Jayanti (2 October), National Week (6 -- 13 April) or state formation anniversaries, except over buildings housing the body of the deceased dignitary. However, even in such cases, the flag must be raised to full - mast when the body is moved from the building.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag at half - mast.
On occasions of state, military, central para-military forces funerals, the flag shall be draped over the bier or coffin with the saffron towards the head of the bier or coffin. The flag should not be lowered into the grave or burnt in the pyre.
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how well do these two filters smooth the stock price data | Moving average - wikipedia
In statistics, a moving average (rolling average or running average) is a calculation to analyze data points by creating series of averages of different subsets of the full data set. It is also called a moving mean (MM) or rolling mean and is a type of finite impulse response filter. Variations include: simple, and cumulative, or weighted forms (described below).
Given a series of numbers and a fixed subset size, the first element of the moving average is obtained by taking the average of the initial fixed subset of the number series. Then the subset is modified by "shifting forward ''; that is, excluding the first number of the series and including the next value in the subset.
A moving average is commonly used with time series data to smooth out short - term fluctuations and highlight longer - term trends or cycles. The threshold between short - term and long - term depends on the application, and the parameters of the moving average will be set accordingly. For example, it is often used in technical analysis of financial data, like stock prices, returns or trading volumes. It is also used in economics to examine gross domestic product, employment or other macroeconomic time series. Mathematically, a moving average is a type of convolution and so it can be viewed as an example of a low - pass filter used in signal processing. When used with non-time series data, a moving average filters higher frequency components without any specific connection to time, although typically some kind of ordering is implied. Viewed simplistically it can be regarded as smoothing the data.
In financial applications a simple moving average (SMA) is the unweighted mean of the previous n data. However, in science and engineering the mean is normally taken from an equal number of data on either side of a central value. This ensures that variations in the mean are aligned with the variations in the data rather than being shifted in time. An example of a simple equally weighted running mean for a n - day sample of closing price is the mean of the previous n days ' closing prices. If those prices are p M, p M − 1,..., p M − (n − 1) (\ displaystyle p_ (M), p_ (M - 1), \ dots, p_ (M - (n - 1))) then the formula is
When calculating successive values, a new value comes into the sum and an old value drops out, meaning a full summation each time is unnecessary for this simple case,
The period selected depends on the type of movement of interest, such as short, intermediate, or long - term. In financial terms moving - average levels can be interpreted as support in a falling market, or resistance in a rising market.
If the data used are not centered around the mean, a simple moving average lags behind the latest datum point by half the sample width. An SMA can also be disproportionately influenced by old datum points dropping out or new data coming in. One characteristic of the SMA is that if the data have a periodic fluctuation, then applying an SMA of that period will eliminate that variation (the average always containing one complete cycle). But a perfectly regular cycle is rarely encountered.
For a number of applications, it is advantageous to avoid the shifting induced by using only ' past ' data. Hence a central moving average can be computed, using data equally spaced on either side of the point in the series where the mean is calculated. This requires using an odd number of datum points in the sample window.
A major drawback of the SMA is that it lets through a significant amount of the signal shorter than the window length. Worse, it actually inverts it. This can lead to unexpected artifacts, such as peaks in the smoothed result appearing where there were troughs in the data. It also leads to the result being less smooth than expected since some of the higher frequencies are not properly removed.
In a cumulative moving average, the data arrive in an ordered datum stream, and the user would like to get the average of all of the data up until the current datum point. For example, an investor may want the average price of all of the stock transactions for a particular stock up until the current time. As each new transaction occurs, the average price at the time of the transaction can be calculated for all of the transactions up to that point using the cumulative average, typically an equally weighted average of the sequence of n values x 1...., x n (\ displaystyle x_ (1). \ ldots, x_ (n)) up to the current time:
The brute - force method to calculate this would be to store all of the data and calculate the sum and divide by the number of datum points every time a new datum point arrived. However, it is possible to simply update cumulative average as a new value, x n + 1 (\ displaystyle x_ (n + 1)) becomes available, using the formula:
Thus the current cumulative average for a new datum point is equal to the previous cumulative average, times n, plus the latest datum point, all divided by the number of points received so far, n + 1. When all of the datum points arrive (n = N), then the cumulative average will equal the final average. It is also possible to store a running total of the datum point as well as the number of points and dividing the total by the number of datum points to get the CMA each time a new datum point arrives.
The derivation of the cumulative average formula is straightforward. Using
and similarly for n + 1, it is seen that
Solving this equation for CMA n + 1 (\ displaystyle (\ textit (CMA)) _ (n + 1)) results in:
A weighted average is an average that has multiplying factors to give different weights to data at different positions in the sample window. Mathematically, the moving average is the convolution of the datum points with a fixed weighting function. One application is removing pixelisation from a digital graphical image.
In technical analysis of financial data, a weighted moving average (WMA) has the specific meaning of weights that decrease in arithmetical progression. In an n - day WMA the latest day has weight n, the second latest n − 1, etc., down to one.
The denominator is a triangle number equal to n (n + 1) 2. (\ displaystyle (\ frac (n (n + 1)) (2)).) In the more general case the denominator will always be the sum of the individual weights.
When calculating the WMA across successive values, the difference between the numerators of WMA and WMA is np − p − ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ − p. If we denote the sum p + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + p by Total, then
The graph at the right shows how the weights decrease, from highest weight for the most recent datum points, down to zero. It can be compared to the weights in the exponential moving average which follows.
An exponential moving average (EMA), also known as an exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA), is a type of infinite impulse response filter that applies weighting factors which decrease exponentially. The weighting for each older datum decreases exponentially, never reaching zero. The graph at right shows an example of the weight decrease.
The EMA for a series Y may be calculated recursively:
Where:
S may be initialized in a number of different ways, most commonly by setting S to Y as shown above, though other techniques exist, such as setting S to an average of the first 4 or 5 observations. The importance of the S initialisations effect on the resultant moving average depends on α; smaller α values make the choice of S relatively more important than larger α values, since a higher α discounts older observations faster.
Whatever is done for S it assumes something about values prior to the available data and is necessarily in error. In view of this the early results should be regarded as unreliable until the iterations have had time to converge. This is sometimes called a ' spin - up ' interval. One way to assess when it can be regarded as reliable is to consider the required accuracy of the result. For example, if 3 % accuracy is required, initialising with Y and taking data after five time constants (defined above) will ensure that the calculation has converged to within 3 % (only < 3 % of Y will remain in the result). Sometimes with very small alpha, this can mean little of the result is useful. This is analogous to the problem of using a convolution filter (such as a weighted average) with a very long window.
This formulation is according to Hunter (1986). By repeated application of this formula for different times, we can eventually write S as a weighted sum of the datum points Y, as:
for any suitable k ∈ (0, 1, 2,...) The weight of the general datum point Y t − i (\ displaystyle Y_ (t-i)) is α (1 − α) i − 1 (\ displaystyle \ alpha \ left (1 - \ alpha \ right) ^ (i - 1)).
An alternate approach by Roberts (1959) uses Y in lieu of Y:
This formula can also be expressed in technical analysis terms as follows, showing how the EMA steps towards the latest datum point, but only by a proportion of the difference (each time):
Expanding out EMA yesterday (\ displaystyle (\ text (EMA)) _ (\ text (yesterday))) each time results in the following power series, showing how the weighting factor on each datum point p, p, etc., decreases exponentially:
where
since 1 / α = 1 + (1 − α) + (1 − α) 2 + ⋯ (\ displaystyle 1 / \ alpha = 1 + (1 - \ alpha) + (1 - \ alpha) ^ (2) + \ cdots).
This is an infinite sum with decreasing terms.
The N periods in an N - day EMA only specify the α factor. N is not a stopping point for the calculation in the way it is in an SMA or WMA. For sufficiently large N, the first N datum points in an EMA represent about 86 % of the total weight in the calculation when α = 2 / (N + 1) (\ displaystyle \ alpha = 2 / (N + 1)):
The above discussion requires a bit of clarification. The sum of the weights of all the terms (i.e., infinite number of terms) in an exponential moving average is 1. The sum of the weights of N (\ displaystyle N) terms is 1 − (1 − α) N + 1 (\ displaystyle 1 - (1 - \ alpha) ^ (N + 1)). Both of these sums can be derived by using the formula for the sum of a geometric series. The weight omitted after N (\ displaystyle N) terms is given by subtracting this from 1, and you get 1 − (1 − (1 − α) N + 1) = (1 − α) N + 1 (\ displaystyle 1 - \ left (1 - (1 - \ alpha) ^ (N + 1) \ right) = (1 - \ alpha) ^ (N + 1)) (this is essentially the formula given below for the weight omitted). Note that there is no "accepted '' value that should be chosen for α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) although there are some recommended values based on the application. In the above discussion, we have substituted a commonly used value for α = 2 / (N + 1) (\ displaystyle \ alpha = 2 / (N + 1)) in the formula for the weight of N (\ displaystyle N) terms. Again, it is just a recommendation -- not a requirement. If you make this substitution, and you make use of lim n → ∞ (1 + a n) n = e a (\ displaystyle \ lim _ (n \ to \ infty) \ left (1 + (a \ over n) \ right) ^ (n) = e ^ (a)), then you get the 0.8647 approximation. Intuitively, what this is telling us is that the weight after N (\ displaystyle N) terms of an ` ` N (\ displaystyle N) - period '' exponential moving average converges to 0.8647.
The power formula above gives a starting value for a particular day, after which the successive days formula shown first can be applied. The question of how far back to go for an initial value depends, in the worst case, on the data. Large price values in old data will affect the total even if their weighting is very small. If prices have small variations then just the weighting can be considered. The weight omitted by stopping after k terms is
which is
i.e. a fraction
out of the total weight.
For example, to have 99.9 % of the weight, set above ratio equal to 0.1 % and solve for k:
terms should be used. Since log (1 − α) (\ displaystyle \ log \, (1 - \ alpha)) approaches − 2 N + 1 (\ displaystyle - 2 \ over N + 1) as N increases, this simplifies to approximately
for this example (99.9 % weight).
A modified moving average (MMA), running moving average (RMA), or smoothed moving average (SMMA) is defined as:
In short, this is an exponential moving average, with α = 1 / N (\ displaystyle \ alpha = 1 / N).
Some computer performance metrics, e.g. the average process queue length, or the average CPU utilization, use a form of exponential moving average.
Here α is defined as a function of time between two readings. An example of a coefficient giving bigger weight to the current reading, and smaller weight to the older readings is
where exp () is the exponential function, time for readings t is expressed in seconds, and W is the period of time in minutes over which the reading is said to be averaged (the mean lifetime of each reading in the average). Given the above definition of α, the moving average can be expressed as
For example, a 15 - minute average L of a process queue length Q, measured every 5 seconds (time difference is 5 seconds), is computed as
Other weighting systems are used occasionally -- for example, in share trading a volume weighting will weight each time period in proportion to its trading volume.
A further weighting, used by actuaries, is Spencer 's 15 - Point Moving Average (a central moving average). The symmetric weight coefficients are − 3, − 6, − 5, 3, 21, 46, 67, 74, 67, 46, 21, 3, − 5, − 6, − 3.
Outside the world of finance, weighted running means have many forms and applications. Each weighting function or "kernel '' has its own characteristics. In engineering and science the frequency and phase response of the filter is often of primary importance in understanding the desired and undesired distortions that a particular filter will apply to the data.
A mean does not just "smooth '' the data. A mean is a form of low - pass filter. The effects of the particular filter used should be understood in order to make an appropriate choice. On this point, the French version of this article discusses the spectral effects of 3 kinds of means (cumulative, exponential, Gaussian).
From a statistical point of view, the moving average, when used to estimate the underlying trend in a time series, is susceptible to rare events such as rapid shocks or other anomalies. A more robust estimate of the trend is the simple moving median over n time points:
where the median is found by, for example, sorting the values inside the brackets and finding the value in the middle. For larger values of n, the median can be efficiently computed by updating an indexable skiplist.
Statistically, the moving average is optimal for recovering the underlying trend of the time series when the fluctuations about the trend are normally distributed. However, the normal distribution does not place high probability on very large deviations from the trend which explains why such deviations will have a disproportionately large effect on the trend estimate. It can be shown that if the fluctuations are instead assumed to be Laplace distributed, then the moving median is statistically optimal. For a given variance, the Laplace distribution places higher probability on rare events than does the normal, which explains why the moving median tolerates shocks better than the moving mean.
When the simple moving median above is central, the smoothing is identical to the median filter which has applications in, for example, image signal processing.
In a moving average regression model, a variable of interest is assumed to be a weighted moving average of unobserved independent error terms; the weights in the moving average are parameters to be estimated.
Those two concepts are often confused due to their name, but while they share many similarities, they represent distinct methods and are used in very different contexts.
Download Excel file to calculate SMA & EMA
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who can fire the chairman of the federal reserve | Chair of the Federal Reserve - Wikipedia
The Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is the head of the Federal Reserve, which is the central banking system of the United States. The position is known colloquially as "Chair of the Fed '' or "Fed Chair ''. The chair is the "active executive officer '' of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
The chair is chosen by the President of the United States from among the members of the Board of Governors; and serves for four - year - terms after appointment. A chair may be appointed for several consecutive terms. William Martin was the longest serving chair, holding the position from 1951 to 1970.
The current Chairman is Jerome Powell, who was sworn in on February 5, 2018. He was nominated to the position by President Donald Trump on November 2, 2017, and was later confirmed by the United States Senate.
Section 203 of the Banking Act of 1935 changed the name of the "Federal Reserve Board '' to the "Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. '' The directors ' salaries were significantly lower (at $12,000 when first appointed in 1914) and their terms of office were much shorter prior to 1935. In effect, the Federal Reserve Board members in Washington, D.C., were significantly less powerful than the presidents of the regional Federal Reserve Banks prior to 1935.
In the 1935 Act, the district heads had their titles changed to "President '' (e.g., "President of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis '').
As stipulated by the Banking Act of 1935, the President of the United States appoints the seven members of the Board of Governors; they must then be confirmed by the Senate and serve fourteen year terms.
The nominees for chair and vice-chair may be chosen by the President from among the sitting Governors for four - year terms; these appointments are also subject to Senate confirmation. The Senate Committee responsible for vetting a Fed Reserve Chair nominee is the Senate Committee on Finance.
By law, the chair reports twice a year to Congress on the Federal Reserve 's monetary policy objectives. He or she also testifies before Congress on numerous other issues and meets periodically with the Treasury Secretary.
The law applicable to the Chair and all other members of the Board provides (in part):
No member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System shall be an officer or director of any bank, banking institution, trust company, or Federal Reserve bank or hold stock in any bank, banking institution, or trust company; and before entering upon his duties as a member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System he shall certify under oath that he has complied with this requirement, and such certification shall be filed with the secretary of the Board.
The following is a list of past and present Chairs of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. A chair serves for a four - year term after appointment, but may be reappointed for several consecutive four - year terms. As of 2018, there have been a total of sixteen Fed Chairs.
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edmund burke reflections on the revolution in france analysis | Reflections on the Revolution in France - wikipedia
Reflections on the Revolution in France is a political pamphlet written by the Irish statesman Edmund Burke and published in November 1790. One of the best - known intellectual attacks against the French Revolution, Reflections is a defining tract of modern conservatism as well as an important contribution to international theory. Above all else, it has been one of the defining efforts of Edmund Burke 's transformation of "traditionalism into a self - conscious and fully conceived political philosophy of conservatism ''.
The pamphlet has not been easy to classify. Before seeing this work as a pamphlet, we should note that Burke wrote in the mode of a letter, invoking expectations of openness and selectivity that added a layer of meaning. Academics have had trouble identifying whether Burke, or his tract, can best be understood as "a realist or an idealist, Rationalist or a Revolutionist ''. Thanks to its thoroughness, rhetorical skill, and literary power, it has become one of the most widely known of Burke 's writings and a classic text in political theory. In the twentieth century, it greatly influenced conservative and classical liberal intellectuals, who recast Burke 's Whiggish arguments as a critique of communist and revolutionary - socialist programmes.
Edmund Burke served in the House of Commons of Great Britain, representing the Whig party, in close alliance with liberal politician Lord Rockingham. In Burke 's political career, he vigorously defended constitutional limitation of the Crown 's authority, denounced the religious persecution of Catholics in his native Ireland, voiced the grievances of Britain 's American colonies, supported American Independence, and vigorously pursued impeachment of Warren Hastings, the Governor - General of British India, for corruption and abuse of power. For these actions, Burke was widely respected by liberals in Great Britain, the United States, and the European continent. "Earlier in his career Burke had championed many liberal causes and sided with the Americans in their war for independence; opponents and allies alike were surprised at the strength of his conviction that the French Revolution was a disaster and the revolutionists ' a swinish multitude. ' ''.
In 1789, soon after the fall of the Bastille, the French aristocrat Charles - Jean - François Depont asked his impressions of the Revolution; Burke replied with two letters. The longer, second letter, drafted after he read Richard Price 's speech A Discourse on the Love of Our Country in January 1790, became Reflections on the Revolution in France. Published in November 1790, the work was an instant bestseller: thirteen thousand copies were purchased in the first five weeks, and by the following September it had gone through eleven editions. According to Stephen Greenblatt in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, "part of its appeal to contemporary readers lay in the highly wrought accounts of the mob 's violent treatment of the French king and queen (who at the time Burke was writing were imprisoned in Paris and would be executed three years later, in January and October 1793) '', and Reflections has become the "most eloquent statement of British conservatism favoring monarchy, aristocracy, property, hereditary succession, and the wisdom of the ages ''.
He did not like abstract thinking, he believed freedom and equality were different, he also believed that real equality was not real unless it was when God judged, and he saw liberty as something within the law and not as an excuse to do whatever one would like. He was not comfortable with radical change, and he believed that the revolutionaries would find themselves further in trouble. Their actions would cause more problems. The revolutionaries, in his opinion, did not understand that "there are no rights without corresponding duties, or without some strict qualifications. ''
With his view of what he believed would happen to the revolutionaries one can see why he did not like change. Men can not handle large amounts of power. "When men play God, '' Burke said splendidly, "presently they behave like devils. The guillotine and other horrors of the revolution bore him out. ''
In the Reflections, Burke argued that the French Revolution would end disastrously because its abstract foundations, purportedly rational, ignored the complexities of human nature and society. Further, he focused on the practicality of solutions instead of the metaphysics, writing "What is the use of discussing a man 's abstract right to food or to medicine? The question is upon the method of procuring and administering them. In this deliberation I shall always advise to call in the aid of the farmer and the physician, rather than the professor ''. Following St. Augustine and Cicero, he believed in "human heart '' - based government. Nevertheless, he was contemptuous and afraid of the Enlightenment, led by intellectuals such as Rousseau, Voltaire, and Turgot, who disbelieved in divine moral order and original sin, saying that society should be handled like a living organism, that people and society are limitlessly complicated, thus, leading him to conflict with Thomas Hobbes ' assertion that politics might be reducible to a deductive system akin to mathematics.
As a Whig, he expressly repudiated the belief in divinely appointed monarchic authority and the idea that a people have no right to depose an oppressive government; however, he advocated central roles for private property, tradition, and "prejudice '' (i.e., adherence to values regardless of their rational basis) to give citizens a stake in their nation 's social order. He argued for gradual, constitutional reform, not revolution (in every case except the most qualified case), emphasizing that a political doctrine founded upon abstractions such as liberty and the rights of man could be easily abused to justify tyranny. He saw inherited rights, restated in England from the Magna Carta to the Declaration of Right, as firm and concrete providing continuity (like tradition, "prejudice '', inheritable private property), by contrast enforcement of ' speculative ' abstract rights might waver and be subject to change based on currents of politics. Instead, he called for the constitutional enactment of specific, concrete rights and liberties as protection against governmental oppression.
In the phrase, "(prejudice) renders a man 's virtue his habit '', he defends people 's cherished, but untaught, irrational prejudices (the greater it behooved them, the more they cherished it). Because a person 's moral estimation is limited, people are better off drawing from the "general bank and capital of nations and of ages '' than from their own intellects.
He predicted that the Revolution 's concomitant disorder would make the army "mutinous and full of faction '', and then a "popular general '', commanding the soldiery 's allegiance, would become "master of your assembly, the master of your whole republic ''. Though he may have been thinking of Lafayette, Napoleon fulfilled this prophecy on the 18th Brumaire, two years after Burke 's death.
Most of the House of Commons disagreed with Burke and his popularity declined. As the French Revolution broke into factions, the Whig Party broke in two: the New Whig party and the Old Whig party. As founder of the Old Whigs, Burke always took the opportunity to engage in debate with the New Whigs about French Jacobinism.
After trying to loosen the Protestant minority 's control of Irish government, he was voted out of the House of Commons with a great pension. He later adopted French and Irish children, believing himself correct in rescuing them from government oppression. Before dying, he ordered his family to bury him secretly, believing his cadaver would be a political target for desecration should the Jacobins prevail in England.
To support or color his arguments, Burke uses several Latin quotations, the sources of which he does not cite. The bulk appear to come from Vergil or Horace. However, the following quotation from Cicero 's De Senectute 83 is employed to underline the ludicrous idea, in his view, of placing soldiery in a state at a perfectly equal status as the rest of the citizenry: "Si isti mihi largiantur ut repueriscam, et in eorum cunis vagiam, valde recusem! ''
An approximate translation is: "If they should grant to me that I might become a child again, and that I might wail in their cradle, I would vigorously refuse! ''
Reflections on the Revolution in France was read widely when it was published in 1790, though not every Briton approved of Burke 's kind treatment of their historic enemy or its royal family. His English enemies speculated he either had become mentally unbalanced or was a secret Catholic, outraged by the democratic French government 's anti-clerical policies and expropriation of Church land. The publication of this work drew a swift response, first with A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) by Mary Wollstonecraft, and then with Rights of Man (1791) by Thomas Paine. Nonetheless, Burke 's work became popular with reactionaries such as King George III and the Savoyard philosopher Joseph de Maistre.
Historically, Reflections on the Revolution in France became the founding philosophic opus of Conservatism when some of Burke 's predictions occurred: the Reign of Terror under the new French Republic executed thousands, (including many nuns and clergy) from 1793 to 1794 to purge so - called counter-revolutionary elements of society. That, in turn, led to the political reaction of Gen. Napoleon Bonaparte 's government, which appeared to some to be a military dictatorship. Burke had predicted the rise of a military dictatorship and that the revolutionary government instead of protecting the rights of the people would be corrupt and violent.
In the nineteenth century, positivist French historian Hippolyte Taine repeated the Irishman 's arguments in Origins of Contemporary France (1876 -- 1885): that centralisation of power is the essential fault of the Revolutionary French government system; that it does not promote democratic control; and that the Revolution transferred power from the divinely chosen aristocracy to an "enlightened '' heartless elite more incompetent and tyrannical than the aristocrats.
In the twentieth century, Western conservatives applied Burke 's anti-revolutionary Reflections to popular socialist revolutions, thus establishing Burke 's iconic political value to conservatives and classical liberals. For example, an important classical economic liberal, Friedrich Hayek, acknowledged an intellectual debt to Burke. The late Christopher Hitchens writes that the "tremendous power of the Reflections lies '' in being "the first serious argument that revolutions devour their own children and turn into their own opposites. ''
Historians however have regarded Burke 's arguments as inconsistent with the actual history of the events. Alfred Cobban, despite being the most respected conservative historian of the events, acknowledged that Burke 's pamphlet, in so far as it "deals with the causes of the Revolution... they are not merely inadequate, but misleading '' and that its main success is as a "violent parti pris ''. Cobban notes that Burke was extremely well informed on America, Ireland and India but in the case of the French Revolution, relied on weak information and poor sources, and as a result his thesis does not cohere to the ground reality of France at the onset of the Revolution, where the situation was indeed dire enough to sweep existing institutions. Cobban concludes, "As literature, as political theory, as anything but history, his Reflections is magnificent ''.
'' All circumstances taken together, the French revolution is the most astonishing that has hitherto happened in the world. The most wonderful things are brought about in many instances by means the most absurd and ridiculous; in the most ridiculous modes; and apparently, by the most contemptible instruments. Every thing seems out of nature in this strange chaos of levity and ferocity, and of all sorts of crimes jumbled together with all sorts of follies. ''
'' In viewing this tragi - comic scene, the most opposite passions necessarily succeed, and sometimes mix with each other in the mind; alternate contempt and indignation; alternate laughter and tears; alternate scorn and horror. ''
'' A spirit of innovation is generally the result of a selfish temper and confined views. People will not look forward to posterity, who never look backward to their ancestors. ''
'' Our political system is placed in a just correspondence and symmetry with the order of the world, and with the mode of existence decreed to a permanent body composed of transitory parts; wherein, by the disposition of a stupendous wisdom, moulding together the great mysterious incorporation of the human race, the whole, at one time, is never old, or middle - aged, or young, but in a condition of unchangeable constancy, moves on through the varied tenour of perpetual decay, fall, renovation, and progression. Thus, by preserving the method of nature in the conduct of the state, in what we improve we are never wholly new; in what we retain we are never wholly obsolete. ''
'' If civil society be made for the advantage of man, all the advantages for which is made become his right... Men have a right to... justice; as between their fellows, whether their fellows are in politic function or in ordinary occupation. They have a right to the fruits of their industry; and to the means of making their industry fruitful. They have a right to the acquisitions of their parents; to the nourishment and improvement of their offspring; to instruction in life, and to consolation in death. ''
'' All the pleasing illusions, which made power gentle, and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments which beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason. All the decent drapery of life is to be rudely torn off. ''
'' Where trade and manufactures are wanting to a people, an the spirit of nobility and religion remains, sentiment supplies, and not always ill supplies their place; but if commerce and the arts should be lost in an experiment to try how well a state may stand without these old fundamental principles, what sort of a thing must be a nation of gross, stupid, ferocious, and at the same time, poor and sordid barbarians, destitute of religion, honor, or manly pride, possessing nothing at present, and hoping for nothing hereafter? I wish you may not be going fast, and by the shortest cut, to that horrible and disgustful situation. Already there appears a poverty of conception, a coarseness and vulgarity in all the proceedings of the assembly and of all their instructors. Their liberty is not liberal. Their science is presumptuous ignorance. Their humanity is savage and brutal. ''
"Society is indeed a contract. Subordinate contracts for objects of mere occasional interest may be dissolved at pleasure -- but the state ought not to be considered as nothing better than a partnership agreement in a trade of pepper and coffee, calico or tobacco, or some other such low concern, to be taken up for a little temporary interest, and to be dissolved by the fancy of the parties. It is to be looked on with other reverence; because it is not a partnership in things subservient only to the gross animal existence of a temporary and perishable nature. It is a partnership in all science; a partnership in all art; a partnership in every virtue, and in all perfection. As the ends of such a partnership can not be obtained in many generations, it becomes a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born. ''
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where is going to be world cup 2026 | 2026 FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The 2026 FIFA World Cup (Spanish: Copa mundial de la FIFA de 2026; French: Coupe du monde de la FIFA de 2026) will be the 23rd FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The tournament will be jointly hosted by 16 cities in three North American countries; 60 matches, including the quarterfinals, semi-finals, and the final, will be hosted by the United States while neighboring Canada and Mexico will each host 10 matches. The tournament will be the first hosted by three nations.
The United 2026 bid beat a rival bid by Morocco during a final vote at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow. It will be the first World Cup since South Korea / Japan in 2002 that will be hosted by more than one nation. With its past hosting of the 1970 and 1986 tournaments, Mexico will also become the first country to host all or part of three men 's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup will also see the tournament expanded from 32 to 48 teams.
Michel Platini, who was then the UEFA president, had suggested in October 2013 an expansion of the tournament to 40 teams, an idea that FIFA president Gianni Infantino also suggested in March 2016. A desire to increase the number of participants in the tournament from the previous 32 team format was announced on October 4, 2016. Four expansion options were considered:
On January 10, 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to a 48 - team tournament.
The tournament will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32 teams. The number of games played overall will increase from 64 to 80, but the number of games played by finalists remains at seven, the same as with 32 teams, but one group match will be replaced by a knockout match. The tournament will also be completed within 32 days, the same as previous 32 - team tournaments.
The European Club Association and its member clubs opposed the proposal for expansion, saying that the number of games was already at an "unacceptable '' level and they urged the governing body to reconsider its idea of increasing the number of teams that qualify. They contended that it was a decision taken for political reasons because Infantino would thus satisfy his electorate, rather than for sporting reasons. Liga de Fútbol Profesional president Javier Tebas agreed, affirming the unacceptability of the new format. He told Marca that the football industry is maintained thanks to clubs and leagues, not FIFA, and that Infantino did politics because to be elected he promised more countries in the World Cup; he wanted to keep the electoral promises. German national team coach Joachim Löw warned that expansion, as had occurred for Euro 2016, would dilute the value of the world tournament because players have already reached their physical and mental limit. Another criticism of the new format is that with three - team groups, the risk of collusion between the two teams playing in the last round of the group stage will increase compared with four - team groups (where simultaneous kick - offs have been employed). One suggestion by president Infantino is that group matches that end in draws will be decided by penalty shootouts.
On March 30, 2017, the Bureau of the FIFA Council (composed of the FIFA president and the presidents of each of the six confederations) proposed a slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The recommendation was submitted for the ratification by the FIFA Council.
On May 9, 2017, two days before the 67th FIFA Congress, the FIFA Council approved the slot allocation in a meeting in Manama, Bahrain. It includes an intercontinental playoff tournament involving six teams to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths.
The issue of how to allocate automatic host country qualification given that there are multiple host countries has not yet been resolved and will be decided by the FIFA council. The United bid anticipated all three host countries being awarded automatic places.
The ratification of slot allocation gives OFC a guaranteed berth in the final tournament for the first time in FIFA World Cup history. The 2026 FIFA World Cup will be the first tournament in which all six confederations have guaranteed berths.
A playoff tournament involving six teams will be held to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths, consisting of one team per confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country (i.e. CONCACAF).
Two of the teams will be seeded based on the FIFA World Rankings, and the seeded teams will play for a FIFA World Cup berth against the winners of the first two knockout games involving the four unseeded teams.
The tournament is to be played in the host country (ies) and to be used as a test event for the FIFA World Cup. The existing playoff window of November 2025 has been suggested as a tentative date for the 2026 edition.
The FIFA Council went back and forth between 2013 and 2017 on limitations within hosting rotation based on the continental confederations. Originally, it was set that bids to be host would not be allowed from countries belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments. It was temporarily changed to only prohibit countries belonging to the confederation that hosted the previous World Cup from bidding to host the following tournament, before the rule was changed back to its prior state of two World Cups. However, the FIFA Council did make an exception to potentially grant eligibility to member associations of the confederation of the second - to - last host of the FIFA World Cup in the event that none of the received bids fulfill the strict technical and financial requirements. In March 2017, FIFA president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively. '' Therefore, the 2026 World Cup could be hosted by one of the remaining four confederations: CONCACAF (North America; last hosted in 1994), CAF (Africa; last hosted in 2010), CONMEBOL (South America; last hosted in 2014), or OFC (Oceania, never hosted before), or potentially by UEFA in case no bid from those four met the requirements.
Co-hosting the FIFA World Cup -- which had been banned by FIFA after the 2002 World Cup -- was approved for the 2026 World Cup, though not limited to a specific number but instead evaluated on a case - by - case basis. Also by 2026, the FIFA general secretariat, after consultation with the Competitions Committee, will have the power to exclude bidders who do not meet the minimum technical requirements to host the competition.
Canada, Mexico and the United States had all publicly considered bidding for the tournament separately, but the United joint bid was announced on April 10, 2017. The United bid contacted 48 venues in 43 cities (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 37 venues in 34 cities in the United States). This bid was ultimately cut down to 23 venues in 23 cities (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico and 17 in the United States; the American venues will be cut down to 10 for a total of 16 venues for the tournament). Morocco announced its bid in August 2017, and had 14 proposed venues in 12 cities.
The voting took place on June 13, 2018, during FIFA 's annual congress in Moscow, and it was reopened to all eligible members. The United bid won receiving 134 valid ballots, while the Morocco bid received 65 valid ballots. Upon the selection, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup -- the latter was in 2015, Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups -- previously in 1970 and 1986, and the United States becomes the first country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup twice each -- having hosted the 1994 men 's and the 1999 and 2003 women 's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup 's qualification process has yet to be decided. The FIFA Council is expected to decide which hosts, if any, will receive automatic qualifications to the tournament. The United Bid personnel anticipated that all three host countries would be awarded automatic places.
During the bidding process, there were 49 venues in 43 cities contacted to be part of the bid. 41 cities with 45 venues responded and submitted to be part of the bid (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 38 venues in 34 cities in the United States). A first round elimination cut 9 venues and 9 cities, then a second round elimination cut 9 venues in 6 cities, reducing the total number to 23 venues, each in their own city or metropolitan area. The 23 candidate cities and venues will be narrowed down to 16 in 2020 or 2021 (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico, and 10 in the United States):
FIFA president Gianni Infantino criticized the U.S. travel ban on several Muslim - majority nations. Infantino said, "When it comes to FIFA competitions, any team, including the supporters and officials of that team, who qualify for a World Cup need to have access to the country, otherwise there is no World Cup. That is obvious. ''
However, assurances were later given by the government that there would be no such discrimination.
U.S. President Donald Trump threatened the countries that intended to support the Morocco bid to host the 2026 World Cup, tweeting: "The US has put together a STRONG bid w / Canada & Mexico for the 2026 World Cup. It would be a shame if countries that we always support were to lobby against the U.S. bid. Why should we be supporting these countries when they do n't support us (including at the United Nations)? ''
On February 12, 2015, Fox, Telemundo, and Bell Media 's rights to the tournament were renewed by FIFA to cover 2026, without accepting any other bids. The New York Times believed that this extension was intended as compensation for the rescheduling of the 2022 World Cup to November - December rather than its traditional June - July scheduling, which falls during the heart of the regular season for several major North American sports leagues (including the National Football League; Fox is a main U.S. rightsholder).
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how do we calculate literacy rate in india | Literacy in India - Wikipedia
Literacy in India is a key for socio - economic progress, and the Indian literacy rate has grown to 73 % (2011 Census figure) with recent reports of 80 % literacy. The literacy rate at the end of British rule in 1947 was around 17 %. Although this was a greater than sixfold improvement, the level is below the world average literacy rate of 84 %. Despite government programmes, India 's literacy rate increased only "sluggishly ''. The 2011 census, indicated a 2001 -- 2011 decadal literacy growth of 9.2 %, which is slower than the growth seen during the previous decade. An old 1990 study estimated that it would take until 2060 for India to achieve universal literacy at then - current rate of progress.
There is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India: effective literacy rates (age 7 and above) in 2011 were 80.9 % for men and 64.60 % for women. The low female literacy rate has had a dramatically negative impact on family planning and population stabillisation efforts in India. Studies have indicated that female literacy is a strong predictor of the use of contraception among married Indian couples, even when women do not otherwise have economic independence. The census provided a positive indication that growth in female literacy rates (11.8 %) was substantially faster than in male literacy rates (6.9 %) in the 2001 -- 2011 decadal period, which means the gender gap appears to be narrowing.
The table below shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India and some neighbouring countries in 2015. Adult literacy rate is based on the 15 + years age group, while the youth literacy rate is for the 15 -- 24 years age group (i.e. youth is a subset of adults).
One of the main factors contributing to this relatively low literacy rate is usefulness of education and availability of schools in vicinity in rural areas. There is a shortage of classrooms to accommodate all the students in 2006 -- 2007. In addition, there is no proper sanitation in most schools. The study of 188 government - run primary schools in central and northern India revealed that 59 % of the schools had no drinking water facility and 89 % no toilets. In 600,000 villages and multiplying urban slum habitats, ' free and compulsory education ' is the basic literacy instruction dispensed by barely qualified ' para teachers '. The average Pupil Teacher Ratio for All India is 42: 1, implying teacher shortage. Such inadequacies resulted in a non-standardized school system where literacy rates may differ. Furthermore, the expenditure allocated to education was never above 4.3 % of the GDP from 1951 to 2002 despite the target of 6 % by the Kothari Commission. This further complicates the literacy problem in India.
Severe caste disparities also exist. Discrimination of lower castes has resulted in high dropout rates and low enrollment rates. The National Sample Survey Organisation and the National Family Health Survey collected data in India on the percentage of children completing primary school which are reported to be only 36.8 % and 37.7 % respectively. On 21 February 2005, the Prime Minister of India said that he was pained to note that "only 47 out of 100 children enrolled in class I reach class VIII, putting the dropout rate at 52.78 per cent. '' It is estimated that at least 35 million, and possibly as many as 60 million, children aged 6 -- 14 years are not in school.
Absolute poverty in India has also deterred the pursuit of formal education as education is not deemed of as the highest priority among the poor as compared to other basic necessities. The MRP - based (mixed recall period) poverty estimates of about 22 % of poverty in 2004 -- 05 which translated to 22 out of per 100 people are not meeting their basic needs, much less than meeting the need for education.
The large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Inequality based on gender differences resulted in female literacy rates being lower at 65.46 % than that of their male counterparts at 82.14 %. Due to strong stereotyping of female and male roles, Sons are thought of to be more useful and hence are educated. Females are pulled to help out on agricultural farms at home as they are increasingly replacing the males on such activities which require no formal education. Fewer than 2 % of girls who engaged in agriculture work attended school.
Prior to the British era, education in Indian commenced under the supervision of a guru in traditional schools called gurukuls. The gurukuls were supported by public donation and were one of the earliest forms of public school offices. However these Gurukuls catered only to the Upper castes males of the Indian society and the overwhelming masses were denied any formal education. In the colonial era, the gurukul system began to decline as the system promoted by the British began to gradually take over. Between 1881 -- 82 and 1946 -- 47, the number of English primary schools grew from 82,916 to 134,866 and the number of students in English Schools grew from 2,061,541 to 10,525,943. Literacy rates in accordance to British in India rose from 3.2 per cent in 1881 to 7.2 per cent in 1931 and 12.2 per cent in 1947.
In 2000 -- 01, there were 60,840 pre-primary and pre-basic schools, and 664,041 primary and junior basic schools. Total enrolment at the primary level has increased from 19,200,000 in 1950 -- 51 to 109,800,000 in 2001 -- 02. The number of high schools in 2000 -- 01 was higher than the number of primary schools at the time of independence.
In 1944, the Government of British India presented a plan, called the Sergeant Scheme for the educational reconstruction of India, with a goal of producing 100 % literacy in the country within 40 years, i.e. by 1984. Although the 40 - year time - frame was derided at the time by leaders of the Indian independence movement as being too long a period to achieve universal literacy, India had only just crossed the 74 % level by the 2011 census.
It should also be noted that the British India censuses identify a significant difference in literacy rates, by: sex, religion, caste and state of residence, e.g.:
The provision of universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6 -- 14 was a cherished national ideal and had been given overriding priority by incorporation as a Directive Policy in Article 45 of the Constitution, but it is still to be achieved more than half a century since the Constitution was adopted in 1949. Parliament has passed the Constitution 86th Amendment Act, 2002, to make elementary education a Fundamental Right for children in the age group of 6 -- 14 years. In order to provide more funds for education, an education cess of 2 per cent has been imposed on all direct and indirect central taxes through the Finance (No. 2) Act, 2004.
The literacy rate grew from 18.33 per cent in 1951, to 28.30 per cent in 1961, 34.45 per cent in 1971, 43.57 per cent in 1981, 52.21 per cent in 1991, 64.84 per cent in 2001 and 74.04 per cent in 2011. During the same period, the population grew from 361 million to 1,210 million.
India 's literacy rate is at 74.04 %. Kerala has achieved a literacy rate of 93.91 %. Bihar is the least literate state in India, with a literacy of 63.82 %. Several other social indicators of the two states are correlated with these rates, such as life expectancy at birth (71.61 for males and 75 for females in Kerala, 65.66 for males and 64.79 for females in Bihar), infant mortality per 1,000 live births (10 in Kerala, 61 in Bihar), birth rate per 1,000 people (16.9 in Kerala, 30.9 in Bihar) and death rate per 1,000 people (6.4 in Kerala, 7.9 in Bihar).
Every census since 1881 had indicated rising literacy in the country, but the population growth rate had been high enough that the absolute number of illiterates rose with every decade. The 2001 -- 2011 decade is the second census period (after the 1991 -- 2001 census period) when the absolute number of Indian illiterates declined (by 31,196,847 people), indicting that the literacy growth rate is now outstripping the population growth rate.
Six Indian states account for about 70 % of all illiterates in India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. Slightly less than half of all Indian illiterates (48.12 %) are in the six Hindi - speaking states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
Large variations in literacy exist even between contiguous states. While there are few states at the top and bottom, most states are just above or below the national average.
Several states in India have executed successful programs to boost literacy rates. Over time, a set of factors have emerged as being key to success: official will to succeed, deliberate steps to engage the community in administering the programme, adequate funding for infrastructure and teachers, and provisioning additional services which are considered valuable by the community (such as free school lunches).
Bihar has significantly raised the literacy rate as per the 2011 census. The literacy rate has risen from 39 % in 1991 to 47 % in 2001 to 63.8 % in 2011. The Government of Bihar has launched several programs to boost literacy, and its Department of Adult Education even won a UNESCO award in 1981.
Extensive impoverishment, entrenched hierarchical social divisions and the lack of correlation between educational attainment and job opportunities are often cited in studies of the hurdles literacy programs face in Bihar. Children from "lower castes '' are frequently denied school attendance and harassed when they do attend. In areas where there is no discrimination, poor funding and impoverished families means that children often can not afford textbooks and stationery.
When children do get educated, the general lack of economic progress in the state means that government jobs are the only alternative to farming labor, yet these jobs, in practice, require bribes to secure -- which poorer families can not afford. This leads to educated youths working on the farms, much as uneducated ones do, and leads parents to question the investment of sending children to school in the first place. Bihar 's government schools have also faced teacher absenteeism, leading the state government to threaten to withhold of salaries of teachers who failed to conduct classes on a regular basis. To incentivise students to attend, the government announced a Rupee 1 per school - day grant to poor children who show up at school.
Presently Tripura has the highest literacy rate in India, 94.65 percent. According to the 2011 census, literacy level was 93.91 percent in Kerala and 91.58 percent in Mizoram, among the most literate states in the country. The national literacy rate, according to the 2011 census, was 74.04 percent. The Tripura success story is attributed to the involvement of local government bodies, including gram panchayats, NGOs and local clubs under the close supervision of the State Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA) headed by the chief minister. Tripura attained 87.75 percent literacy in the 2011 census, from the 12th position in the 2001 census to the 4th position in the 2011 census. The Tripura Chief Minister said that efforts were underway to literate leftover 5.35 percent people and achieve complete success in a state of about 3.8 million people. The programmes were not just implemented to make the state literate but as long - term education programmes to ensure all citizens have a certain basic minimum level of education. Tripura has 45 blocks and 23 subdivisions that are served by 68 government - run schools and 30 - 40 private schools. Among projects implemented by the state government to increase literacy in the state are
The holistic education system, implemented with equal interest in Agartala, remote areas and the tribal autonomic areas makes sure that people in Tripura do not just become literate but educated, officials emphasized. One pointer to the government 's interest in education is the near - total absence of child labor in Tripura.
Kerala has the second highest literacy rate (93.91 Percent) among the states of India just after Tripura (94.65 %). Kerala topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006 -- 2007. (143) More than 94 % of the rural population has access to a primary school within 1 km, while 98 % of the population benefits one school within a distance of 2 km. An upper primary school within a distance of 3 km is available for more than 96 % of the people, whose 98 % benefit the facility for secondary education within 8 km. The access for rural students to higher educational institutions in cities is facilitated by widely subsidized transport fares. Kerala 's educational system has been developed by institutions owned or aided by the government. In the educational system prevailed in the state, schooling is for 10 years which is subdivided into lower primary, upper primary and high school. After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams -- liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional undergraduate programs. Kerala undertook a "campaign for total literacy '' in Ernakulam district in the late 1980s, with a "fusion between the district administration headed by its Collector on one side and, on the other side, voluntary groups, social activists and others ''. On 4 February 1990, the Government of Kerala endeavoured to replicate the initiative on a statewide level, launching the Kerala State Literacy Campaign. First, households were surveyed with door - to - door, multistage survey visits to form an accurate picture of the literacy landscape and areas that needed special focus. Then, Kala Jāthas (cultural troupes) and Sāksharata Pada Yātras (Literacy Foot Marches) were organized to generate awareness of the campaign and create a receptive social atmosphere for the program. An integrated management system was created involving state officials, prominent social figures, local - officials and senior voluntary workers to oversee the execution of the campaign.
Himachal Pradesh underwent a "Schooling Revolution '' in the 1961 -- 2001 period that has been called "even more impressive than Kerala 's. '' Kerala has led the nation in literacy rates since the 19th century and seen sustained initiatives for over 150 years, whereas Himachal Pradesh 's literacy rates in 1961 were below the national average in every age group. In the three decadal 1961 -- 1991 period, female literacy in the 15 -- 19 years age group went from 11 % to 86 %. School attendance for both boys and girls in the 6 -- 14 - year age group stood at over 97 % each when measured in the 1998 -- 99 school year.
A key factor that has been credited for these advances is Himachal 's cultural background. Himachal Pradesh is a Himalayan state with lower social stratification than many other states, which enables social programmes to be carried out more smoothly. Once the Government of Himachal Pradesh was able to establish a social norm that "schooling is an essential part of every child 's upbringing, '' literacy as a normal attribute of life was adopted very rapidly. Government efforts in expanding schools and providing teachers were sustained after the 1960s and communities often responded very collaboratively, including with constructing school rooms and providing firewood essential during the Himalayan winters.
Mizoram is the third most literate state in India (91.58 Percent), next to Tripura and Kerala with Serchhip and Aizawl districts being the two most literate districts in India (literacy rate is 98.76 % and 98.50 %), both in Mizoram Mizoram 's literacy rate rose rapidly after independence: from 31.14 % in 1951 to 88.80 % in 2001. As in Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram has a social structure that is relatively free of hierarchy and strong official intent to produce total literacy. The government identified illiterates and organised an administrative structure that engaged officials and community leaders, and manned by "animators '' who were responsible for teaching five illiterates each. Mizoram established 360 continuing education centres to handle continued education beyond the initial literacy teaching and to provide an educational safety net for school drop - outs.
One of the pioneers of the scheme is the Madras that started providing cooked meals to children in corporation schools in the Madras city in 1923. The programme was introduced in a large scale in 1960s under the Chief Ministership of K. Kamaraj. The first major thrust came in 1982 when Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Dr. M.G. Ramachandran, decided to universalise the scheme for all children up to class 10. Tamil Nadu 's midday meal programme is among the best - known in the country. Starting in 1982, Tamil Nadu took an approach to promoting literacy based on free lunches for schoolchildren, "ignoring cynics who said it was an electoral gimmick and economists who said it made little fiscal sense. '' The then chief minister of Tamil Nadu, MGR launched the programme, which resembled a similar initiative in 19th century Japan, because "he had experienced as a child what it was like to go hungry to school with the family having no money to buy food ''.
Eventually, the programme covered all children under the age of 15, as well as pregnant women for the first four months of their pregnancy. Tamil Nadu 's literacy rate rose from 54.4 % in 1981 to 80.3 % in 2011. In 2001, the Supreme Court of India instructed all state governments to implement free school lunches in all government - funded schools, but implementation has been patchy due to corruption and social issues. Despite these hurdles, 120 million receive free lunches in Indian schools every day, making it the largest school meal program in the world.
Although the decadal rise from 2001 -- 11 was only 7 % (60.4 % in 2001 to 67.1 % in 2011) Rajasthan had the biggest percentage decadal (1991 -- 2001) increase in literacy of all Indian states, from about 38 % to about 61 %, a leapfrog that has been termed "spectacular '' by some observers. Aggressive state government action, in the form of the District Primary Education Programme, the Shiksha Karmi initiative and the Lok Jumbish programme, are credited with the rapid improvement. Virtually every village in Rajasthan now has primary school coverage. When statehood was granted to Rajasthan in 1956, it was the least literate state in India with a literacy rate of 18 %.
Apart from above, the corporate sector in India has pitched in with the aim of improving literacy, primarily in villages around their factories. For example, JK group has helped so far 29,000 plus citizens of India, mostly village women, to move towards literacy -- which means being able to sign their name / read sign boards & handle money, in local languages in eight different states. TATA group claims to have added approximately 250,000 literates using their Computer Based Functional Literacy (CBFL) method.
The right to education is a fundamental right, and UNESCO aims at education for all by 2015. India, along with the Arab states and sub-Saharan Africa, has a literacy level below the threshold level of 75 %, but efforts are on to achieve that level. The campaign to achieve at least the threshold literacy level represents the largest ever civil and military mobilisation in the country. International Literacy Day is celebrated each year on 8 September with the aim to highlight the importance of literacy to individuals, communities and societies.
The National Literacy Mission, launched in 1988, aimed at attaining a literacy rate of 75 per cent by 2007. Its charter is to impart functional literacy to non-literates in the age group of 35 -- 75 years. The Total Literacy Campaign is their principal strategy for the eradication of illiteracy. The Continuing Education Scheme provides a learning continuum to the efforts of the Total Literacy and Post Literacy programmes.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Hindi for Total Literacy Campaign) was launched in 2001 to ensure that all children in the 6 -- 14 - year age - group attend school and complete eight years of schooling by 2010. An important component of the scheme is the Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education, meant primarily for children in areas with no formal school within a one kilometre radius. The centrally sponsored District Primary Education Programme, launched in 1994, had opened more than 160,000 new schools by 2005, including almost 84,000 alternative schools.
The bulk of Indian illiterates live in the country 's rural areas, where social and economic barriers play an important role in keeping the lowest strata of society illiterate. Government programmes alone, however well - intentioned, may not be able to dismantle barriers built over centuries. Major social reformation efforts are sometimes required to bring about a change in the rural scenario. Specific mention is to be made regarding the role of the People 's Science Movements (PSMs) in the Literacy Mission in India during the early 1990s. Several non-governmental organisations such as Pratham, ITC, Rotary Club, Lions Club have worked to improve the literacy rate in India.
Manthan Sampoorna Vikas Kendra
Manthan SVK is a holistic education programme initiated by Divya Jyoti Jagriti Sansthan under the guidance of His Holiness Shri Ashutosh Maharajji. This initiative, started in 2008, has since then reached and spread education to over 5000 underprivileged children across India, with its centres spread in Delhi - NCR, Punjab and Bihar. The main aim of Manthan is to provide not just academic but also mental, physical and emotional education. Manthan has also been working for adult literacy through its Adult Literacy Centres for illiterate women. Vocational education is also given attention to, with Sewing and Stitching Centres for women.
The motto of Manthan being Saakshar Bharat, Sashakt Bharat, it has been providing quality education selflessly.
Shantha Sinha won a Magsaysay Award in 2003 in recognition of "Her guiding the people of Andhra Pradesh to end the scourge of child labour and send all of their children to school. '' As head of an extension programme at the University of Hyderabad in 1987, she organised a three - month - long camp to prepare children rescued from bonded labour to attend school. Later, in 1991, she guided her family 's Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundation to take up this idea as part of its overriding mission in Andhra Pradesh. Her original transition camps grew into full - fledged residential "bridge schools. '' The foundation 's aim is to create a social climate hostile to child labour, child marriage and other practices that deny children the right to a normal childhood. Today the MV Foundation 's bridge schools and programmes extend to 4,300 villages.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has drafted a definition of literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society. ''
The National Literacy Mission defines literacy as acquiring the skills of reading, writing and arithmetic and the ability to apply them to one 's day - to - day life. The achievement of functional literacy implies (i) self - reliance in 3 R 's, (ii) awareness of the causes of deprivation and the ability to move towards amelioration of their condition by participating in the process of development, (iii) acquiring skills to improve economic status and general well being, and (iv) imbibing values such as national integration, conservation of environment, women 's equality, observance of small family norms.
The working definition of literacy in the Indian census since 1991 is as follows:
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where is wernickes area located in the brain | Wernicke 's area - wikipedia
Wernicke 's area (/ ˈvɛərnɪkə / or / ˈvɛərnɪki /; German: (ˈvɛʁnɪkə)), also called Wernicke 's speech area, is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech (the other is Broca 's area). It is involved in the comprehension or understanding of written and spoken language (in contrast to Broca 's area that is involved in the production of language). It is traditionally thought to be in Brodmann area 22, which is located in the superior temporal lobe in the dominant cerebral hemisphere (which is the left hemisphere in about 95 % of right handed individuals and 60 % of left handed individuals). Damage caused to Wernicke 's area results in receptive, fluent aphasia. This means that the person with aphasia will be able to fluently connect words, but the phrases will lack meaning. This is unlike non-fluent aphasia, in which the person will use meaningful words, but in a non-fluent, telegraphic manner.
Wernicke 's area is classically located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus (STG) in the (most commonly) left cerebral hemisphere. This area encircles the auditory cortex on the lateral sulcus (the part of the brain where the temporal lobe and parietal lobe meet). This area is neuroanatomically described as the posterior part of Brodmann area 22.
However, there is an absence of consistent definitions as to the location. Some identify it with the unimodal auditory association in the superior temporal gyrus anterior to the primary auditory cortex (the anterior part of BA 22). This is the site most consistently implicated in auditory word recognition by functional brain imaging experiments. Others include also adjacent parts of the heteromodal cortex in BA 39 and BA40 in the parietal lobe.
While previously thought to connect Wernicke 's area and Broca 's area, new research demonstrates that the arcuate fasciculus instead connects to posterior receptive areas with premotor / motor areas, and not to Broca 's area. Consistent with the word recognition site identified in brain imaging, the uncinate fasciculus connects anterior superior temporal regions with Broca 's area.
Research using Transcranial magnetic stimulation suggests that the area corresponding to the Wernicke 's area in the non-dominant cerebral hemisphere has a role in processing and resolution of subordinate meanings of ambiguous words -- such as ' ' river ' ' when given the ambiguous word "bank. '' In contrast, the Wernicke 's area in the dominant hemisphere processes dominant word meanings (' ' teller ' ' given ' ' bank ' ').
Neuroimaging suggests the functions earlier attributed to Wernicke 's area occur more broadly in the temporal lobe and indeed happen also in Broca 's area.
... the range of areas implicated in speech processing go well beyond the classical language areas typically mentioned for speech; the vast majority of textbooks still state that this aspect of perception and language processing occurs in Wernicke 's area (the posterior third of the STG).
Support for a broad range of speech processing areas was furthered by a recent study done at University of Rochester in which American Sign Language native speakers were subject to MRIs while interpreting sentences that identified a relationship using either syntax (relationship is determined by the word order) or inflection (relationship is determined by physical motion of "moving hands through space or signing on one side of the body ''). Distinct areas of the brain were activated with the frontal cortex (associated with ability to put information into sequences) being more active in the syntax condition and the temporal lobes (associated with dividing information into its constituent parts) being more active in the inflection condition. However, these areas are not mutually exclusive and show a large amount of overlap. These findings imply that while speech processing is a very complex process, the brain may be using fairly basic, preexisting computational methods.
Wernicke 's area is named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist and psychiatrist who, in 1874, hypothesized a link between the left posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus and the reflexive mimicking of words and their syllables that associated the sensory and motor images of spoken words. He did this on the basis of the location of brain injuries that caused aphasia. Receptive aphasia in which such abilities are preserved is also known as Wernicke 's aphasia. In this condition there is a major impairment of language comprehension, while speech retains a natural - sounding rhythm and a relatively normal syntax. Language as a result is largely meaningless (a condition sometimes called fluent or jargon aphasia).
While neuroimaging and lesion evidence generally support the idea that malfunction of or damage to Wernicke 's area is common in people with receptive aphasia, this is not always so. Some people may use the right hemisphere for language, and isolated damage of Wernicke 's area cortex (sparing white matter and other areas) may not cause severe receptive aphasia. Even when patients with Wernicke 's area lesions have comprehension deficits, these are usually not restricted to language processing alone. For example, one study found that patients with posterior lesions also had trouble understanding nonverbal sounds like animal and machine noises. In fact, for Wernicke 's area, the impairments in nonverbal sounds were statistically stronger than for verbal sounds.
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which characteristic distinguished the first civilizations from earlier human | Civilization - wikipedia
A civilization (UK and US) or civilisation (UK variant) is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification imposed by a cultural elite, symbolic systems of communication (for example, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment.
Civilizations are intimately associated with and often further defined by other socio - politico - economic characteristics, including centralization, the domestication of both humans and other organisms, specialization of labour, culturally ingrained ideologies of progress and supremacism, monumental architecture, taxation, societal dependence upon farming and expansionism. Historically, a civilization was a so - called "advanced '' culture in contrast to more supposedly primitive cultures. In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, egalitarian horticultural subsistence neolithic societies or hunter - gatherers. As an uncountable noun, civilization also refers to the process of a society developing into a centralized, urbanized, stratified structure. Civilizations are organized in densely populated settlements divided into hierarchical social classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in intensive agriculture, mining, small - scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings.
The earliest emergence of civilizations is generally associated with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution, culminating in the relatively rapid process of urban revolution and state formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite. The earlier neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East (for example at Göbekli Tepe, from about 9,130 BCE), and later in the Yellow River and Yangtze basins in China (for example the Pengtoushan culture from 7,500 BCE), and later spread. Similar pre-civilized "neolithic revolutions '' also began independently from 7,000 BCE in such places as northwestern South America (the Norte Chico civilization) and Mesoamerica. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, with civilizations developing from 6,500 years ago. This area has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture. ''
The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains and animals and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors. The transition from complex cultures to civilizations, while still disputed, seems to be associated with the development of state structures, in which power was further monopolized by an elite ruling class who practised human sacrifice. Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various "cradles '' from around 3300 BCE. Chalcolithic civilizations, as defined above, also developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and, despite an early start in Egypt, Axum and Kush, much later in Iron Age sub-Saharan Africa. The Bronze Age collapse was followed by the Iron Age around 1200 BCE, during which a number of new civilizations emerged, culminating in a period from the 8th to the 3rd century BCE which German psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age, and which he claimed was a critical transitional phase leading to classical civilization. A major technological and cultural transition to modernity began approximately 1500 CE in Western Europe, and from this beginning new approaches to science and law spread rapidly around the world, incorporating earlier cultures into the industrial and technological civilization of the present.
Anthropologist Layla AbdelRahim defines civilization as the material manifestation of "the sum of domesticated relationships with everything material and symbolic that issues from the labour and consumption of those categorized as resources and the (necessarily) unequal value for that labour, victimhood, and lives ''. This economic and socio - environmental paradigm is unsustainable, says AbdelRahim, because it is constantly growing and demanding the colonization of new territories and human and nonhuman lives.
The English word "civilization '' comes from the 16th - century French civilisé ("civilized ''), from Latin civilis ("civil ''), related to civis ("citizen '') and civitas ("city ''). The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias 's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period. In The Philosophy of Civilization (1923), Albert Schweitzer outlines two opinions: one purely material and the other material and ethical. He said that the world crisis was from humanity losing the ethical idea of civilization, "the sum total of all progress made by man in every sphere of action and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual perfecting of individuals as the progress of all progress ''.
Adjectives like "civility '' developed in the mid-16th century. The abstract noun "civilization '', meaning "civilized condition '', came in the 1760s, again from French. The first known use in French is in 1757, by Victor Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau, and the first use in English is attributed to Adam Ferguson, who in his 1767 Essay on the History of Civil Society wrote, "Not only the individual advances from infancy to manhood, but the species itself from rudeness to civilisation ''. The word was therefore opposed to barbarism or rudeness, in the active pursuit of progress characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment.
In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, "civilization '' was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole. This is still the case in French. The use of "civilizations '' as a countable noun was in occasional use in the 19th century, but has become much more common in the later 20th century, sometimes just meaning culture (itself in origin an uncountable noun, made countable in the context of ethnography). Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a "medieval civilization '', which in Elias 's sense would have been an oxymoron.
Already in the 18th century, civilization was not always seen as an improvement. One historically important distinction between culture and civilization is from the writings of Rousseau, particularly his work about education, Emile. Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and "human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original prediscursive or prerational natural unity '' (see noble savage). From this, a new approach was developed, especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder, and later by philosophers such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. This sees cultures as natural organisms, not defined by "conscious, rational, deliberative acts '', but a kind of pre-rational "folk spirit ''. Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful in material progress, is unnatural and leads to "vices of social life '' such as guile, hypocrisy, envy and avarice. In World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this opinion of civilization was behind Nazism and German militarism and nihilism.
Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits. Andrew Nikiforuk argues that "civilizations relied on shackled human muscle. It took the energy of slaves to plant crops, clothe emperors, and build cities '' and considers slavery to be a common feature of pre-modern civilizations.
All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources. Grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial fertilization, irrigation and crop rotation. It is possible but more difficult to accumulate horticultural production, and so civilizations based on horticultural gardening have been very rare. Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations included soldiers, artisans, priests and priestesses, and other people with specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labour and a more diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations. However, in some places hunter - gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively large scale social organization and division of labour predates plant and animal domestication.
Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word "civilization '' is sometimes simply defined as "' living in cities ' ''. Non-farmers tend to gather in cities to work and to trade.
Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the state. State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The ruling class, normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a government or bureaucracy. Morton Fried, a conflict theorist and Elman Service, an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and social inequality. This system of classification contains four categories
Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more personal possessions than nomadic people. Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land. Because a percentage of people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must trade their goods and services for food in a market system, or receive food through the levy of tribute, redistributive taxation, tariffs or tithes from the food producing segment of the population. Early human cultures functioned through a gift economy supplemented by limited barter systems. By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions. In a village, the potter makes a pot for the brewer and the brewer compensates the potter by giving him a certain amount of beer. In a city, the potter may need a new roof, the roofer may need new shoes, the cobbler may need new horseshoes, the blacksmith may need a new coat and the tanner may need a new pot. These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time. A monetary system is a way of organizing these obligations to ensure that they are fulfilled. From the days of the earliest monetarized civilizations, monopolistic controls of monetary systems have benefited the social and political elites.
Writing, developed first by people in Sumer, is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state ''. Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Like money, writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other. However, writing is not always necessary for civilization, as shown the Inca civilization of the Andes, which did not use writing at all except from a complex recording system consisting of cords and nodes instead: the "Quipus '', whose still functioned as a civilized society.
Aided by their division of labour and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.
Through history, successful civilizations have spread, taking over more and more territory, and assimilating more and more previously - uncivilized people. Nevertheless, some tribes or people remain uncivilized even to this day. These cultures are called by some "primitive '', a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. "Primitive '' implies in some way that a culture is "first '' (Latin = primus), that it has not changed since the dawn of humanity, though this has been demonstrated not to be true. Specifically, as all of today 's cultures are contemporaries, today 's so - called primitive cultures are in no way antecedent to those we consider civilized. Anthropologists today use the term "non-literate '' to describe these peoples.
Civilization has been spread by colonization, invasion, religious conversion, the extension of bureaucratic control and trade, and by introducing agriculture and writing to non-literate peoples. Some non-civilized people may willingly adapt to civilized behaviour. But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.
Assessments of what level of civilization a polity has reached are based on comparisons of the relative importance of agricultural as opposed to trade or manufacturing capacities, the territorial extensions of its power, the complexity of its division of labour, and the carrying capacity of its urban centres. Secondary elements include a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tort - based legal systems, art, architecture, mathematics, scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures and organized religion.
Traditionally, polities that managed to achieve notable military, ideological and economic power defined themselves as "civilized '' as opposed to other societies or human groupings outside their sphere of influence -- calling the latter barbarians, savages, and primitives. In a modern - day context, "civilized people '' have been contrasted with indigenous people or tribal societies.
"Civilization '' can also refer to the culture of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of manufactures and arts that make it unique. Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state - based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.
The intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being Chinese civilization and its influence on nearby civilizations such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam). Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person 's broadest cultural identity.
Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as discrete units. Early twentieth - century philosopher Oswald Spengler, uses the German word Kultur, "culture '', for what many call a "civilization ''. Spengler believes a civilization 's coherence is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Cultures experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as "the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable ''.
This "unified culture '' concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian Arnold J. Toynbee in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume A Study of History, which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations ''. Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a "creative minority '', through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes.
Samuel P. Huntington defines civilization as "the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species ''. Huntington 's theories about civilizations are discussed below.
Another group of theorists, making use of systems theory, looks at a civilization as a complex system, i.e., a framework by which a group of objects can be analysed that work in concert to produce some result. Civilizations can be seen as networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures and are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, social and cultural interactions among them. Any organization is a complex social system and a civilization is a large organization. Systems theory helps guard against superficial but misleading analogies in the study and description of civilizations.
Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges and political / diplomatic / military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the Silk Road through Central Asia and Indian Ocean sea routes linking the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, India and China, were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long distance trade is in the ancient world. During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan. Resin found later in the Royal Cemetery at Ur is suggested was traded northwards from Mozambique.
Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "world system '', a process known as globalization. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration -- cultural, technological, economic, political, or military - diplomatic -- is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military - diplomatic integration of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization '' around 1500 BCE. Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations '' might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the Crusades as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.
Historically civilizations were assumed by writers such as Aristotle to be the natural state of humanity, so no origin for the Greek polis was considered to be needed. The Sumerian King List for instance, sees the origin of their civilization as descending from heaven. However the great age of maritime discovery exposed the states of Western Europe to hunter - gatherer and simple horticultural cultures that were not civilized. To explain the differences observed, early theorists turned to racist theories of cultural superiority, theories of geographic determinism, or accidents of culture. After the Second World War, these theories were rejected on various grounds and other explanations sought. Four schools have developed in the modern period.
The process of sedentarization is first thought to have occurred around 12,000 BCE in the Levant region of southwest Asia though other regions around the world soon followed. The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the Neolithic, or Agricultural Revolution, which occurred in various locations between 8,000 and 5,000 BCE, specifically in southwestern / southern Asia, northern / central Africa and Central America. At first, the Neolithic was associated with shifting subsistence cultivation, where continuous farming led to the depletion of soil fertility resulting in the requirement to cultivate fields further and further removed from the settlement, eventually compelling the settlement itself to move. In major semi-arid river valleys, annual flooding renewed soil fertility every year, with the result that population densities could rise significantly. This encouraged a secondary products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat, but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts -- a development that spread through the Eurasian Oecumene. The 8.2 Kiloyear Arid Event and the 5.9 Kiloyear Interpluvial saw the drying out of semiarid regions and a major spread of deserts. This climate change shifted the cost - benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilizations. This "urban revolution '' marked the beginning of the accumulation of transferrable surpluses, which helped economies and cities develop. It was associated with the state monopoly of violence, the appearance of a soldier class and endemic warfare, rapid development of hierarchies, the appearance of human sacrifice and a fall in the status of women.
The Iron Age is the period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles. The Iron Age as an archaeological term indicates the condition as to civilization and culture of a people using iron as the material for their cutting tools and weapons. The Iron Age is the third principal period of the three - age system created by Christian Thomsen (1788 -- 1865) for classifying ancient societies and prehistoric stages of progress.
Karl Jaspers, the German historical philosopher, proposed that the ancient civilizations were affected greatly by an Axial Age in the period between 800 BCE -- 200 BCE during which a series of male sages, prophets, religious reformers and philosophers, from China, India, Iran, Israel and Greece, changed the direction of civilizations. William Hardy McNeill proposed that this period of history was one in which culture contact between previously separate civilizations saw the "closure of the oecumene '' and led to accelerated social change from China to the Mediterranean, associated with the spread of coinage, larger empires and new religions. This view has recently been championed by Christopher Chase - Dunn and other world systems theorists.
The spread of the Higher Religions, beginning with Zoroastrianism, Confucianism and Buddhism was linked to the developments of the Axial Age. Principal amongst this was the creation of large militaristic territorial states, which saw an increase in the state as a powerful unit monopolizing the use of violence. It was also linked with the spread of coinage and monetary economies, which had the effect of dissolving the previous local community traditions. The rise of the confessional religious brought the ability to unify larger states than had existed previously.
Civilizations have generally ended in one of two ways; either through being incorporated into another expanding civilization (e.g. As Ancient Egypt was incorporated into Hellenistic Greek, and subsequently Roman civilizations), or by collapse and reversion to a simpler form, as happens in what are called Dark Ages.
There have been many explanations put forward for the collapse of civilization. Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory.
Political scientist Samuel Huntington has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a clash of civilizations. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between nation - states and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries. These views have been strongly challenged by others like Edward Said, Muhammed Asadi and Amartya Sen. Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris have argued that the "true clash of civilizations '' between the Muslim world and the West is caused by the Muslim rejection of the West 's more liberal sexual values, rather than a difference in political ideology, although they note that this lack of tolerance is likely to lead to an eventual rejection of (true) democracy. In Identity and Violence Sen questions if people should be divided along the lines of a supposed "civilization '', defined by religion and culture only. He argues that this ignores the many others identities that make up people and leads to a focus on differences.
Cultural Historian Morris Berman suggests in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness ― extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth ― have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable. Politically associated with over-reach, and as a result of the environmental exhaustion and polarization of wealth between rich and poor, he concludes the current system is fast arriving at a situation where continuation of the existing system saddled with huge deficits and a hollowed - out economy is physically, socially, economically and politically impossible. Although developed in much more depth, Berman 's thesis is similar in some ways to that of Urban Planner, Jane Jacobs who argues that five pillars of United States culture that are in serious decay: community and family; higher education; the effective practice of science; taxation and government; and the self - regulation of the learned professions. The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor.
Some environmental scientists also see the world entering a Planetary Phase of Civilization, characterized by a shift away from independent, disconnected nation - states to a world of increased global connectivity with worldwide institutions, environmental challenges, economic systems, and consciousness. In an attempt to better understand what a Planetary Phase of Civilization might look like in the current context of declining natural resources and increasing consumption, the Global scenario group used scenario analysis to arrive at three archetypal futures: Barbarization, in which increasing conflicts result in either a fortress world or complete societal breakdown; Conventional Worlds, in which market forces or Policy reform slowly precipitate more sustainable practices; and a Great Transition, in which either the sum of fragmented Eco-Communalism movements add up to a sustainable world or globally coordinated efforts and initiatives result in a new sustainability paradigm.
Cultural critic and author Derrick Jensen argues that modern civilization is directed towards the domination of the environment and humanity itself in an intrinsically harmful, unsustainable, and self - destructive fashion. Defending his definition both linguistically and historically, he defines civilization as "a culture... that both leads to and emerges from the growth of cities '', with "cities '' defined as "people living more or less permanently in one place in densities high enough to require the routine importation of food and other necessities of life ''. This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources. Therefore, civilizations inherently adopt imperialist and expansionist policies and, to maintain these, highly militarized, hierarchically structured, and coercion - based cultures and lifestyles.
The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist (see also: Civilizations and the Future and Space civilization).
The Acropolis in Greece, directly influencing architecture and engineering in Western, Islamic and Eastern civilizations up to the present day, 2400 years after construction
The Temples of Baalbek in Lebanon show us the religious and architectural styles of some of the world 's most influential civilizations including the Phoenicians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs
The Roman Forum in Rome, Italy, the political, economic, cultural and religious centre of the Ancient Rome civilization, during the Republic and later Empire, its ruins still visible today in modern - day Rome
While the Great Wall of China was built to protect Ancient Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of nomadic groups, over thousands of years the region of China was also home to many influential civilizations
Virupaksha temple at Hampi in India. The region of India is home and center to major religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism and has influenced other cultures and civilizations, particularly in Asia.
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where does the energy to drive photosynthesis come from | Photosynthesis - wikipedia
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light '', and σύνθεσις, synthesis, "putting together ''. In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light - dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency '' of cells.
In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long - term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light - independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light - dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.
The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons. Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.
Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Photosynthesis provides the energy in the form of free electrons that are used to split carbon from carbon dioxide that is then used to fix that carbon once again as carbohydrate. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis supplies the energy that drives both process. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism 's metabolism. The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.
The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore:
Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is:
This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light - dependent reaction and a product of the light - independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation:
Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron - supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: The equation for this reaction is:
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light - independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.
Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light - dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far - red radiation.
Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis.
In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself. However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes. These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.
In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.
Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.
These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light - harvesting complex.
Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water - resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place.
In the light - dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O) molecule as a waste product.
The overall equation for the light - dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:
Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet - blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue - green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.
In plants, light - dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light - dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic.
In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light - harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron - acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so - called Z - scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z - scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem. The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H to NADPH (which has functions in the light - independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends.
The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.
The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z - scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green - plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge - separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox - active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light - driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo - dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox - active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen - evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water - oxidizing reaction. Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light - dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms.
In the light - independent (or "dark '') reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin - Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three - carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light - independent reactions in green plants is
Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three - carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain.
The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five - carbon sugar, ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three - carbon compound, glycerate 3 - phosphate, also known as 3 - phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3 - phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light - dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate. This product is also referred to as 3 - phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled '' often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids.
In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose - 1, 5 - bisphosphate carboxylase / oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO concentration in the leaves under these conditions.
Plants that use the C carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three - carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four - carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO released by decarboxylation of the four - carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three - carbon 3 - phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen - generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. C plants can produce more sugar than C plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP - carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three - carbon 3 - phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin - Benson cycle. Over 90 % of plants use C carbon fixation, compared to 3 % that use C carbon fixation; however, the evolution of C in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution.
Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C metabolism, which spatially separates the CO fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C plants, and fix the CO at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3 - phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM.
Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO − 3). Before the CO diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by RuBisCO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO − 3 ions are made from CO outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They can not cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO − 3 ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes. Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO around rubisco.
The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages:
Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3 -- 6 %. Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1 -- 2 %) re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. A fact that allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers.
Actual plants ' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1 % to 8 %. By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6 -- 20 % for mass - produced panels, and above 40 % in laboratory devices.
The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex. For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C plants. Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks. For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions.
Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction. It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together. Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO, and of ΔH O using reliable methods CO is commonly measured in μmols / m / s, parts per million or volume per million and H 0 is commonly measured in mmol / m / s or in mbars. By measuring CO assimilation, ΔH O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, "A '' or carbon assimilation, "E '' or transpiration, "gs '' or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO. However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV / FM and Y (II) or F / FM ' can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations.
Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A / Ci curves, at different CO levels, to characterize a plant 's photosynthetic response.
Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer -- gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms. While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C to replace Ci. The estimation of CO at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or C, becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g using an integrated system.
Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll - fluorescence, P700 - and P515 - absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength - dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed.
A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light - sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna - shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell 's metabolism. The exciton 's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously "choose '' the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic "hop ''. The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks.
Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth 's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time.
Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old.
The main source of oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen (O 2) in the photosynthetic reaction center.
Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes. In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time. Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive.
An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic - type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria. DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location is required for Redox Regulation.
The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth 's history, at least 2450 -- 2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier. Because the Earth 's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen. Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (> 2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already - diverse biota of blue - green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500 -- 543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. Green algae joined blue - green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251 -- 65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae.
Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century.
Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate -- much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant 's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself.
Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly "injure '' air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured '' by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.
In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley 's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours.
In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas - Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined.
Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light - dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.
Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll "a '', PSII contains primarily chlorophyll "a '' with most of the available chlorophyll "b '', among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry.
Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate - generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction is as follows:
where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved.
Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water.
Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin - Benson Cycle, Benson - Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin - Benson - Bassham (or CBB) Cycle.
Nobel Prize - winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain.
Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I - quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO, activated by the respiration.
Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series.
In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light. Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term.
After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon - 14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques. The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground - breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2 / square metere. sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50 % of sunlight. These rates were determined in potted plants grown indoors under low light intensity.
Later in 1958 - 1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2 / square meter. sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight. This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species. In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38 − 40 u mol CO2 / square meter. sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i.e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane. Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light. The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986. These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate. Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3 - carbon PGA acid. At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2 / square meter. sec. indicating the suppression of phototorespiration in C3 plants.
There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are:
The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life.
The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space.
In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity (irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation.
These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are, of course, the light - dependent ' photochemical ' temperature - independent stage, and the light - independent, temperature - dependent stage. Second, Blackman 's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, can not receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome.
As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light - independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light - independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars.
RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons:
The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light - dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide.
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what was the outcome of the evian conference | Évian conference - wikipedia
The Évian Conference was convened 6 -- 15 July 1938, at Évian - les - Bains, France, to discuss the Jewish refugee problem and the plight of the increasing numbers of Jewish refugees fleeing persecution by Nazi Germany. It was convened at the initiative of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt who perhaps hoped to obtain commitments from some of the invited nations to accept more refugees, although he took pains to avoid stating that objective expressly. Historians have suggested that Roosevelt desired to deflect attention and criticism from American policy that severely limited the quota of Jewish refugees admitted to the United States.
The conference was attended by representatives from 32 countries, and 24 voluntary organizations also attended as observers, presenting plans either orally or in writing. Golda Meir, the attendee from British Mandate Palestine, was not permitted to speak or to participate in the proceedings except as an observer. Some 200 international journalists gathered at Évian to observe and report on the meeting.
Adolf Hitler responded to the news of the conference by saying essentially that if the other nations would agree to take the Jews, he would help them leave:
I can only hope and expect that the other world, which has such deep sympathy for these criminals (Jews), will at least be generous enough to convert this sympathy into practical aid. We, on our part, are ready to put all these criminals at the disposal of these countries, for all I care, even on luxury ships.
The conference was ultimately doomed, as aside from the Dominican Republic, delegations from the 32 participating nations failed to come to any agreement about accepting the Jewish refugees fleeing the Third Reich. The conference thus inadvertently proved to be a useful propaganda tool for the Nazis.
The Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews, who were already persecuted by the Hitler regime, of their German citizenship. They were classified as "subjects '' and became stateless in their own country. By 1938, some 450,000 of about 900,000 German Jews were expelled or fled Germany, mostly to France and British Mandate Palestine, where the massive wave of migrants led to an Arab uprising. When Hitler annexed Austria in March 1938, and applied German racial laws, the 200,000 Jews of Austria became stateless.
Hitler 's expansion was accompanied by a rise in vicious and violent anti-Semitic fascist movements across Europe and the Middle East. Significantly antisemitic governments came to power in Poland (from 1935 the government boycotted its own Jewish population), Hungary and Romania, where Jews had always been second class citizens. Thus the numbers of Jews trying to leave Europe was in the millions, while Jews were perceived as an undesirable and socially damaging population with popular academic theories arguing that Jews damaged the "racial hygiene '' or "eugenics '' of nations where they were resident and engaged in conspirative behaviour.
Before the Conference the United States and Britain made a critical agreement: the British promised not to bring up the fact that the United States was not filling its immigration quotas, and any mention of Palestine as a possible destination for Jewish refugees was excluded from the agenda. Britain administered Palestine under the terms of the Mandate for Palestine.
Conference delegates expressed sympathy for Jews under Nazism but made no immediate joint resolution or commitment, portraying the conference as a mere beginning, to the frustration of some commentators. Noting "that the involuntary emigration of people in large numbers has become so great that it renders racial and religious problems more acute, increases international unrest, and may hinder seriously the processes of appeasement in international relations '', the Évian Conference established the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees (ICR) with the purpose to "approach the governments of the countries of refuge with a view to developing opportunities for permanent settlement. '' The ICR received little authority or support from its member nations and fell into inaction.
The United States sent no government official to the conference. Instead Roosevelt 's friend, the American businessman Myron C. Taylor, represented the U.S. with James G. McDonald as his advisor. The U.S. agreed that the German and Austrian immigration quota of 30,000 a year would be made available to Jewish refugees. In the three years 1938 to 1940 the US actually exceeded this quota by 10,000. During the same period Britain accepted almost the same number of German Jews. Australia agreed to take 15,000 over three years, with South Africa taking only those with close relatives already resident; Canada refused to make any commitment and only accepted a few refugees over this period. The Australian delegate T.W. White noted: "as we have no real racial problem, we are not desirous of importing one ''. The French delegate stated that France had reached "the extreme point of saturation as regards admission of refugees '', a sentiment repeated by most other representatives.
The only countries willing to accept a large number of Jews were the Dominican Republic, which offered to accept up to 100,000 refugees on generous terms, and later Costa Rica. In 1940 an agreement was signed and Rafael Trujillo donated 26,000 acres (110 km) of his properties near the town of Sosúa for settlements. The first settlers arrived in May 1940: only about 800 settlers came to Sosúa, and most later moved on to the United States. The Sosúa Virtual museum is a living memorial to the settlers.
The result of the failure of the conference was that many of the Jews had no escape and so were ultimately subject to what was known as Hitler 's "Final Solution to the Jewish Question ''. Two months after Évian, in September 1938, Britain and France granted Hitler the right to occupy the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, which made a further 120,000 Jews stateless. In November 1938, on Kristallnacht, a massive pogrom across the Third Reich was accompanied by the destruction of over 1,000 synagogues, massacres and the arbitrary arrest of tens of thousands of Jews. In March 1939, Hitler occupied the remainder of Czechoslovakia, which now took in a further 180,000 Jews, while in May 1939 the British issued the White Paper which barred Jews from entering Palestine or buying land there. Following their occupation of Poland in late 1939 and invasion of Soviet Union in 1941, the Germans embarked on a program of systematically killing all Jews in Europe. In this, the Nazis had local assistance in at least some cases. Sémelin argued that local help was virtually always required to identify and organize the removal of Jews.
In her autobiography My Life (1975), Golda Meir described her outrage being in "the ludicrous capacity of the (Jewish) observer from Palestine, not even seated with the delegates, although the refugees under discussion were my own people... '' After the conference Meir told the press: "There is only one thing I hope to see before I die and that is that my people should not need expressions of sympathy anymore. '' Chaim Weizmann was quoted in The Manchester Guardian as saying: "The world seemed to be divided into two parts -- those places where the Jews could not live and those where they could not enter. ''
In July 1979, Walter Mondale described the hope represented by the Evian conference:
"At stake at Evian were both human lives -- and the decency and self - respect of the civilized world. If each nation at Evian had agreed on that day to take in 17,000 Jews at once, every Jew in the Reich could have been saved. As one American observer wrote, ' It is heartbreaking to think of the... desperate human beings... waiting in suspense for what happens at Evian. But the question they underline is not simply humanitarian... it is a test of civilization. ' ''
The international press was represented by about two hundred journalists, chiefly the League of Nations correspondents of the leading daily and weekly newspapers and news agencies.
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where did the virginia company and plymouth company intend to set up colonies | Virginia Company - wikipedia
The Virginia Company refers collectively to two joint stock companies chartered by James I on 10 April 1606 with the goal of establishing settlements on the coast of North America. The companies were called the "Virginia Company of London '' (or the London Company) and the "Virginia Company of Plymouth '' (or the Plymouth Company); they operated with identical charters but with differing territories. An area of overlapping territory was created within which the two companies were not permitted to establish colonies within one hundred miles of each other. The Plymouth Company never fulfilled its charter, but its territory was claimed by England and became New England.
As corporations, the companies were empowered by the Crown to govern themselves, and they conferred that right onto their colonies. The Virginia Company failed in 1624, but the right to self - government was not taken from the colony. The principle was thus established that a royal colony should be self - governing, and this formed the genesis of democracy in America.
The Plymouth Company was permitted to establish settlements between the 38th and 45th parallels, roughly between the upper reaches of the Chesapeake Bay and the current U.S. - Canada border. On 13 August 1607, the Plymouth Company established the Popham Colony along the Kennebec River in present - day Maine. However, it was abandoned after about a year and the Plymouth Company became inactive. A successor company eventually established a permanent settlement in 1620 when the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts aboard the Mayflower.
By the terms of the charter, the London Company was permitted to establish a colony of 100 miles square between the 34th and 41st parallels, approximately between Cape Fear and Long Island Sound. It also owned a large portion of Atlantic Ocean and inland Canada.
On 14 May 1607, the London Company established the Jamestown Settlement about 40 miles inland along the James River, a major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay in present - day Virginia. In 1620, George Calvert asked King James I for a charter for English Catholics to add the territory of the Plymouth Company. Also in 1609, a much larger Third Supply mission was organized. A new purpose - built ship named the Sea Venture was rushed into service without the customary sea trials. She became flagship of a fleet of nine ships, with most of the leaders, food, and supplies aboard. Notable persons aboard the Sea Venture included fleet Admiral George Somers, Vice-Admiral Christopher Newport, the new governor for the Virginia Colony Sir Thomas Gates, future author William Strachey, and businessman John Rolfe with his pregnant wife.
The Third Supply convoy encountered a hurricane which lasted three days and separated the ships from one another. The Sea Venture was leaking through its new caulking, and Admiral Somers had it driven aground on a reef to avoid sinking, saving 150 men and women and several dogs, but destroying their ship. The uninhabited archipelago was officially named "The Somers Isles '' after Admiral Somers, though it was known as Bermuda. The survivors built two smaller vessels from salvaged parts of the Sea Venture which they named Deliverance and Patience. Ten months later, they continued on to Jamestown, arriving at Jamestown on 23 May 1610 but leaving several men behind on the archipelago to establish possession of it. At Jamestown, they found that over 85 % of the 500 colonists had perished during what became known as the "Starving Time ''. The Sea Venture passengers had anticipated finding a thriving colony at Jamestown and had brought little food or supplies with them. The colonists at Jamestown were saved only by the timely arrival three weeks later of a supply mission headed by Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, better known as "Lord Delaware ''.
In 1612, The London Company 's Royal Charter was officially extended to include the Somers Isles as part of the Virginia Colony. However, the isles passed to the London Company of the Somers Isles in 1615, which had been formed by the same shareholders as the London Company.
To the disappointment of its investors, the Virginia Company of London failed to discover gold or silver in Virginia. However, the company did establish trade of various types. The biggest trade breakthrough came when colonist John Rolfe introduced several sweeter strains of tobacco from the Caribbean, rather than the harsh - tasting kind native to Virginia. Rolfe 's new tobacco strains led to a strong export for the London Company and other early English colonies, and helped balance a trade deficit with Spain.
The Jamestown Massacre which devastated that colony in 1622 brought on unfavorable attention, particularly from King James I who had originally chartered the Company. There was a period of debate in Britain between Company officers who wished to guard the original charter, and those who wanted the Company to be disbanded. In 1624, the King dissolved the Company and made Virginia a royal colony.
The armorials of the "Virginian Merchants '' were: Argent, a cross gules, between four escutcheons, each regally crowned proper, the first escutcheon in the dexter chief, the arms of France and England, quarterly; the second in the sinister chief, the arms of Scotland; the third the arms of Ireland; the fourth as the first. The crest was: On a wreath of the colours, a maiden queen couped below the shoulders proper, her hair dishevelled of the last, vested and crowned with an Eastern crown or. The supporters were: Two men in complete armour, with their visors open, on their helmets three ostrich feathers argent, each charged on the breast with a cross throughout gules, and each holding in his exterior hand a lance proper. The Latin motto was: En dat Virginia quartam (quintam) ("Behold, Virginia gives a fourth (fifth) (dominion) ''), recognizing the colony 's status alongside the queen 's / king 's other three (four) dominions of England, Ireland, Scotland (and France, a heraldic fiction), and after the Acts of Union 1707, The United Kingdom.
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what's the most touchdowns thrown in an nfl game | List of NFL quarterbacks with seven touchdown passes in a game - wikipedia
In the National Football League (NFL), eight quarterbacks share the record of having thrown seven touchdown passes in a single game. Sid Luckman was the first player to accomplish the feat, doing so on November 14, 1943, while playing for the Chicago Bears. The most recent seven - touchdown game occurred on November 1, 2015, when Drew Brees did so with the New Orleans Saints. During that game the two teams ' quarterbacks combined for 13 passing touchdowns, setting another NFL record. Three quarterbacks on the list are in the Pro Football Hall of Fame: Luckman, George Blanda, and Y.A. Tittle. There was a 44 - year gap between seven - touchdown games from Joe Kapp 's in 1969 until 2013, when Peyton Manning and Nick Foles each did so just two months apart. Manning also holds the NFL records for touchdown passes in a season with 55.
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cloudy with a chance of meatballs tv show cast | Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (TV series) - wikipedia
Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (also called Cloudy: The Series) is a Canadian - American animated comedy television series produced by DHX Media and Sony Pictures Animation in association with Corus Entertainment. It is the first television series to be produced by Sony Pictures Animation. Based on the children 's book and the film series of the same name, the series was flash animated using Toon Boom Harmony. Originally commissioned by Teletoon, the series premiered in the United States on March 6, 2017, on Cartoon Network, with a sneak peek airing on February 20, 2017. In Canada, the series premiered on April 6, 2017, on YTV.
The series is a prequel, featuring the high school years of Flint Lockwood, the eccentric young scientist in the films. In his adventures, he will be joined by Sam Sparks, a new girl in town and the school 's "wannabe '' reporter, along with Flint 's dad Tim, Steve the Monkey, Manny as the head of the school 's audiovisual club, Earl as a school gym teacher, Brent as a baby wear model, and Mayor Shelbourne, who wins every election on the pro-sardine platform.
The show clarifies that when Flint and Sam met in their adulthood in the film was not their first meeting. They first met and became friends in high school. In the first episode Flint says that if Sam ever has to move away from Swallow Falls, he will invent a memory eraser, as she had moved around lots as a child and did not want the memory of another lost friendship to sadden her.
Sony Pictures Animation and Canadian family entertainment company DHX Media signed to co-produce the series in 2014, starting with 26 22 - minute episodes (52 11 - minute segments). DHX Media will handle the global television and non-U.S. home entertainment distribution, along with worldwide merchandising rights, while Sony will distribute home entertainment in the U.S. Turner Broadcasting will handle international distribution via the Cartoon Network.
Boomerang (Latin America) premiered the series on May 12, 2017 with a broadcast of the first 4 episodes, for next Friday continue with recurring releases (double episode), meanwhile Cartoon Network (Latin America) premiered the series on May 18, 2017 premiering a new episode every Thursday. Cartoon Network Australia will premiere the Cloudy With A Chance of Meatballs TV series on September 2, 2017. Cartoon Network (UK & Ireland) premiered the Cloudy With A Chance of Meatballs TV series on August 28, 2017 starting with the Episode "Who you calling Garbage! '' (S1EP5). In France, the series started broadcast on Boing from September 2017.
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where is the australian open golf tournament being held | Australian Open (golf) - wikipedia
The Australian Open, owned and run by Golf Australia, is the oldest and most prestigious golf tournament on the PGA Tour of Australasia. The Open was first played in 1904 and takes place toward the end of each year. The winner of the tournament receives the Stonehaven Cup.
The prize money is considered modest when compared to tournaments on the PGA Tour and the European Tour, however the Australian Open 's position is one of the traditional golf powers. Winners between the mid-1950s to the late 1980s included many of the most distinguished international golfers like Jack Nicklaus, Arnold Palmer and Gary Player.
The Australian Open is the "flagship tournament '' of the PGA Tour of Australasia, having a special status in the Official World Golf Ranking 's points system. This status awards a minimum 32 points to the winner regardless of the strength of the field. The tournament is also part of the OneAsia Tour which was formed in 2009.
Since the Open Qualifying Series was introduced for the 2014 Open Championship, the Australian Open has been one of the qualifying tournaments, giving up to three non-exempt players entry into the Open Championship.
In recent years American Jordan Spieth has dominated the event winning twice (2014, 2016) and finishing runner - up once (2015). England 's Lee Westwood and Northern Ireland 's Rory McIlroy are the only European golfers to have won the tournament.
(a) denotes amateur The 1985 and 2002 events were reduced to 54 holes In 2016 Spieth won the playoff with a birdie at the first extra hole. In 2008 Clark won the playoff with a par at the first extra hole. In 1997 Westwood won the playoff with a par at the fourth extra hole. In 1990 Morse won the playoff with a par at the first extra hole. In 1972 Thomson won the 18 - hole playoff 68 to 74. In 1964 Nicklaus won the 18 - hole playoff 67 to 70. In 1948 Pickworth won the 18 - hole playoff 71 to 74.
As of the 2016 event, the following golfers have won the Australian Open more than once.
Coordinates: 33 ° 55 ′ 06 '' S 151 ° 12 ′ 44 '' E / 33.9182 ° S 151.2121 ° E / - 33.9182; 151.2121
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what is the meaning behind the ballad of mona lisa | The Ballad of Mona Lisa - wikipedia
"The Ballad of Mona Lisa '' (commonly referred to as simply "Mona Lisa '') is a song by American rock band Panic! at the Disco, released February 1, 2011 as the first single from the group 's third studio album, Vices & Virtues (2011). Vocalist Brendon Urie wrote the song to express personal struggles and convictions many years prior to its official production for Vices & Virtues. The song impacted radio on February 15, 2011.
The song has received positive critical reviews upon its release.
"The Ballad of Mona Lisa '', written by lead singer Brendon Urie, was one of the first tracks composed for the band 's third album, Vices & Virtues. As a song written before the band even began recording their second album, Pretty. Odd., it proved to be an inspiration for the production of Vices & Virtues. "A few of the ideas -- like "The Ballad of Mona Lisa '', specifically -- was from an idea I had probably four years ago, before we even started touring on Pretty. Odd., and it was just sitting in my laptop collecting figurative dust on my hard drive, not really doing much, '' said Urie. "That ended up being a really good intro to the whole process. '' "I showed the band a couple times, '' said Urie, "but it just fell to the wayside, we never did anything with it. Other ideas beat it out or whatever reason it was. '' He wrote the song dealing with his own personal convictions and struggles. "On the surface it can seem like just the story of drama between a guy and a girl, '' explains Urie. "But it 's really about what I 've been going through, an inner - struggle within myself, and fighting the dualities of my personality -- the side that fucks everything up and destroys everything and the other side that tries to pick up the slack. It 's all growing pains. '' The song was also inspired by Urie 's move from Las Vegas, Nevada, where he 's lived his entire life, to Santa Monica, California with Panic! drummer Spencer Smith. Urie notes that the move was "a huge part of growing up. ''
Musically, the song is similar to those produced for the band 's debut album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (2005); however, Urie explained in a 2011 interview that the song represented more of a new beginning. Urie said "It was a new start when Spencer Smith and I started writing, so it was gon na end up sounding different, sonically. '' The music has been described as a combination of buzzsaw riffs, punchy percussion and literate, multi-layered lyrics. The song 's title is, of course, an allusion to Mona Lisa, the famous Renaissance - era oil painting by Leonardo da Vinci. The painting inspired Panic!, which pulls their style from the nostalgic romanticism of the Elizabethan and Victorian eras. In a 2011 interview, Urie regarded the name and theme of the song as neither male nor female. "That whole thing with Mona Lisa was the idea that there is this character. For us, you look at the painting, and you ca n't tell what this person is thinking. Not showing too much emotion, there 's this Mona Lisa smile masking what 's going on in that person 's head, '' he explained. "The song is about a battle in yourself (...) an inner struggle in oneself. The duality in nature, where you see yourself as a bad person, and the good person trying to correct your bad habits. That 's what it was about. We thought that would be an easy way to describe how we were masking our own emotions and trying to figure out how we can solve the bad choices we make. ''
The single was announced in the December 2010 issue of Alternative Press. The track was originally titled "Mona Lisa '', and was originally due for January 2011. On January 17, 2011, Fueled by Ramen posted a 30 - second clip of the track on their Tumblr and YouTube accounts. On January 21, 2011, the song leaked in its entirety, and Panic! at the Disco released a lyric video on YouTube on January 24, 2011. Shortly after its February 1 debut on the iTunes Store, the single shot to # 1 on iTunes ' "Top Alternative Songs '' chart, and remained a top ten favorite for the weeks following. The music video has had an even greater success: the video debuted at # 1 on iTunes ' "Top Alternative Music Videos '' ranking, having also recently entered into heavy rotation across the MTV Networks: MTV, MTV2, mtvU, MTV Hits, and Logo 's NewNowNext PopLab. The video received 120,000 streams on MTV.com within the week of its debut there and, as of 10 January 2015, has over 57,000,000 views on Fueled By Ramen 's official YouTube Channel. In Australia, "The Ballad of Mona Lisa '' held the top position on iTunes ' "Top Alternative Songs '' chart for months following its release. The single 's greatest charting success was in Australia where it reached # 21 on the ARIA singles chart, spending eleven weeks on it.
Stylistically, "The Ballad of Mona Lisa '' has been labeled as alternative rock, pop punk, pop rock, power pop, and baroque pop. The song has received positive reviews upon its release. Two journalists from Spin reviewed the song positively. William Goodman of Spin, regarding the single, described the song as "an anthemic power - rock ballad with dark and personal undertones, '' while John MacDonald, in a review of the band 's first official live show of the Vices & Virtues Tour, commented "At the Bowery, Panic! swung the song 's sinister faux - cabaret verses into an absolutely towering chorus -- one that 's destined to get blasted out of every sports bar and strip mall in the country over the next few months. '' USA Today called the track a "midtempo rocker '' in lieu of a "ballad. '' Many journalists have noted the similarities between "The Ballad of Mona Lisa '' and A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out. Prior to the song 's official release, Wendy Rollins, disc jockey for Philadelphia 's WRFF (Radio 104.5) described the song via her Twitter account as "sounding a whole lot like A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out. '' Emily Tan of AOL Music regarded the song 's sound as "bringing fans back to the sound they were introduced to when the band first broke onto the scene. '' The track was described by Alternative Press as "(having) the upbeat pop energy of A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, with the focus and clarity of Pretty. Odd. '' The song was nominated for the Kerrang! Award for Best Single.
In the UK on BBC Radio 1 the song, which was not released until 27 March was Scott Mills ' record of the week and went on to make the Radio 1 A-list on Wednesday 23 March.
"The Ballad of Mona Lisa '' re-entered the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart at # 142 upon the release of Vices & Virtues.
The video of "The Ballad of Mona Lisa '' was directed by Shane Drake (who previously directed the video for the band 's breakthrough hit "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '') and produced by Brandon Bonfiligo. The video was released on February 8, 2011, on MTV 's website shortly after midnight. In a review of the video, MTV News ' James Montgomery remarked, "In a lot of ways, "Mona Lisa '' is as much about saying goodbye to the band 's past as it is about embracing its future... which sort of makes sense, and not just because the video takes place at a wake. ''
The steampunk - themed video bears many similarities to the video for "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '', from the church setting to various camera shots (The top hat used in the clip of the dusty pews, is the same one used years prior for the music video for "I Write Sins Not Tragedies ''). The video documents the steps for preparing and displaying a body before burial in the Victorian era, from shutting the windows and covering up mirrors to laying the body out in white so loved ones could mourn. The similarities to "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' were not lost on Smith and Urie. "When we were talking about the concept, somebody had the idea to kind of tie in to the beginning of the "Sins '' video, and we realized it would work with it ", Smith said. "It was a nice homage to some of the first stuff that we had done with Shane '', Urie added. "And also, for us, mostly, it was closure. ''
The League of STEAM 's full ensemble cast appear in key roles in the video. They also brought in additional cast members to further populate the scene and create a richer atmosphere with a unified aesthetic. With a newcomer by the name of Misty Rose acting as the betrothed of the deceased in which the wake is for. In addition, The League 's Creative Director Nick Baumann acted as the production 's primary steampunk consultant. On the set for the video, shot in Newhall, California in January 2011, nods to Panic! at the Disco 's past were present, from a clock on the wall (the main one set to nine o'clock, in honor of their "Nine in the Afternoon '' video) to the dusty top hat resting on a church pew and the closing of the church 's door (recalling "I Write Sins Not Tragedies ''). Urie plays two separate characters, one "inspired by Sweeney Todd and very Johnny Depp, '' which Urie insists "was all (Shane Drake) 's direction. '' The ranch at which the video was shot was once the set for the HBO series Deadwood.
All tracks written by Brendon Urie and Spencer Smith.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what happened to business and the west during the gilded age | Gilded Age - wikipedia
The Gilded Age in United States history is the late 19th century, from the 1870s to about 1900. The term for this period came into use in the 1920s and 1930s and was derived from writer Mark Twain 's 1873 novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today, which satirized an era of serious social problems masked by a thin gold gilding. The early half of the Gilded Age roughly coincided with the middle portion of the Victorian era in Britain and the Belle Époque in France. Its beginning in the years after the American Civil War overlaps the Reconstruction Era (which ended in 1877),. It was followed in the 1890s by the Progressive Era.
The Gilded Age was an era of rapid economic growth, especially in the North and West. As American wages were much higher than those in Europe, especially for skilled workers, the period saw an influx of millions of European immigrants. The rapid expansion of industrialization led to real wage growth of 60 % between 1860 and 1890, spread across the ever - increasing labor force. The average annual wage per industrial worker (including men, women, and children) rose from $380 in 1880 to $564 in 1890, a gain of 48 %. However, the Gilded Age was also an era of abject poverty and inequality as millions of immigrants -- many from impoverished European nations -- poured into the United States, and the high concentration of wealth became more visible and contentious.
Railroads were the major growth industry, with the factory system, mining, and finance increasing in importance. Immigration from Europe and the eastern states led to the rapid growth of the West, based on farming, ranching, and mining. Labor unions became important in the very rapidly growing industrial cities. Two major nationwide depressions -- the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893 -- interrupted growth and caused social and political upheavals. The South after the Civil War remained economically devastated; its economy became increasingly tied to cotton and tobacco production, which suffered from low prices. With the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877, African - American people in the South were stripped of political power and voting rights and were left economically disadvantaged.
The political landscape was notable in that despite some corruption, turnout was very high and national elections saw two evenly matched parties. The dominant issues were cultural (especially regarding prohibition, education, and ethnic or racial groups), and economic (tariffs and money supply). With the rapid growth of cities, political machines increasingly took control of urban politics. In business, massive, powerful, and wealthy trusts formed. Unions crusaded for the 8 - hour working day and the abolition of child labor; middle class reformers demanded civil service reform, prohibition, and women 's suffrage. Local governments across the North and West built public schools chiefly at the elementary level; public high schools started to emerge. The numerous religious denominations were growing in membership and wealth, with Catholicism becoming the largest denomination. They all expanded their missionary activity to the world arena. Catholics and Lutherans set up parochial schools and the larger denominations set up numerous colleges, hospitals, and charities. Many of the problems faced by society, especially the poor, during the Gilded Age gave rise to attempted reforms in the subsequent Progressive Era.
The term "Gilded Age '' for the period of economic boom after the American Civil War up to the turn of the century was applied to the era by historians in the 1920s, who took the term from one of Mark Twain 's lesser known novels, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today (1873). The book (co-written with Charles Dudley Warner) satirized the promised ' golden age ' after the Civil War, portrayed as an era of serious social problems masked by a thin gold gilding of economic expansion. In the 1920s and 30s "Gilded Age '' became a designated period in American history. The term was adopted by literary and cultural critics as well as historians, including Van Wyck Brooks, Lewis Mumford, Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard, Vernon Louis Parrington and Matthew Josephson. For them, "Gilded Age '' was a pejorative term used to describe a time of materialistic excesses combined with extreme poverty.
The early half of the Gilded Age roughly coincided with the middle portion of the Victorian era in Britain and the Belle Époque in France. With respect to eras of American history, historical views vary as to when the Gilded Age began, ranging from starting right after the American Civil War (ended, 1865), or 1873, or as the Reconstruction Era ended in 1877. The point noted as the end of the Gilded Age also varies. It is generally given as the beginning of the Progressive Era in the 1890s (sometimes the United States presidential election of 1896) but also falls in a range that includes the Spanish -- American War in 1898, Theodore Roosevelt election in 1901, and even the U.S. entry into World War I (1917).
The Gilded Age was a period of economic growth as the United States jumped to the lead in industrialization ahead of Britain. The nation was rapidly expanding its economy into new areas, especially heavy industry like factories, railroads, and coal mining. In 1869, the First Transcontinental Railroad opened up the far - west mining and ranching regions. Travel from New York to San Francisco now took six days instead of six months. Railroad track mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and then doubled again by 1920. The new track linked formerly isolated areas with larger markets and allowed for the rise of commercial farming, ranching, and mining, creating a truly national marketplace. American steel production rose to surpass the combined totals of Britain, Germany, and France.
London and Paris poured investment money into the railroads through the American financial market centered in Wall Street. By 1900, the process of economic concentration had extended into most branches of industry -- a few large corporations, called "trusts '', dominated in steel, oil, sugar, meat, and farm machinery. Through vertical integration these trusts were able to control each aspect of the production of a specific good, ensuring that the profits made on the finished product were maximized and prices minimized, and by controlling access to the raw materials, prevented other companies from being able to compete in the marketplace. Several monopolies -- most famously Standard Oil -- came to dominate their markets by keeping prices low when competitors appeared; they grew at a rate four times faster than that of the competitive sectors.
Increased mechanization of industry is a major mark of the Gilded Age 's search for cheaper ways to create more product. Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that worker efficiency in steel could be improved through the use of very close observations with a stop watch to eliminate wasted effort. Mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under the direction of skilled foremen and engineers. Machine shops grew rapidly, and they comprised highly skilled workers and engineers. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew.
Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise. Railroads invented modern management, with clear chains of command, statistical reporting, and complex bureaucratic systems. They systematized the roles of middle managers and set up explicit career tracks. They hired young men ages 18 -- 21 and promoted them internally until a man reached the status of locomotive engineer, conductor, or station agent at age 40 or so. Career tracks were invented for skilled blue - collar jobs and for white - collar managers, starting in railroads and expanding into finance, manufacturing, and trade. Together with rapid growth of small business, a new middle class was rapidly growing, especially in northern cities.
The United States became a world leader in applied technology. From 1860 to 1890, 500,000 patents were issued for new inventions -- over ten times the number issued in the previous seventy years. George Westinghouse invented air brakes for trains (making them both safer and faster). Theodore Vail established the American Telephone & Telegraph Company and built a great communications network. Thomas Edison, in addition to inventing hundreds of devices, established the first electrical lighting utility, basing it on direct current and an efficient incandescent lamp. Electric power delivery spread rapidly across Gilded Age cities. The streets were lighted at night, and electric streetcars allowed for faster commuting to work and easier shopping.
Petroleum launched a new industry beginning with the Pennsylvania oil fields in the 1860s. The United States dominated the global industry into the 1950s. Kerosene replaced whale oil and candles for lighting homes. John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil Company and monopolized the oil industry, which mostly produced kerosene before the automobile created a demand for gasoline in the 20th century.
According to historian Henry Adams the system of railroads needed:
The impact can be examined through five aspects: shipping, finance, management, careers, and popular reaction.
First they provided a highly efficient network for shipping freight and passengers across a large national market. The result was a transforming impact on most sectors of the economy including manufacturing, retail and wholesale, agriculture, and finance. The United States now had an integrated national market practically the size of Europe, with no internal barriers or tariffs, all supported by a common language, and financial system and a common legal system.
Railroads financing provided the basis for a dramatic expansion of the private (non-governmental) financial system. Construction of railroads was far more expensive than factories. In 1860, the combined total of railroad stocks and bonds was $1.8 billion; 1897 it reached $10.6 billion (compared to a total national debt of $1.2 billion). Funding came from financiers throughout the Northeast, and from Europe, especially Britain. About 10 percent of the funding came from the government, especially in the form of land grants that could be realized when a certain amount of trackage was opened. The emerging American financial system was based on railroad bonds. New York by 1860 was the dominant financial market. The British invested heavily in railroads around the world, but nowhere more so than the United States; The total came to about $3 billion by 1914. In 1914 -- 1917, they liquidated their American assets to pay for war supplies.
Railroad management designed complex systems that could handle far more complicated simultaneous relationships than could be dreamed of by the local factory owner who could patrol every part of his own factory in a matter of hours. Civil engineers became the senior management of railroads. The leading innovators were the Western Railroad of Massachusetts and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the 1840s, the Erie in the 1850s and the Pennsylvania in the 1860s.
The railroads invented the career path in the private sector for both blue - collar workers and white - collar workers. Railroading became a lifetime career for young men; women were almost never hired. A typical career path would see a young man hired at age 18 as a shop laborer, be promoted to skilled mechanic at age 24, brakemen at 25, freight conductor at 27, and passenger conductor at age 57. White - collar careers paths likewise were delineated. Educated young men started in clerical or statistical work and moved up to station agents or bureaucrats at the divisional or central headquarters.
At each level they had more and more knowledge experience and human capital. They were very hard to replace, and were virtually guaranteed permanent jobs and provided with insurance and medical care. Hiring, firing, and wage rates were set not by foreman, but by central administrators, in order to minimize favoritism and personality conflicts. Everything was done by the book, whereby an increasingly complex set of rules dictated to everyone exactly what should be done in every circumstance, and exactly what their rank and pay would be. By the 1880s the career railroaders were retiring, and pension systems were invented for them.
America developed a love - hate relationship with railroads. Boosters in every city worked feverishly to make sure the railroad came through, knowing their urban dreams depended upon it. The mechanical size, scope, and efficiency of the railroads made a profound impression; people dressed in their Sunday best to go down to the terminal to watch the train come in. Travel became much easier, cheaper, and more common. Shoppers from small towns could make day trips to big city stores. Hotels, resorts, and tourist attractions were built to accommodate the demand. The realization that anyone could buy a ticket for a thousand - mile trip was empowering. Historians Gary Cross and Rick Szostak argue:
The engineers became model citizens, bringing their can - do spirit and their systematic work effort to all phases of the economy as well as local and national government. By 1910, major cities were building magnificent palatial railroad stations, such as the Pennsylvania Station in New York City, and the Union Station in Washington DC.
But there was also a dark side. By the 1870s, railroads were vilified by Western farmers who absorbed the Granger movement theme that monopolistic carriers controlled too much pricing power, and that the state legislatures had to impose maximum prices. Local merchants and shippers supported the demand and got some "Granger Laws '' passed. Anti-railroad complaints were loudly repeated in late 19th century political rhetoric.
The most hated railroad man in the country was Collis P. Huntington (1821 -- 1900), the president of the Southern Pacific Railroad who dominated California 's economy and politics. One textbook argues: "Huntington came to symbolize the greed and corruption of late - nineteenth - century business. Business rivals and political reformers accused him of every conceivable evil. Journalists and cartoonists made their reputations by pillorying him... Historians have cast Huntington as the state 's most despicable villain. '' However Huntington defended himself: "The motives back of my actions have been honest ones and the results have redounded far more to the benefit of California than they have to my own. ''
The growth of railroads from 1850s to 1880s made commercial farming much more feasible and profitable. Millions of acres were opened to settlement once the railroad was nearby, and provided a long - distance outlet for wheat, cattle and hogs that reached all the way to Europe. Rural America became one giant market, as wholesalers bought the consumer products produced by the factories in the East, and shipped them to local merchants in small stores nationwide. Shipping live animals was slow and expensive. It was more efficient to slaughter them in major packing centers such as Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, Milwaukee, and Cincinnati, and then ship dressed meat out in refrigerated freight cars. The cars were cooled by slabs of ice that had been harvested from the northern lakes in wintertime, and stored for summer and fall usage. Chicago, the main railroad center, benefited enormously, with Kansas City a distant second. Historian William Cronon concludes:
During the 1870s and 1880s, the U.S. economy rose at the fastest rate in its history, with real wages, wealth, GDP, and capital formation all increasing rapidly. For example, between 1865 and 1898, the output of wheat increased by 256 %, corn by 222 %, coal by 800 % and miles of railway track by 567 %. Thick national networks for transportation and communication were created. The corporation became the dominant form of business organization, and a scientific management revolution transformed business operations.
By the beginning of the 20th century, gross domestic product and industrial production in the United States led the world. Kennedy reports that "U.S. national income, in absolute figures in per capita, was so far above everybody else 's by 1914. '' Per capita income in the United States was $377 in 1914 compared to Britain in second place at $244, Germany at $184, France at $153, and Italy at $108, while Russia and Japan trailed far behind at $41 and $36.
Europe, especially Britain, remained the financial center of the world until 1914, yet the United States ' growth caused foreigners to ask, as British author W.T. Stead wrote in 1901, "What is the secret of American success? '' The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and hired an ethnically diverse industrial working class, many of them new immigrants from Europe.
Wealthy industrialists and financiers such as John D. Rockefeller, Jay Gould, Henry Clay Frick, Andrew W. Mellon, Andrew Carnegie, Henry Flagler, Henry H. Rogers, J.P. Morgan, Leland Stanford, Meyer Guggenheim, Jacob Schiff, Charles Crocker, Cornelius Vanderbilt would sometimes be labeled "robber barons '' by their critics, who argue their fortunes were made at the expense of the working class, by chickanery and a betrayal of democracy. Their admirers argued that they were "Captains of industry '' who built the core America industrial economy and also the non-profit sector through acts of philanthropy. For instance, Andrew Carnegie donated over 90 % of his wealth and said that philanthropy was their duty -- the "Gospel of Wealth ''. Private money endowed thousands of colleges, hospitals, museums, academies, schools, opera houses, public libraries, and charities. John D. Rockefeller donated over $500 million to various charities, slightly over half his entire net worth. Nevertheless, many business leaders were influenced by Herbert Spencer 's theory of Social Darwinism, which justified laissez - faire capitalism, ruthless competition and social stratification.
This emerging industrial economy quickly expanded to meet the new market demands. From 1869 to 1879, the U.S. economy grew at a rate of 6.8 % for NNP (GDP minus capital depreciation) and 4.5 % for NNP per capita. The economy repeated this period of growth in the 1880s, in which the wealth of the nation grew at an annual rate of 3.8 %, while the GDP was also doubled. Economist Milton Friedman states that for the 1880s, "The highest decadal rate (of growth of real reproducible, tangible wealth per head from 1805 to 1950) for periods of about ten years was apparently reached in the eighties with approximately 3.8 percent. ''
The rapid expansion of industrialization led to real wage growth of 60 % between 1860 and 1890, spread across the ever - increasing labor force. Real wages (adjusting for inflation) rose steadily, with the exact percentage increase depending on the dates and the specific work force. The Census Bureau reported in 1892 that the average annual wage per industrial worker (including men, women, and children) rose from $380 in 1880 to $564 in 1890, a gain of 48 %. Economic historian Clarence D. Long estimates that (in terms of constant 1914 dollars), the average annual incomes of all American non-farm employees rose from $375 in 1870 to $395 in 1880, $519 in 1890 and $573 in 1900, a gain of 53 % in 30 years.
Australian historian Peter Shergold found that the standard of living for industrial workers was higher than in Europe. He compared wages and the standard of living in Pittsburgh with Birmingham, England, one of the richest industrial cities of Europe. After taking account of the cost of living (which was 65 % higher in the U.S.), he found the standard of living of unskilled workers was about the same in the two cities, while skilled workers in Pittsburgh had about 50 % to 100 % higher standard of living as those in Birmingham, England. According to Shergold the American advantage grew over time from 1890 to 1914, and the perceived higher American wage led to a heavy steady flow of skilled workers from Britain to industrial America. According to historian Steve Fraser, workers generally earned less than $800 a year, which kept them mired in poverty. Workers had to put in roughly 60 hours a week to earn this much.
Wage labor was widely condemned as ' wage slavery ' in the working class press, and labor leaders almost always used the phrase in their speeches. As the shift towards wage labor gained momentum, working class organizations became more militant in their efforts to "strike down the whole system of wages for labor. '' In 1886, economist and New York Mayoral candidate Henry George, author of Progress and Poverty, stated "Chattel slavery is dead, but industrial slavery remains. ''
The unequal distribution of wealth remained high during this period. From 1860 to 1900, the wealthiest 2 % of American households owned more than a third of the nation 's wealth, while the top 10 % owned roughly three fourths of it. The bottom 40 % had no wealth at all. In terms of property, the wealthiest 1 % owned 51 %, while the bottom 44 % claimed 1.1 %. Historian Howard Zinn argues that this disparity along with precarious working and living conditions for the working classes prompted the rise of populist, anarchist, and socialist movements. French economist Thomas Piketty notes that economists during this time, such as Willford I. King, were concerned that the United States was becoming increasingly in - egalitarian to the point of becoming like old Europe, and "further and further away from its original pioneering ideal. ''
There was a significant human cost attached to this period of economic growth, as American industry had the highest rate of accidents in the world. In 1889, railroads employed 704,000 men, of whom 20,000 were injured and 1,972 were killed on the job. The U.S. was also the only industrial power to have no workman 's compensation program in place to support injured workers.
Craft - oriented labor unions, such as carpenters, printers, shoemakers and cigar makers, grew steadily in the industrial cities after 1870. These unions used frequent short strikes as a method to attain control over the labor market, and fight off competing unions. They generally blocked women, blacks and Chinese from union membership, but welcomed most European immigrants.
The railroads had their own separate unions. An especially large episode of unrest (estimated at eighty thousand railroad workers and several hundred thousand other Americans, both employed and unemployed) broke out during the economic depression of the 1870s and became known as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, which was, according to historian Jack Beatty, "the largest strike anywhere in the world in the 19th century. '' This strike did not involve labor unions, but rather uncoordinated outbursts in numerous cities. The strike and associated riots lasted 45 days and resulted in the deaths of several hundred participants (no police or soldiers were killed), several hundred more injuries, and millions in damages to railroad property. The unrest was deemed severe enough by the government that President Rutherford B. Hayes intervened with federal troops.
Starting in the mid-1880s a new group, the Knights of Labor, grew rapidly. Too rapidly, for it spun out of control and failed to handle the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886. The Knights avoided violence, but their reputation collapsed in the wake of the Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago in 1886, when anarchists allegedly bombed the policemen dispersing a meeting. Police then randomly fired into the crowd, killing and wounding a number of people, including other police, and arbitrarily rounded up anarchists, including leaders of the movement. Seven anarchists went on trial; four were hanged even though no evidence directly linked them to the bombing. One had in his possession a Knights of Labor membership card. At its peak, the Knights claimed 700,000 members. By 1890, membership had plummeted to fewer than 100,000, then faded away.
Strikes organized by labor unions became routine events by the 1880s as the gap between the rich and the poor widened. There were 37,000 strikes between 1881 and 1905. By far the largest number were in the building trades, followed far behind by coal miners. The main goal was control of working conditions and settling which rival union was in control. Most were of very short duration. In times of depression strikes were more violent but less successful, because the company was losing money anyway. They were successful in times of prosperity when the company was losing profits and wanted to settle quickly.
The largest and most dramatic strike was the 1894 Pullman Strike, a coordinated effort to shut down the national railroad system. The strike was led by the upstart American Railway Union led by Eugene V. Debs and was not supported by the established brotherhoods. The union defied federal court orders to stop blocking the mail trains, so President Cleveland used the U.S. Army to get the trains moving again. The ARU vanished and the traditional railroad brotherhoods survived, but avoided strikes.
The new American Federation of Labor, headed by Samuel Gompers, found the solution. The AFL was a coalition of unions, each based on strong local chapters; the AFL coordinated their work in cities and prevented jurisdictional battles. Gompers repudiated socialism and abandoned the violent nature of the earlier unions. The AFL worked to control the local labor market, thereby empowering its locals to obtain higher wages and more control over hiring. As a result, the AFL unions spread to most cities, reaching a peak membership in 1919.
Severe economic recessions -- called "panics '' -- struck the nation in the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893. They lasted several years, with high urban unemployment, low incomes for farmers, low profits for business, slow overall growth, and reduced immigration. They generated political unrest.
Gilded Age politics, called the Third Party System, featured intense competition between two major parties, with minor parties coming and going, especially on issues of concern to prohibitionists, to labor unions and to farmers. The Democrats and Republicans (nicknamed the "Grand Old Party, '' GOP) fought over control of offices, which were the rewards for party activists, as well as over major economic issues. Very high voter turnout often exceeded 80 % or even 90 % in some states as the parties drilled their loyal members much as an army drills its soldiers.
Competition was intense and elections were very close. In the southern states, lingering resentment over the Civil War remained and meant that much of the South would vote Democrat. After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, competition in the South took place mainly inside the Democratic Party. Nationwide, turnout fell sharply after 1900.
The major metropolitan centers underwent rapid population growth and as a result had many lucrative contracts and jobs to award. To take advantage of the new economic opportunity, both parties built so - called "political machines '' to manage elections, to reward supporters and to pay off potential opponents. Financed by the "spoils system '', the winning party distributed most local, state and national government jobs, and many government contracts, to its loyal supporters.
Large cities became dominated by political machines in which constituents supported a candidate in exchange for anticipated patronage. These votes would be repaid with favors back from the government once the appropriate candidate was elected; and very often candidates were selected based on their willingness to play along with the spoils system. Perhaps the largest example of a political machine from this time period is Tammany Hall in New York City, led by Boss Tweed.
Political corruption was rampant, as business leaders spent significant amounts of money ensuring that government did not regulate the activities of big business - and they more often than not got what they wanted. Such corruption was so commonplace that in 1868 the New York state legislature legalized such bribery. Historian Howard Zinn argues that the U.S. government was acting exactly as Karl Marx described capitalist states: "pretending neutrality to maintain order, but serving the interests of the rich ''.
Major scandal reached into Congress with the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal of 1872, and disgraced the White House during the Grant Administration (1869 -- 1877). This corruption divided the Republican party into two different factions: the Stalwarts led by Roscoe Conkling and the Half - Breeds led by James G. Blaine. There was a sense that government - enabled political machines intervened in the economy and that the resulting favoritism, bribery, inefficiency, waste, and corruption were having negative consequences. Accordingly, there were widespread calls for reform, such as Civil Service Reform led by the Bourbon Democrats and Republican Mugwumps. In 1884, their support elected Democrat Grover Cleveland to the White House, and in doing so gave the Democrats their first national victory since 1856.
The Bourbon Democrats supported a free - market policy, with low tariffs, low taxes, less spending and, in general, a laissez - faire (hands - off) government. They argued that tariffs made most goods more expensive for the consumer and subsidized "the trusts '' (monopolies). They also denounced imperialism and overseas expansion. By contrast, Republicans insisted that national prosperity depended on industry that paid high wages, and warned that lowering the tariff would bring disaster because goods from low - wage European factories would flood American markets.
Presidential elections between the two major parties were so closely contested that a slight nudge could tip the election in the advantage of either party, and Congress was marked by political stalemate. With support from Union veterans, businessmen, professionals, craftsmen, and larger farmers, the Republicans consistently carried the North in presidential elections. The Democrats, often led by Irish Catholics, had a base among Catholics, poorer farmers, and traditional party - members.
Some sources consider that America in the Gilded Age was led by a string of relatively weak presidents collectively referred to as the "forgettable presidents '' (Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur and Harrison, with the possible exception of Cleveland) who served in the White House during this period. "What little political vitality existed in Gilded Age America was to be found in local settings or in Congress, which overshadowed the White House for most of this period. ''
Overall, Republican and Democratic political platforms remained remarkably constant during the years before 1900. Republicans generally favored inflationary, protectionist policies, while Democrats favored hard - money, free trade, and other laissez - faire policies.
From 1860 to the early 20th century, the Republicans took advantage of the association of the Democrats with "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion ''. "Rum '' stood for the liquor interests and the tavernkeepers, in contrast to the GOP, which had a strong dry element. "Romanism '' meant Roman Catholics, especially Irish Americans, who ran the Democratic Party in most cities, and whom the reformers denounced for political corruption and their separate parochial - school system. "Rebellion '' harked back to the Democrats of the Confederacy, who had tried to break the Union in 1861, as well as to their northern allies, called "Copperheads. ''
Demographic trends boosted the Democratic totals, as the German and Irish Catholic immigrants became Democrats and outnumbered the English and Scandinavian Republicans. The new immigrants who arrived after 1890 seldom voted at this time. During the 1880s and 1890s, the Republicans struggled against the Democrats ' efforts, winning several close elections and losing two to Grover Cleveland (in 1884 and 1892).
Religious lines were sharply drawn. In the North, about 50 % of the voters were pietistic Protestants (especially Methodists, Scandinavian Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Disciples of Christ) who believed in using the government to reduce social sins, such as drinking. They strongly supported the GOP, as the table shows. In sharp contrast, liturgical groups, especially the Catholics, Episcopalians, and German Lutherans, voted for the Democrats. They saw the Democratic party as their best protection from the moralism of the pietists, and especially from the threat of prohibition. Both parties cut across the class structure, with the Democrats more bottom - heavy and the GOP better represented among businessmen and professionals in the North.
Many cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign - language schools, became hard - fought political issues because of the deep religious divisions in the electorate. For example, in Wisconsin the Republicans tried to close down German - language Catholic and Lutheran parochial schools, and were defeated in 1890 when the Bennett Law was put to the test.
Prohibition debates and referendums heated up politics in most states over a period of decades, as national prohibition was finally passed in 1919 (and repealed in 1933), serving as a major issue between the wet Democrats and the dry GOP.
Prior to the Gilded Age, the time commonly referred to as the old immigration saw the first real boom of new arrivals to the United States. During the Gilded Age, approximately 20 million immigrants came to the United States in what is known as the new immigration. Some of them were prosperous farmers who had the cash to buy land and tools in the Plains states especially. Many were poor peasants looking for the American Dream in unskilled manual labor in mills, mines, and factories. Few immigrants went to the poverty - stricken South, though. To accommodate the heavy influx, the federal government in 1892 opened a reception center at Ellis Island near the Statue of Liberty.
These immigrants consisted of two groups: The last big waves of the "Old Immigration '' from Germany, Britain, Ireland, and Scandinavia, and the rising waves of the "New Immigration '', which peaked about 1910. Some men moved back and forth across the Atlantic, but most were permanent settlers. They moved into well - established communities, both urban and rural. The German American communities spoke German, but their younger generation was bilingual. The Scandinavian groups generally assimilated quickly; they were noted for their support of reform programs, such as prohibition.
In terms of immigration, after 1880 the old immigration of Germans, British, Irish, and Scandinavians slackened off. The United States was producing large numbers of new unskilled jobs every year, and to fill them came number from Italy, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Russia, Greece, and other points in southern and central Europe, as well as French Canada. The older immigrants by the 1870s had formed highly stable communities, especially the German Americans. The British immigrants tended to blend into the general population.
Irish Catholics had arrived in large numbers in the 1840s and 1850s in the wake of the great famine in Ireland when starvation killed millions. Their first few decades were characterized by extreme poverty, social dislocation, crime and violence in their slums. By the late 19th century, the Irish communities had largely stabilized, with a strong new "lace curtain '' middle - class of local businessmen, professionals, and political leaders typified by P.J. Kennedy (1858 -- 1929) in Boston. In economic terms, Irish Catholics were nearly at the bottom in the 1850s. They reached the national average by 1900, and by the late 20th century they far surpassed the national average.
In political terms, the Irish Catholics comprised a major element in the leadership of the urban Democratic machines across the country. Although they were only a third of the total Catholic population, the Irish also dominated the Catholic Church, producing most of the bishops, college presidents, and leaders of charitable organizations. The network of Catholic institutions provided high status, but low - paying lifetime careers to sisters and nuns in parochial schools, hospitals, orphanages and convents. They were part of an international Catholic network, with considerable movement back and forth from Ireland, England, France, Germany and Canada.
The "New Immigration '' were much poorer peasants and rural folk from southern and eastern Europe, including mostly Italians, Poles and Jews. Some men, especially the Italians and Greeks, saw themselves as temporary migrants who planned to return to their home villages with a nest egg of cash earned in long hours of unskilled labor. Others, especially the Jews, had been driven out of Eastern Europe and had no intention of returning.
Historians analyze the causes of immigration in terms of push factors (pushing people out of the homeland) and pull factors (pulling them to America). The push factors included economic dislocation, shortages of land, and antisemitism. Pull factors were the economic opportunity of good inexpensive farmland or jobs in factories, mills and mines.
The first generation typically lived in ethnic enclaves with a common language, food, religion, and connections through the old village. The sheer numbers caused overcrowding in tenements in the larger cities. In the small mill towns, however, management usually built company housing with cheap rents.
Asian immigrants -- Chinese at this time -- were hired by California construction companies for temporary railroad work. The European Americans strongly disliked the Chinese for their alien life - styles and threat of low wages. The construction of the Central Pacific Railroad from California to Utah was handled largely by Chinese laborers. In the 1870 census, there were 63,000 Chinese men (with a few women) in the entire U.S.; this number grew to 106,000 in 1880. Labor unions, led by Samuel Gompers strongly opposed the presence of Chinese labor. Immigrants from China were not allowed to become citizens until 1950; however, as a result of the Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark, their children born in the U.S. were full citizens.
Congress banned further Chinese immigration through the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882; the act prohibited Chinese laborers from entering the United States, but some students and businessmen were allowed in on a temporary basis. The Chinese population declined to only 37,000 in 1940. Although many returned to China (a greater proportion than most other immigrant groups), most of them stayed in the United States. Chinese people were unwelcome in urban neighborhoods, so they resettled in the "Chinatown '' districts of large cities. The exclusion policy lasted until the 1940s.
A dramatic expansion in farming took place during the Gilded Age, with the number of farms tripling from 2.0 million in 1860 to 6.0 million in 1905. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. The value of farms soared from $8.0 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906.
The federal government issued 160 - acre (65 ha) tracts virtually free to settlers under the Homestead Act of 1862. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads, which were trying to create markets. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over, at low fares, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany, Scandinavia and Britain.
Despite their remarkable progress and general prosperity, 19th - century U.S. farmers experienced recurring cycles of hardship, caused primarily by falling world prices for cotton and wheat.
Along with the mechanical improvements which greatly increased yield per unit area, the amount of land under cultivation grew rapidly throughout the second half of the century, as the railroads opened up new areas of the West for settlement. The wheat farmers enjoyed abundant output and good years from 1876 to 1881 when bad European harvests kept the world price high. They then suffered from a slump in the 1880s when conditions in Europe improved. The farther west the settlers went, the more dependent they became on the monopolistic railroads to move their goods to market, and the more inclined they were to protest, as in the Populist movement of the 1890s. Wheat farmers blamed local grain elevator owners (who purchased their crop), railroads and eastern bankers for the low prices.
The first organized effort to address general agricultural problems was the Grange movement. Launched in 1867, by employees of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Granges focused initially on social activities to counter the isolation most farm families experienced. Women 's participation was actively encouraged. Spurred by the Panic of 1873, the Grange soon grew to 20,000 chapters and 1.5 million members. The Granges set up their own marketing systems, stores, processing plants, factories and cooperatives. Most went bankrupt. The movement also enjoyed some political success during the 1870s. A few Midwestern states passed "Granger Laws '', limiting railroad and warehouse fees.
American society experienced significant changes in the period following the Civil War, most notably the rapid urbanization of the North. Due to the increasing demand for unskilled workers, most European immigrants went to mill towns, mining camps, and industrial cities. New York, Philadelphia, and especially Chicago saw rapid growth. Louis Sullivan became a noted architect using steel frames to construct skyscrapers for the first time while pioneering the idea of "form follows function ''. Chicago became the center of the skyscraper craze, starting with the ten - story Home Insurance Building in 1884 -- 1885 by William Le Baron Jenney.
Expansion required a better transportation system than horse - drawn street cars. Electric trolleys and street railways were the rage in the 1880s, followed by elevated railways and subways in the largest cities. Most factory workers, however, lived in nearby tenements and walked to work. As immigration increased in cities, poverty rose as well. The poorest crowded into low - cost housing such as the Five Points and Hell 's Kitchen neighborhoods in Manhattan. These areas were quickly overridden with notorious criminal gangs such as the Five Points Gang and the Bowery Boys. The living conditions were as such that the death rates in these crowded urban tenements vastly exceeded those in the countryside.
The South remained heavily rural and was much poorer than the North or West. In the South, Reconstruction brought major changes in agricultural practices. The most significant of these was sharecropping, where tenant farmers "shared '' up to half of their crop with the landowners, in exchange for seed and essential supplies. About 80 % of the Black farmers and 40 % of White ones lived under this system after the Civil War. Most sharecroppers were locked in a cycle of debt, from which the only hope of escape was increased planting. This led to the over-production of cotton and tobacco (and thus to declining prices and income), soil exhaustion, and poverty among both landowners and tenants.
Agriculture 's Share of the Labor Force, 1890
There were only a few scattered cities - small courthouse towns serviced the farm population. Local politics revolved around the politicians and lawyers based at the courthouse. Mill towns, narrowly focused on textile production or cigarette manufacture, began opening in the Piedmont region especially in the Carolinas. Racial segregation and outward signs of inequality were everywhere, and rarely were challenged. Blacks who violated the color line were liable to expulsion or lynching. Cotton became even more important than before, as poor whites needed the cash that cotton would bring. Cotton prices were much lower than before the war, so everyone was poor. White southerners showed a reluctance to move north, or to move to cities, so the number of small farms proliferated, and they became smaller as the population grew.
Many of the White farmers, and most of the Blacks, were tenant farmers who owned their work animals and tools, and rented the land. Others were day laborers or very poor sharecroppers, who worked under the supervision of the landowner. There was little cash in circulation, because most farmers operated on credit accounts from local merchants, and paid off their debts at cotton harvest time in the fall. Although there were small country churches everywhere, there were only a few dilapidated elementary schools. Apart from private academies, there were very few high schools until the 1920s. Conditions were marginally better in newer areas, especially in Texas and central Florida, with the deepest poverty in South Carolina, Mississippi, and Arkansas.
The vast majority of African Americans lived in the South, and as the promises of emancipation and reconstruction faded, they entered the nadir of race relations. Every Southern state and city passed Jim Crow laws that were in effect between the late 19th century and 1964, when they were abolished by Congress. They mandated de jure (legal) segregation in all public facilities, such as stores and street cars, with a supposedly "separate but equal '' status for Blacks. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were dramatically inferior to those provided for White Americans, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages. Schools for Blacks were far fewer and poorly supported by taxpayers, although Northern philanthropies and churches kept open dozens of academies and small colleges.
In the face of years of mounting violence and intimidation directed at blacks during Reconstruction, the federal government was unable to guarantee constitutional protections to freedmen and women. In the Compromise of 1877 President Hayes withdrew Union troops from the South; "Redeemers '' (White Democrats) acted quickly to reverse the groundbreaking advances of Reconstruction. Black political power was eliminated in the 1880s and in the 1890s new laws effectively blocked over 90 % of the Blacks from voting (with some exceptions in Tennessee; blacks did vote in the border states).
In 1869, the First Transcontinental Railroad -- a combination of the Union Pacific from Omaha to Utah and the Central Pacific from Utah to California -- opened up the far west mining and ranching regions. Travel from New York to San Francisco now took six days instead of six months.
After the Civil War, many from the East Coast and Europe were lured west by reports from relatives and by extensive advertising campaigns promising "the Best Prairie Lands '', "Low Prices '', "Large Discounts For Cash '', and "Better Terms Than Ever! ''. The new railroads provided the opportunity for migrants to go out and take a look, with special family tickets, the cost of which could be applied to land purchases offered by the railroads. Farming the plains was indeed more difficult than back east.
Water management was more critical, lightning fires were more prevalent, the weather was more extreme, rainfall was less predictable. The fearful stayed home, while migrants were mainly motivated by a search improve their economic life. Farmers sought larger, cheaper and more fertile land; merchants and tradesman sought new customers and new leadership opportunities. Laborers wanted higher paying work and better conditions. With the Homestead Act providing free land to citizens and the railroads selling cheap lands to European farmers, the settlement of the Great Plains was swiftly accomplished, and the frontier had virtually ended by 1890.
Native American policy was set by the national government (the states had very little role), and after 1865 the national policy was that Native Americans either had to assimilate into the larger community or remain on reservations, where the government provided subsidies. Reservation natives were no longer allowed to roam or fight their traditional enemies. The U.S. Army was to enforce the laws. Natives of the West came in conflict with expansion by miners, ranchers and settlers. By 1880, the buffalo herds, a foundation for the hunting economy had disappeared. Violence petered out in the 1880s and practically ceased after 1890.
Native Americans individually had the choice of living on reservations, with food, supplies, education and medical care provided by the federal government, or living on their own in the larger society and earning wages, typically as a cowboy on a ranch, or manual worker in town. Reformers wanted to give as many Native Americans as possible the opportunity to own and operate their own farms and ranches, so the issue was how to give individual natives land owned by the tribe. To assimilate the natives into American society, reformers set up training programs and schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, that produced many prominent Native American leaders. however, anti-assimilation traditionalists on the reservations resisted integration and the resulting loss of their traditional life.
In 1887, the Dawes Act proposed to divide tribal land and parcel out 160 acres (0.65 km2) of land to each head of family. Such allotments were to be held in trust by the government for 25 years, then given to owners with full title, so they could sell it or mortgage it. As individual natives sold their land, the total held by the native community shrank by almost half. The individualized system undermined the traditional communal tribal organization. Furthermore, a majority of natives responded to intense missionary activity by converting to Christianity. The long - term goal of Dawes Act was to integrate natives into the mainstream; the majority accepted integration and were absorbed into American society, leaving a trace of native ancestry in millions of American families. Those who refused to assimilate remained in poverty on reservations, supported until now by Federal food, medicine and schooling. In 1934, national policy was reversed again by the Indian Reorganization Act which tried to protect tribal and communal life on reservations.
Few single men attempted to operate a farm; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard - working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child - rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, and feeding the hired hands. During the early years of settlement, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement was promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in schools.
Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and the bleakness of farm life, in reality rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. For example, many joined a local branch of the Grange; a majority had ties to local churches. It was popular to organize activities that combined practical work, abundant food, and simple entertainment such as barn raisings, corn huskings, and quilting bees. One could keep busy with scheduled Grange meetings, church services, and school functions. Women organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.
Childhood on western farms is contested territory. One group of scholars argues the rural environment was salubrious because it allowed children to break loose from urban hierarchies of age and gender, promoted family interdependence, and produced children who were more self - reliant, mobile, adaptable, responsible, independent and more in touch with nature than their urban or eastern counterparts. However other historians offer a grim portrait of loneliness, privation, abuse, and demanding physical labor from an early age.
Some well - known painters of the Gilded Age include: Winslow Homer, Thomas Eakins, John Singer Sargent, Mary Cassatt, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Childe Hassam, John Henry Twachtman and Maurice Prendergast.
The New York Art world took a major turn during the Gilded age, seeing an outgrowth of exhibitions and the establishment of major auction houses with a focus on American Art. The Gilded Age was pivotal in establishing the New York Art world in the international art market.
New York Art Galleries, Clubs, and Associations During the Gilded Age
During the Gilded Age, many new social movements took hold in the United States. Many women abolitionists who were disappointed that the Fifteenth Amendment did not extend voting rights to them, remained active in politics, this time focusing on issues important to them. Reviving the temperance movement from the Second Great Awakening, many women joined the Women 's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in an attempt to bring morality back to America. Its chief leader was Frances Willard (1839 - 1898), who had a national and international outreach from her base in Evanston, Illinois. Often the WCTU women took up the issue of women 's suffrage which had lain dormant since the Seneca Falls Convention. With leaders like Susan B. Anthony, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was formed in order to secure the right of women to vote.
Many young women worked as servants or in shops and factories until marriage, then typically became full - time housewives. However, black, Irish and Swedish adult women often worked as servants. In most large Northern cities, the Irish Catholic women dominated the market for servants. Heavy industry was a male domain, but in light industries such as textiles and food processing, large numbers of young women were hired. Thousands of young unmarried Irish and French Canadian women worked in Northeastern textile mills. Coming from poor families these jobs meant upward social mobility, more money, and more social prestige in their community that made them more attractive marriage partners. In Cohoes, New York, mill women went on strike in 1882 to gain union recognition. They fought off Swedish strike breakers in order to protect the status they had achieved.
After 1860, as the larger cities opened department stores, middle - class women did most of the shopping; increasingly they were served by young middle - class women clerks. Typically, most young women quit their jobs when they married. In some ethnic groups, however, married women were encouraged to work, especially among African - Americans, and Irish Catholics. When the husband operated a small shop or restaurant, wives and other family members could find employment there. Widows and deserted wives often operated boarding houses.
Career women were few. The teaching profession had once been heavily male, but as schooling expanded many women took on teaching careers. If they remained unmarried they could have a prestigious but poorly paid lifetime career in the middle class. At the end of the period nursing schools opened up new opportunities for women, but medical schools remained nearly all male.
Business opportunities were rare, unless it was a matter of a widow taking over her late husband 's small business. However the rapid acceptance of the sewing machine made housewives more productive and opened up new careers for women running their own small millinery and dressmaking shops. When her husband died, Lydia Moss Bradley (1816 -- 1908) inherited $500,000; shrewd investments doubled that sum and she later became president of his old bank in Peoria, Illinois. She worked from home to handle banking business. In an age when philanthropists such as Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Purdue, Vanderbilt, Stanford, Rice and Duke were perpetuating their names by founding universities, she lifted her aspirations from the original idea of an orphanage to the loftier goal and in 1897 founded Bradley University in Peoria.
A leading magazine, The Nation espoused Classical liberalism every week starting in 1865, under the influential editor E.L. Godkin (1831 -- 1902).
Science played an important part in social thought as the work of Charles Darwin became known among intellectuals. Following Darwin 's idea of natural selection, English philosopher Herbert Spencer proposed the idea of social Darwinism. This new concept justified the stratification of the wealthy and poor, and it was in this proposal that Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest. ''
Joining Spencer was Yale professor William Graham Sumner whose book What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1884) argued that assistance to the poor actually weakens their ability to survive in society. Sumner argued for a laissez - faire and free - market economy. Few people, however, agreed with the social Darwinists, because they ridiculed religion and denounced philanthropy.
Henry George proposed a "single tax '' in his book Progress and Poverty. The tax would be leveled on the rich and poor alike, with the excess money collected used to equalize wealth and level out society.
The Norwegian American economist Thorstein Veblen argued in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) that the "conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure '' of the wealthy had become the basis of social status in America.
In Looking Backward (1887), the reformer Edward Bellamy envisioned a future America set in the year 2000 in which a socialist paradise has been established. The works of authors such as George and Bellamy became popular, and soon clubs were created across America to discuss their ideas, although these organizations rarely made any real social change.
The Third Great Awakening which began before the Civil War returned and made a significant change in religious attitudes toward social progress. Followers of the new Awakening promoted the idea of the Social Gospel which gave rise to organizations such as the YMCA, the American branch of the Salvation Army, and settlement houses such as Hull House, founded by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889.
The Third Great Awakening was a period of religious activism in American history from the late 1850s to the 20th century. It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong sense of social activism. It gathered strength from the postmillennial theology that the Second Coming of Christ would come after mankind had reformed the entire earth. The Social Gospel movement gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness movement and Nazarene movements, Theosophy and Christian Science.
The Protestant mainline denominations (especially the Methodist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Congregational churches) grew rapidly in numbers, wealth and educational levels, throwing off their frontier beginnings and becoming centered in towns and cities. Leaders such as Josiah Strong advocated a muscular Christianity with systematic outreach to the unchurched in America and around the globe. Others built colleges and universities to train the next generation. Each denomination supported active missionary societies, and made the role of missionary one of high prestige. The great majority of pietistic mainline Protestants (in the North) supported the Republican Party, and urged it to endorse prohibition and social reforms. (see Third Party System)
The Awakening in numerous cities in 1858 was interrupted by the American Civil War. In the South; on the other hand, the Civil War stimulated revivals and strengthened the Baptists, especially. After the war, Dwight L. Moody made revivalism the centerpiece of his activities in Chicago by founding the Moody Bible Institute. The hymns of Ira Sankey were especially influential.
Across the nation, "drys '' crusaded, in the name of religion, for the prohibition of alcohol. The Woman 's Christian Temperance Union mobilized Protestant women for social crusades against not only liquor, but also pornography and prostitution, and sparked the demand for women 's suffrage.
The Gilded Age plutocracy came under harsh attack from the Social Gospel preachers and reformers in the Progressive Era who became involved with issues of child labor, compulsory elementary education and the protection of women from exploitation in factories.
All the major denominations sponsored growing missionary activities inside the United States and around the world.
Colleges associated with churches rapidly expanded in number, size and quality of curriculum. The promotion of muscular Christianity became popular among young men on campus and in urban YMCAs, as well as such denominational youth groups such as the Epworth League for Methodists and the Walther League for Lutherans.
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which body of water in the list are found to the west of the philippines | Philippine Sea - Wikipedia
The Philippine Sea is a marginal sea east and northeast of the Philippines occupying an estimated surface area of 5 million square kilometres (2 million square miles). It is located in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by the Philippine archipelago (Luzon, Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao) on the southwest; Halmahera, Morotai, Palau, Yap, and Ulithi (of the Carolines) on the southeast; the Marianas, including Guam, Saipan, and Tinian, on the east; the Bonin and Iwo Jima on the northeast; the Japanese islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyūshū on the north; the Ryukyu Islands on the northwest; and Taiwan in the west.
The sea has a complex and diverse undersea relief. The floor is formed into a structural basin by a series of geologic faults and fracture zones. Island arcs, which are actually extended ridges protruding above the ocean surface due to plate tectonic activity in the area, enclose the Philippine Sea to the north, east and south. The Philippine archipelago, Ryukyu Islands, and the Marianas are examples. Another prominent feature of the Philippine Sea is the presence of deep sea trenches, among them the Philippine Trench and the Mariana Trench, containing the deepest point on the planet.
The Philippine Sea has the Philippines and Taiwan to the west, Japan to the north, the Marianas to the east and Palau to the south. Adjacent seas include the Celebes Sea which is separated by Mindanao and smaller islands to the south, the South China Sea which is separated by Philippines, and the East China Sea which is separated by the Ryukyu Islands.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Philippine Sea as "that area of the North Pacific Ocean off the Eastern coasts of the Philippine Islands '', bounded as follows:
On the West. By the Eastern limits of the East Indian Archipelago, South China Sea and East China Sea.
On the North. By the Southeast coast of Kyushu, the Southern and Eastern limits of the Inland Sea and the South coast of Honshu Island.
On the East. By the ridge joining Japan to the Bonin, Volcano and Ladrone (Mariana) Islands, all these being included in the Philippine Sea.
On the South. By a line joining Guam, Yap, Pelew (Palau) and Halmahera Islands.
The Philippine Sea Plate forms the floor of the Philippine Sea. It subducts under the Philippine Mobile Belt which carries most of the Philippine archipelago and eastern Taiwan. Between the two plates is the Philippine Trench.
The Philippine Sea hosts an exotic marine ecosystem. About five hundred species of hard and soft corals occur in the coastal waters and 20 per cent of the worldwide known shellfish species are found in Philippine waters. Sea turtles, sharks, moray eels, octopuses and sea snakes along with numerous species of fish such as tuna can commonly be observed. Additionally, the Philippine Sea serves as spawning ground for Japanese eel, tuna and different whale species.
The first European to navigate the Philippine Sea was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, who named it Mar Filipinas when he and his men were in the Mariana Islands prior to the exploration of the Philippines. Later it was discovered by other Spanish explorers from 1522 to 1565 and the site of the famous galleon trade route.
Between June 19 and 20, 1944, the Battle of the Philippine Sea (a very large and decisive World War II naval battle between Japan and the United States) took place in the eastern Philippine Sea, near the Mariana Islands. The aircraft carriers Taihō, Shōkaku, Junyō, Hiyō and Ryuho were bombed, torpedoed and sunk by American carrier - based planes and assaulted from other naval vessels. The aerial part of the Battle of the Philippine Sea was nicknamed the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot '' due to massive losses of Japanese aircraft and pilots. The battle facilitated the Allied conquests of Saipan, Guam and Tinian in the Marianas, Palau in the Southwest, and ultimately the Philippines.
Following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, various Philippine government agencies started using the neologism "West Philippine Sea '' to refer to the South China Sea. However, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea.
Coordinates: 20 ° N 130 ° E / 20 ° N 130 ° E / 20; 130
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how many seats does ukip have in parliament | UK Independence party - wikipedia
The UK Independence Party (UKIP / ˈjuːkɪp /) is a Eurosceptic and right - wing populist political party in the United Kingdom. It presently has three representatives in the House of Lords and 19 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), making it the third - largest UK party in the European Parliament. It has five Assembly Members (AMs) in the National Assembly for Wales, two members in the London Assembly, and 198 councillors in local government.
UKIP originated as the Anti-Federalist League, a single - issue Eurosceptic party established in London by the historian Alan Sked in 1991. It was renamed UKIP in 1993 but its growth remained slow. It was largely eclipsed by the Eurosceptic Referendum Party until the latter 's 1997 dissolution. In 1997, Sked was ousted by a faction led by Nigel Farage, who became the party 's preeminent figure. In 2006, Farage officially became leader and under his direction the party adopted a wider policy platform and capitalised on concerns about rising immigration, in particular among the White British working class. This resulted in significant breakthroughs at the 2013 local elections, 2014 European elections, and 2015 general election. The pressure UKIP exerted on the government is widely regarded as the main reason for the 2016 referendum which led to the decision for the United Kingdom to withdraw from the European Union. Following the referendum, Farage stepped down as UKIP leader, and the party 's vote share heavily declined.
Ideologically positioned on the right - wing of British politics, political scientists characterise UKIP as part of a broader European radical right. UKIP 's primary emphasis has been on Euroscepticism, calling for the United Kingdom 's exit from the European Union (EU). It promotes a British unionist and British nationalist agenda, encouraging a unitary British identity in opposition to growing Welsh and Scottish nationalisms. Political scientists have argued that in doing so, it conflates Britishness with Englishness and appeals to English nationalist sentiment. UKIP has also placed emphasis on lowering immigration, rejecting multiculturalism, and opposing what it calls the "Islamification '' of Britain. Influenced by Thatcherism and classical liberalism, it describes itself as economically libertarian and promotes liberal economic policies. On social issues like LGBT rights, education policy, and criminal justice it is conservative. Having an ideological heritage stemming from the right - wing of the Conservative Party, it distinguishes itself from the mainstream political establishment through heavy use of populist rhetoric, including describing its supporters as the "People 's Army ''.
Governed by its leader and National Executive Committee, UKIP is divided into twelve regional groups. A founding member of the Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe European political party, UKIP 's MEPs sit with the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group in the European Parliament. While gaining electoral support from various sectors of British society, psephologists have established that its primary voting base is in England and consists largely of older, working - class white Britons. UKIP has faced a critical reception from mainstream political parties, much of the media, and anti-fascist groups. Its discourse on immigration and cultural identity generated accusations of racism and xenophobia, both of which it denies.
UKIP began as the Anti-Federalist League, a Eurosceptic political party established in 1991 by the historian Alan Sked. The League opposed the recently signed Maastricht Treaty and sought to sway the governing Conservative Party toward removing the United Kingdom from the European Union (EU). A former Liberal Party candidate, member of the Bruges Group, and professor at the London School of Economics (LSE), Sked had converted to Euroscepticism while teaching the LSE 's European Studies programme. Under the Anti-Federalist League 's banner, Sked was a candidate for Member of Parliament (MP) for Bath at the 1992 general election, gaining 0.2 % of the vote. At a League meeting held in the LSE on 3 September 1993, the group was renamed the UK Independence Party, deliberately avoiding the term "British '' so as to avoid confusion with the far - right British National Party (BNP).
UKIP contested the 1994 European Parliament election with little financing and much infighting, securing itself as the fifth largest party in that election with 1 % of the vote. During this period, UKIP was viewed as a typical single - issue party by commentators, some of whom drew comparisons with the French Poujadist movement. Following the election, UKIP lost much support to the Referendum Party; founded by the multi-millionaire James Goldsmith in 1994, it shared UKIP 's Eurosceptic approach but was far better funded. In the 1997 general election, UKIP fielded 194 candidates and secured 0.3 % of the national vote; only one of its candidates, Nigel Farage in Salisbury, secured over 5 % of the vote and had his deposit returned. UKIP was beaten by the Referendum Party in 163 of the 165 seats in which they stood against each other. The Referendum Party disbanded following Goldsmith 's death later that year and many of its candidates joined UKIP.
After the election, Sked was pressured into resigning by a party faction led by Farage, David Lott and Michael Holmes, who deemed him too intellectual and dictatorial. Sked left the party, alleging that it had been infiltrated by racist and far - right elements, including BNP spies. This connection was emphasised in the press, particularly when Farage was photographed meeting with BNP activists. Holmes took over as party leader, and in the 1999 European Parliament elections -- the first UK election for the European Parliament to use proportional representation -- UKIP received 6.5 % of the vote and three seats, in South East England (Farage), South West England (Holmes), and the East of England (Jeffrey Titford).
An internal power struggle ensued between Holmes and the party 's National Executive Committee (NEC), which was critical of Holmes after he called for the European Parliament to have greater powers over the European Commission. Led by Farage, the NEC removed Holmes from power, and Titford was elected leader. In the 2001 general election, UKIP secured 1.5 % of the vote, and six of its 428 candidates retained their deposits. It had lost much of its support to the Conservatives, whose leader William Hague had adopted increasingly Eurosceptic rhetoric during his campaign. In 2002, the former Conservative MP Roger Knapman was elected UKIP leader, bringing with him the experience of mainstream politics that the party had lacked. Knapman hired the political campaign consultant Dick Morris to advise UKIP. The party adopted the slogan "say no '' and launched a national billboard campaign. In 2004, UKIP reorganised itself nationally as a private company limited by guarantee.
UKIP 's support increased during the 2004 European Parliament elections, when it placed third, securing 2.6 million votes (16.1 %) and winning twelve seats. This had been made possible through increased funding from major donors and the celebrity endorsement of chat show host Robert Kilroy - Silk, who stood as a candidate in the East Midlands. Kilroy - Silk then criticised Knapman 's leadership, arguing that UKIP should stand against Conservative candidates, regardless of whether they were Eurosceptic or not. This position was rejected by many party members, who were uneasy regarding Kilroy - Silk. After Farage and Lott backed Knapman, Kilroy - Silk left the party in January 2005. Two weeks later, he founded his own rival, Veritas, taking a number of UKIP members -- including both of its London Assembly members -- with him.
After Kilroy - Silk 's defection, UKIP 's membership declined by a third and donations dropped by over a half. UKIP continued to be widely seen as a single - issue party and in the 2005 general election -- when it fielded 496 candidates -- it secured only 2.2 % of the vote, and 40 candidates had their deposits returned. Electoral support for the BNP grew during this period, with academics and political commentators suggesting that the parties were largely competing for the same voter base, a section of about 20 % of the UK population. Given that the BNP had outperformed UKIP in most of the seats that they both contested, many UKIP members, including several figures on the NEC, favoured an electoral pact with them, a proposal that Farage strongly condemned.
In 2006, Farage was elected leader. He sought to broaden UKIP 's image from that of a single - issue party by introducing an array of socially conservative policies, including reducing immigration, tax cuts, restoring grammar schools, and climate change denial. In doing so he was attempting to attract disenfranchised former Conservatives who had left the party after its leader, David Cameron, had moved in a socially liberal direction. According to Farage, Cameron was "a socialist '' whose priorities were "gay marriage, foreign aid, and wind farms ''. Cameron was highly critical of UKIP, referring to them as "fruitcakes, loonies, and closet racists ''. The Conservatives ' largest donor, Stuart Wheeler, donated £ 100,000 to UKIP after criticising Cameron 's stance towards the Treaty of Lisbon and the EU. After trust in the mainstream parties was damaged by the UK parliamentary expenses scandal, UKIP received an immediate surge in support. This helped it in the 2009 European Parliament election, in which it secured 2.5 million votes (16.5 %), resulting in 13 MEPs, becoming the second largest party in the European Parliament after the Conservatives. During the election, UKIP outperformed the BNP, whose electoral support base collapsed shortly after.
In September 2009, Farage resigned as leader. The subsequent leadership election was won by Malcolm Pearson, who emphasised UKIP 's opposition to high immigration rates and Islamism in Britain, calling for a ban on the burqa being worn in public. Pearson was unpopular with the UKIP grassroots, who viewed him as an establishment figure too favourable to the Conservatives. In the 2010 general election, UKIP fielded 558 candidates and secured 3.1 % of the vote (919,471 votes), but won no seats. Pearson stood down as leader in August, and Farage was re-elected in the leadership election with more than 60 % of the vote.
Farage placed new emphasis on developing areas of local support through growth in local councils. Observing that the party had done well in areas dominated by white blue - collar workers with no educational attainment, and that conversely it had done poorly in areas with high numbers of graduates and ethnic minorities, UKIP 's campaign refocused directly at the former target vote. UKIP support would be bolstered by dissatisfaction with the Conservative - Liberal Democrat coalition government and the perception that its austerity policies benefited the socio - economic elite while imposing hardship on ordinary Britons. During this year, UKIP had witnessed far greater press coverage and growing support, with opinion polls placing it at around 10 % support in late 2012. UKIP put up a record number of candidates for the 2013 local elections, achieving its strongest local government result, polling an average of 23 % in the wards where it stood, and increasing its number of elected councillors from 4 to 147. This was the best result for a party outside the big three in British politics since the Second World War, with UKIP being described as "the most popular political insurgency '' in Britain since the Social Democratic Party during the 1980s.
In March 2014, Ofcom awarded UKIP "major party status ''. In the 2014 local elections, UKIP won 163 seats, an increase of 128, but did not take control of any council. In the 2014 European Parliament elections, UKIP received the greatest number of votes (27.5 %) of any British party, producing 24 MEPs. The party won seats in every region of Britain, including its first in Scotland. It made strong gains in traditionally Labour voting areas within Wales and the North of England; it for instance came either first or second in all 72 council areas of the latter. The victory established Farage and UKIP as "truly household names ''. It was the first time since 1906 that a party other than Labour or the Conservatives had won the most votes in a UK - wide election.
UKIP gained its first MP when Conservative defector Douglas Carswell won the seat of Clacton during a October 2014 by - election. In November fellow Conservative defector Mark Reckless became UKIP 's second MP in a Rochester and Strood by - election. In the 2015 general election, UKIP secured over 3.8 million votes (12.6 % of the total), replacing the Liberal Democrats as the third most popular party, but only secured one seat, with Carswell retaining his seat and Reckless losing his. In the run - up to the election, Farage stated that he would resign as party leader if he did not win South Thanet. On failing to do so, he resigned, although was reinstated three days later when the NEC rejected his resignation. A period of ' civil war ' broke out among senior membership between those who favoured Farage 's leadership and those seeking a change. In the 2016 National Assembly for Wales election, UKIP nearly tripled their share of votes (from 4.7 per cent to 12.5 per cent) and won seven seats.
To counter the loss of further votes to UKIP, the governing Conservatives promised a referendum on the UK 's continued membership of the EU. Rather than taking part in the official Vote Leave campaign, to which various Eurosceptic Conservative and Labour politicians were linked, UKIP affiliated itself with the Leave.EU campaign group. Farage gained regular press coverage during the campaign, in which Leave.EU emphasised what it characterised as the negative impact of immigration on local communities and public services. The June 2016 referendum produced a 51.89 % majority in favour of leaving the EU: the accomplishment of UKIP 's raison d'être raised questions about the party 's future. The loss of its MEPs would result in the loss of its primary institutional representation and a key source of its funding.
After the referendum, Farage resigned as UKIP leader. Diane James was elected as his successor, but resigned after 18 days, and left the party in November 2016. Farage 's former deputy, Paul Nuttall, was elected leader that month. In March 2017, the party 's only MP, Carswell, left the party to sit as an independent; the next month, Reckless also left UKIP. In the 2017 local elections, UKIP lost all 145 seats it was defending but gained one on Lancashire County Council. These results led several prominent former UKIP members to call for the disbanding of the party. In the following 2017 general election, UKIP received fewer than 600,000 votes and gained no seats. The following day, Nuttall resigned, and Steve Crowther took over as interim party leader.
On 24 July 2017, UKIP lost its majority on Thanet council when Councillor Beverly Martin switched to the Conservatives, citing personal disagreements with UKIP 's policies in the region. On 10 September, it was announced that all three UKIP councillors on Plymouth council had chosen to switch to the Conservatives. At the party 's convention in Torquay on 29 September 2017, a new logo featuring a lion and the slogan "for the nation '' was introduced. Later that day, former soldier Henry Bolton was elected as the party 's new leader, beating the anti-Islam activist Anne Marie Waters.
John Rees - Evans resigned from UKIP to found a new political party, called "Affinity '', and Waters planned to set up a new political party, provisionally called "For Britain ''.
On 19 January 2018, Jonathan Arnott resigned from the party, continuing to sit as an independent MEP.
On 21 January, the UKIP National Executive Committee (NEC) delivered a vote of no confidence in Bolton; only Bolton voted against the motion. Bolton had made it clear earlier that day that he would not resign if the vote went against him, because he felt another leadership election would destroy the party. Consequently, at the emergency meeting of UKIP 's NEC, it was decided that party members would be balloted on whether Bolton should be removed from office, as the NEC does not itself have the power to dismiss the leader.
On 22 January, Margot Parker resigned as deputy leader, claiming Bolton had left the party in "limbo ''. Bolton 's assistant deputy, as well as the spokesmen for government, education, immigration, and trade and industry resigned on the same day, bringing the total number of resignations to twelve.
On 27 January, all seventeen UKIP members of Thurrock Council left the party, saying they had "had enough of the aggressive and bitter reality of party politics '', and formed Thurrock Independents.
On 17 February 2018, members of UKIP voted for a vote of no confidence in Bolton and he was replaced as leader by Gerard Batten until a new leadership election is held.
UKIP are situated on the right wing of the left -- right political spectrum. More specifically, academic political scientists and political commentators have described UKIP as a right - wing populist party, and as part of Europe 's wider radical right. The term "populism '' refers to political groups which ideologically contrast "the people '' against an elite or group of "dangerous others '' whom the populists claim threaten the sovereignty of "the people '', and during its establishment in 1993, UKIP 's founders explicitly described it as a populist party. At the time, its "ideological heritage '' lay within the right wing of the Conservative Party, and UKIP was influenced by the "Tory populism '' of Conservative politicians Margaret Thatcher and Enoch Powell. The party 's growth is part of a wider rise in the prominence of right - wing populist groups across the Western world, and comparisons have been drawn between UKIP and the likes of the Tea Party movement in the United States and the True Finns in Finland. Central to its populism is its defence of democracy and its claim to represent the true democratic will of the British people.
The political scientists Amir Abedi and Thomas Carl Lundberg characterised UKIP as an "Anti-Political Establishment '' party. The party 's rhetoric presents the idea that there is a fundamental divide between the British population and the elite who govern the country. UKIP claims to stand up for ordinary people against this political elite. UKIP politician Bill Etheridge for instance claimed that his party represented "a democratic revolution... the people of Britain rising up and fighting to wrestle power from the elite ''. Contributing to this anti-establishment message, Farage describes the party 's supporters as "the People 's Army '', and he regularly held photo - opportunities and journalistic interviews in a pub, thus cultivating an "erudite everyman '' image that contrasted with his past as a merchant banker.
UKIP uses recurring populist rhetoric -- for instance by describing its policies as "common sense '' and "straight talking '' -- in order to present itself as a straightforward alternative to the mainstream parties and their supposedly elusive and complex discourse. UKIP presents the UK 's three primary parties -- the Conservatives, Labour, and Liberal Democrats -- as being essentially interchangeable, referring to them with the portmanteau of "LibLabCon ''. Farage accused all three parties of being social - democratic in ideology and "virtually indistinguishable from one another on nearly all the key issues ''. Farage has also accused the Scottish National Party of being "the voice of anti-Englishness '', suggesting that elements of the Scottish nationalist movement are "deeply racist, with a total hatred of the English ''.
As the party 's name suggests, UKIP has always had the politics of national identity at its core. The party is nationalist in orientation, and its "basic claim -- that the highest priority for the British polity is to assure that it is fully governed by the national state -- is a nationalist one. '' The party describes its position as being that of civic nationalism, and in its manifesto explicitly rejects ethnic nationalism by encouraging support from Britons of all ethnicities and religions. Rejecting claims that it is racist, both Sked and later Farage have described UKIP as a "non-racist, non-sectarian party ''. In UKIP 's literature, the party has placed an emphasis on "restoring Britishness '' and counteracting what it sees as a "serious existential crisis '' exhibited by the "Islamification '' of Britain, the "pseudo-nationalisms '' of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and the multicultural and supranational policies promoted by "the cultural left '', describing its own stance as being "unashamedly unicultural ''. It has been suggested that this attitude compromises the party 's claim that its form of British nationalism is civic and inclusive.
UKIP considers itself to be a British unionist party, although its support base is centred largely in England. Farage has characterised his party 's growth as "a very English rebellion '', and has described UKIP as "unashamedly patriotic, proud to be who we are as a nation ''. The political scientist Richard Hayton argued that UKIP 's British unionism reflects "Anglo - Britishness '', a perspective that blurs the distinction between Britain and England. With Mycock, Hayton argued that in conflating Englishness with Britishness, UKIP exhibited an "inherent Anglocentrism '' that negates the distinct culture of the Scottish, Welsh, and Northern Irish peoples of the United Kingdom. Hayton suggests that UKIP tap into "a vein of nostalgic cultural nationalism '' within England, and it has been noted that UKIP 's discourse frames the image of Englishness in a nostalgic manner, harking back to the years before the collapse of the British Empire.
UKIP has emphasised the need to correct what it perceives as the United Kingdom 's imbalance against England resulting from the "West Lothian question '' and the Barnett formula. The party has mobilised English nationalist sentiment brought on by English concerns following the devolution within the UK and the rise of Welsh and Scottish nationalisms. The party initially opposed federalism in the UK, criticising the establishment of the Welsh Assembly and Scottish Parliament. However, in September 2011 Farage and the NEC announced their support for the establishment of an English Parliament to accompany the other devolved governments. In its 2015 manifesto, it promised to make St. George 's Day and St. David 's Day bank holidays in England and Wales, respectively. Similarly, UKIP 's 2017 manifesto pledged to declare 23 June British Independence Day and observe it annually as a national holiday.
UKIP embraces the ideology of hard Euroscepticism, also known as "Eurorejectionism ''. Opposition to the United Kingdom 's continued membership of the European Union has been its "core issue '' and is "central to the party 's identity ''. UKIP characterises the EU as a fundamentally undemocratic institution and stresses the need to regain what it describes as the UK 's national sovereignty from the EU. It presents the EU as being an exemplar of non-accountability, corruption, and inefficiency, and views it as being responsible for the "flooding '' of the UK with migrants, in particular from Eastern Europe. UKIP emphasises Euroscepticism to a far greater extent than any of Western Europe 's other main radical right parties, and it was only post-2010 that it began seriously articulating other issues. Hayton nevertheless suggested that Euroscepticism still remains "the lens through which most of its other policy positions are framed and understood ''.
The party opposed the 2004 enlargement of the European Union into eastern Europe. UKIP advocated leaving the European Union, stopping payments to the EU, and withdrawing from EU treaties, while maintaining trading ties with other European countries. Initially, UKIP 's policy was that, in the event of them winning a general election, it would remove the UK from the EU without a referendum on the issue. The party leadership later suggested a referendum, expressing the view that in the case of an exit vote, it could negotiate favourable terms for the country 's withdrawal, for instance through ensuring a free trade agreement between the UK and EU. UKIP eventually committed to a referendum in their 2015 manifesto. In contrast to involvement in the EU, UKIP has emphasised the UK 's global connections, in particularly to member states of the Commonwealth of Nations. UKIP rejected the description that they were "Europhobes '', maintaining that its stance was anti-EU, not anti-European.
UKIP has placed great emphasis on the issue of immigration to the UK, and in 2013 Farage described it as "the biggest single issue facing this party ''. UKIP attributes UK membership of the EU as the core cause of immigration to the UK, citing the Union 's open - border policies as the reason why large numbers of East European migrants have moved to Britain. On their campaign billboards, UKIP have presented EU migrants as a source of crime, as well as a pressure on housing, the welfare state, and the health service. Farage has emphasised not only the economic impact of migration but also the public anxieties regarding the cultural changes brought by immigration. In its 2009 electoral manifesto, UKIP proposed a five - year ban on any migrants coming to the UK. By 2015, it had modified this to the view that the five - year ban should apply only to unskilled migrants. To regulate the arrival of skilled migrants, it called for the UK to adopt a points - based system akin to that employed by Australia. It advocated the establishment of a watchdog to help curb immigration, and bring the levels of net annual immigration down from the hundreds of thousands to between 20,000 and 50,000, which was the average level in the UK between 1950 and 2000. UKIP calls for all immigrants to require compulsory health insurance, and proposes that migrants be barred from claiming any state benefits until they had been resident in the UK for at least five years.
UKIP gained traction from the fact that post-2008, immigration had come to the forefront of many Britons ' minds as a result of increased EU migration and its concomitant social changes. By the 2015 general election, the political scientists James Dennison and Matthew Goodwin argued, UKIP had secured "ownership '' of the immigration issue among British voters, having secured it from the Conservatives. However, the party 's campaign against immigration has been accused of using racism and xenophobia to win votes. Political scientist David Art suggested that in its campaign to restrict immigration, UKIP had "flirted with xenophobia '', while Daniel T. Dye stated that part of the party 's appeal was its "sometimes - xenophobic populism '', and the journalist Daniel Trilling stated that UKIP tapped into the "anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim populism '' that was popular in the late 2000s. The political scientist Simon Usherwood stated that UKIP 's hardening of immigration policy "risked reinforcing the party 's profile as a quasi-far right grouping '', elsewhere stating that the party was only held together by its opposition to the EU and immigration, suggesting that it had "no ideological coherence '' beyond that.
In its 2015 campaign, UKIP called for the foreign aid budget to be cut. It has also advocated a 40 % increase in the UK 's national defence budget. It opposes UK military involvement in conflicts that are not perceived to be in the national interest, specifically rejecting the concept of humanitarian interventionism. For instance, in 2014 it opposed the Cameron government 's plans to intervene militarily against the government of Bashar al - Assad in the Syrian civil war.
-- Political scientist Stephen Driver, 2011
On economic issues, UKIP 's original activist base was largely libertarian, supporting an economically liberal approach, and the party is generally at ease with the global free market. Its libertarian views have been influenced by classical liberalism and Thatcherism, with Thatcher representing a key influence on UKIP 's thought. Farage has characterised UKIP as "the true inheritors '' of Thatcher, claiming that the party never would have formed had Thatcher remained Prime Minister of the UK throughout the 1990s. UKIP presents itself as a libertarian party, and the political scientists David Deacon and Dominic Wring described it as articulating "a potent brand of libertarian populism ''. However, commentators writing in The Spectator, The Independent, and the New Statesman have all challenged the description of UKIP as libertarian, highlighting its socially conservative and economically protectionist policies as being contrary to a libertarian ethos.
UKIP propose an increase in the personal allowance to the level of full - time minimum wage earnings (approx. £ 13,500 as of the 2015 General Election). It also plans to abolish Inheritance Tax. It would introduce a 35p income tax rate for taxable income between £ 42,285 and £ 55,000, with the 40p rate payable above that.
UKIP would allow businesses to favour British workers over migrants, and would repeal "much of '' Britain 's racial discrimination law, which was described as "shocking '' by the Conservative -- Liberal Democrat coalition government and viewed as discriminatory by others. However, Farage insists that his comments regarding his party 's policies on these matters have been "wilfully misinterpreted ''.
Although the party does not have an official stance on the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, the party 's former international trade spokesperson (Lord Dartmouth) and former health and social care spokesperson (Louise Bours) have stated that they do not wish the National Health Service to be included in the trade deal, according to the International Business Times.
On health, UKIP 's policy is to keep the National Health Service and general practitioner visits free at the point of use for UK citizens. Non-citizens would be required to have approved medical insurance "as a condition of entering the UK ''. In 2015, Farage attracted widespread press attention for suggesting that HIV positive patients who were not UK citizens should not receive treatment on the NHS. In that same speech he stated that the UK should put the NHS "there for British people and families, who in many cases have paid into the system for years ''. Farage has spoken in favour of an insurance - based system in the past, which he said would resemble the French and Dutch style system rather than an American style private system, but this was rejected by the party. He has commented, "we may have to think about ways in the future about dealing with health care differently ''. Critics of UKIP have claimed that the party 's real desire is to dismantle and privatise the NHS, a claim bolstered by the publication of leaked documents showing that in 2013 the UKIP NEC privately spoke positively of NHS privatisation.
In The Guardian, commentator Ed Rooksby described UKIP 's approach to many social issues as being "traditionalist and socially conservative '', while political scientist Stephen Driver has referred to the party 's appeals to "traditional social values ''. UKIP opposed the introduction of same - sex marriage in the United Kingdom. UKIP wants to repeal the Human Rights Act, and remove Britain from both the European Convention on Refugees and the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). On the repeal of Britain 's signatory to the ECHR, UKIP would like to see a referendum on the reintroduction of the death penalty in the UK.
Although Farage had long been reticent about focusing on public anxieties surrounding Muslims in Britain, he spoke out following the Charlie Hebdo shooting, claiming that there was a "fifth column '' of Islamists in the UK who -- while "mercifully small '' in number -- were "out to destroy our whole civilisation ''. At the same time he called for Western states to do more to promote their Judeo - Christian heritage, and criticised state multiculturalism for promoting social segregation, discouraging integration, and generating a "tick - box approach '' to identity politics. In its 2017 manifesto, UKIP pledged to abolish the existence of sharia courts in the UK and ban the wearing of the niqab and burka in public; it claimed that these were needed to promote the integration of Muslims with wider British society.
UKIP is the only major political party in the United Kingdom that does not endorse renewable energy and lower carbon emissions, and its media output regularly promotes climate change denial. Farage and other senior UKIP figures have repeatedly spoken out against the construction of wind farms, deeming them a blot on the rural landscape. UKIP 's media present renewable energy as inefficient and unaffordable, and they promote the use of fossil fuels, nuclear energy and fracking. UKIP has announced that it would repeal the Climate Change Act 2008 and has placed an emphasis on protecting the Green Belt.
With regard to education policy, UKIP supports selective education through the creation of additional grammar schools. In its 2015 manifesto, UKIP promised to teach a chronological understanding of "British history and achievements '' in schools, and it calls for the scrapping of sex education for children under 11. UKIP would introduce an option for students to take an apprenticeship qualification instead of four non-core GCSEs which can be continued at A Level. Schools would be investigated by OFSTED on the presentation of a petition to the Department for Education signed by 25 % of parents or governors. UKIP have promoted the scrapping of the government target that 50 % of school leavers attend university, and present the policy that tuition fees would be scrapped for students taking approved degrees in science, medicine, technology, engineering or mathematics.
In 2012, it opposed disestablishment of the Church of England and said it would consider a transfer of part of the Crown Estate back to the Monarchy, in exchange for an end to annual state support. Farage has argued that British Overseas Territories like Gibraltar should have representatives in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, akin to the privileges given to French overseas territories in France. Farage believes that all citizens for whom the British Parliament passes legislation, whether in the United Kingdom or its territories, deserve democratic representation in that Parliament.
In 2008, Usherwood noted that UKIP relied heavily on a small number of major financial backers. According to The Guardian, a leaked internal report to UKIP 's executive committee dated to September 2012 shows that the party 's leader argued that "the key to money for us will be the hedge fund industry ''.
According to UKIP 's annual returns to the Electoral Commission, in 2013 the party had a total income of £ 2,479,314. Of this, £ 714,492 was from membership and subscriptions, £ 32,115 from fundraising activities and £ 1,361,640 from donations. By law, individual donations over £ 7,500 must be reported.
UKIP has several high - profile backers. In March 2009, the Conservative Party 's biggest - ever donor, Stuart Wheeler, donated £ 100,000 to UKIP after criticising Cameron 's stance towards the Treaty of Lisbon. He was then expelled from the Conservatives and in 2011 appointed treasurer of UKIP. In October 2014, Arron Banks, who previously gave £ 25,000 to the Conservatives, increased his UKIP donation from £ 100,000 to £ 1 million after Hague said he had never heard of him. The multi-millionaire Paul Sykes has helped finance the party, donating over £ 1 million to their 2014 campaign at the European Parliament.
In December 2014, Richard Desmond, proprietor of Express Newspapers, donated £ 300,000 to UKIP. Desmond had previously made the UKIP peer David Stevens his deputy chairman. The donation indicated that Desmond 's papers, the Daily Express, Sunday Express, Daily Star and Daily Star Sunday, would back UKIP in the 2015 general election. Three weeks before the election, Desmond gave the party a further £ 1 million.
In September 2016, the major UKIP donor, Arron Banks, said that UKIP would be "dead in the water '' if Diane James did not become leader. Following her departure after 18 days, Banks said that he would leave UKIP if Steven Woolfe was prevented from running for leader, and if two other members remained in the party: "If Neil Hamilton and Douglas Carswell (UKIP 's only MP) remain in the party, and the NEC decide that Steven Woolfe can not run for leader, I will be leaving Ukip ''.
UKIP 's membership numbers increased from 2002 to the time of the 2004 European Parliament election, before hovering around the 16,000 mark during the late 2000s. In 2004, the party claimed 20,000 members, with this remaining broadly stable, and in June 2007 it had a recorded 16,700 members. By July 2013, the figure had grown to 30,000 before ending the year at 32,447. In 2014, the number was 36,000 on 22 April, by 7 May reached 37,000 and on 19 May, less than a fortnight later and only three days before the 2014 European Parliament election, rose to 38,000. In January 2015, UKIP membership was the fifth highest of British parties.
Membership was 47,000 in May 2015, but since then has fallen to 39,000 in September 2016 and 32,757 in November 2016, and 24,000 in January 2018.
-- Political scientists Robert Ford and Matthew Goodwin, 2014.
In its early years, UKIP targeted itself toward southern English, middle - class Eurosceptic voters, those who had been supporters of the Conservative Party until John Major 's Conservative government signed the Maastricht Treaty. This led to the widespread perception that UKIP 's supporters were primarily middle - class ex-Conservative voters, with commentator Peter Oborne characterising UKIP as "the Conservative Party in exile ''.
After 2009, UKIP refocused its attention to appeal primarily to white British, working - class, blue - collar workers; those who had traditionally voted Labour or in some cases for Thatcher 's Conservatives but who had ceased voting or begun to vote BNP since the emergence of the New Labour project in the 1990s. In this way, UKIP 's support base does not line up with the historical left - right divide in British politics, instead being primarily rooted in class divisions. This mirrored the voting base of other radical right parties across Western Europe which had grown since the early 1990s. This scenario had come about following the rapid growth of the middle - classes and the concomitant decline of the working - class population in Western Europe; the centre - left, social - democratic parties who had traditionally courted the support of the working classes largely switched their attention to the newly emergent middle - classes, leaving their initial support base increasingly alienated and creating the vacuum which the radical right exploited.
On the basis of their extensive study of data on the subject, in 2014 the political scientists Matthew Goodwin and Robert Ford concluded that "UKIP 's support has a very clear social profile, more so than any of the mainstream parties. Their electoral base is old, male, working class, white and less educated ''. They found that 57 % of professed UKIP supporters were over the age of 54, while only one in ten were under 35, which they attributed to the fact that UKIP 's socially conservative and Eurosceptic platform appealed far more to Britain 's older generations that their younger counterparts, who were more socially liberal and less antagonistic toward the EU.
57 % of UKIP supporters were male, which Ford and Goodwin suggested was due to women voters being put off by a number of high - profile sexist remarks made by UKIP candidates. 99.6 % of UKIP supporters identified as white, reflecting the fact that ethnic minorities tended to avoid the party. 55 % of UKIP supporters had left school aged 16 or under, with only 24 % having attended university, suggesting that the party primarily appealed to the least educated voters in society. Ford and Goodwin also found that UKIP 's support base was more working - class than that of any other party, with 42 % of supporters in blue - collar jobs. Ford and Goodwin described UKIP 's voters as primarily comprising the "left behind '' sector of society, "older, less skilled and less well educated working - class voters '' who felt disenfranchised from the mainstream political parties which had increasingly focused on attracting the support of middle - class swing voters.
Ford and Goodwin nevertheless noted that that UKIP was "not a purely blue - collar party but an alliance of manual workers, employers and the self - employed. '' Geoffrey Evans and Jon Mellon highlighted that UKIP receive "a greater proportion of their support from lower professionals and managers '' than from any other class group. They highlighted that polls repeatedly demonstrated that UKIP drew more votes from Conservative voters than Labour ones. They suggested that the assumption that working - class voters who supported UKIP had previously been Labour voters was misplaced, suggesting that these people had ceased voting for Labour "a long time before UKIP were an effective political presence '', having been alienated by Labour 's "pro-middle class, pro-EU and, as it eventually turned out, pro-immigration agenda ''. In 2011, Goodwin, Ford, and David Cutts published a study that identified Euroscepticism as the main causal factor for voters supporting UKIP, with concern over immigration levels and distrust of the political establishment also featuring as important motives. They noted, however, that during elections for the European Parliament, UKIP was able to broaden its support to gain the vote of largely middle - class Eurosceptics who vote Conservative in other elections.
-- Political scientist Simon Usherwood, 2016.
From their analysis of the data, Ford and Goodwin stated that UKIP 's support base has "strong parallels '' both with that of Western Europe 's other radical right parties and with the BNP during their electoral heyday. Conversely, an earlier study by Richard Whitaker and Philip Lynch, based on polling data from YouGov, concluded that UKIP voters were distinct from those of far right parties. The authors found that voter support for UKIP correlated with concerns about the value of immigration and a lack of trust in the political system, but the biggest explanatory factor for their support of UKIP was Euroscepticism. A further study by the same authors suggests that UKIP voters ' core beliefs align very closely to those of the UKIP candidates; particularly so on issues surrounding European integration, which has resulted in Conservative voters switching to UKIP due to Conservative divisions on this issue. One study found that 63 % of UKIP voters considered themselves to be right - wing, while 22 % thought centrist and 16 % thought leftist. 81 % believed that immigration undermined British culture, a view shared by only half the wider British population. On economic issues, there was a divide between UKIP voters and the party itself. In contrast to the party 's economic liberalism, UKIP supporters often held more leftist attitudes to the economy, with almost 80 % opining that big business took advantage of working people and almost 70 % thinking that privatisation had gone too far.
UKIP has been most successful along England 's eastern and southern coasts, in parts of south - west England, and in the Labour heartlands of Northern England and Wales. It has not done well in London and in university towns and urban areas with younger populations like Oxford, Cambridge, Manchester, and Brighton. It has done well in areas with large numbers of old, white, and poorer people, and weaker in areas with larger numbers of younger, more ethnically and culturally diverse, and financially secure people. Ford and Goodwin noted that UKIP "barely registers '' with young Britons, graduates, ethnic minorities, and pro-EU voters. According to an Opinium poll in December 2014 on the views of 17 - to 22 - year - olds, Farage was the least popular political leader. Only 3 % of young people questioned said that they intended to vote for UKIP, compared with 19 % among voters of all ages. The 17 % who said they would vote outside the three main parties were four times more likely to vote for the Green Party than for UKIP. Conversely, a March 2015 Ipsos Mori poll found among 18 - to 34 - year - olds UKIP was polling nearly as well as the Green Party, somewhat contradicting the idea that Farage lacked appeal for younger voters.
UKIP supporters are sometimes nicknamed "kippers ''. In May 2017, in response to large defections from the party, Goodwin said "Former Kippers did not walk but literally sprinted over to the Conservatives. ''
UKIP 's organisation is divided into twelve regions: London, South East, South West, Eastern, East Midlands, West Midlands, Yorkshire, North East, North West, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. An additional, thirteenth branch, operates in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; it held its first public meeting at the Lord Nelson pub in April 2013.
At the end of 2013 the UKIP Scotland was dissolved after infighting tore the regional party apart; the party 's administrative body was dissolved, Mike Scott - Hayward (the chairman and chief fundraiser) quit, and Farage fired Lord Christopher Monckton via email. The national party and UKIP Scotland focused on supporting the candidates for the upcoming European elections. After David Coburn won the seat, he was appointed leader of UKIP Scotland.
In the UK, the first - past - the - post voting system for electing MPs to the House of Commons was a significant barrier to UKIP, whose support was widely distributed across different areas rather than being strongly focused in particular constituencies. Further, the system encouraged tactical voting, with many UKIP supporters believing that a vote for the party would be a wasted vote. Recognising this, Farage believed that the best way to win a seat in the House of Commons was to win a by - election, with UKIP contesting a number of these from 2010 onward. Over the next few years, it contested a number of by - elections around the country, coming second in both Barnsley Central and Rotherham. In 2008, Bob Spink, the MP for Castle Point, resigned the Tory whip (becoming an Independent) but in April that year joined UKIP. However, in November he appeared again as an Independent in Commons proceedings, ultimately losing the seat to a Conservative in 2010.
In 2014, two Conservative MPs changed allegiance to UKIP and resigned their seats to fight by - elections for UKIP. Douglas Carswell won the Clacton by - election on 9 October, making him the first MP to be elected representing UKIP. Mark Reckless was also victorious in the Rochester and Strood by - election on 20 November. In the 2015 General Election, Carswell kept his seat in Clacton but Reckless lost Rochester to the Conservative Kelly Tolhurst. UKIP had 3,881,129 votes (12.6 %) and was the third largest party on vote share, yet it won only one seat. Because of this, there were calls from some in UKIP for a voting reform in favour of proportional representation. Carswell quit the party in March 2017 to become an independent, leaving UKIP without any MPs in the Commons. In the 2017 election, a Snap election initiated by PM Theresa May and scheduled for 8 June 2017, UKIP got 1.9 % of the votes (after 12.6 % in the 2015 election) and no seats in the House of Commons.
On 24 June 1995, UKIP gained its first member of the House of Lords, The Lord Grantley, who had joined the party in 1993 from the Conservatives and had recently succeeded to his father 's titles. However, with the coming House of Lords Act 1999, he decided not to stand for election as a continuing member, and so left the House in November 1999. Earlier in 1999, UKIP had gained a second peer in the House of Lords, The Earl of Bradford, but he, too, left the House in November 1999 because of the House of Lords Act. The Lord Pearson of Rannoch and The Lord Willoughby de Broke both defected to UKIP in 2007, giving the party its first representation in the House of Lords since the departure of Lord Grantley and Lord Bradford. The Lord Pearson of Rannoch went on to serve as party leader from November 2009 to September 2010. On 18 September 2012, The Lord Stevens of Ludgate joined UKIP, having sat as an Independent Conservative since his expulsion from the Conservatives in 2004.
UKIP competes electorally in all four nations of the United Kingdom. In October 2012, UKIP gained its first representation in the Northern Ireland Assembly in David McNarry, MLA for Strangford, who had been sitting as an independent, following his expulsion from the Ulster Unionist Party. The party however failed to continue its representation at the 2016 election, coming within a hundred votes of taking a seat in East Antrim.
UKIP 's support has been particularly weak in Scotland, where it has no representatives in the devolved parliament. UKIP fielded candidates at the Scottish Parliament election on 5 May 2011, when its platform included a commitment to keep the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh, while replacing the separately - elected Members of the Scottish Parliament with the Members of the House of Commons elected in Scotland. The party also fielded candidates for the National Assembly for Wales. In the 2016 election, it entered the Assembly for the first time, winning seven of 60 seats.
UKIP initially paid little attention to local government elections. However, this changed after Farage observed that building localised strongholds of support in various parts of the country had been the process by which the Liberal Democrats had entered the House of Commons, and that this was a strategy that could benefit UKIP. UKIP subsequently focused on the 2011 local elections, in which it fielded over 1,100 candidates, winning seven and becoming the main opposition in over 100.
The first UKIP local council election win occurred when one of its members was elected to South Cambridgeshire District Council in 2000. A number of Conservative, Liberal Democrat, Labour and Independent local councillors in all four constituent nations of the UK defected to UKIP over subsequent years, with the most recent defections to date (May to July 2013) coming from former Conservative councillors in the London Boroughs of Merton, Richmond upon Thames and Havering, and from Labour in Northampton and North - East Lincolnshire. In May 2013, 33 English and one Welsh council held local elections, with UKIP gaining 139 seats for a total of 147, with significant gains in Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Kent.
In the 2013 local elections, UKIP won 147 seats and established itself as the largest opposition party in six English county councils. At the 2013 and 2014 local elections, UKIP made significant gains to become the fourth largest party in terms of councillors in England, and fifth largest in the UK, with over 300 seats (out of about 21,000). In the 2015 local elections, UKIP took control of Thanet District Council, its first majority control of a council. However, the party lost control later in the year after several of its councillors defected and it lost its majority. UKIP later took back control as a majority after winning the 2016 Northwood ward by - election, taking its number of councillors up to 29. In the 2016 local election, UKIP won 58 council seats, an increase of 25. In the United Kingdom local elections, 2017, UKIP lost all of the seats it was defending but gained one from Labour on Lancashire County Council.
As a result of its hard Eurosceptic approach, UKIP does not recognise the legitimacy of the European Parliament, and under Sked 's leadership refused to take any of the EP seats that it won. This changed after 1997, when the party decided that its elected representatives would take such seats to publicise its anti-EU agenda. As a result of the 1999 European parliament election, three UKIP MEPs were elected to the European Parliament. Together with Eurosceptic parties from other nations, they formed a new European parliamentary group called Europe of Democracies and Diversities (EDD).
Following the 2004 European parliament election, 37 MEPs from the UK, Poland, Denmark and Sweden founded a new European Parliamentary group called Independence and Democracy as a direct successor to the EDD group. After the 2009 European parliament election, UKIP was a founder member of a new right - wing grouping called Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) comprising Eurosceptic, radical right, nationalist, national - conservative and other political factions. This group was more right - wing than the previous term 's Independence and Democracy group.
Following the 2014 European parliament election, the EFD group was reconstituted as the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD or EFD) group on 24 June 2014, with a significant changes to group composition, including the Five Star Movement of Italy, a total of 48 members. The EFDD group lost official status in October 2014 when the defection of the Latvian MEP Iveta Grigule meant its membership no longer met the required number of states for Parliamentary groups (at least seven different member states). On 20 October, EFD announced it had restored the requisite seven state diversity by recruiting Robert Iwaszkiewicz, one of four representatives of the far - right Polish party Congress of the New Right. In December 2014 UKIP co-founded the Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe, a European political party whose membership is composed of several member parties of the EFDD parliamentary group.
In the 2009 -- 14 parliament, UKIP ranked 76th out of 76 for attendance, took part in 61 % of votes, and had three of the six lowest attending MEPs, which led to criticism from other parties and ex-UKIP MEPs that low participation may damage British interests. Between July 2014 and May 2015, its 23 MEPs maintained their record as the least active, participating on average in only 62.29 % of votes. In response to criticism of low participation by UKIP MEPs in the EU Parliament, Farage has said that "Our objective as MEPs is not to keep voting endlessly for more EU legislation and to take power away from Westminster. ''
UKIP has 19 members in the European Parliament, with representatives in eleven of the twelve European Parliament constituencies in the UK. Twenty - four UKIP representatives were elected in the 2014 election, but five have since defected.
Source: The Independent, 27 May 2014
During the 2010 -- 15 Parliament, two Conservative MPs defected to UKIP and were re-elected in subsequent by - elections. At the 2015 general election, UKIP retained one of these seats (Clacton) and received over 30 % of the vote in Boston and Skegness, South Thanet, Heywood and Middleton, Thurrock and Rochester and Strood.
In campaigning on emotive issues, UKIP has proved divisive. Popular stereotypes have framed it as a far right party, and portrayed its activists as "old white men '' holding "offensive views ''. The party has faced vocal opposition from anti-fascist groups such as Hope not Hate, who have accused it of tapping into nationalist and xenophobic sentiment in its campaigns. Writing for The New York Times Magazine, Geoffrey Wheatcroft noted that there had been "a concerted campaign to brand UKIP as racist, an accusation that some of its own activists have done nothing to discourage. '' Goodwin and Caitlin Milazzo highlighted that Farage had been "routinely ridiculed and dismissed '', at best being portrayed as "a beer - swilling populist who wanted to drag Britain back to the 1950s '' while at worst depicted as "a racist... would - be demagogue '' who secretly wanted to overthrow the UK 's liberal parliamentary democracy.
The British press have widely publicised various statements made by UKIP activists and candidates which have been regarded as racist, sexist or otherwise bigoted. Among the "countless examples '' of UKIP representatives and supporters embarrassing the party have been an MEP who called for a ban on the construction of mosques and for all British Muslims to sign a code of conduct, a councillor who suggested that shops should be allowed to refuse service to women and homosexuals, and a candidate councillor who compared Islam to Nazism and told black comedian Lenny Henry to leave Britain after the latter called for greater ethnic diversity within the UK 's creative industries. In 2015, a documentary called Meet the Ukippers filmed activists making racist statements; one stated "the only people I do have a problem with are negroes ''. For many years such individuals were internally tolerated within the party, although as part of Farage 's push to professionalise the party a number of its members -- such as MEP Godfrey Bloom -- were expelled for making comments that brought UKIP into disrepute. In 2018, Jo Marney -- who was then the girlfriend of the party leader Henry Bolton -- was suspended from UKIP after it was revealed that she had sent texts stating that black Africans were "ugly ''. In these messages, she had criticised Megan Markle for marrying into the British royal family, stating that Markle was a "a dumb little commoner '' and "a black American. Pushing their way to the top slowly. Next will be a Muslim PM and a black king. ''
For many years, mainstream political figures derided or demeaned the importance of UKIP, although this did little to obstruct its electoral advances. By 2014 -- at which point UKIP was securing significant electoral support in the European Parliamentary elections -- the main parties began to take it more seriously and devoted more time to countering the electoral threat it posed to them, in turn drawing more journalistic attention to the party. This increased attention gave the party the "oxygen of publicity '' which helped bring the party to the attention of previously inattentive voters. Many on Britain 's centre - left have been reluctant to accept that UKIP was hindering public support for Labour, instead believing that they were primarily a problem for the Conservatives and would thus help produce a Labour victory. Labour found that their own campaign strategy of accusing UKIP of racism backfired, as rather than distancing UKIP supporters from the party it contributed to the perception that Labour failed to understand widespread concerns regarding immigration. A December 2014 poll by ComRes found that voters saw UKIP as closer to the centre - ground of politics than the Conservatives.
In a May 2014 YouGov survey, 47 % considered the media to be biased against UKIP, which was double the percentage who deemed the media biased against any other party. The BBC received almost 1,200 complaints about its coverage of the 2014 European and local elections; 149 claimed that the BBC were biased against UKIP, while the rest claimed that it gave disproportionate attention to the party. The BBC defended its coverage. Farage accused the BBC of a "liberal bias '', particularly on issues of immigration, the EU, and climate change.
David Deacon and Dominic Wring 's examination of press coverage of UKIP during their 2014 campaign demonstrated that of the elite newspapers, the pro-EU titles The Guardian and The Observer gave the most coverage to perceived racist and intolerant aspects of the party, while the Eurosceptic titles The Times and The Sunday Times instead focused on questioning the propriety and integrity of UKIP representatives. Among the populist tabloids, The Sun / Sun on Sunday and the Daily Mirror / Sunday Mirror were found to contain the most negative coverage of UKIP, while the Daily Express and Sunday Express -- owned by UKIP donor Richard Desmond -- gave significantly lower coverage to the gaffes and prejudices of UKIP representatives. Deacon and Wring noted that the majority of those right - wing newspapers that share UKIP 's views on immigration also share the perspective of more liberal newspapers that many of UKIP 's interventions are racist. This right - wing press opposition to UKIP may result from the allegiance that these newspapers have to the Conservatives, and thus perceive UKIP as an electoral threat.
Academic research has been carried out into UKIP; as of 2016, it was noted that most of this had focused on examining the party 's electoral support base, its consequences for other parties, and the possibilities and prospects of a referendum on continued EU membership, with little having focused on an examination of the party 's policies. Two currents have emerged among those seeking to interpret UKIP: the first, and generally older, current views them as a manifestation of Britain 's strong Eurosceptic movement, while the second seeks to explain their position in the UK parliamentary system while drawing upon the comparative literature on right - wing populist parties elsewhere in Europe.
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kilauea and mauna loa are what kind of volcanoes | Mauna Loa - wikipedia
Mauna Loa (/ ˌmɔːnə ˈloʊ. ə / or / ˌmaʊnə ˈloʊ. ə /; Hawaiian: (ˈmɐwnə ˈlowə); English: Long Mountain) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean. The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume, Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth. It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes, with a volume estimated at approximately 18,000 cubic miles (75,000 km), although its peak is about 120 feet (37 m) lower than that of its neighbor, Mauna Kea. Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica - poor and very fluid, and they tend to be non-explosive.
Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years, and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago. The oldest - known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years. The volcano 's magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot, which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years. The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now, at which point it will become extinct.
Mauna Loa 's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15, 1984. No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program, which encourages studies of the world 's most dangerous volcanoes. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912. Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory, and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, both located near the mountain 's summit. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano, and also incorporates Kīlauea, a separate volcano.
Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 3,700 mi (6,000 km) - long Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain. The prevailing view states that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic.
Mauna Loa is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi, created by the Hawaii hotspot. The oldest volcano on the island, Kohala, is more than a million years old, and Kīlauea, the youngest, is believed to be between 300,000 and 600,000 years of age. Lōʻihi Seamount on the island 's flank is even younger, but has yet to breach the surface. At 1 million to 700,000 years of age, Mauna Loa is the second youngest of the five volcanoes on the island, making it the third youngest volcano in the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain, a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril -- Kamchatka Trench in Russia.
Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation, Mauna Loa would have started as a submarine volcano, gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt before emerging from the sea through a series of surtseyan eruptions about 400,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano has remained active, with a history of effusive and explosive eruptions, including 33 eruptions since the first well - documented eruption in 1843. Although Mauna Loa 's activity has been overshadowed in recent years by that of its neighbor Kīlauea, it remains active.
Mauna Loa is the largest subaerial and second largest overall volcano in the world (behind Tamu Massif), covering a land area of 5,271 km (2,035 sq mi) and spans a maximum width of 120 km (75 mi). Consisting of approximately 65,000 to 80,000 km (15,600 to 19,200 cu mi) of solid rock, it makes up more than half of the surface area of the island of Hawaiʻi. Combining the volcano 's extensive submarine flanks (5,000 m (16,400 ft) to the sea floor) and 4,170 m (13,680 ft) subaerial height, Mauna Loa rises 9,170 m (30,085 ft) from base to summit, greater than the 8,848 m or 29,029 ft elevation of Mount Everest from sea level to its summit. In addition, much of the mountain is invisible even underwater: its mass depresses the crust beneath it by another 8 km (5 mi), in the shape of an inverse mountain, meaning the total height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m (56,000 ft).
Mauna Loa is a typical shield volcano in form, taking the shape of a long, broad dome extending down to the ocean floor whose slopes are about 12 ° at their steepest, a consequence of its extremely fluid lava. The shield - stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Kea, created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. Mauna Loa 's summit hosts three overlapping pit craters arranged northeast - southwest, the first and last roughly 1 km (0.6 mi) in diameter and the second an oblong 4.2 km × 2.5 km (2.6 mi × 1.6 mi) feature; together these three craters make up the 6.2 by 2.5 km (3.9 by 1.6 mi) summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo, so named for the Hawaiian ʻāweoweo fish (Priacanthus meeki), purportedly due to the resemblance of its eruptive fires to the coloration of the fish. Mokuʻāweoweo 's caldera floor lies between 170 and 50 m (558 and 164 ft) beneath its rim and it is only the latest of several calderas that have formed and reformed over the volcano 's life. It was created between 1,000 and 1,500 years ago by a large eruption from Mauna Loa 's northeast rift zone, which emptied out a shallow magma chamber beneath the summit and collapsed it into its present form. Additionally, two smaller pit craters lie southwest of the caldera, named Lua Hou (New Pit) and Lua Hohonu (Deep Pit).
Mauna Loa 's summit is also the focal point for its two prominent rift zones, marked on the surface by well - preserved, relatively recent lava flows (easily seen in satellite imagery) and linearly arranged fracture lines intersected by cinder and splatter cones. These rift zones are deeply set structures, driven by dike intrusions along a decollement fault that is believed to reach down all the way to the volcano 's base, 12 to 14 km (7 to 9 mi) deep. The first is a 60 km (37 mi) rift trending southwest from the caldera to the sea and a further 40 km (25 mi) underwater, with a prominent 40 ° directional change along its length; this rift zone is historically active across most of its length. The second, northeastern rift zone extends towards Hilo and is historically active across only the first 20 km (12 mi) of its length, with a nearly straight and, in its latter sections, poorly defined trend. The northeastern rift zone takes the form of a succession of cinder cones, the most prominent of which the 60 m (197 ft) high Puu Ulaula, or Red Hill. There is also a less definite northward rift zone that extends towards the Humuula Saddle marking the intersection of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea.
Simplified geophysical models of Mauna Loa 's magma chamber have been constructed, using interferometric synthetic aperture radar measures of ground deformation due to the slow buildup of lava under the volcano 's surface. These models predict a 1.1 km (1 mi) wide magma chamber located at a depth of about 4.7 km (3 mi), 0.5 km (0 mi) below sea level, near the southeastern margin of Mokuʻāweoweo. This shallow magma chamber is significantly higher - placed than Mauna Loa 's rift zones, suggesting magma intrusion into the deeper and occasional dike injections into the shallower parts of the rift zone drive rift activity; a similar mechanism has been proposed for neighboring Kīlauea. Earlier models based on Mauna Loa 's two most recent eruptions made a similar prediction, placing the chamber at 3 km (1.9 mi) deep in roughly the same geographic position.
Mauna Loa has complex interactions with its neighbors, Hualālai to the west, Mauna Kea to the north, and particularly Kīlauea to the east. Lavas from Mauna Kea intersect with Mauna Loa 's basal flows as a consequence of Kea 's older age, and Mauna Kea 's original rift zones were buried beneath post-shield volcanic rocks of Mauna Loa; additionally, Mauna Kea shares Mauna Loa 's gravity well, depressing the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km (4 mi). There are also a series of normal faults on Mauna Loa 's northern and western slopes, between its two major rift zones, that are believed to be the result of combined circumferential tension from the two rift zones and from added pressure due to the westward growth of neighboring Kīlauea.
Because Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence and appears as a bulge on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa, it was historically interpreted by both native Hawaiians and early geologists to be an active satellite of Mauna Loa. However, analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes show that they have separate magma chambers, and are thus distinct. Nonetheless, their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974, the reverse was true. This is not always the case; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa 's summit, indicative of a future eruption, began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea 's Puʻu Ōʻō crater. Geologists have suggested that "pulses '' of magma entering Mauna Loa 's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions.
Mauna Loa is slumping eastward along its southwestern rift zone, leveraging its mass into Kīlauea and driving the latter eastward at a rate of about 10 cm (4 in) per year; the interaction between the two volcanoes in this manner has generated a number of large earthquakes in the past, and has resulted in a significant area of debris off of Kīlauea 's seaward flank known as the Hilina Slump. A system of older faults exists on the southeastern side of Mauna Loa that likely formed before Kilauea became large enough to impede Mauna Loa 's slump, the lowest and northernmost of which, the Kaoiki fault, remains an active earthquake center today. The west side of Mauna Loa, meanwhile, is unimpeded in movement, and indeed is believed to have undergone a massive slump collapse between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, the residue from which, consisting of a scattering of debris up to several kilometers wide and up to 50 km (31 mi) distant, is still visible today. The damage was so extensive that the headwall of the damage likely intersected its southwestern rift zone. There is very little movement there today, a consequence of the volcano 's geometry.
Mauna Loa is tall enough to have experienced glaciation during the last ice age, 25,000 to 15,000 years ago. Unlike Mauna Kea, on which extensive evidence of glaciation remains even today, Mauna Loa was at the time and has remained active, having grown an additional 150 to 300 m (492 to 984 ft) in height since then and covering any glacial deposits beneath new flows; strata of that age does n't occur until at least 2,000 m (6,562 ft) down from the volcano 's summit, too low for glacial growth. Mauna Loa also lacks its neighbor 's summit permafrost region, although sporadic ice persists in places. It is speculated that extensive phreatomagmatic activity occurred during this time, contributing extensively to ash deposits on the summit.
To have reached its enormous size within its relatively short (geologically speaking) 600,000 to 1,000,000 years of life, Mauna Loa would logically have had to have grown extremely rapidly through its developmental history, and extensive charcoal - based radiocarbon dating (perhaps the most extensive such prehistorical eruptive dating on Earth) has amassed a record of almost two hundred reliably dated extant flows confirming this hypothesis.
The oldest exposed flows on Mauna Loa are thought to be the Ninole Hills on its southern flank, subaerial basalt rock dating back approximately 100 to 200 thousand years. They form a terrace against which younger flows have since banked, heavily eroded and incised against its slope in terms of direction; this is believed to be the result of a period of erosion because of a change in the direction of lava flow caused by the volcano 's prehistoric slump. These are followed by two units of lava flows separated by an intervening ash layer known as the Pāhala ash layer: the older Kahuka basalt, sparsely exposed on the lower southwest rift, and the younger and far more widespread Kaʻu basalt, which appear more widely on the volcano. The Pāhala ashes themselves were produced over a long period of time circa 13 to 30 thousand years ago, although heavy vitrification and interactions with post and pre - creation flows has hindered exact dating. Their age roughly corresponding with the glaciation of Mauna Loa during the last ice age, raising the distinct possibility that it is the product of phreatomagmatic interaction between the long - gone glaciers and Mauna Loa 's eruptive activities.
Studies have shown that a cycle occurs in which volcanic activity at the summit is dominant for several hundred years, after which activity shifts to the rift zones for several more centuries, and then back to the summit again. Two cycles have been clearly identified, each lasting 1,500 -- 2,000 years. This cyclical behavior is unique to Mauna Loa among the Hawaiian volcanoes. Between about 7,000 and 6,000 years ago Mauna Loa was largely inactive. The cause of this cessation in activity is not known, and no known similar hiatus has been found at other Hawaiian volcanoes except for those currently in the post-shield stage. Between 11,000 and 8,000 years ago, activity was more intense than it is today. However, Mauna Loa 's overall rate of growth has probably begun to slow over the last 100,000 years, and the volcano may in fact be nearing the end of its tholeiitic basalt shield - building phase.
Ancient Hawaiians have been present on Hawaiʻi island for about 1,500 years, but they preserved almost no records on volcanic activity on the island beyond a few fragmentary accounts dating to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Possible eruptions occurred around 1730 and 1750 and sometime during 1780 and 1803. A June 1832 eruption was witnessed by a missionary on Maui, but the 190 km (118 mi) between the two islands and lack of apparent geological evidence have cast this testimony in doubt. Thus the first entirely confirmed historically witnessed eruption was a January 1843 event; since that time Mauna Loa has erupted 32 times.
Historical eruptions at Mauna Loa are typically Hawaiian in character and rarely violent, starting with the emergence of lava fountains over a several kilometer long rift colloquially known as the "curtain of fire '' (often, but not always, propagating from Mauna Loa 's summit) and eventually concentrating at a single vent, its long - term eruptive center. Activity centered on its summit are usually followed by flank eruptions up to a few months distant, and although Mauna Loa is historically less active than that of its neighbor Kilauea, it tends to produce greater volumes of lava over shorter periods of time. Most eruptions are centered at either the summit or either of its two major rift zones; within the last two hundred years, 38 percent of eruptions occurred at the summit, 31 percent at the northeast rift zone, 25 percent at the southwest rift zone, and the remaining 6 percent from northwest vents. 40 percent of the volcano 's surface consists of lavas less than a thousand years old, and 98 percent of lavas less than 10,000 years old. In addition to the summit and rift zones, Mauna Loa 's northwestern flank has also been the source of three historical eruptions.
The 1843 event was followed by eruptions in 1849, 1851, 1852, and 1855, with the 1855 flows being particularly extensive. 1859 marked the largest of the three historical flows that have been centered on Mauna Loa 's northwestern flank, producing a long lava flow that reached the ocean on Hawaii island 's west coast, north of Kiholo Bay. An eruption in 1868 occurred alongside the enormous 1868 Hawaii earthquake, a magnitude eight event that claimed 77 lives and remains the largest earthquake ever to hit the island. Following further activity in 1871, Mauna Loa experienced nearly continuous activity from August 1872 through 1877, a long - lasting and voluminous eruption lasting approximately 1,200 days and never moving beyond its summit. A short single - day eruption in 1877 was unusual in that it took place underwater, in Kealakekua Bay and within a mile of the shoreline; curious onlookers approaching the area in boats reported unusually turbulent water and occasional floating blocks of hardened lava. Further eruptions occurred in 1879 and then twice in 1880, the latter of which extended into 1881 and came within the present boundaries of the island 's largest city, Hilo; however at the time the settlement was a shore - side village located further down the volcano 's slope, and so was unaffected.
Mauna Loa continued its activity, and of the eruptions that occurred in 1887, 1892, 1896, 1899, 1903 (twice), 1907, 1914, 1916, 1919, and 1926, three (in 1887, 1919, and 1926) were partially subaerial. The 1926 eruption in particular is noteworthy for having inundated of a village near Hoopuloa, destroying 12 houses, a church, and a small harbor. After an event in 1933, Mauna Loa 's 1935 eruption caused a public crisis when its flows started to head towards Hilo. A bombing operation was decided upon to try and divert the flows, planned out by then - lieutenant colonel George S. Patton. The bombing, conducted on December 27, was declared a success by Thomas A. Jaggar, director of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, and lava stopped flowing by January 2, 1936. However, the role the bombing played in ending the eruption has since been heavily disputed by volcanologists. A longer but summit - bound event in 1940 was comparatively less interesting.
Mauna Loa 's 1942 eruption occurred only four months after the attack on Pearl Harbor and United States entry into World War II, and created a unique problem for the wartime United States. Occurring during an enforced nighttime blackout on the island, the eruption 's luminosity forced the government to issue a gag order on the local press, hoping to prevent news of its occurrence spreading for fear that the Japanese would use it to launch a bombing run on the island. However, as flows from the eruption rapidly spread down the volcano 's flank and threatened the ʻOlaʻa flume, Mountain View 's primary water source, the United States Air Force decided to drop its own bombs on the island in the hopes of redirecting the flows away from the flume; sixteen bombs weighing between 300 and 600 lb (136 and 272 kg) each were dropped on the island, but produced little effect. Eventually the eruption ceased on its own.
Following a 1949 event the next major eruption at Mauna Loa occurred in 1950. Originating from the volcano 's southwestern rift zone, the eruption remains the largest rift event in the volcano 's modern history, lasting 23 days, emitting 376 million cubic meters of lava, and reaching 24 km (15 mi) out to the ocean within 3 hours. The 1950 eruption was not the most voluminous eruption on the volcano (the long - lived 1872 -- 1877 event produced more than twice as much material) but it was easily one of the fastest - acting, producing the same amount of lava as the 1859 eruption in a tenth of the time. Flows overtook the village of Hoʻokena - mauka in South Kona, crossed Hawaii Route 11, and reached the sea within four hours of eruption, and although there was no loss of life the village was permanently destroyed. After the 1950 event Mauna Loa entered an extended period of dormancy, interrupted only by a small single - day summit event in 1975. However it rumbled to life again in 1984, manifesting first at Mauna Loa 's summit and then producing a narrow, channelized ' a'a flow that advanced downslope to within 6 km (4 mi) of Hilo, close enough to illuminate the city at nighttime. However the flow got no closer, as two natural levees further up its pathway consequently broke and diverted active flows.
Mauna Loa has not erupted since, and as of January 2013 has remained quiet for nearly 29 years, its longest period of quiet in recorded history.
Mauna Loa has been designated a Decade Volcano, one of the sixteen volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. The United States Geological Survey maintains a hazard zone mapping of the island done on a one to nine scale, with the most dangerous areas corresponding the smallest numbers. Based on this classification Mauna Loa 's continuously active summit caldera and rift zones have been given a level one designation. Much of the area immediately surrounding the rift zones is considered level two, and about 20 percent of the area has been covered in lava in historical times. Much of the remainder of the volcano is hazard level three, about 15 to 20 percent of which has been covered by flows within the last 750 years. However, two sections of the volcano, the first in the Naalehu area and the second on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa 's rift zone, are protected from eruptive activity by local topography, and have thus been designated hazard level 6, comparable with a similarly isolated segment on Kīlauea.
Although volcanic eruptions in Hawaiʻi rarely produce casualties (the only direct historical fatality due to volcanic activity on the island occurred at Kīlauea in 1924, when an unusually explosive eruption hurled rocks at an onlooker), property damage due to inundation by lava is a common and costly hazard. Hawaiian - type eruptions usually produce extremely slow - moving flows that advance at walking pace, presenting little danger to human life, but this is not strictly the case; Mauna Loa 's 1950 eruption emitted as much lava in three weeks as Kīlauea 's current eruption produces in three years and reached sea level within four hours of its start, overrunning the village of Hoʻokena Mauka and a major highway on the way there. An earlier eruption in 1926 overran the village of Hoʻōpūloa Makai, and Hilo, partly built on lavas from the 1880 -- 81 eruption, is at risk from future eruptions. The 1984 eruption nearly reached the city, but stopped short after the flow was redirected upstream.
A potentially greater hazard at Mauna Loa is a sudden, massive collapse of the volcano 's flanks, like the one that struck the volcano 's west flank between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago and formed the present - day Kealakekua Bay. Deep fault lines are a common feature on Hawaiian volcanoes, allowing large portions of their flanks to gradually slide downwards and forming structures like the Hilina Slump and the ancient Ninole Hills; large earthquakes could trigger rapid flank collapses along these lines, creating massive landslides and possibly triggering equally large tsunamis. Undersea surveys have revealed numerous landslides along the Hawaiian chain and evidence of two such giant tsunami events: 200,000 years ago, Molokaʻi experienced a 75 m (246 ft) tsunami, and 100,000 years ago a megatsunami 325 m (1,066 ft) high struck Lānaʻi. A more recent example of the risks associated with slumps occurred in 1975, when the Hilina Slump suddenly lurched forward several meters, triggering a 7.2 M earthquake and a 14 m (46 ft) tsunami that killed two campers at Halape.
Established on Kīlauea in 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), presently a branch of the United States Geological Survey, is the primary organization associated with the monitoring, observance, and study of Hawaiian volcanoes. Thomas A. Jaggar, the observatory 's founder, attempted a summit expedition to the volcano to observe its 1914 eruption, but was rebuffed by the arduous trek required (see Ascents). After soliciting help from Lorrin A. Thurston, in 1915 he was able to persuade the US Army to construct a "simple route to the summit '' for public and scientific use, a project completed in December of that year; the Observatory has maintained a presence on the volcano ever since.
Eruptions on Mauna Loa are almost always preceded and accompanied by prolonged episodes of seismic activity, the monitoring of which was the primary and often only warning mechanism in the past and which remains viable today. Seismic stations have been maintained on Hawaiʻi since the Observatory 's inception, but these were concentrated primarily on Kīlauea, with coverage on Mauna Loa improving only slowly through the 20th century. Following the invention of modern monitoring equipment, the backbone of the present - day monitoring system was installed on the volcano in the 1970s. Mauna Loa 's July 1975 eruption was forewarned by more than a year of seismic unrest, with the HVO issuing warnings to the general public from late 1974; the 1984 eruption was similarly preceded by as much as three years of unusually high seismic activity, with volcanologists predicting an eruption within two years in 1983.
The modern monitoring system on Mauna Loa is constituted not only by its locally seismic network but also of a large number of GPS stations, tiltmeters, and strainmeters that have been anchored on the volcano to monitor ground deformation due to swelling in Mauna Loa 's subterranean magma chamber, which presents a more complete picture of the events proceeding eruptive activity. The GPS network is the most durable and wide - ranging of the three systems, while the tiltmeters provide the most sensitive predictive data, but are prone to erroneous results unrelated to actual ground deformation; nonetheless a survey line across the caldera measured a 76 mm (3 in) increase in its width over the year preceding the 1975 eruption, and a similar increase in 1984 eruption. Strainmeters, by contrast, are relatively rare. The Observatory also maintains two gas detectors at Mokuʻāweoweo, Mauna Loa 's summit caldera, as well as a publicly accessible live webcam and occasional screenings by interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging.
The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores where food and water were plentiful. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source. Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species, as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates. The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian Rat (Rattus exulans).
Ancient Hawaiian religious practice holds that the five volcanic peaks of the island are sacred, and regards Mauna Loa, the largest of them all, with great admiration; but what mythology survives today consists mainly of oral accounts from the 18th century first compiled in the 19th. Most of these stories agree that the Hawaiian volcano deity, Pele, resides in Halemaʻumaʻu Crater on Kilauea; however a few place her home at Mauna Loa 's summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo, and the mythos in general associates her with all volcanic activity on the island. Regardless, Kīlauea 's lack of a geographic outline and strong volcanic link to Mauna Loa led to it being considered an offshoot of Mauna Loa by the Ancient Hawaiians, meaning much of the mythos now associated with Kīlauea was originally directed at Mauna Loa proper as well.
Ancient Hawaiians constructed an extensive trail system on Hawaiʻi island, today known as the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail. The network consisted of short trailheads servicing local areas along the main roads and more extensive networks within and around agricultural centers. The positioning of the trails were practical, connecting living areas to farms and ports and regions to resources, with a few upland sections reserved for gathering and most lines marked well enough to remain identifiable long after regular use has ended. One of these trails, the Ainapo Trail, ascended from the village of Kapāpala over 3,400 m (11,155 ft) in about 56 km (35 mi) and ended at Mokuʻāweoweo at Mauna Loa 's summit. Although the journey was arduous and required several days and many porters, ancient Hawaiians likely made the journey during eruptions to leave offerings and prayers to honor Pele, much as they did at Halemaʻumaʻu, neighboring Kilauea 's more active and more easily accessible caldera. Several camps established along the way supplied water and food for travelers.
James Cook 's third voyage was the first to make landfall on Hawaiʻi island, in 1778, and following adventures along the North American west coast Cook returned to the island in 1779. On his second visit John Ledyard, a corporal of the Royal Marines aboard the HMS Resolution, proposed and receiving approval for an expedition to summit Mauna Loa to learn "about that part of the island, particularly the peak, the tip of which is generally covered with snow, and had excited great curiosity. '' Using a compass, Ledyard and small group of ships ' mates and native attendants attempted to make a direct course for the summit. However, on the second day of traveling the route became steeper, rougher, and blocked by "impenetrable thickets, '' and the group was forced to abandon their attempt and return to Kealakekua Bay, reckoning they had "penetrated 24 miles and we suppose (were) within 11 miles of the peak ''; in reality, Mokuʻāweoweo lies only 32 km (20 mi) east of the bay, a severe overestimation on Ledyard 's part. Another of Cook 's men, Lieutenant James King, estimated the peak to be at least 5,600 m (18,373 ft) high based on its snow line.
The next attempt to summit Mauna Loa was an expedition led by Archibald Menzies, a botanist and naturalist on the 1793 Vancouver Expedition. In February of that year Menzies, two ships ' mates, and a small group of native Hawaiian attendants attempted a direct course for the summit from Kealakekua Bay, making it 26 km (16 mi) inland by their reckoning (an overestimation) before they were turned away by the thickness of the forest. On a second visit by the expedition to the island in January of the next year Menzies was placed in charge of exploring the island interior, and after traversing the flanks of Hualālai he and his party arrived at the high plateau separating the two volcanoes. Menzies decided to make a second attempt (above the objections of the accompanying island chief), but again his progress was arrested by unassailable thickets.
Menzies made a third attempt to summit Mauna Loa in February 1794. This time the botanist consulted King Kamehameha I for advice and learned that he could take canoes to the south and follow the ʻAinapō Trail, not knowing of its existence beforehand. Significantly better prepared, Menzies, Lieutenant Joseph Baker and Midshipman George McKenzie of the Discovery, and a servant (most likely Jonathan Ewins, listed on the ship 's muster as "Botanist 's L 't '') reached the summit, which Menzies estimated to be 4,156 m (13,635 ft) high with the aid of a barometer (consistent with a modern value of 4,169 m (13,678 ft)). He was surprised to find heavy snow and morning temperatures of − 3 ° C (27 ° F), and was unable to compare the heights of Mauna Loa and Kea but correctly supposed the latter to be taller based on its larger snow cap. The feat of summitting Mauna Loa was not to be repeated for forty years.
The Hawaiian Islands were the site of fervent missionary work, with the first group of missionaries arrived at Honolulu in 1820 and the second in 1823. Some of these missionaries left for Hawaiʻi island, and spent ten weeks traveling around it, preaching at local villages and climbing Kilauea, from which one of its members, William Ellis, observed Mauna Loa with the aid of a telescope and ascertained it and Kea to be "perhaps 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea ''; they did not, however, attempt to climb the volcano itself. It is sometimes reported that the missionary Joseph Goodrich reached the summit around this time, but he never claimed this himself, though he did summit Mauna Kea and describe Mokuʻāweoweo with the aid of another telescope.
The next successful ascent was made on January 29, 1834, 40 years later, by the Scottish botanist David Douglas, who also reached the summit caldera using the ʻAinapō Trail. By the time Douglas reached the summit the environment had put him under extreme duress, but he nonetheless stayed overnight to make measurements of the summit caldera 's proportions and record barometric data on its height, both now known to be widely inaccurate. Douglas collected biological samples on the way both up and down, and after a difficult and distressing descent began collating his samples; he planned to return to England, but instead several months later his body was mysteriously discovered crushed in a pit besides a dead wild boar.
Isidor Löwenstern successfully climbed Mauna Loa in February 1839, only the third successful climb in 60 years.
The United States Exploring Expedition led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes was tasked with a vast survey of the Pacific Ocean starting in 1838. In September 1840 they arrived in Honolulu, where repairs to the ships took longer than expected. Wilkes decided to spend the winter in Hawaii and take the opportunity to explore its volcanoes while waiting for better weather to continue the expedition. King Kamehameha III assigned American medical missionary Dr. Gerrit P. Judd to the expedition as a translator.
Wilkes sailed to Hilo on the island of Hawaiʻi and decided to climb Mauna Loa first, since it looked easier than Mauna Kea. On December 14 he hired about 200 porters, but after he left he realized only about half the equipment had been taken, so he had to hire more Hawaiians at higher pay. When they reached Kīlauea after two days, their guide Puhano headed off to the established ʻAinapō Trail. Wilkes did not want to head back downhill so he blazed his own way through dense forest directed by a compass. The Hawaiians were offended by the waste of sacred trees which did not help morale. At about 6,000 feet (1,800 m) elevation they established a camp called "Sunday Station '' at the edge of the forest.
Two guides joined them at Sunday Station: Keaweehu, "the bird - catcher '' and another whose Hawaiian name is not recorded, called "ragsdale ''. Although Wilkes thought he was almost to the summit, the guides knew they were less than halfway up. Since there was no water at Sunday Station, porters had to be sent back ten miles (16 km) to a lava tube on ʻAinapō Trail which had a known supply. After an entire day replenishing stocks, they continued up to a second camp they called "Recruiting Station '' at about 9,000 feet (2,700 m) elevation. After another full day 's hike they established "Flag Station '' on December 22, and by this time were on the ʻAinapō Trail. Most of the porters were sent back down to get another load.
At the Flag Station Wilkes and his eight remaining men built a circular wall of lava rocks and covered the shelter with a canvas tent. A snowstorm was in progress and several suffered from altitude sickness. That night (December 23), the snow on the canvas roof caused it to collapse. At daylight some of the group went down the trail to retrieve firewood and the gear abandoned on the trail the day before. After another day 's climb, nine men reached the rim of Mokuʻāweoweo. They could not find a way down its steep sides so chose a smooth place on the rim for the camp site, at coordinates 19 ° 27 ′ 59 '' N 155 ° 34 ′ 54 '' W / 19.46639 ° N 155.58167 ° W / 19.46639; - 155.58167. Their tent was pitched within 60 feet (18 m) of the crater 's edge, secured by lava blocks.
The next morning they were unable to start a fire using friction due to the thin air at that altitude, and sent for matches. By this time, the naval officers and Hawaiians could not agree on terms to continue hiring porters, so sailors and marines were ordered from the ships. Dr. Judd traveled between the summit and the Recruiting Station to tend the many who suffered from altitude sickness or had worn out their shoes on the rough rock. Christmas Day was spent building rock walls around the camp to give some protection from the high winds and blowing snow. It took another week to bring all the equipment to the summit, including a pendulum designed for measuring slight variations in gravity.
On December 31, 1840 the pre-fabricated pendulum house was assembled. Axes and chisels cut away the rock surface for the pendulum 's base. It took another three days to adjust the clock to the point where the experiments could begin. However, the high winds made so much noise that the ticks could often not be heard, and varied the temperature to make measurements inaccurate. Grass had to be painstakingly brought from the lowest elevations for insulation to get accurate measurements.
On Monday, January 11, Wilkes hiked around the summit crater. Using an optical method, he estimated Mauna Kea was only 193 feet (59 m) higher (modern measurements are 104 feet (32 m)). On January 13, 1841, he had "Pendulum Peak, January 1841 U.S. Ex, Ex. '' cut into a rock at the site. The tents were dismantled and Hawaiians carried the gear down over the next three days, while Wilkes enjoyed a lomilomi Hawaiian massage. He continued his measurements at lower elevations and left the island on March 5. For all the effort he did not obtain any significant results, attributing gravity discrepancies to "the tides ''.
The Wilkes expedition 's camp site 's ruins are the only known physical evidence in the Pacific of the U.S. Exploring Expedition. The camp site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 24, 1974 as site 74000295, and is state historic site 10 - 52 - 5507.
A summit shelter was built with some of the stones from Wilkes ' camp site and mortar in 1934. In 1916 Mokuʻāweoweo was included in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, and a new trail was built directly from park headquarters at Kīlauea, an even more direct route than the one taken by Wilkes. This trail, arriving at the summit from the east via Red Hill, became the preferred route due to its easier access and gentler slope. The historic ʻAinapō Trail fell into disuse, and was reopened in the 1990s. A third modern route to the summit is from the Saddle Road up to the Mauna Loa Observatory which is at 11,135 feet (3,394 m) elevation a few miles north of Mokuʻāweoweo and the North Pit trail.
Trade winds blow from east to west across the Hawaiian islands, and the presence of Mauna Loa strongly affects the local climate. At low elevations, the eastern (windward) side of the volcano receives heavy rain; the city of Hilo is the wettest in the United States. The rainfall supports extensive forestation. The western (leeward) side has a much drier climate. At higher elevations, the amount of precipitation decreases, and skies are very often clear. Very low temperatures mean that precipitation often occurs in the form of snow, and the summit of Mauna Loa is described as a periglacial region, where freezing and thawing play a significant role in shaping the landscape.
Mauna Loa has a tropical climate with warm temperatures at lower elevations and cool to cold temperatures higher up year - round. Below is the table for the slope observatory, which is at 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in the alpine zone. The highest recorded temperature was 85 ° F (29 ° C) and the lowest was 18 ° F (− 8 ° C) on February 18, 2003 and February 20, 1962, respectively.
The location of Mauna Loa has made it an important location for atmospheric monitoring by the Global Atmosphere Watch and other scientific observations. The Mauna Loa Solar Observatory (MLSO), located at 11,155 feet (3,400 m) on the northern slope of the mountain, has long been prominent in observations of the Sun. The NOAA Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) is located close by. From its location well above local human - generated influences, the MLO monitors the global atmosphere, including the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Measurements are adjusted to account for local outgassing of CO from the volcano.
The Yuan - Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy (AMiBA) sits at an elevation of 11,155 feet (3,400 m). It was established in October 2006 by the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA) to examine cosmic microwave background radiation.
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who played keyboards on won't get fooled again | Wo n't Get Fooled Again - wikipedia
"Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' is a song by the English rock band The Who, written by Pete Townshend. It was released as a single in June 1971, reaching the top 10 in the UK, while the full eight - and - a-half - minute version appears as the final track on the band 's 1971 album Who 's Next, released that August.
Townshend wrote the song as a closing number of the Lifehouse project, and the lyrics criticise revolution and power. To symbolise the spiritual connection he had found in music via the works of Meher Baba and Inayat Khan, he programmed a mixture of human traits into a synthesizer and used it as the main backing instrument throughout the song. The Who tried recording the song in New York in March 1971, but re-recorded a superior take at Stargroves the next month using the synthesizer from Townshend 's original demo. Ultimately, Lifehouse as a project was abandoned in favour of Who 's Next, a straightforward album, where it also became the closing track. It has been performed as a staple of the band 's setlist since 1971, often as the set closer, and was the last song drummer Keith Moon played live with the band.
As well as a hit, the song has achieved critical praise, appearing as one of Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. It has been covered by several artists, such as Van Halen who took their version to No. 1 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart. It has been used for several TV shows and films, and in some political campaigns.
The song was originally intended for a rock opera Townshend had been working on, Lifehouse, which was a multi-media exercise based on his followings of the Indian religious avatar Meher Baba, showing how spiritual enlightenment could be obtained via a combination of band and audience. The song was written for the end of the opera, after the main character, Bobby, is killed and the "universal chord '' is sounded. The main characters disappear, leaving behind the government and army, who are left to bully each other. Townshend described the song as one "that screams defiance at those who feel any cause is better than no cause ''. He later said that the song was not strictly anti-revolution despite the lyric "We 'll be fighting in the streets '', but stressed that revolution could be unpredictable, adding, "Do n't expect to see what you expect to see. Expect nothing and you might gain everything. '' Bassist John Entwistle later said that the song showed Townshend "saying things that really mattered to him, and saying them for the first time. ''
Townshend had been reading Universal Sufism founder Inayat Khan 's The Mysticism of Sound and Music, which referred to spiritual harmony and the universal chord, which would restore harmony to humanity when sounded. Townshend realised that the newly emerging synthesizers would allow him to communicate these ideas to a mass audience. He had met the BBC Radiophonic Workshop which gave him ideas for capturing human personality within music. Townshend interviewed several people with general practitioner - style questions, and captured their heartbeat, brainwaves and astrological charts, converting the result into a series of audio pulses. For the demo of "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '', he linked a Lowrey organ into an EMS VCS 3 filter that played back the pulse - coded modulations from his experiments. He subsequently upgraded to an ARP 2500. The synthesizer did not play any sounds directly as it was monophonic; instead it modified the block chords on the organ as an input signal. The demo was completed by Townshend overdubbing drums, bass, electric guitar, vocals and handclaps. Overall, the song ran at a slower pace to the version later recorded by the Who.
The Who 's first attempt to record the song was at the Record Plant on W 44 Street, New York City, on 16 March 1971. Manager Kit Lambert had recommended the studio to the group, which led to his producer credit, though the de facto work was done by Felix Pappalardi. This take featured Pappalardi 's Mountain band mate, Leslie West, on lead guitar.
Lambert proved to be unable to mix the track, and a fresh attempt at recording was made at the start of April at Mick Jagger 's house, Stargroves, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio. Glyn Johns was invited to help with production, and he decided to re-use the synthesized organ track from Townshend 's original demo, as the re-recording of the part in New York was felt to be inferior to the original. Keith Moon had to carefully synchronise his drum playing with the synthesizer, while Townshend and Entwistle played electric guitar and bass. Townshend played a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow body guitar fed through an Edwards volume pedal to a Fender Bandmaster amp, all of which he had been given by Joe Walsh while in New York. This combination became his main electric guitar recording setup for subsequent albums. Although intended as a demo recording, the end result sounded so good to the band and Johns, they decided to use it as the final take. Overdubs, including an acoustic guitar part played by Townshend, were recorded at Olympic Studios at the end of April. The track was mixed at Island Studios by Johns on 28 May. After Lifehouse was abandoned as a project, Johns felt "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '', along with other songs, were so good that they could simply be released as a standalone single album, which became Who 's Next.
"Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' was first released in the UK as a single A-side on 25 June 1971, edited down to 3: 35. It replaced "Behind Blue Eyes '', which the group felt did n't fit the Who 's established musical style, as the choice of single. It was released in July in the US. The B - side, "I Do n't Even Know Myself '' was recorded at Eel Pie Studios in 1970 for a planned EP that was never released. The single reached No. 9 in the UK charts and No. 15 in the US. Initial publicity material showed an abandoned cover of Who 's Next featuring Moon dressed in drag and brandishing a whip.
The full - length version of the song appeared as the closing track of Who 's Next, released in August in the US and 27 August in the UK, where it topped the album charts. "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' drew strong praise from critics, who were impressed that a synthesizer had managed to be integrated so successfully within a rock song. Who author Dave Marsh described singer Roger Daltrey 's scream near the end of the track as "the greatest scream of a career filled with screams ''. In 2011, the song was ranked number 134 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. As of March 2018 it was certified Silver for 200,000 sold copies in the UK.
The Who first performed the song live at the opening date of a series of Lifehouse related concerts in the Young Vic theatre, London on 14 February 1971. It has subsequently been part of every Who concert since, often as the set closer and sometimes extended slightly to allow Townshend to smash his guitar or Moon to kick over his drumkit. The group performed live over the synthesizer part being played on a backing tape, which required Moon to wear headphones to hear a click track, allowing him to play in sync. It was the last track Moon played live in front of a paying audience on 21 October 1976 and the last song he ever played with the Who at Shepperton Studios on 25 May 1978, which was captured on the documentary film The Kids Are Alright. The song was part of the Who 's set at Live Aid in 1985, Live 8 in 2005, T4 on the Beach in 2008 and Capital FM 's Summertime Ball concert in 2009, 2010 and 2015 and the radio station 's Jingle Bell Ball concerts in 2009 and 2015.
In October 2001, The Who performed the song at The Concert for New York City to help raise funds for the families of firemen and police officers killed during the 9 / 11 attacks. They finished their set with ' Wo n't Get Fooled Again ' to a responsive and emotional audience, with close - up aerial video footage of the World Trade Center buildings playing behind them on a huge digital screen. In February 2010, the group closed their set during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIV with this song. While the Who have continued to play the song live, Townshend has expressed mixed feelings for it, alternating between pride and embarrassment in interviews. Who biographer John Atkins described the track as "the quintessential Who 's Next track but not necessarily the best. ''
Several live and alternative versions of the song have been released on CD or DVD. In 2003, a deluxe version of Who 's Next was reissued to include the Record Plant recording of the track from March 1971 and a live version recorded at the Young Vic on 26 April 1971. The song is also included on the album Live at the Royal Albert Hall, from a 2000 show with Noel Gallagher guesting.
Daltrey, Entwistle and Townshend have each performed the song at solo concerts. Townshend has re-arranged the song for solo performance on acoustic guitar. On 30 June 1979, he performed a duet of the song with classical guitarist John Williams for the 1979 Amnesty International benefit The Secret Policeman 's Ball.
The song was first covered in a distinctive soul style by Labelle on their 1972 album Moon Shadow. Van Halen began covering the song in concert in 1993. Eddie Van Halen re-arranged the track so that the synthesizer part was played on the guitar. A live recording was released on Live: Right Here, Right Now, and made it to number one on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart.
Both Axel Rudi Pell (on Diamonds Unlocked) and Hayseed Dixie (on Killer Grass) covered the song in their established styles of metal and bluegrass respectively. Richie Havens covered the track on his 2008 album, Nobody Left to Crown, playing the song at a slower tempo to the original.
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who asked for hampton court to be built and which tudors lived there | Hampton Court palace - wikipedia
Hampton Court Palace is a royal palace in the borough of Richmond upon Thames, London, England, 11.7 miles (18.8 kilometres) south west and upstream of central London on the River Thames. Building of the palace began in 1515 for Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, a favourite of King Henry VIII. In 1529, as Wolsey fell from favour, the King seized the palace for himself and later enlarged it. Along with St James 's Palace, it is one of only two surviving palaces out of the many owned by King Henry VIII.
In the following century, King William III 's massive rebuilding and expansion project, which destroyed much of the Tudor palace, was intended to rival Versailles. Work ceased in 1694, leaving the palace in two distinct contrasting architectural styles, domestic Tudor and Baroque. While the palace 's styles are an accident of fate, a unity exists due to the use of pink bricks and a symmetrical, if vague, balancing of successive low wings. King George II was the last monarch to reside in the palace.
Today, the palace is open to the public and is a major tourist attraction, easily reached by train from Waterloo station in central London and served by Hampton Court railway station in East Molesey, in Transport for London 's Zone 6. In addition, London Buses routes 111, 216, 411 and R68 stop outside the palace gates. The structure and grounds are cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown. In addition the palace continues to display a large number of works of art from the Royal Collection.
Apart from the Palace itself and its gardens, other points of interest for visitors include the celebrated maze, the historic real tennis court (see below), and the huge grape vine, the largest in the world as of 2005.
The palace 's Home Park is the site of the annual Hampton Court Palace Festival and Hampton Court Palace Flower Show.
Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, Chief Minister and favourite of Henry VIII, took over the site of Hampton Court Palace in 1514. It had previously been a property of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Over the following seven years, Wolsey spent lavishly (200,000 Crowns) to build the finest palace in England at Hampton Court. Today, little of Wolsey 's building work remains unchanged. The first courtyard, the Base Court, (B on plan), was his creation, as was the second, inner gatehouse (C) which leads to the Clock Court (D) (Wolsey 's seal remains visible over the entrance arch of the clock tower) which contained his private rooms (O on plan). The Base Court contained forty - four lodgings reserved for guests, while the second court (today, Clock Court) contained the very best rooms -- the state apartments -- reserved for the King and his family. Henry VIII stayed in the state apartments as Wolsey 's guest immediately after their completion in 1525.
In building his palace, Wolsey was attempting to create a Renaissance cardinal 's palace of a rectilinear symmetrical plan with grand apartments on a raised piano nobile, all rendered with classical detailing. The historian Jonathan Foyle has suggested that it is likely that Wolsey had been inspired by Paolo Cortese 's De Cardinalatu, a manual for cardinals that included advice on palatial architecture, published in 1510. The architectural historian Sir John Summerson asserts that the palace shows "the essence of Wolsey -- the plain English churchman who nevertheless made his sovereign the arbiter of Europe and who built and furnished Hampton Court to show foreign embassies that Henry VIII 's chief minister knew how to live as graciously as any cardinal in Rome. '' Whatever the concepts were, the architecture is an excellent and rare example of a thirty - year era when English architecture was in a harmonious transition from domestic Tudor, strongly influenced by perpendicular Gothic, to the Italian Renaissance classical style. Perpendicular Gothic owed nothing historically to the Renaissance style, yet harmonised well with it. This blending of styles was realised by a small group of Italian craftsmen working at the English court in the second and third decades of the sixteenth century. They specialised in the adding of Renaissance ornament to otherwise straightforward Tudor buildings. It was one of these, Giovanni da Maiano who was responsible for the set of eight relief busts of Roman emperors which were set in the Tudor brickwork.
Wolsey was only to enjoy his palace for a few years. In 1528, knowing that his enemies and the King were engineering his downfall, he passed the palace to the King as a gift. Wolsey died two years later in 1530.
Within six months of coming into ownership, the King began his own rebuilding and expansion. Henry VIII 's court consisted of over one thousand people, while the King owned over sixty houses and palaces. Few of these were large enough to hold the assembled court, and thus one of the first of the King 's building works (in order to transform Hampton Court to a principal residence) was to build the vast kitchens. These were quadrupled in size in 1529, enabling the King to provide bouche of court for his entire court. The architecture of King Henry 's new palace followed the design precedent set by Wolsey: perpendicular Gothic - inspired Tudor with restrained Renaissance ornament. This hybrid architecture was to remain almost unchanged for nearly a century, until Inigo Jones introduced strong classical influences from Italy to the London palaces of the first Stuart kings.
Between 1532 and 1535 Henry added the Great Hall (the last medieval great hall built for the English monarchy) and the Royal Tennis Court. The Great Hall has a carved hammer - beam roof. During Tudor times, this was the most important room of the palace; here, the King would dine in state seated at a table upon a raised dais. The hall took five years to complete; so impatient was the King for completion that the masons were compelled to work throughout the night by candlelight.
The gatehouse to the second, inner court was adorned in 1540 with the Hampton Court astronomical clock, an early example of a pre-Copernican astronomical clock. Still functioning, the clock shows the time of day, the phases of the moon, the month, the quarter of the year, the date, the sun and star sign, and high water at London Bridge. The latter information was of great importance to those visiting this Thames - side palace from London, as the preferred method of transport at the time was by barge, and at low water London Bridge created dangerous rapids. This gatehouse is also known today as Anne Boleyn 's gate, after Henry 's second wife. Work was still underway on Anne Boleyn 's apartments above the gate when Boleyn was beheaded.
During the Tudor period, the palace was the scene of many historic events. In 1537, the King 's much desired male heir, the future Edward VI, was born at the palace and the child 's mother, Jane Seymour, died there two weeks later. Four years afterwards, whilst attending Mass in the palace 's chapel, the King was informed of the adultery of his fifth wife, Catherine Howard. She was then confined to her room for a few days before being sent to Syon House and then on to the Tower of London. Legend claims she briefly escaped her guards and ran through The Haunted Gallery to beg Henry for her life but she was recaptured.
King Henry died in January 1547 and was succeeded first by his son Edward VI, and then by both his daughters in turn. It was to Hampton Court that Queen Mary I (Henry 's elder daughter) retreated with King Philip to spend her honeymoon, after their wedding at Winchester. Mary chose Hampton Court as the place for the birth of her first child, which turned out to be the first of two phantom pregnancies. Mary had initially wanted to give birth at Windsor Castle as it was a more secure location, and she was still fearful of rebellion. But Hampton Court was considerably larger, and could accommodate the entire court and more besides. Mary stayed at the Palace awaiting the birth of the "child '' for over five months, and only left because of the inhabitable state of the court being kept in the one location for so long, after which her court departed for the much smaller palace of Oatlands. Mary was succeeded by her half - sister, Elizabeth I, and it was Elizabeth who had the eastern kitchen built; today, this is the palace 's public tea room.
On the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the Tudor period came to an end. The Queen was succeeded by her first cousin - twice - removed, the Scottish King, James VI, who became known in England as James I of the House of Stuart.
In 1604, the palace was the site of King James ' meeting with representatives of the English Puritans, known as the Hampton Court Conference; while agreement with the Puritans was not reached, the meeting led to James 's commissioning of the King James Version of the Bible.
King James was succeeded in 1625 by his son, the ill - fated Charles I. Hampton Court was to become both his palace and his prison. It was also the setting for his honeymoon with his fifteen - year - old bride, Henrietta Maria in 1625. Following King Charles ' execution in 1649, the palace became the property of the Commonwealth presided over by Oliver Cromwell. Unlike some other former royal properties, the palace escaped relatively unscathed. While the government auctioned much of the contents, the building was ignored.
After the Restoration, King Charles II and his successor James II visited Hampton Court but largely preferred to reside elsewhere. By current French court standards Hampton Court now appeared old - fashioned. It was in 1689, shortly after Louis XIV 's court had moved permanently to Versailles, that the palace 's antiquated state was addressed. England had joint monarchs, William III and his wife, Mary II. Within months of their accession they embarked on a massive rebuilding project at Hampton Court. The intention was to demolish the Tudor palace a section at a time, while replacing it with a huge modern palace in the Baroque style retaining only Henry VIII 's Great Hall.
The country 's most eminent architect, Sir Christopher Wren, was called upon to draw the plans, while the master of works was to be William Talman. The plan was for a vast palace constructed around two courtyards at right angles to each other. Wren 's design for a domed palace bore resemblances to the work of Jules Hardouin Mansart and Louis Le Vau, both architects employed by Louis XIV at Versailles. It has been suggested, though, that the plans were abandoned because the resemblance to Versailles was too subtle and not strong enough; at this time, it was impossible for any sovereign to visualise a palace that did not emulate Versailles ' repetitive Baroque form. However, the resemblances are there: while the façades are not so long as those of Versailles, they have similar, seemingly unstoppable repetitive rhythms beneath a long flat skyline. The monotony is even repeated as the façade turns the corner from the east to the south fronts. However, Hampton Court, unlike Versailles, is given an extra dimension by the contrast between the pink brick and the pale Portland stone quoins, frames and banding. Further diversion is added by the circular and decorated windows of the second floor mezzanine. This theme is repeated in the inner Fountain Court, but the rhythm is faster and the windows, unpedimented on the outer façades, are given pointed pediments in the courtyard; this has led the courtyard to be described as "Startling, as of simultaneous exposure to a great many eyes with raised eyebrows. ''
During this work, half the Tudor palace was replaced and Henry VIII 's state rooms and private apartments were both lost; the new wings around the Fountain Court contained new state apartments and private rooms, one set for the King and one for the Queen. Each suite of state rooms was accessed by a state staircase. The royal suites were of completely equal value in order to reflect William and Mary 's unique status as joint sovereigns. The King 's Apartments face south over the Privy Garden, the Queen 's east over the Fountain Garden. The suites are linked by a gallery running the length of the east façade, another reference to Versailles, where the King and Queen 's apartments are linked by the Galerie des Glaces. However, at Hampton Court the linking gallery is of more modest proportions and decoration. The King 's staircase was decorated with frescos by Antonio Verrio and delicate ironwork by Jean Tijou. Other artists commissioned to decorate the rooms included Grinling Gibbons, Sir James Thornhill and Jacques Rousseau; furnishings were designed by Daniel Marot.
After the death of Queen Mary, King William lost interest in the renovations, and work ceased. However, it was in Hampton Court Park in 1702 that he fell from his horse, later dying from his injuries at Kensington Palace. He was succeeded by his sister - in - law Queen Anne who continued the decoration and completion of the state apartments. On Queen Anne 's death in 1714 the Stuart dynasty came to an end.
Queen Anne 's successor was George I; he and his son George II were the last monarchs to reside at Hampton Court. Under George I six rooms were completed in 1717 to the design of John Vanbrugh. Under George II and his wife, Caroline of Ansbach, further refurbishment took place, with the architect William Kent employed to design new furnishings and decor including the Queen 's Staircase, (1733) and the Cumberland Suite (1737) for the Duke of Cumberland. Today, the Queen 's Private Apartments are open to the public and include her bathroom and bedroom.
The palace houses many works of art and furnishings from the Royal Collection, mainly dating from the two principal periods of the palace 's construction, the early Tudor (Renaissance) and late Stuart to early Georgian period. In September 2015, the Royal Collection recorded 542 works (only those with images) as being located at Hampton Court, mostly paintings and furniture, but also ceramics and sculpture. The full current list can be obtained from their website. The single most important work is Mantegna 's Triumphs of Caesar housed in the Lower Orangery. The palace once housed the Raphael Cartoons now kept at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Their former home, the Cartoon Gallery on the south side of the Fountain Court, was designed by Christopher Wren; copies painted in the 1690s by a minor artist, Henry Cooke, are now displayed in their place. Also on display are important collections of ceramics, including numerous pieces of blue and white porcelain collected by Queen Mary II, both Chinese imports and Delftware.
Much of the original furniture dates from the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including tables by Jean Pelletier, "India back '' walnut chairs by Thomas Roberts and clocks and a barometer by Thomas Tompion. Several state beds are still in their original positions, as is the Throne Canopy in the King 's Privy Chamber. This room contains a crystal chandelier of circa 1700, possibly the first such in the country.
The King 's Guard Chamber contains a large quantity of arms: muskets, pistols, swords, daggers, powder horns and pieces of armour arranged on the walls in decorative patterns. Bills exist for payment to a John Harris dated 1699 for an arrangement believed to be that still seen today.
The timber and plaster ceiling of the Chapel is considered the "most important and magnificent in Britain '', but is all that remains of the Tudor decoration, after redecoration supervised by Sir Christopher Wren. The altar is framed by a massive but plain oak reredos with garlands carved by Grinling Gibbons during the reign of Queen Anne. Opposite the altar, at first - floor level, is the royal pew where the royal family would attend services apart from the general congregation seated below.
The grounds as they appear today were laid out in grand style in the late 17th century. There are no authentic remains of Henry VIII 's gardens, merely a small knot garden, planted in 1924, which hints at the gardens ' 16th - century appearance. Today, the dominating feature of the grounds is the great landscaping scheme constructed for Sir Christopher Wren 's intended new palace. From a water - bounded semicircular parterre, the length of the east front, three avenues radiate in a crow 's foot pattern. The central avenue, containing not a walk or a drive, but the great canal known as the Long Water, was excavated during the reign of Charles II, in 1662. The design, radical at the time, is another immediately recognizable influence from Versailles, and was indeed laid out by pupils of André Le Nôtre, Louis XIV 's landscape gardener.
On the south side of the palace is the Privy Garden bounded by semi-circular wrought iron gates by Jean Tijou. This garden, originally William III 's private garden, was replanted in 1992 in period style with manicured hollies and yews along a geometric system of paths.
On a raised site overlooking the Thames, is a small pavilion, the Banqueting House. This was built circa 1700, for informal meals and entertainments in the gardens rather than for the larger state dinners which would have taken place inside the palace itself. A nearby conservatory houses the "Great Vine '', planted in 1769; by 1968 it had a trunk 81 inches thick and has a length of 100 feet. It still produces an annual crop of grapes.
The palace included apartments for the use of favoured royal friends. One such apartment is described as being in "The Pavilion and situated on the Home Park '' of Hampton Court Palace. This privilege was first extended about 1817 by Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, to his friend, Lieut General James Moore, K.C., and his new bride, Miss Cecilia Watson. George IV continued this arrangement following the death of Prince Edward on 23 January 1820. The Queen continued the arrangement for the widow of General Moore, following his death on 24 April 1838. This particular apartment was used for 21 years or more and spanned three different sponsors.
A well - known curiosity of the palace 's grounds is Hampton Court Maze; planted in the 1690s by George London and Henry Wise for William III. It was originally planted with hornbeam; it has been repaired latterly using many different types of hedge. there is a 3D online browser simulation of the Hampton Court Maze -- see the external links section
Inspired by narrow views of a Tudor garden that can be seen through doorways in a painting, The Family of Henry VIII, hanging in the palace 's Haunted Gallery, a new garden in the style of Henry VIII 's 16th - century Privy Gardens, has been designed to celebrate the anniversary of that King 's accession to the throne. Sited on the former Chapel Court Garden, it has been planted with flowers and herbs from the 16th century, and is completed by gilded heraldic beasts and bold green and white painted fences. The heraldic beasts carved by Ben Harms and Ray Gonzalez of G&H Studios include the golden lion of England, The white greyhound of Richmond, the red dragon of Wales and the white hart of Richard II, all carved from English oak. The garden 's architect was Todd Langstaffe - Gowan, who collaborated with James Fox and the Gardens Team at Historic Royal Palaces.
The formal gardens and park are Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.
There are also ten statues of heraldic animals, called the King 's Beasts, that stand on the bridge over the moat leading to the great gatehouse. Unlike the Queen 's Beasts in Kew Gardens, these statues represent the ancestry of King Henry VIII and his third wife Jane Seymour. The animals are: the lion of England, the Seymour lion, the Royal dragon, the black bull of Clarence, the yale of Beaufort, the white lion of Mortimer, the White Greyhound of Richmond, the Tudor dragon, the Seymour panther and the Seymour unicorn.
Since the reign of King George II, no monarch has ever resided at Hampton Court. In fact, George III, from the moment of his accession, never set foot in the palace: he associated the state apartments with a humiliating scene when his grandfather had once struck him following an innocent remark. He did however have the Great Vine planted here in 1763 and had the top two storeys of the Great Gatehouse removed in 1773.
From the 1760s, the Palace was also used to house grace and favour residents. Many of the Palace rooms were adapted to be rent free apartments, with vacant ones allocated by the Lord Chamberlain to applicants to reward past services rendered to the Crown. From the 1960s the number of new residents declined with the last admitted in the 1980s. However existing residents could continue to live there. In 2005 three remained, with none by 2017.
In 1796, the Great Hall was restored and in 1838, during the reign of Queen Victoria, the restoration was completed and the palace opened to the public. The heavy - handed restoration plan at this time reduced the Great Gatehouse (A), the palace 's principal entrance, by two stories and removed the lead cupolas adorning its four towers.
On 2 September 1952, the palace was given statutory protection by being grade I listed. Other buildings and structures within the grounds are separately grade I listed, including the early 16th - century tilt yard tower (the only surviving example of the five original towers); Christopher Wren 's Lion gate built for Anne and George I; and the Tudor and 17th - century perimeter walls.
Throughout the 20th century in addition to becoming a major London tourist attraction, the palace continued to house grace and favour residences given to esteemed servants and subjects of the crown. It was the elderly recipient of one such grace and favour apartment, Lady Daphne Gale, widow of General Sir Richard Gale, who caused a major fire that claimed her life and spread to the King 's Apartments in 1986. This led to a new programme of restoration work which was completed in 1990.
The Royal School of Needlework moved to premises within the Palace from Princes Gate in Kensington 1987, and the Palace also houses the headquarters of Historic Royal Palaces, a charitable foundation.
Inspired by Wren 's work at Hampton Court, the American Vanderbilt family modeled their estate known as Florham, in Madison, New Jersey, after Hampton Court 's English - baroque style. Florham was commissioned by Florence Adele Vanderbilt and Hamilton McKown Twombly from the McKim, Mead & White firm, which also built the Old Penn Station and the Rhode Island State House among many other monuments, in 1893. Hampton Court can be seen very clearly in Florham 's classical columns, and mix of stone and red brick. Now home to Fairleigh Dickinson University, Florham, at 110 rooms, remains the 8th largest house in the United States.
The palace served as the location for the film A Man for All Seasons (1966), directed by Fred Zinnemann. It also appeared in the HBO miniseries John Adams (2008) where Adams was received by King George III as the first U.S. Ambassador to the Court of St James 's. The palace was used in the film To Kill a King (2003), Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011) and in Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows (2011). The palace also served as a location for the live action film of Disney 's Cinderella (2015), directed by Kenneth Branagh and starring Lily James and Richard Madden.
The location was used for a performance of The Six Wives of Henry VIII by rock keyboardist Rick Wakeman in 2009. The concert was videotaped.
The palace was the venue for the Road Cycling Time Trial of the 2012 Summer Olympics and temporary structures for the event, including a set of thrones for time trialists in the medal positions, were installed in the grounds.
In 2015 Hampton Court celebrated its 500th anniversary. The celebrations included daily dramatised historical scenes. Building at the palace began on 12 February 1515.
On 9 February 2016 Vincent Nichols, the Catholic archbishop of Westminster, celebrated vespers in the Chapel Royal, the first Catholic service held at the palace for 450 years.
Served by Hampton Court railway station which is across Hampton Court Bridge.
The Palace is also served by London bus routes 111, 216, 411 and R68.
The g
The Great Gatehouse lost its top two stories in 1773 under George III
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where is the plateau of tibet located brainly | Iranian plateau - wikipedia
The Persian Plateau, or Iranian Plateau, is a geological formation in Western Asia and Central Asia. It is the part of the Eurasian Plate wedged between the Arabian and Indian plates, situated between the Zagros Mountains to the west, the Caspian Sea and the Kopet Dag to the north, the Armenian Highlands and the Caucasus Mountains in the northwest, the Strait of Hormuz and Persian Gulf to the south and the Indus River to the east in Pakistan.
As a historical region, it includes Parthia, Media, Persis, the heartlands of Iran and some of its recently lost territories. The Zagros Mountains form the plateau 's western boundary, and its eastern slopes may be included in the term. The Encyclopædia Britannica excludes "lowland Khuzestan '' explicitly and characterizes Elam as spanning "the region from the Mesopotamian plain to the Iranian Plateau ''.
From the Caspian in the northwest to Baluchistan in the south - east, the Iranian Plateau extends for close to 2,000 km. It encompasses the greater part of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan west of the Indus River on an area roughly outlined by the quadrangle formed by the cities of Tabriz, Shiraz, Peshawar and Quetta containing some 3,700,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi). In spite of being called a "plateau '', it contains several mountain ranges, the highest peak being Damavand in the Alborz at 5610 m, and the Dasht - e Loot desert east of Kerman which falls below 300 m.
In geology, the plateau region of Iran primarily formed of the accretionary Gondwanan terranes between the Turan platform to the north and the Main Zagros Thrust, the suture zone between the northward moving Arabian plate and the Eurasian continent, is called the Iranian plateau. It is a geologically well - studied area because of general interest in continental collision zones, and because of Iran 's long history of research in geology, particularly in economic geology (although Iran 's major petroleum reserves are not in the plateau).
The Iranian plateau in geology refers to a geographical area north of the great folded mountain belts resulting from the collision of the Arabian plate with the Eurasian plate. In this definition, the Iranian plateau does not cover southwestern Iran. It extends from East Azerbaijan Province in the northwest of Iran (Persia) all the way to Pakistan west of the Indus River. It also includes smaller parts of the Republic of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan.
Its mountain ranges can be divided into five major sub-regions (see below).
The Northwestern Iranian Plateau, where the Pontic and Taurus Mountains converge, is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate, and greater precipitation than are found on the Anatolian Plateau. The region is known as the Anti-Taurus, and the average elevation of its peaks exceeds 3,000 m. Mount Ararat, at 5,137 meters (16,854 ft) the highest point in Turkey, is located in the Anti-Taurus. Lake Van is situated in the mountains at an elevation of 1,546 meters (5,072 ft).
The headwaters of major rivers arise in the Anti-Taurus: the east - flowing Aras River, which empties into the Caspian Sea; the south - flowing Euphrates and Tigris join in Iraq before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Several small streams that empty into the Black Sea or landlocked Lake Van also originate in these mountains. The Indus River begins in the highlands of Tibet and flows the length of Pakistan almost tracing the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau. The Indus River forms the Iranian plateau 's eastern boundary.
Southeast Anatolia lies south of the Anti-Taurus Mountains. It is a region of rolling hills and a broad plateau surface that extends into Syria. Elevations decrease gradually, from about 800 meters (2,600 ft) in the north to about 500 meters (1,600 ft) in the south. Traditionally, wheat and barley are the main crops of the region.
In the Bronze Age, Elam stretched across the Zagros mountains, connecting Mesopotamia and the Iranian Plateau. The kingdoms of Aratta known from cuneiform sources may have been located in the Central Iranian Plateau.
In classical antquity the region was known as Persia, due to the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, originating in Persia proper, or Fars.
The Middle Persian Erān (whence Modern Persian Irān) began to be used in reference to the state (rather than as an ethnic designator) from the Sassanid period (see Etymology of Iran).
Archaeological sites and cultures of the Iranian plateau include:
The plateau has historical oak and poplar forests. Oak forests are found around Shiraz. Aspen, elm, ash, willow, walnut, pine, and cypress are also found, though the latter two are rare. As of 1920, poplar was harvested for making doors. Elm was used for ploughs. Other trees like acacia, cypress, and Turkestan elm were used for decorative purposes. Flower wise, the plateau can grow lilac, jasmine, and roses. Hawthorn and Cercis siliquastrum are common, which are both used for basket weaving.
The plateau is abundant with wildlife including leopards, bears, hyenas, wild boars, ibex, gazelles, and mouflons. These animals are mostly found in the wooded mountains of the plateau. The shores of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf house aquatic birds such as seagulls, ducks, and geese. Deer, hedgehogs, foxes, and 22 species of rodents are found in semidesert, and palm squirrels and Asiatic black bears live in Baluchistan.
Wide variety of amphibians and reptiles such as toads, frogs, tortoises, lizards, salamanders, racers, rat snakes (Ptyas), cat snakes (Tarbophis fallax), and vipers live the Baluchistan region and along the slopes of the Elburz and Zagros mountains. 200 varieties of fish live in the Persian Gulf. 30 species of the most important commercial fish Sturgeon is found in the Caspian Sea.
The Iranian plateau harvests trees for making doors, ploughs, and baskets. Fruit is grown also. Pears, apples, apricots, quince, plums, nectarines, cherries, mulberries, and peaches were commonly seen in the 20th century. Almonds and pistachios are common in warmer areas. Dates, oranges, grapes, melon, and limes are also grown. Other edibles include potatoes and cauliflower, which were hard to grow until European settlement brought irrigation improvements. Other vegetables include cabbage, tomatoes, artichokes, cucumbers, spinach, radishes, lettuce, and eggplants.
The plateau also produces wheat, barley, millet, beans, opium, cotton, lucerne, and tobacco. The barley is fed mainly to horses. Sesame is grown and made into sesame oil. Mushrooms and manna were also seen in the plateau area as of 1920. Caraway is grown in the Kerman Province.
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what is the current version of android os | Android version History - wikipedia
The version history of the Android mobile operating system began with the public release of the Android beta in November 5, 2007. The first commercial version, Android 1.0, was released in September 2008. Android is continually developed by Google and the Open Handset Alliance, and it has seen a number of updates to its base operating system since the initial release.
Versions 1.0 and 1.1 were not released under specific code names. Android code names are confectionery - themed and have been in alphabetical order since 2009 's Android 1.5 Cupcake, with the most recent major version being Android 8.1 Oreo, released in December 2017.
A version of Android KitKat exclusive to Android Wear devices was released on June 25, 2014, with an API level of 20.
The development of Android started in 2003 by Android, Inc., which was purchased by Google in 2005.
There were at least two internal releases of the software inside Google and the OHA before the beta version was released.
To avoid confusion, the code names "Astro Boy '' and "Bender '' were only known to be tagged internally on some early pre-1.0 milestone builds, and thus were never used as the actual code names of the 1.0. 0 and 1.1 release of the OS, as many people are mistakenly calling and repeating on the web. Dan Morrill created some of the first mascot logos, but the current Android logo was designed by Irina Blok. The project manager, Ryan Gibson, conceived the confectionery - themed naming scheme that has been used for the majority of the public releases, starting with Android 1.5 Cupcake.
The beta was released on November 5, 2007, while the software development kit (SDK) was released on November 12, 2007. The November 5 date is popularly celebrated as Android 's "birthday ''. Public beta versions of the SDK were released in the following order:
The following tables show the release dates and key features of all Android operating system updates to date, listed chronologically by their official application programming interface (API) levels.
Lollipop features a redesigned user interface built around a responsive design language referred to as "material design ''. Other changes include improvements to the notifications, which can be accessed from the lockscreen and displayed within applications as top - of - the - screen banners. Furthermore, Google made internal changes to the platform, with the Android Runtime (ART) officially replacing Dalvik for improved application performance, and with changes intended to improve and optimize battery usage, known internally as Project Volta.
The main hardware platform for Android is the ARM architecture (ARMv7 and ARMv8 - A architectures; formerly also ARMv5), with x86 and MIPS architectures also officially supported in later versions of Android. Unofficial Android - x86 project used to provide support for the x86 and MIPS architectures ahead of the official support. Since 2012, Android devices with Intel processors began to appear, including phones and tablets. While gaining support for 64 - bit platforms, Android was first made to run on 64 - bit x86 and then on ARM64. Since Android 5.0 Lollipop, 64 - bit variants of all platforms are supported in addition to the 32 - bit variants.
Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7.1 depend on screen size and density and type of CPU, ranging from 816 MB -- 1.8 GB for 64 - bit and 512 MB -- 1.3 GB for 32 - bit meaning in practice 1 GB for the most common type of display (while minimum for Android watch is 416 MB). The recommendation for Android 4.4 is to have at least 512 MB of RAM, while for "low RAM '' devices 340 MB is the required minimum amount that does not include memory dedicated to various hardware components such as the baseband processor. Android 4.4 requires a 32 - bit ARMv7, MIPS or x86 architecture processor (latter two through unofficial ports), together with an OpenGL ES 2.0 compatible graphics processing unit (GPU). Android supports OpenGL ES 1.1, 2.0, 3.0, 3.2 and as of latest major version Vulkan. Some applications may explicitly require a certain version of the OpenGL ES, and suitable GPU hardware is required to run such applications.
Android used to require an autofocus camera, which was relaxed to a fixed - focus camera if present at all, since the camera was dropped as a requirement entirely (except for smartphones) when Android started to be used on set - top boxes.
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when did space exploration began in the us | Timeline of space exploration - wikipedia
This is for a timeline of space exploration including notable achievements and first accomplishments or major events in humanity 's exploration of outer space.
First photograph of Venus from Space
Project Vanguard was transferred from the NRL to NASA in late 1958.
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transduction occurs for the visual system in the and for the auditory system in the | Transduction (physiology) - wikipedia
In physiology, sensory transduction is the conversion of a sensory stimulus from one form to another.
Transduction in the nervous system typically refers to stimulus alerting events wherein a physical stimulus is converted into an action potential, which is transmitted along axons towards the central nervous system where it is integrated.
A receptor cell converts the energy in a stimulus into a change in the electrical potential across its membrane. It causes the depolarization of the membrane to allow the action potential to be transduced to the brain for integration.
In the visual system, sensory cells called rod and cone cells in the retina convert the physical energy of light signals into electrical impulses that travel to the brain. The light causes a conformational change in a protein called rhodopsin. This conformational change sets in motion a series of molecular events that result in a reduction of the electrochemical gradient of the photoreceptor. The decrease in the electrochemical gradient causes a reduction in the electrical signals going to the brain. Thus, in this example, more light hitting the photoreceptor results in the transduction of a signal into fewer electrical impulses, effectively communicating that stimulus to the brain. A change in neurotransmitter release is mediated through a second messenger system. Note that the change in neurotransmitter release is by rods. Because of the change, a change in light intensity causes the response of the rods to be much slower than expected (for a process associated with the nervous system).
In the auditory system, sound vibrations (mechanical energy) are transduced into electrical energy by hair cells in the inner ear. Sound vibrations from an object cause vibrations in air molecules, which in turn, vibrate your ear drum. The movement of the eardrum causes the bones of your middle ear (the ossicles) to vibrate. These vibrations then pass in to the cochlea, the organ of hearing. Within the cochlea, the hair cells on the sensory epithelium of the organ of Corti bend and cause movement of the basilar membrane. The membrane undulates in different sized waves according to the frequency of the sound. Hair cells are then able to convert this movement (mechanical energy) into electrical signals (graded receptor potentials) which travel along auditory nerves to hearing centres in the brain.
In the olfactory system, odorant molecules in the mucus bind to G - protein receptors on olfactory cells. The G - protein activates a downstream signalling cascade that causes increased level of cyclic - AMP (cAMP), which trigger neurotransmitter release.
In the gustatory system, our perception of five primary taste qualities (sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami (savoriness)) depends on taste transduction pathways, through taste receptor cells, G proteins, ion channels, and effector enzymes.
In the somatosensory system the sensory transduction mainly involves the conversion of the mechanical signal such as pressure, skin compression, stretch, vibration to electro - ionic impulses through the process of mechanotransduction. It also includes the sensory transduction related to thermoception and nociception.
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movie about a baby lost in the city | Baby 's Day Out - wikipedia
Baby 's Day Out is a 1994 American family comedy adventure film, written by John Hughes, produced by Richard Vane and John Hughes, and directed by Patrick Read Johnson. The film stars twins Adam and Jacob Worton as Baby Bink with co-stars Joe Mantegna, Joe Pantoliano and Brian Haley as the film 's three incompetent antagonists. The plot centers on a wealthy baby 's kidnapping by three villainous, yet incompetent thieves, his escape and adventure through a big city while being pursued by the three kidnappers.
Baby 's Day Out was released on July 1, 1994, in the United States to both critical and commercial failure there. However, it enjoyed major popularity in South Asian markets.
Bennington Austin "Bink '' Cotwell IV has adoring parents Laraine (Lara Flynn Boyle) and Bennington (Matthew Glave), lives in a huge mansion in a suburb of Chicago, and is just about to appear in the social pages of the newspaper. Three klutzy would - be kidnappers: Edgar "Eddie '' Mauser (Joe Mantegna), Norbert "Norby '' LeBlaw (Joe Pantoliano), and Victor "Veeko '' Riley (Brian Haley), the main antagonists, disguise themselves as the photographers from the paper and kidnap him. After the kidnapping, they have difficulty controlling him. In the trial of trying to get him to fall asleep, Norby does so reading Bink 's book, leaving him unattended. Norby later goes to sleep himself. Looking through it, he notices a bird on the page and then by the window. He follows it out and successfully gets away from his kidnappers, with Eddie falling off the building and into a garbage bin.
The FBI arrives at the mansion, headed by Dale Grissom (Fred Dalton Thompson), where they try to piece together clues along with Bink 's parents and his loving nanny Gilbertine (Cynthia Nixon). Meanwhile, he, now outside on the ground and crawling about, finds another part of his book - the blue bus, which he then boards. The kidnappers realise he is missing and start chasing the bus in their van, but their efforts are in vain. Meanwhile, on the bus, Bink crawls into the bag of an obese lady, who gets off at her stop shortly afterwards. By the time the trio catches it, and realise Bink is not on board, they then realise that he crawled into the lady 's bag and follow her. An altercation ensues after they insult her (when she insults them), and while they attempt their escape, Bink crawls up to a revolving door at the entrance to a department store and is forced inwards by its momentum.
Crawling through the Marshall Fields department store, Bink is stopped by a worker who works for Mother Goose Corner, a nearby day care center, who believes he is another baby who escaped from there. He later escapes there and the store and eventually crawls into traffic. The kidnappers attempt to follow him but keep getting injured in the process as he makes his way to the city zoo. They are shocked to find him in the primate house with a gorilla. It shows a maternal side and does not injure him. The kidnappers try to retrieve him but it notices and hits Veeko 's hand, throws Norby into the air using a mop as a catapult, and hurls Eddie against the bars of the cage opposite its own.
The kidnappers eventually corner and catch Bink in the zoo 's park, but are confronted by two friendly police officers, who have noticed that their van 's engine is still running. During the conversation, Eddie hides Bink under his coat in his lap, but he reaches Eddie 's cigarette lighter, sets his crotch on fire, and sneaks off as soon as the officers are gone. Veeko extinguishes the fire by stomping repeatedly on Eddie 's groin. They follow Bink to a construction yard, but are still unable to catch him, with Veeko getting thrown off the building (after falling onto one of the construction workers lift) and into the back of a garbage truck, Norby falling into a vat of wet cement, and Eddie getting stranded on a crane after being drenched in glue. The sun sets as Bink leaves the construction yard. The kidnappers manage to escape (offscreen), but decide to give up and go home.
Bink 's parents are notified of various sightings of him in the city and Gilbertine deduces that he has been following his favorite book, "Baby 's Day Out '' (or "Boo - Boo '', as Bink calls it) and will most likely head for the Old Soldiers ' Home next. Sure enough, they find him there, but on the way home, he begins to call out "Boo - Boo '' toward the kidnappers ' flat. The FBI moves in on there and arrests Eddie, Veeko, and Norby demanding that they return his book first.
Back home, Bink is put to bed by his family. As his parents discuss having his picture taken by a normal photographer in the morning, he wakes up and gets ready to read another book, this one entitled "Baby 's Trip to China ''.
Baby 's Day Out was panned by critics, and holds a 21 % "rotten '' approval rating at the review website Rotten Tomatoes, with 3 positive reviews from 14.
On the Siskel & Ebert show, critic Roger Ebert wrote that "Baby 's Day Out contains gags that might have worked in a Baby Herman cartoon, but in live action, with real people, taxis, buses, streets, and a real baby, they 're just not funny. The Worton twins are adorable as Baby Bink, however; the audience produced an audible coo the first time they saw him on the screen. '' He gave the film 1 1 / 2 stars.
His partner, Gene Siskel, however, liked the film because he thought that young children would love it for the humor. Hal Hinson, writing for the Washington Post, wrote: "The pace is quick and efficient but never frantic... almost everything in the picture is just right, including the two - bit crooks who abduct the superhero toddler and end up bruised and begging hilariously for mercy. Best of all, though, is the Binkman himself, whose tiny face is so expressive that he brings new meaning to the phrase ' conquering with a smile. ' ''
The film opened with takings of $4,044,662 at the start of July 1994. The film finally grossed $16,827,402 at the domestic box office, a disappointing return considering the $48 million production budget for the film. It ranked at # 83 for the best performing films of 1994.
It was also the 26th best performing PG - rated family film of the year in 1994.
Baby 's Day Out was tremendously popular in South Asia, including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. In India, the movie was played at the largest theater in Calcutta for over a year. Recalling a trip to Calcutta, Roger Ebert says, "I asked if Star Wars had been their most successful American film. No, I was told, it was Baby 's Day Out... '' It was remade twice, first in Telugu in 1995 under the title Sisindri and then in Malayalam in 1999 under the title James Bond. It was dubbed in Tamil with the title Chutti Kuzhanthai meaning Naughty Baby. It was also dubbed in Bengali and played in theaters in Bangladesh. It was also dubbed in Punjabi as a comedy in Pakistan.
A video game version of the film was planned, completed, and slated to be released on Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Genesis and Game Boy in October 1994, but was cancelled at the last minute. Two prototypes of the Genesis port can be found for download on several ROM sites. One is a near completed version while the other is a very early beta. Instead of playing as Bink, the player controls what appears to be Bink 's guardian angel to guide Bink to safety in the vein of Pac - Man 2: The New Adventures.
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on VHS on April 4, 1995. The film was released on DVD on January 29, 2001. It includes Patrick Read Johnson 's commentary, a featurette, and a trailer for the film. The film was re-released on DVD on October 11, 2011.
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the total number of genes present in a population is called the | Gene - wikipedia
A gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA which codes for a molecule that has a function. During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into RNA. The RNA can be directly functional or be the intermediate template for a protein that performs a function. The transmission of genes to an organism 's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes. Genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as gene -- environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye color or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that constitute life.
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotypical traits. Usage of the term "having a gene '' (e.g., "good genes, '' "hair colour gene '') typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.
The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.
The term gene was introduced by Danish botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1905. It is inspired by the ancient Greek: γόνος, gonos, that means offspring and procreation.
The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822 -- 1884). From 1857 to 1864, in Brno (Czech Republic), he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2 combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured Wilhelm Johannsen 's distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.
Prior to Mendel 's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan ("all, whole '') and genesis ("birth '') / genos ("origin ''). Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction.
Mendel 's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866, but was rediscovered in the late 19th century by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who (claimed to have) reached similar conclusions in their own research. Specifically, in 1889, Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. De Vries called these units "pangenes '' (Pangens in German), after Darwin 's 1868 pangenesis theory.
Sixteen years later, in 1905, Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term ' gene ' and William Bateson that of ' genetics ' while Eduard Strasburger, amongst others, still used the term ' pangene ' for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double - stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication.
In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities, indivisible by recombination and arranged like beads on a string. The experiments of Benzer using mutants defective in the rII region of bacteriophage T4 (1955 - 1959) showed that individual genes have a simple linear structure and are likely to be equivalent to a linear section of DNA.
Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.
In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain - termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.
The theories developed in the early 20th century to integrate Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley.
Evolutionary biologists have subsequently modified this concept, such as George C. Williams ' gene - centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency. '' In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.
The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five - carbon sugar (2 ' - deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate - sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3 ' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5 ' end. The two strands of a double - helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5 ' → 3 ' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3 ' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single - stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three - nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words '' in the genetic "language ''. The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded. The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.
The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin. The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere. Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes. Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.
Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene - dense, those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single - celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. This DNA has often been referred to as "junk DNA ''. However, more recent analyses suggest that, although protein - coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome, about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA '' may be a misnomer.
The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.
Flanking the open reading frame, genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression. First, genes require a promoter sequence. The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription. The recognition typically occurs as a consensus sequence like the TATA box. A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5 ' end. Highly transcribed genes have "strong '' promoter sequences that form strong associations with transcription factors, thereby initiating transcription at a high rate. Others genes have "weak '' promoters that form weak associations with transcription factors and initiate transcription less frequently. Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.
Additionally, genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame that alter expression. These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence (and bound transcription factor) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site. For example, enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase.
The transcribed pre-mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons. In addition, most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated. The sequences at the ends of the introns, dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product.
Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein - coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The genes in an operon are transcribed as a continuous messenger RNA, referred to as a polycistronic mRNA. The term cistron in this context is equivalent to gene. The transcription of an operon 's mRNA is often controlled by a repressor that can occur in an active or inactive state depending on the presence of certain specific metabolites. When active, the repressor binds to a DNA sequence at the beginning of the operon, called the operator region, and represses transcription of the operon; when the repressor is inactive transcription of the operon can occur (see e.g. Lac operon). The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network.
Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult. Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity. Similarly, a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons. Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome.
Early work in molecular genetics suggested the concept that one gene makes one protein. This concept (originally called the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis) emerged from an influential 1941 paper by George Beadle and Edward Tatum on experiments with mutants of the fungus Neurospora crassa. Norman Horowitz, an early colleague on the Neurospora research, reminisced in 2004 that "these experiments founded the science of what Beadle and Tatum called biochemical genetics. In actuality they proved to be the opening gun in what became molecular genetics and all the developments that have followed from that. '' The one gene - one protein concept has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans - splicing.
A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena, where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products. This definition categorizes genes by their functional products (proteins or RNA) rather than their specific DNA loci, with regulatory elements classified as gene - associated regions.
In all organisms, two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene 's DNA and produce the protein it specifies. First, the gene 's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA). Second, that mRNA is translated to protein. RNA - coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule is called a gene product.
The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid. The principle that three sequential bases of DNA code for each amino acid was demonstrated in 1961 using frameshift mutations in the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4 (see Crick, Brenner et al. experiment).
Additionally, a "start codon '', and three "stop codons '' indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 4 possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.
Transcription produces a single - stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed. The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene 's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene 's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3 ' to 5 ' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5 ' to 3 '. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.
In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm; for very long transcripts, translation may begin at the 5 ' end of the RNA while the 3 ' end is still being transcribed. In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus, where the cell 's DNA is stored. The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation. One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein. Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins. This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes.
Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein. Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds. The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA. The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon. When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand, the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain, which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus. During and after synthesis, most new proteins must fold to their active three - dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions.
Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed, since expression draws on limited resources. A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment (e.g. available nutrients, temperature and other stresses), its internal environment (e.g. cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status), and its specific role if in a multicellular organism. Gene expression can be regulated at any step: from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, to post-translational modification of the protein. The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli (lac operon) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961.
A typical protein - coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product. In other cases, the RNA molecules are the actual functional products, as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA. Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function, and microRNA has a regulatory role. The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non-coding RNA genes.
Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA, and contain no DNA at all. Because they use RNA to store genes, their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription. On the other hand, RNA retroviruses, such as HIV, require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized. RNA - mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals.
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents. Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome. Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent.
According to Mendelian inheritance, variations in an organism 's phenotype (observable physical and behavioral characteristics) are due in part to variations in its genotype (particular set of genes). Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene (alleles) giving rise to different phenotypes. Most eukaryotic organisms (such as the pea plants Mendel worked on) have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent.
Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait, whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele. If you know the genotypes of the organisms, you can determine which alleles are dominant and which are recessive. For example, if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems, then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems. Mendel 's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes, or germ cells, ensuring variation in the next generation. Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes (including a number of well - known genetic disorders) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division.
The growth, development, and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division; the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells. This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication. The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases, which "read '' one strand of the double - helical DNA, known as the template strand, and synthesize a new complementary strand. Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing, the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy. The process of DNA replication is semiconservative; that is, the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.
The rate of DNA replication in living cells was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage - infected E. coli and found to be impressively rapid. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 ° C, the rate of elongation was 749 nucleotides per second.
After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane - bound cells. In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane - bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.
The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance, and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes. Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents ' cells. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene. The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg, a single cell that has two sets of genes, with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father.
During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing - over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding homologous non-sister chromatid. This can result in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles. The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them. This is known as genetic linkage.
DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate, however errors (mutations) do occur. The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10 per nucleotide per replication, whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10. This means that each generation, each human genome accumulates 1 -- 2 new mutations. Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted. Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense (change a codon to encode a different amino acid) or nonsense (a premature stop codon). Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication, deletion, rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome. Additionally, DNA repair mechanisms can introduce mutational errors when repairing physical damage to the molecule. The repair, even with mutation, is more important to survival than restoring an exact copy, for example when repairing double - strand breaks.
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic. Most different alleles are functionally equivalent, however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits. A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type, and rare alleles are called mutants. The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift. The wild - type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles, nor is it necessarily fitter.
Most mutations within genes are neutral, having no effect on the organism 's phenotype (silent mutations). Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid (synonymous mutations). Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes, but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid (e.g. conservative mutations). Many mutations, however, are deleterious or even lethal, and are removed from populations by natural selection. Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual, or can be inherited. Finally, a small fraction of mutations are beneficial, improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution, since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution.
Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism 's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes, and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.
The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA. The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence. Most changes to a gene 's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution. Additionally, any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate. Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly. The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related.
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way compose a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.
"Orphan '' genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are less common than gene duplicates. Estimates of the number of genes with no homologs outside humans range from 18 to 60. Two primary sources of orphan protein - coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change, such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons, and de novo conversion of a previously non-coding sequence into a protein - coding gene. De novo genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Over long evolutionary time periods, de novo gene birth may be responsible for a significant fraction of taxonomically - restricted gene families.
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences.
The genome size, and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses, and viroids (which act as a single non-coding RNA gene). Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing > 46,000 protein - coding genes. The total number of protein - coding genes (the Earth 's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.
Although the number of base - pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes, and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000. Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000 -- 100,000 transcribed genes (expressed sequence tags). Subsequently, the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes, and the total number of protein - coding genes was revised down to ~ 20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome. With the GENCODE annotation project, that estimate has continued to fall to 19,000. Of the human genome, only 1 -- 2 % consists of protein - coding genes, with the remainder being ' noncoding ' DNA such as introns, retrotransposons, and noncoding RNAs. Every multicellular organism has all its genes in each cell of its body but not every gene functions in every cell.
Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism 's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism 's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250 -- 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10 % of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes (~ 20 % of their genes). Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes (~ 10 % of their genes). The synthetic organism, Syn 3, has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi-essential genes (necessary for fast growth), although 149 have unknown function.
Essential genes include Housekeeping genes (critical for basic cell functions) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle. Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression, since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level.
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short - form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene 's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene 's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.
For multicellular organisms, typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism. However, the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases.
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (Fourth ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 978 - 0 - 8153 - 3218 - 3. -- A molecular biology textbook available free online through NCBI Bookshelf.
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did elton john write the music for lion king | The Lion King (Soundtrack) - wikipedia
The Lion King: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the original motion picture soundtrack for the 1994 Disney animated film, The Lion King. It contains songs from the film written by Elton John and Tim Rice, and a score composed by Hans Zimmer. Elton John has a dual role of performer for several tracks. Additional performers include Carmen Twillie, Jason Weaver, Rowan Atkinson, Whoopi Goldberg, Jeremy Irons, Cheech Marin, Jim Cummings, Nathan Lane, Ernie Sabella, and Sally Dworsky. The album was released on April 27, 1994 on CD and audio cassette. The soundtrack was recorded in three different countries: the U.S., the U.K. and South Africa. It is the best - selling soundtrack album to an animated film in the United States with over 7 million copies sold, with 4,934,000 copies sold in 1994.
An expanded version of The Lion King soundtrack, featuring 30 minutes of previously - unreleased material, was released as part of the Walt Disney Records: The Legacy Collection series on June 24, 2014. In 2014, Hot Topic released a vinyl picture disc of the soundtrack.
All music composed by Elton John and Hans Zimmer with lyrics by Tim Rice.
Walt Disney Records released an expanded edition of The Lion King soundtrack containing an additional thirty minutes of previously - unheard material from the film, as well as a collection of demo versions of cues. This revision contains a new remastered mix by Alan Meyerson.
The soundtrack shipped over 10 million copies in the U.S. and eventually went 10x platinum in 1995, thus becoming the biggest - selling soundtrack ever from an animated film. Its certification was promoted to Diamond when the award was instituted in 1999. According to Nielsen Soundscan the soundtrack, as of April 2014, has sold a total of 7.873 million copies in the US. It is also the best - selling vinyl album in the Nielsen SoundScan era (starting 1991), with 1,043,000 copies sold as of June 2014.
In 2010, Rhapsody called it one of the all - time great Disney & Pixar Soundtracks.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who was defeated and killed in the fourth mysore war at srirangapatna | Fourth Anglo - Mysore war - Wikipedia
Decisive Anglo - Hyderabadi victory
East India Company Hyderabad Deccan Maratha Empire
The Fourth Anglo -- Mysore War was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore against the British East India Company and the Hyderabad Deccan in the 1799.
This was the final conflict of the four Anglo -- Mysore Wars. The British captured the capital of Mysore. The ruler Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle. Britain took indirect control of Mysore, restoring the Wodeyar Dynasty to the Mysore throne (with a British commissioner to advise him on all issues). Tipu Sultan 's young heir, Fateh Ali, was sent into exile. The Kingdom of Mysore became a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India and ceded Coimbatore, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada to the British.
The war, specifically the Battle of Mallavelly and the Siege of Seringapatam, with many of the key protagonists, is covered in the historical novel Sharpe 's Tiger.
Napoleon 's landing in Egypt in 1798 was intended to further the capture of the British possessions in India, and the Kingdom of Mysore was a key to that next step, as the ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, sought France as an ally and his letter to Napoleon resulted in the following reply, "You have already been informed of my arrival on the borders of the Red Sea, with an innumerable and invincible army, full of the desire of releasing and relieving you from the iron yoke of England. '' Additionally, General Malarctic, French Governor of Mauritius, issued the Malarctic Proclamation seeking volunteers to assist Tipu. Horatio Nelson crushed any help from Napoleon after the Battle of the Nile. However, Lord Wellesley had already set in motion a response to prevent any alliance between Tipu Sultan and France.
Three armies -- one from Bombay and two British (one of which contained a division that was commanded by Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the future 1st Duke of Wellington), marched into Mysore in 1799 and besieged the capital, Srirangapatnam, after some engagements with Tipu. On 8 March, a forward force managed to hold off an advance by Tipu at the Battle of Seedaseer. On 4 May, in the Battle of Seringapatam, broke through the defending walls. Tipu Sultan, rushing to the breach, was shot and killed.
Today, the spot where Tipu 's body was discovered under the eastern gate has been fenced off by the Archaeological Survey of India, and a plaque erected. The gate itself was later demolished during the 19th century to lay a wide road.
One notable military advance championed by Tipu Sultan was the use of mass attacks with iron - cased rocket brigades in the army. The effect of the Mysorean rockets on the British during the Third and Fourth Mysore Wars was sufficiently impressive to inspire William Congreve to develop the Congreve rockets.
Many members of the British East India Company believed that Umdat Ul - Umra, the Nawab of Carnatic, secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the Fourth Anglo -- Mysore War; and they immediately sought his deposition after the end of the conflict.
During the war, rockets were again used on several occasions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley, later famous as the First Duke of Wellington. Wellesley was defeated by Tipu 's Diwan, Purnaiya, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,
At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu 's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5 April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket - fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack '' until a more favourable opportunity should offer.
The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without losing a single man. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers worked their way around to the rear of the British encampment, then ' threw a great number of rockets at the same instant ' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all directed by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles... ''. He continued:
The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.
During the conclusive British attack on Srirangapattana on 2 May 1799, a British shot struck a magazine of rockets within Tipu Sultan 's fort, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. On the afternoon of 4 May when the final attack on the fort was led by Baird, he was again met by "furious musket and rocket fire '', but this did not help much; in about an hour 's time the fort was taken; perhaps within another hour Tipu had been shot (the precise time of his death is not known), and the war was effectively over.
Tipu Sultan 's forces during the Siege of Srirangapatna.
The Last Effort of Tippu Sahib at Seringapatam (Corner, 1840, p. 334)
The Last Effort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry Singleton, c. 1800
British troops examine the body of Tipu Sultan
David Baird, a British officer, discovering the body of Tipu Sultan.
British Marker showing the location where Tipu 's body was found.
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what is the most urbanized country in latin america | Urbanization by country - wikipedia
This is a list of countries by urbanization.
There are two measures of the degree of urbanization of a population. The first, urban population, describes the percentage of the total population living in urban areas, as defined by the country.
The second measure, rate of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over the given period of time.
The data is taken from the CIA World Factbook with estimates from 2015.
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who wrote the song it's so hard to say goodbye to yesterday | It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday - wikipedia
"It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' is an R&B song written by Motown husband - and - wife songwriting team Freddie Perren and Christine Yarian for the 1975 film Cooley High. In the film, the song is performed by Motown artist G.C. Cameron, whose rendition peaked at number 38 on the Billboard R&B singles chart that same year. Perren also composed the instrumental score for Cooley High, and the B - side to "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' features two of his score compositions from the film.
The composition fared better when covered in an a cappella rendition by contemporary R&B Motown group Boyz II Men 16 years later. Boyz II Men 's recording of "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' peaked at number one on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs on December 21, 1991. Over on non-genre specific charts the song reached number five on the Hot 100 Airplay on December 7, 1991 and number two on the Hot Singles Sales on November 23, 1991 and eventually went on to peak at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 14, 1991, blocked from the top spot for five weeks by Michael Jackson 's single "Black or White ''. "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' was included on Boyz II Men 's first album, Cooleyhighharmony, its name a reference to the film from which the song originated.
The song was also featured in the films Lethal Weapon 3 (1992) and as the center of gags in Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay (2008), and in episodes of the television series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, Psych and Martin. It was featured in the American Dad! episode "News Glance with Genevieve VaVance '' when Steve goes missing. It was also performed on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon immediately after Conan O'Brien 's final Tonight Show in 2010, with Jimmy Fallon and The Roots singing it in the studio O'Brien had occupied when he hosted Late Night (now home of The Dr. Oz Show). The song was later sung by Tracy Morgan as part of a tribute to his 30 Rock co-stars that celebrated the show 's then upcoming final episode. It was also featured on MTV during the current promotions of Jersey Shore 's final season. In July 2013, the song was used by the show Game of Thrones at its Comic - Con panel in a tribute video to the characters killed off in its third season.
US Cassette Single
Europe Maxi - CD
Singer Jacky Cheung recorded a Cantonese version of "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' entitled "偷闲 加油 站 '' in 1993.
The Notorious B.I.G. humorously refers to the song in the song "Gimme the Loot, '' from his 1994 album Ready to Die, indicating that if a potential robbery victim tried to resist his efforts, the victim 's bereaved mother would be left singing "It 's so haaaard. ''
Nas also did something similar in the song "Destroy & Rebuild '', where he did n't mention Cormega 's name in the first verse of the song: "Right: Mega was his name, sorry ' bout that, but ' it 's so hard ' to put a coward 's name in my raps! ''
In 1995, Barrio Boyzz dedicated the song in Spanish to Selena after her death on March 31, 1995.
In 1998, rapper Master P with Mo B. Dick, Silkk the Shocker, and R&B group Sons of Funk did a loose cover for the song titled as "Goodbye to My Homies ''.
In 2001, Usher sang the song a capella in memory of R'n'B singer and actress Aaliyah, who had been killed in a plane crash three days before.
In 2002, Busch Stadium played the song while showing a memorial video of late pitcher Darryl Kile.
In 2008, Jamelody covered the song on his debut album, "Be Prepared ''.
In 2012, R. Kelly sang a portion of the song a capella in the ESPN 30 for 30 documentary Benji, which was a biography of Chicago HS basketball star Ben Wilson. Wilson was murdered in 1984 during an altercation with two teenagers at the age of 17 and Kelly was one of his AAU teammates. Kelly also sang the song as Wilson was being laid to rest the day of his funeral and recounted that for the film.
In 2012, Angela Aki sang the song using both English and Japanese lyrics.
In 2014, singer - songwriter Jason Mraz covered the song on his fifth studio album Yes!, with rock - folk band Raining Jane providing back - up.
Radio stations in the United States changing formats have on occasion used this song to sign off their old format prior to the debut of the new one, such as longtime urban station V103 in Baltimore in June 1997.
On February 12, 2017, guitarist Josh Klinghoffer performed a short tease of the song during the Red Hot Chili Peppers show in Philadelphia
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from what method of body work did foam rolling originate | Myofascial release - wikipedia
Myofascial release (MFR, self - myofascial release) is an alternative medicine therapy that claims to treat skeletal muscle immobility and pain by relaxing contracted muscles, improving blood and lymphatic circulation, and stimulating the stretch reflex in muscles.
Fascia is a thin, tough, elastic type of connective tissue that wraps most structures within the human body, including muscle. Fascia supports and protects these structures. Osteopathic theory proposes that this soft tissue can become restricted due to psychogenic disease, overuse, trauma, infectious agents, or inactivity, often resulting in pain, muscle tension, and corresponding diminished blood flow.
The use of myofascial release as a treatment is not supported by good evidence; as a replacement for conventional treatment, it risks causing harm.
The American Cancer Society states that "There is little scientific evidence available to support proponents ' claims that myofascial release relieves pain or restores flexibility '' and caution against using it as a substitute for conventional cancer treatment. The poor quality of research into the use of myofascial release for orthopaedic conditions precludes any conclusions being drawn about its usefulness for this purpose.
In 2011, the UK Advertising Standards Authority upheld a complaint regarding the effectiveness claims published in an advertising leaflet produced by the Myofascial Release UK health care service. The ASA Council ruled that materials presented by Myofascial Release UK in support of the claims made in their ad were inadequate to establish a "body of robust scientific evidence '' to substantiate Myofascial Release UK 's range of claims. In addition, the ASA determined that the ad breached advertising rules by introducing a risk that readers might be discouraged from seeking other essential medical treatments.
Reviews published in 2013 and 2015 evaluating evidence for MFR efficacy found that clinical trials that had been conducted varied in quality, technique, outcome measurements, and had mixed outcomes; the 2015 review noted: "it is time for scientific evidences (sic) on MFR to support its clinical use. '' Another review concluded that the use of foam rollers or a roller massager before or after exercise for self - myofascial release appears to be helpful with regard to range of motion and soreness, but the evidence is poor.
The approach was promulgated as an alternative medicine concept by Andrew Taylor Still, inventor of osteopathy, and his early students. The exact phrase "myofascial release '' was coined in the 1960s by Robert Ward, an osteopath who studied with Ida Rolf, the originator of Rolfing. Ward, along with physical therapist John Barnes, are considered the two primary founders of Myofascial Release.
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where does red blood cell production occur in adults | Red blood cell - wikipedia
Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate 's principal means of delivering oxygen (O) to the body tissues -- via blood flow through the circulatory system. RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs, or gills of fish, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body 's capillaries.
The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, an iron - containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells. The cell membrane is composed of proteins and lipids, and this structure provides properties essential for physiological cell function such as deformability and stability while traversing the circulatory system and specifically the capillary network.
In humans, mature red blood cells are flexible and oval biconcave disks. They lack a cell nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin; they can be viewed as sacks of hemoglobin, with a plasma membrane as the sack. Approximately 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced per second in human adults. The cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100 -- 120 days in the body before their components are recycled by macrophages. Each circulation takes about 60 seconds (one minute). Approximately a quarter of the cells in the human body are red blood cells. Nearly half of the blood 's volume (40 % to 45 %) is red blood cells.
Red blood cells are also known as RBCs, red cells, red blood corpuscles, haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for "red '' and kytos for "hollow vessel '', with - cyte translated as "cell '' in modern usage). Packed red blood cells (pRBC) are red blood cells that have been donated, processed, and stored in a blood bank for blood transfusion.
Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells. Red blood cells are cells present in blood in order to transport oxygen. The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae); they live in very oxygen - rich cold water and transport oxygen freely dissolved in their blood. While they no longer use hemoglobin, remnants of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome.
Vertebrate red blood cells consist mainly of hemoglobin, a complex metalloprotein containing heme groups whose iron atoms temporarily bind to oxygen molecules (O) in the lungs or gills and release them throughout the body. Oxygen can easily diffuse through the red blood cell 's cell membrane. Hemoglobin in the red blood cells also carries some of the waste product carbon dioxide back from the tissues; most waste carbon dioxide, however, is transported back to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs as bicarbonate (HCO) dissolved in the blood plasma. Myoglobin, a compound related to hemoglobin, acts to store oxygen in muscle cells.
The color of red blood cells is due to the heme group of hemoglobin. The blood plasma alone is straw - colored, but the red blood cells change color depending on the state of the hemoglobin: when combined with oxygen the resulting oxyhemoglobin is scarlet, and when oxygen has been released the resulting deoxyhemoglobin is of a dark red burgundy color. However, blood can appear bluish when seen through the vessel wall and skin. Pulse oximetry takes advantage of the hemoglobin color change to directly measure the arterial blood oxygen saturation using colorimetric techniques. Hemoglobin also has a very high affinity for carbon monoxide, forming carboxyhemoglobin which is a very bright red in color. Flushed, confused patients with a saturation reading of 100 % on pulse oximetry are sometimes found to be suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning.
Having oxygen - carrying proteins inside specialized cells (as opposed to oxygen carriers being dissolved in body fluid) was an important step in the evolution of vertebrates as it allows for less viscous blood, higher concentrations of oxygen, and better diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues. The size of red blood cells varies widely among vertebrate species; red blood cell width is on average about 25 % larger than capillary diameter, and it has been hypothesized that this improves the oxygen transfer from red blood cells to tissues.
The red blood cells of mammal s are typically shaped as biconcave disks: flattened and depressed in the center, with a dumbbell - shaped cross section, and a torus - shaped rim on the edge of the disk. This distinctive biconcave shape optimises the flow properties of blood in the large vessels, such as maximization of laminar flow and minimization of platelet scatter, which suppresses their atherogenic activity in those large vessels. However, there are some exceptions concerning shape in the artiodactyl order (even - toed ungulates including cattle, deer, and their relatives), which displays a wide variety of bizarre red blood cell morphologies: small and highly ovaloid cells in llamas and camels (family Camelidae), tiny spherical cells in mouse deer (family Tragulidae), and cells which assume fusiform, lanceolate, crescentic, and irregularly polygonal and other angular forms in red deer and wapiti (family Cervidae). Members of this order have clearly evolved a mode of red blood cell development substantially different from the mammalian norm. Overall, mammalian red blood cells are remarkably flexible and deformable so as to squeeze through tiny capillaries, as well as to maximize their apposing surface by assuming a cigar shape, where they efficiently release their oxygen load.
Red blood cells in mammals are unique amongst vertebrates as they do not have nuclei when mature. Red blood cells of mammals cells have nuclei during early phases of erythropoiesis, but extrude them during development as they mature in order to provide more space for hemoglobin. The red blood cells without nuclei, called reticulocytes, go on to lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.
The spleen acts as a reservoir of red blood cells, but this effect is somewhat limited in humans. In some other mammals such as dogs and horses, the spleen sequesters large numbers of red blood cells which are dumped into the blood during times of exertion stress, yielding a higher oxygen transport capacity.
A typical human red blood cell has a disk diameter of approximately 6.2 -- 8.2 μm and a thickness at the thickest point of 2 -- 2.5 μm and a minimum thickness in the centre of 0.8 -- 1 μm, being much smaller than most other human cells. These cells have an average volume of about 90 fL with a surface of about 136 μm, and can swell up to a sphere shape containing 150 fL, without membrane distension.
Adult humans have roughly 20 -- 30 trillion red blood cells at any given time, comprising approximately 70 % all cells by number. Women have about 4 -- 5 million red blood cells per microliter (cubic millimeter) of blood and men about 5 -- 6 million; people living at high altitudes with low oxygen tension will have more. Red blood cells are thus much more common than the other blood particles: there are about 4,000 -- 11,000 white blood cells and about 150,000 -- 400,000 platelets per microliter.
Human red blood cells take on average 60 seconds to complete one cycle of circulation.
The blood 's red color is due to the spectral properties of the hemic iron ions in hemoglobin. Each human red blood cell contains approximately 270 million of these hemoglobin molecules. Each hemoglobin molecule carries four heme groups; hemoglobin comprises about a third of the total cell volume. Hemoglobin is responsible for the transport of more than 98 % of the oxygen in the body (the remaining oxygen is carried dissolved in the blood plasma). The red blood cells of an average adult human male store collectively about 2.5 grams of iron, representing about 65 % of the total iron contained in the body.
Red blood cells in mammals anucleate when mature, meaning that they lack a cell nucleus. In comparison, the red blood cells of other vertebrates have nuclei; the only known exceptions are salamanders of the Batrachoseps genus and fish of the Maurolicus genus with closely related species.
The elimination of the nucleus in vertebrate red blood cells has been offered as an explanation for the subsequent accumulation of non-coding DNA in the genome. The argument runs as follows: Efficient gas transport requires red blood cells to pass through very narrow capillaries, and this constrains their size. In the absence of nuclear elimination, the accumulation of repeat sequences is constrained by the volume occupied by the nucleus, which increases with genome size.
Nucleated red blood cells in mammals consist of two forms: normoblasts, which are normal erythropoietic precursors to mature red blood cells, and megaloblasts, which are abnormally large precursors that occur in megaloblastic anemias.
Red blood cells are deformable, flexible, are able to adhere to other cells, and are able to interface with immune cells. Their membrane plays many roles in this. These functions are highly dependent on the membrane composition. The red blood cell membrane is composed of 3 layers: the glycocalyx on the exterior, which is rich in carbohydrates; the lipid bilayer which contains many transmembrane proteins, besides its lipidic main constituents; and the membrane skeleton, a structural network of proteins located on the inner surface of the lipid bilayer. Half of the membrane mass in human and most mammalian red blood cells are proteins. The other half are lipids, namely phospholipids and cholesterol.
The red blood cell cell membrane comprises a typical lipid bilayer, similar to what can be found in virtually all human cells. Simply put, this lipid bilayer is composed of cholesterol and phospholipids in equal proportions by weight. The lipid composition is important as it defines many physical properties such as membrane permeability and fluidity. Additionally, the activity of many membrane proteins is regulated by interactions with lipids in the bilayer.
Unlike cholesterol, which is evenly distributed between the inner and outer leaflets, the 5 major phospholipids are asymmetrically disposed, as shown below:
Outer monolayer
Inner monolayer
This asymmetric phospholipid distribution among the bilayer is the result of the function of several energy - dependent and energy - independent phospholipid transport proteins. Proteins called "Flippases '' move phospholipids from the outer to the inner monolayer, while others called "floppases '' do the opposite operation, against a concentration gradient in an energy dependent manner. Additionally, there are also "scramblase '' proteins that move phospholipids in both directions at the same time, down their concentration gradients in an energy independent manner. There is still considerable debate ongoing regarding the identity of these membrane maintenance proteins in the red cell membrane.
The maintenance of an asymmetric phospholipid distribution in the bilayer (such as an exclusive localization of PS and PIs in the inner monolayer) is critical for the cell integrity and function due to several reasons:
The presence of specialized structures named "lipid rafts '' in the red blood cell membrane have been described by recent studies. These are structures enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids associated with specific membrane proteins, namely flotillins, stomatins (band 7), G - proteins, and β - adrenergic receptors. Lipid rafts that have been implicated in cell signaling events in nonerythroid cells have been shown in erythroid cells to mediate β2 - adregenic receptor signaling and increase cAMP levels, and thus regulating entry of malarial parasites into normal red cells.
The proteins of the membrane skeleton are responsible for the deformability, flexibility and durability of the red blood cell, enabling it to squeeze through capillaries less than half the diameter of the red blood cell (7 -- 8 μm) and recovering the discoid shape as soon as these cells stop receiving compressive forces, in a similar fashion to an object made of rubber.
There are currently more than 50 known membrane proteins, which can exist in a few hundred up to a million copies per red blood cell. Approximately 25 of these membrane proteins carry the various blood group antigens, such as the A, B and Rh antigens, among many others. These membrane proteins can perform a wide diversity of functions, such as transporting ions and molecules across the red cell membrane, adhesion and interaction with other cells such as endothelial cells, as signaling receptors, as well as other currently unknown functions. The blood types of humans are due to variations in surface glycoproteins of red blood cells. Disorders of the proteins in these membranes are associated with many disorders, such as hereditary spherocytosis, hereditary elliptocytosis, hereditary stomatocytosis, and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.
The red blood cell membrane proteins organized according to their function:
Transport
Cell adhesion
Structural role -- The following membrane proteins establish linkages with skeletal proteins and may play an important role in regulating cohesion between the lipid bilayer and membrane skeleton, likely enabling the red cell to maintain its favorable membrane surface area by preventing the membrane from collapsing (vesiculating).
The zeta potential is an electrochemical property of cell surfaces that is determined by the net electrical charge of molecules exposed at the surface of cell membranes of the cell. The normal zeta potential of the red blood cell is − 15.7 milli volts (mV). Much of this potential appears to be contributed by the exposed sialic acid residues in the membrane: their removal results in zeta potential of − 6.06 mV.
When red blood cells undergo shear stress in constricted vessels, they release ATP, which causes the vessel walls to relax and dilate so as to promote normal blood flow.
When their hemoglobin molecules are deoxygenated, red blood cells release S - nitrosothiols, which also act to dilate blood vessels, thus directing more blood to areas of the body depleted of oxygen.
Red blood cells can also synthesize nitric oxide enzymatically, using L - arginine as substrate, as do endothelial cells. Exposure of red blood cells to physiological levels of shear stress activates nitric oxide synthase and export of nitric oxide, which may contribute to the regulation of vascular tonus.
Red blood cells can also produce hydrogen sulfide, a signalling gas that acts to relax vessel walls. It is believed that the cardioprotective effects of garlic are due to red blood cells converting its sulfur compounds into hydrogen sulfide.
Red blood cells also play a part in the body 's immune response: when lysed by pathogens such as bacteria, their hemoglobin releases free radicals, which break down the pathogen 's cell wall and membrane, killing it.
As a result of not containing mitochondria, red blood cells use none of the oxygen they transport; instead they produce the energy carrier ATP by the glycolysis of glucose and lactic acid fermentation on the resulting pyruvate.
As red blood cells contain no nucleus, protein biosynthesis is currently assumed to be absent in these cells.
Because of the lack of nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not contain DNA and can not synthesize any RNA, and consequently can not divide and have limited repair capabilities. The inability to carry out protein synthesis means that no virus can evolve to target mammalian red blood cells. However, infection with parvoviruses (such as human parvovirus B19) can affect erythroid precursors, as recognized by the presence of giant pronormoblasts with viral particles and inclusion bodies, thus temporarily depleting the blood of reticulocytes and causing anemia.
Human red blood cells are produced through a process named erythropoiesis, developing from committed stem cells to mature red blood cells in about 7 days. When matured, in a healthy individual these cells live in blood circulation for about 100 to 120 days (and 80 to 90 days in a full term infant). At the end of their lifespan, they are removed from circulation. In many chronic diseases, the lifespan of the red blood cells is reduced.
Erythropoiesis is the process by which new red blood cells are produced; it lasts about 7 days. Through this process red blood cells are continuously produced in the red bone marrow of large bones. (In the embryo, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production.) The production can be stimulated by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), synthesised by the kidney. Just before and after leaving the bone marrow, the developing cells are known as reticulocytes; these comprise about 1 % of circulating red blood cells.
The functional lifetime of an red blood cell is about 100 -- 120 days, during which time the red blood cells are continually moved by the blood flow push (in arteries), pull (in veins) and a combination of the two as they squeeze through microvessels such as capillaries. They are also recycled in the bone marrow.
The aging red blood cell undergoes changes in its plasma membrane, making it susceptible to selective recognition by macrophages and subsequent phagocytosis in the mononuclear phagocyte system (spleen, liver and lymph nodes), thus removing old and defective cells and continually purging the blood. This process is termed eryptosis, red blood cell programmed cell death. This process normally occurs at the same rate of production by erythropoiesis, balancing the total circulating red blood cell count. Eryptosis is increased in a wide variety of diseases including sepsis, haemolytic uremic syndrome, malaria, sickle cell anemia, beta - thalassemia, glucose - 6 - phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, phosphate depletion, iron deficiency and Wilson 's disease. Eryptosis can be elicited by osmotic shock, oxidative stress, energy depletion as well as a wide variety of endogenous mediators and xenobiotics. Excessive eryptosis is observed in red blood cells lacking the cGMP - dependent protein kinase type I or the AMP - activated protein kinase AMPK. Inhibitors of eryptosis include erythropoietin, nitric oxide, catecholamines and high concentrations of urea.
Much of the resulting breakdown products are recirculated in the body. The heme constituent of hemoglobin are broken down into iron (Fe) and biliverdin. The biliverdin is reduced to bilirubin, which is released into the plasma and recirculated to the liver bound to albumin. The iron is released into the plasma to be recirculated by a carrier protein called transferrin. Almost all red blood cells are removed in this manner from the circulation before they are old enough to hemolyze. Hemolyzed hemoglobin is bound to a protein in plasma called haptoglobin, which is not excreted by the kidney.
Blood diseases involving the red blood cells include:
Red blood cells may be given as part of a blood transfusion. Blood may be donated from another person, or stored by the recipient at an earlier date. Donated blood usually requires screening to ensure that donors do not contain risk factors for the presence of blood - borne diseases, or will not suffer themselves by giving blood. Blood is usually collected and tested for common or serious Blood - borne diseases including Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV. The blood type (A, B, AB, or O) or the blood product is identified. This relates to the presence of antigens on the cell 's surface. After this process, the blood is stored, and within a short duration is used. Blood can be given as a whole product or the red blood cells separated as packed red blood cells.
Blood is often transfused when there is known anaemia, active bleeding, or when there is an expectation of serious blood loss, such as prior to an operation. Before blood is given, a small sample of the recipient 's blood is tested with the transfusion in a process known as cross-matching. In addition to the transmission of infection, certain types of transfusion reaction.
In 2008 it was reported that human embryonic stem cells had been successfully coaxed into becoming red blood cells in the lab. The difficult step was to induce the cells to eject their nucleus; this was achieved by growing the cells on stromal cells from the bone marrow. It is hoped that these artificial red blood cells can eventually be used for blood transfusions.
Several blood tests involve red blood cells. These include a RBC count (the number of red blood cells per volume of blood), calculation of the hematocrit (percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells), and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. The blood type needs to be determined to prepare for a blood transfusion or an organ transplantation.
Many diseases involving red blood cells are diagnosed with a blood film (or peripheral blood smear), where a thin layer of blood is smeared on a microscope slide. This may reveal abnormalities of red blood cell shape and form. When red blood cells sometimes occur as a stack, flat side next to flat side. This is known as rouleaux formation, and it occurs more often if the levels of certain serum proteins are elevated, as for instance during inflammation.
Red blood cells can be obtained from whole blood by centrifugation, which separates the cells from the blood plasma in a process known as blood fractionation. Packed red blood cells, which are made in this way from whole blood with the plasma removed, are used in transfusion medicine. During plasma donation, the red blood cells are pumped back into the body right away and only the plasma is collected.
Some athletes have tried to improve their performance by blood doping: first about 1 litre of their blood is extracted, then the red blood cells are isolated, frozen and stored, to be reinjected shortly before the competition. (Red blood cells can be conserved for 5 weeks at − 79 ° C or − 110 ° F) This practice is hard to detect but may endanger the human cardiovascular system which is not equipped to deal with blood of the resulting higher viscosity. Another method of blood doping involves injection with erythropoietin in order to stimulate production of red blood cells. Both practices are banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency.
The first person to describe red blood cells was the young Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam, who had used an early microscope in 1658 to study the blood of a frog. Unaware of this work, Anton van Leeuwenhoek provided another microscopic description in 1674, this time providing a more precise description of red blood cells, even approximating their size, "25,000 times smaller than a fine grain of sand ''.
In 1901, Karl Landsteiner published his discovery of the three main blood groups -- A, B, and C (which he later renamed to O). Landsteiner described the regular patterns in which reactions occurred when serum was mixed with red blood cells, thus identifying compatible and conflicting combinations between these blood groups. A year later Alfred von Decastello and Adriano Sturli, two colleagues of Landsteiner, identified a fourth blood group -- AB.
In 1959, by use of X-ray crystallography, Dr. Max Perutz was able to unravel the structure of hemoglobin, the red blood cell protein that carries oxygen.
The oldest intact red blood cells ever discovered were found in Ötzi the Iceman, a natural mummy of a man who died around 3255 BCE. These cells were discovered in May 2012.
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who is the killer in slasher guilty party | Slasher (TV series) - wikipedia
Slasher is a Canadian television horror anthology series created by Aaron Martin.
The first season, retroactively subtitled The Executioner, was produced in association with the Canadian network Super Channel, Slasher was the first (and only) original series by the now - defunct U.S. TV channel Chiller, which premiered the series on Friday, March 4, 2016, at 9: 00 pm EST. Super Channel aired the show 's Canadian premiere on April 1, 2016. The series first season, which centered on a mysterious figure billed as "The Executioner '' terrorizing the fictional town of Waterbury, Canada, was filmed between July and October 2015 in Sudbury, Parry Sound, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
On May 1, 2017, Slasher began filming a second season in Orangeville, Ontario, Canada. The licensing rights for the second season was acquired by Netflix. The season was released as a "Netflix Original '' title in various countries on October 17, 2017. The second season titled Slasher: Guilty Party is centered on a group of former summer camp counselors who return to an isolated campground in order to bury their sins of the past, before being targeted, one by one, by an unknown killer.
Slasher employs a season - long anthology format, with an overarching mystery storyline that will be resolved upon the season 's conclusion. Aaron Martin, the series ' creator / producer, acknowledged gaining inspiration for the format from American Horror Story, stating that, should Slasher have subsequent seasons, the AHS style of self - contained storylines would be used along with, ideally, the reliance on as many actors from previous seasons as possible to portray brand new roles.
Martin aims to tell "a modern - day monster story '' in Slasher, combining three of his favorite genres: The contemporary murder mystery (a la Broadchurch), the works of Agatha Christie (one of Martin 's favorite crime writers), and the classic slasher films he grew up with. In terms of the latter, Martin has specifically cited the influences of Halloween and It Follows in Slasher 's use of a mysterious singular embodiment that is responsible for a series of killings. Not wanting to have the show 's killer be "a mythological creature '' (as he feels the killers in most slasher films do not have much mystery surrounding them), Martin also uses elements of the traditional whodunit in Slasher: The show 's characters, many of whom have mysterious backgrounds -- and their own reasons for possibly being the killer -- are featured, explored, and eliminated from consideration, one by one (either through death or the natural deductive process), until the "all too human '' killer and their motivations for their actions are revealed.
Slasher 's 8 - episode first season centers around Sarah Bennett who, with husband Dylan, moves back to the town of her birth, Waterbury (a fictional town in Canada), and into her parents ' former home. It was in that house on Halloween Night 1988 where both of her parents, Bryan and Rachel, were murdered. Rachel was pregnant with Sarah at the time of her murder, with police discovering the killer holding Rachel 's newborn baby after the slayings. Sarah 's return to Waterbury is greeted with the start of a series of copycat murders, all appearing to be at the hands of "The Executioner ''.
Seeking insight on her sightings of "The Executioner '' and the slayings he or she has committed, Sarah has paid visits to her parents ' imprisoned murderer, Tom Winston. Tom suggests to Sarah that though most of Waterbury 's residents project a veneer of friendship, innocence, and self - righteousness, many of them harbor dark secrets, including her late parents. During these conversations, Tom expresses thoughts on what is a common theme of Slasher 's first season -- the seven deadly sins. Gaining information from Sarah on the victims ' backgrounds and the nature of their deaths, Tom provides suggestions as to what sin the victims may have violated; Sarah would begin to employ this approach herself without Tom 's assistance in later episodes.
Just as Tom declared himself "the Lord 's messenger '' in a 1988 police interrogation video after murdering Sarah 's parents (seen in Episode 1), he believes in the present day that the new Executioner has become a self - appointed deliverer of "Biblical '' punishment towards those he or she believes have committed one of the seven deadly sins in their past, employing methods that are apropos to the individual natures of the deadly sins. Future victim Alison Sutherland would get The Executioner to admit this in their Episode 5 interview: Alison asks why The Executioner would be as much a sinner as everyone else and violate one of God 's commandments to not kill; The Executioner counters that God only commanded not to murder the innocent, and that his / her victims are not innocent. Tom has suggested to Sarah, in Episode 3, that The Executioner him / herself has committed a deadly sin of their own, being blinded by pride ("the greatest of sins '').
The police chief is found harboring Ariel, a missing teenager that he kidnapped, and a child they had together, in a enclosed locked room in his basement. Sarah 's grandmother accidentally put her best friend in a coma by dropping a cinder block on her head (in fact, she was aiming for the girl sitting next to her best friend; the boy who had gotten Sarah 's grandmother pregnant as a teenager was taking this girl to their high school prom). Bryan and Rachel (Sarah 's parents) were cuckolding multiple men and video taping them into service to support them, including Tom Winston. Tom decided to kill Bryan and Rachel after falling in love with Rachel and being blackmailed, but saved Sarah after Rachel told him Sarah was actually his and not her husband 's.
Eventually, it 's revealed that the deputy Cam is the Executioner, suffering under an abusive mother whom he pushed down the stairs, killing her. Cam 's father, the town priest, discovered that Cam was the Executioner, and Cam killed him as well. After finding her father 's body parts in his home, Sarah kills Cam with a machete.
Slasher 's 8 - episode second season centers around a horrific secret that a group of former summer camp counselors have buried long ago. Due to a changing circumstance, they must return to their resort in the dead of winter to retrieve the body of Talvinder, whom they murdered while they were camp counsellors, five years earlier. They get surprised when they ca n't find the body at the campsite. Later, the group start dying one by one at the hands of a mysterious person wearing a parka, which also alerts the second group of counselors at the resort.
Eventually, it 's revealed that Judith is the killer, and another character, Wren, is actually Owen "Wren '' Turnbull, her son who committed suicide after being framed for Talvinder 's murder, and is a figment of Judith 's imagination. Owen wrote a letter to his mother, asking her to get justice for him before hanging himself. Judith killed several members of the commune for their complicity after the fact, as Antoine discovered Talvinder 's body and hid it to avoid jeopardizing a real estate deal. Dawn and Keira are the only ones to escape her wrath and the former finally turns herself in for her crime during the epilogue. Judith can be seen watching them along with the hallucination of Owen, who says they 'll be waiting for Dawn after she is released from prison.
Main
Recurring
Aaron Martin was inspired to write Slasher after his work on the first season of the medical series Saving Hope, including his writing of two Hope episodes where, in his words, "people got chopped up. '' Martin would write the first episode of Slasher as a spec script, with two intentions for doing so: To offer it to prospective studios, and to show a writing style that was different from his previous work (e.g. Saving Hope, Degrassi: The Next Generation, Being Erica). Though the script did not receive immediate interest, Shaftesbury Films would discover and option it to prospective broadcasters. The script would land at Canadian premium network Super Channel, who, their interest piqued in part by Slasher 's fixed - end format, would order it as a series. The now - defunct American network Chiller, which specializes in the horror / thriller genre, would join in production sometime after Super Channel; Slasher would be Chiller 's first (and only) foray into original scripted series content.
Production on Slasher 's 8 - episode first season was announced on July 28, 2015, with filming taking place between then and October 2015. Three Northern Ontario municipalities -- the cities of Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie and the town of Parry Sound -- would stand in for the show 's fictitious location, the town of Waterbury. A first trailer for the series would be released on November 26, 2015.
Unlike most TV series that film their episodes in order, Slasher, under the direction of Craig David Wallace, was shot as if it were a "super-sized '' movie: Scenes from multiple episodes were shot at the same time, with the availability of locations and cast being factored in. The out - of - order schedule allowed the actors to know of their characters ' fates, especially those who had to film their death scenes one day but return later to film earlier scenes as necessary. As an example of this, Martin cited Mark Ghanimé 's first day on set, when his character, Justin Faysal, was laid out in a casket for a scene early in Slasher 's third episode (Justin 's death, which took place in Episode 2, would be filmed later on).
On May 1, 2017, Slasher began filming a second season in Orangeville, Ontario, Canada. Shaftesbury Films confirmed that the series will not be returning to Super Channel or Chiller for a second season. However, Netflix acquired the rights to the second season. The second season was released via Netflix on October 17, 2017.
Slasher has received positive reviews. Zap2it called the series "a whole lot of fun '' and "something for everyone, '' praising the series ' anthology nature, its cast of characters, storyline, plot twists, bloody violence, and even the series - within - the - series Falcon Husbandry (shown as a favorite of Robin and Justin 's in Episode 2). Bloody Disgusting awarded the show four skulls out of five, praising Katie McGrath as a great "protagonist and possible final girl '' and the series ' decision to feature an adult cast, rather than teenagers, with well - developed characters and a "decidedly classic '' presentation. On the occasion of Slasher 's Super Channel premiere, The Globe and Mail 's John Doyle, while remarking that it "is no masterpiece of horror, nor was it meant to be, '' called the show "very well - crafted, '' praising its "exceptional cast '' and tight pacing, and noting fans of gory horror will appreciate its bloody scenes.
On May 25, 2016, the entire first season of Slasher became available to stream instantly on Netflix US. On October 17, 2017, the full second season of Slasher became available to stream on Netflix in various countries.
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in a food chain the flow of energy is always in | Energy flow (ecology) - wikipedia
In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow, refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative importance of different component species and feeding relationships.
A general energy flow scenario follows:
The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90 % of the energy is lost, with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about 10 % of the energy produced by autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1 % and tertiary consumers get 0.1 %. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain 's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.
Ecological energetics appears to have grown out of the Age of Enlightenment and the concerns of the Physiocrats. It began in the works of Sergei Podolinsky in the late 1800s, and subsequently was developed by the Soviet ecologist Vladmir Stanchinsky, the Austro - American Alfred J. Lotka, and American limnologists, Raymond Lindeman and G. Evelyn Hutchinson. It underwent substantial development by Howard T. Odum and was applied by systems ecologists, and radiation ecologists.
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where did the cold war get its name | Cold War (general term) - wikipedia
A cold war is a state of conflict between nations that does not involve direct military action but is pursued primarily through economic and political actions, propaganda, acts of espionage or proxy wars waged by surrogates. This term is most commonly used to refer to the Soviet - American Cold War. The surrogates are typically states that are "satellites '' of the conflicting nations, i.e., nations allied to them or under their political influence. Opponents in a cold war will often provide economic or military aid, such as weapons, tactical support or military advisors, to lesser nations involved in conflicts with the opposing country.
The expression "cold war '' was rarely used before 1945. Some writers credit the fourteenth century Spaniard Don Juan Manuel for first using the term (in Spanish), when dealing with the conflict between Christianity and Islam as a "cold war ''. However he used the term "tepid '' not "cold ''. The word "cold '' first appeared in a faulty translation of his work in the 19th century.
At the end of World War II, George Orwell used the term in the essay "You and the Atomic Bomb '' published October 19, 1945, in the British newspaper Tribune. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of nuclear war, he warned of a "peace that is no peace '', which he called a permanent "cold war ''. Orwell directly referred to that war as the ideological confrontation between the Soviet Union and the Western powers. Moreover, in The Observer of March 10, 1946, Orwell wrote that "(a) fter the Moscow conference last December, Russia began to make a ' cold war ' on Britain and the British Empire. ''
The definition which has now become fixed is of a war waged through indirect conflict. The first use of the term in this sense, to describe the post -- World War II geopolitical tensions between the USSR and its satellites and the United States and its western European allies (which in practice acted as satellites of the opposing force) is attributed to Bernard Baruch, an American financier and presidential advisor. In South Carolina, on April 16, 1947, he delivered a speech (by journalist Herbert Bayard Swope) saying, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war. '' Newspaper reporter - columnist Walter Lippmann gave the term wide currency, with the book Cold War (1947).
Since the NATO - Warsaw Pact Cold War (1945 -- 1991), a number of global and regional tensions have also been called "Cold War. ''
Cold War II, also called Second Cold War, Cold War 2.0, or the New Cold War refers to a renewed state of political and military tension between opposing geopolitical power - blocs, with one bloc typically reported as being led by Russia or China, and the other led by the United States or NATO. This is akin to the original Cold War that saw a global confrontation between the Western Bloc led by the United States and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union, Russia 's predecessor.
An Atlantic Council member Bilal Y. Saab, an About.com writer Primoz Manfreda, an Iranian scholar Seyyed Hossein Mousavian and a Princeton University scholar Sina Toossi, journalist Kim Ghattas, Foreign Policy journalist Yochi Dreazen, Brookings Institution researcher Sultan Barakat, and Newsweek journalist Jonathan Broder use the term "cold war '' to refer to tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran. In February 2016, a University of Isfahan professor Ali Omidi dismissed the assumptions that the conflict between Iran and Saudi Arabia would grow tense.
A commentator Ehsan Ahrari, a writer Bruce Riedel, a political commentator Sanjaya Baru and a Princeton University academic Zia Mian have used the term "cold war '' since 2002 to refer to long - term tensions between India and Pakistan, which were part of the British India until its partition in 1947.
A Naval Postgraduate School academic Edward A. Olsen, a British politician David Alton, a York University professor Hyun Ok Park, and a University of Southern California professor David C. Kang used the term to refer to tensions between North Korea and South Korea, which have been divided since the end of World War II in 1945. They interchangeably called it the "Korean Cold War ''.
China 's Defense Ministry spokesman Geng Yansheng, The Diplomat editor Shannon Tiezzi, and The Guardian columnist Simon Tisdall used the term to refer to tensions between China and Japan. China 's state - run newspaper Global Times says that China and Japan "are stuck in a state of ' cold peace ' and (m) ust avoid sliding into a cold war. ''
Imran Ali Sandano of the University of Sindh, Arup K. Chatterjee of the Jindal Global Law School, journalist Bertil Lintner, writer Bruno Maçães, politician - lawyer P. Chidambaram, and some others use the terms like "new cold war '' to refer to growing tensions between China and India.
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where did counting sheep to fall asleep come from | Counting sheep - wikipedia
Counting sheep is a mental exercise used in some cultures as a means of putting oneself to sleep.
In most depictions of the activity, the practitioner envisions an endless series of identical white sheep jumping over a fence, while counting them as they do so. The idea, presumably, is to induce boredom while occupying the mind with something simple, repetitive, and rhythmic, all of which are known to help humans sleep.
Although the practice is largely a stereotype, and rarely used as a solution for insomnia, it has been so commonly referenced by cartoons, comic strips, and other mass media, that it has become deeply engrained into popular culture 's notion of sleep. The term "counting sheep '' has entered the English language as an idiomatic term for insomnia. Sheep themselves have become associated with sleep, or lack thereof.
The effectiveness of the method may depend upon the mental power required. An experiment conducted by researchers at Oxford University, though not involving livestock as the object of visualization, found that subjects who imagined "a beach or a waterfall '' were forced to expend more mental energy, and fell asleep faster, than those asked to "simply distract from thoughts, worries and concerns. '' Sleep could be achieved by any number of complex activities that expend mental energy.
An early reference to counting sheep as a means of attaining sleep can be found in Illustrations of Political Economy by Harriet Martineau, from 1832:
"It was a sight of monotony to behold one sheep after another follow the adventurous one, each in turn placing its fore - feet on the breach in the fence, bringing up its hind legs after it, looking around for an instant from the summit, and then making the plunge into the dry ditch, tufted with locks of wool. The process might have been more composing if the field might have been another man 's property, or if the flock had making its way out instead of in; but the recollection of the scene of transit served to send the landowner to sleep more than once, when occurring at the end of the train of anxious thoughts which had kept him awake. '' (p. 355 -- 356)
An even earlier reference can be found in "Don Quixote '' by Miguel de Cervantes, from 1605 (the exception being Cervantes substituting "goats '' for "sheep ''):
"Let your worship keep count of the goats the fisherman is taking across, for if one escapes the memory there will be an end of the story, and it will be impossible to tell another word of it. ''
Cervantes probably adapted the story of counting goats from a story of counting sheep in the early twelfth - century Spanish work Disciplina Clericalis. The section The King and his Story - teller (section 12) uses the idea of counting sheep humorously. Disciplina Clericalis draws mainly on literary sources from the Islamic world. Counting sheep was probably a widely recognized practice in the Islamic world before the early twelfth century.
Serta, an American mattress manufacturer has had their own herd of "Counting Sheep '' used in advertisements for the company since at least 2000 and have even sold plush toys of the sheep.
Shaun the Sheep entitled its 2012 series "Championsheeps '' to celebrate the London Olympics. The episode "Steeplechase '' featured Shaun and his fellow sheep participating in the steeplechase event. Blitzer the dog, who was referee, and the other sheep and farm animals, who were spectators, all fall asleep watching Shaun and the other sheep running around the track and jumping over the hurdles.
Toolkit7 added sheep counter to their fun tools section. There are also many sheep counting applications for mobile phones and games for consoles.
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highest points scored in nba in one game | List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game.
This feat has been accomplished 68 times in NBA history. Twenty - five different players have scored 60 or more points in a game. Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion: Wilt Chamberlain (32 times), Kobe Bryant (6 times), Michael Jordan (5 times), and Elgin Baylor (4 times). Chamberlain holds the single - game scoring record, having scored 100 in game in 1962.
Jordan (63) and Baylor (61) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs, each accomplishing this once.
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when did kraft start making macaroni and cheese | Kraft Dinner - wikipedia
The product known as Kraft Dinner (KD) in Canada, Kraft Macaroni & Cheese Dinner or Kraft Mac and Cheese in the United States and Australia, and Macaroni Cheese or Cheesey Pasta in the United Kingdom, is a nonperishable, packaged dry macaroni and cheese product. It was first introduced under the Kraft Dinner name in both Canada and U.S. in 1937. The product also developed into several other formulations, including Kraft 's Easy Mac Cups, renamed Macaroni & Cheese Dinner Cups, a single - serving product designed specifically for microwave ovens.
The product 's innovation was to combine the nonperishable dried macaroni noodles with a processed cheese powder, so that the dish could be prepared by cooking the pasta and adding the cheese powder, butter, and milk.
The prerequisite to a packaged macaroni and cheese product was the invention of "processed '' cheeses, where emulsifying salts help stabilize the product, giving it a longer life. James Lewis Kraft, originally of Fort Erie, Ontario, but living in Chicago, did not invent processed cheese, but he won a patent for one processing method in 1916 and began to build his cheese business.
During the Great Depression, a St. Louis, Missouri salesman had the idea to sell macaroni pasta and cheese together as a package, so he began attaching grated cheese to boxes of pasta with a rubber band. In 1937, Kraft introduced the product in the U.S. and Canada. The timing of the product 's launch had much to do with its success: during World War II, rationing of milk and dairy products, an increased reliance on meatless entrees, and more women working outside the home, created a nearly captive market for the product, which was considered a hearty meal for families. Its shelf life of ten months was attractive at a time when many Canadian homes did not have refrigerators. Also, consumers could receive, for one food ration stamp, two boxes. The original box was primarily yellow. They sold 50 million boxes during the war.
The box 's primary color changed to blue in 1954. A version with spiral - shaped noodles debuted in 1975 while the Velveeta Shells & Cheese was introduced in 1984.
In 2006, the cheddar and white cheddar versions switched to organic macaroni. While Easy Mac Cups are introduced the same year. The following year the noodles switched to 50 percent whole grain.
Macaroni & Cheese Crackers debut also in 2007. The crackers were discontinued in 2008 as it did not meet company targets. A sub-line, Homestyle Deluxe, was added in 2010 in three flavors, cheddar, four - cheese sauce and Old World Italian.
New product lines using different flavors and pasta shapes have been introduced over the decades and the shelf life has at various times been increased. Kraft Dinner is seen as an inexpensive, easy - to - make comfort food, with marketing that highlights its value and convenience.
The product now comes in several compositions:
Kraft Dinner Smart (also known as KD Smart) is a sub-brand of the Kraft Dinner brand. It represents a line of Kraft macaroni and cheese products that contain no artificial flavours, colours or preservatives and have added ingredients like cauliflower, oats or flax seed blended into the noodles. It comes in four varieties:
Kraft Dinner Smart originally launched in Canada in March 2010 with two vegetable varieties. In June 2011, the line - up was re-launched with new packaging graphics and two new varieties (Flax Omega - 3 and High Fibre).
The product is made with real Kraft cheddar and is manufactured in Mount Royal, Quebec.
The product was originally marketed as Kraft Dinner with the slogan "a meal for four in nine minutes for an everyday price of 19 cents. '' It was re-branded to Kraft Macaroni & Cheese in the United States and other countries, although the word "Dinner '' still appears in small type on the U.S. version. In several markets it goes by different names; in the United Kingdom it is also marketed as Cheesey Pasta.
The product is heavily promoted toward children in the United States on television. When advertising to younger children, the television advertisement encourages the children to ask for "The Blue Box. '' In 2010 Kraft launched a $50 million multi-media marketing campaign with a nostalgia theme aimed at adults to promote all varieties of Kraft dinner. In Canada, Kraft has advertising programs intended to make the meal appealing to newly arrived immigrant groups.
There are regular promotional tie - in versions of the Kraft Dinner, aimed at kids. Packages have come with pasta in the shapes of various characters popular with children, such as Looney Tunes, Super Mario Bros., PB&J Otter, Pokémon, Spider - Man, Rugrats, The Fairly OddParents, The Flintstones, Peanuts, Scooby - Doo, Madagascar, How to Train Your Dragon, Toy Story, Phineas and Ferb, Cars, Monsters University, Finding Dory, SpongeBob SquarePants, Despicable Me, Trolls, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Frozen, and Star Wars. Kraft Foods has also released many products under the product banner. These include other versions of macaroni and cheese with different shaped pasta and different flavours, but it has also included completely different dishes, such as spaghetti in several different flavours.
In promotion of the introduction of its "Cheddar Explosion '' variety of Kraft Dinner, Kraft sponsored the demolition of Texas Stadium April 11, 2010. In its last act of 2009 the Irving, Texas, city council made Kraft Macaroni and Cheese the official sponsor of the demolition. Kraft paid $75,000 to local charities and donated $75,000 in Kraft products. A national essay contest directed at children who "have made a difference in their community '' was held with the winner allowed to push the button initiating the controlled demolition. The winning essayist was 11 - year - old Casey Rogers of Terrell, Texas, founder of a charity serving the homeless.
Kraft Dinner has been called the de facto national dish of Canada. Packaged in Quebec with Canadian wheat and milk, and other ingredients from Canada and the US, Canadians purchase 1.7 million of the 7 million boxes sold globally each week and eat an average of 3.2 boxes of Kraft Dinner each year, 55 % more than Americans. The meal is the most popular grocery item in the country, where "Kraft Dinner '' has iconic status and has become a generic trademark of sorts for macaroni and cheese. It is often simply referred to by the initials K.D. As Kraft Dinner has a different name in Canada from the United States and other markets, the Canadian marketing and advertising platform is a made - in - Canada effort as US advertising can not be easily adapted.
Pundit Rex Murphy wrote that "Kraft Dinner revolves in that all - but - unobtainable orbit of the Tim Hortons doughnut and the A&W Teen Burger. It is one of that great trinity of quick digestibles that have been enrolled as genuine Canadian cultural icons. '' Douglas Coupland wrote that "cheese plays a weirdly large dietary role in the lives of Canadians, who have a more intimate and intense relationship with Kraft food products than the citizens of any other country. This is not a shameless product plug -- for some reason, Canadians and Kraft products have bonded the way Australians have bonded with Marmite (sic, recte: Vegemite), or the English with Heinz baked beans. In particular, Kraft Macaroni and Cheese, known simply as Kraft Dinner, is the biggie, probably because it so precisely laser - targets the favoured Canadian food groups: fat, sugar, starch and salt ''. Immigrants often mention Kraft Dinner when surveys ask for examples of Canadian food. As a measure of the product 's Canadian popularity, its Facebook page, KD Battle Zone, attracted 270,000 fans, despite there being no prizes for the contest.
Canadian rock band Barenaked Ladies refer to the product in their popular song "If I Had $1000000 '', indicating that they would continue to eat the inexpensive foodstuff even if they were millionaires. This has often prompted fans at live concerts to throw boxes of Kraft Dinner onto the stage when the line is sung; the band has discouraged this and have urged fans to donate the boxes to their local food bank instead.
Former Prime Minister Paul Martin regularly referred to it as his favourite food, though also confessed that he was unable to prepare it. During the same election former Prime Minister Stephen Harper stated that "I 'll never be able to give my kids a billion - dollar company, but Laureen and I are saving for their education. And I have actually cooked them Kraft Dinner -- I like to add wieners. '' Most of his countrymen ignore the instructions and believe that they have a unique way of preparing the food, like adding wieners or cheese. Additional ingredients are not necessary; simply adjusting the cooking time and the amount of milk or butter / margarine can produce a dish ranging from soft noodles in a creamy sauce to firm noodles in a thin, milky sauce.
In the September 2012 issue of The Walrus magazine, the cover story "Manufacturing Taste '' by Sasha Chapman details the history of the Canadian cheese industry and Kraft 's impact on it. She notably draws attention to Canada being unique in favouring a manufactured food product (made by a foreign company) as its national dish at the expense of local cheeses. Chapman 's article is structured around this question, from the first page:
But what does it mean if a national dish is manufactured, formulated by scientists in a laboratory in Glenview, Illinois, and sold back to us by the second - largest food company in the world?
Enriched Macaroni product (wheat flour, niacin, ferrous sulfate (iron), thiamin mononitrate (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), folic acid) (In Canada: Pasta (from wheat). No longer ' enriched ' by 2017; cheese sauce mix (whey, milkfat, milk protein concentrate, salt, sodium tripolyphosphate, contains less than 2 % of citric acid, lactic acid, sodium phosphate, calcium phosphate, yellow 5, yellow 6, enzymes, cheese culture)
Kraft Macaroni and Cheese sold in the United States used to include Yellow 5 and Yellow 6 to make the food a brighter colour. In Europe, food that contains Yellow 5 requires a warning label saying, "This product may have adverse effect on activity and attention in children. '' In 2014, none of the European varieties were made with artificial dyes.
On November 1, 2013, Kraft announced that new pasta shape varieties for children in the U.S. would no longer include Yellow 5 and Yellow 6, and there would be a decrease in the sodium and saturated fat content, and six more grams of whole grains.
In April 2015, it was announced that those changes, including the elimination of artificial preservatives, would be extended throughout the line after January 2016. Paprika, annatto and turmeric are used for colouring. According to Kraft, the changes were a response to consumer feedback.
Kraft Macaroni & Cheese, with added hot dog and fresh tomato
Regular Kraft Macaroni & Cheese preparation: boiling water with pasta inside the pot, cheese powder package and colander to the right
Kraft Easy Mac
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when was rhode island admitted to the union | List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia
A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.
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where does russia rank in the world economy | List of countries by GDP (nominal) - wikipedia
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year. Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions, which are calculated at market or government official exchange rates. Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency. Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population.
Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP), to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries. PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem, but has its own drawbacks; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade, and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP. On the whole, PPP per capita figures are less spread than nominal GDP per capita figures.
The United States is the world 's largest economy with a GDP of approximately $18.56 trillion, notably due to high average incomes, a large population, capital investment, moderate unemployment, high consumer spending, a relatively young population, and technological innovation. Tuvalu is the world 's smallest national economy with a GDP of about $32 million because of its very small population, a lack of natural resources, reliance on foreign aid, negligible capital investment, demographic problems, and low average incomes.
Although the rankings of national economies have changed considerably over time, the United States has maintained its top position since the Gilded Age, a time period in which its economy saw rapid expansion, surpassing the British Empire and Qing dynasty in aggregate output. Since China 's transition to a market - based economy through privatisation and deregulation, the country has seen its ranking increase from ninth in 1978 to second to only the United States in 2016 as economic growth accelerated and its share of global nominal GDP surged from 2 % in 1980 to 15 % in 2016. India has also experienced a similar economic boom since the implementation of economic liberalisation in the early 1990s. When supranational entities are included, the European Union is the second largest economy in the world. It was the largest from 2004, when ten countries joined the union, to 2014, after which it was surpassed by the United States.
The first list includes estimates compiled by the International Monetary Fund 's World Economic Outlook, the second list shows the World Bank 's data, and the third list includes data compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division. The IMF definitive data for the past year and estimates for the current year are published twice a year in April and October. Several economies which are not considered to be countries (the world, the European Union, and some dependent territories) are included in the lists because they appear in the sources as distinct economies. These economies are italicized and not ranked in the charts, but are listed where applicable.
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who won the grammy for best metal performance | Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance - wikipedia
The Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance is an award presented at the Grammy Awards to recording artists for works (songs or albums) containing quality performances in the heavy metal music genre. The Grammy Awards is an annual ceremony, where honors in several categories are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position ''. The ceremony was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards.
The NARAS recognized heavy metal music artists for the first time at the 31st Grammy Awards (1989). The category was originally presented as Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance Vocal or Instrumental, combining two of the most popular music genres of the 1980s. Jethro Tull won that award for the album Crest of a Knave, beating Metallica, which were expected to win with the album... And Justice for All. This choice led to widespread criticism of the NARAS, as journalists suggested that the music of Jethro Tull did not belong in the hard rock or heavy metal genres. In response, the NARAS created the categories Best Hard Rock Performance and Best Metal Performance, separating the genres.
The Best Metal Performance category was first presented at the 32nd Grammy Awards in 1990, and was again the subject of controversy when rock musician Chris Cornell (lead vocalist for the band Soundgarden) was perplexed by the organization 's nomination of the band Dokken in this category. Metallica won in the first three years. The awards were presented for the song "One '', a cover version of Queen 's "Stone Cold Crazy '', and the album Metallica. During 2012 -- 2013, the award was temporarily discontinued in a major overhaul of Grammy categories; all solo or duo / group performances in the hard rock and metal categories were shifted to the newly formed Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance category. However, in 2014, the Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance category was split, returning the Best Metal Performance category and recognizing quality hard rock performances in the Best Rock Performance category.
As of 2011, Metallica holds the record for the most wins in this category, with a total of six. The bands Black Sabbath, Nine Inch Nails, Slayer, and Tool have each received the award twice. The band Ministry holds the record for the most nominations without win, with six.
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
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who participated in miss universe 2017 from india | Femina Miss India - Wikipedia
Miss India or Femina Miss India is a national beauty pageant in India that annually selects representatives to compete in Miss World, one of the Big Four major international beauty pageants. It is organised by Femina, a women 's magazine published by The Times Group. Since 2013, Femina also organizes Miss Diva separately which sends representatives to Miss Universe.
The reigning Femina Miss India (Femina Miss India World) titleholder is Anukreethy Vas who was crowned by the outgoing titleholder Manushi Chhillar.
The first Miss India was Pramila (Esther Victoria Abraham), from Calcutta, who won in 1947. It was organised by the local press.
In 1952, two Miss India pageants were held, Indrani Rehman and Nutan were the winners of the pageant. Nutan was crowned as Miss Mussorie. The pageant was held by the local press. Indrani Rehman was crowned at Brabourne Stadium in Mumbai in the month of April, 1952. Indrani later represented India at Miss Universe 1952, the inaugural edition of Miss Universe pageant.
In 1953, Peace Kanwal from Punjab was crowned Miss India 1953 at KARDAR - KOLYNOS Pageant. The pageant was organised by Abdur Rashid Kardar. She later established herself as a Bollywood actress.
In 1954, Leela Naidu from Maharashtra was declared Miss India, and the same year was featured in Vogue magazine 's list of the world 's ten most beautiful women.
There was no Miss India pageant from 1955 to 1958. In 1959, Eve 's Weekly organised its very first Miss India contest called Eve 's Weekly Miss India to send India 's representatives to the Miss World pageant. Fleur Ezekiel was crowned the eventual winner. She represented India at Miss World 1959 held in London, United Kingdom.
The first ever Femina Miss India pageant was held in year 1964. Meher Castelino Mistri of Maharashtra was crowned the first ever Femina Miss India. She was chosen to represent India at Miss Universe 1964 held in the United States and Miss Nations 1964 held in Spain.
Reita Faria was the first Miss India ever to win any international beauty pageant. She was crowned Miss World 1966 in London, United Kingdom. She was the winner of Eve 's Weekly Miss India contest. The same year Femina Miss India winner Yasmin Daji represented India at Miss Universe 1966 and was crowned 3rd Runner Up at the event. She was the first ever Femina Miss India Winner to get placed at any international beauty pageant.
In Earlier days, Femina Miss India used to crown three contestants, the winner used to represent India at Miss Universe and the runners - up were sent to Miss Asia Pacific and International Teen Princess. Later the second runner up represents India at Miss Teenage Intercontinental. On some occasions the 2nd Runner up or a finalist was sent to Queen of Pacific pageant from 1969 to 1975.
Zeenat Aman was the first ever Femina Miss India titleholder to win an international pageant. She was crowned Femina Miss India Asia Pacific and went on to win Miss Asia Pacific 1970 held in Philippines.
Later, after acquiring the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss World, Femina Miss India used to select three winners who were then sent to Miss Universe, Miss World and Miss Asia Pacific International pageants, respectively.
In 1991, Femina also acquired the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss International pageant and on some occasions the third winner represented India at Miss International and a finalist was sent to Miss Asia Pacific International or else the third winner was crowned as Femina Miss India Asia Pacific and used to represent India at Miss Asia Pacific International and a finalist was sent to Miss International.
In 1994, after India 's historic win at the International pageants, the organisation ended the practice of crowning a single winner and instead decided that the top three winners were designated as winners with equal visibility and prizes.
In 2002, the third winner was designated to Miss Earth instead of Miss Asia Pacific.
In 2010, after the I Am She - Miss Universe India acquired the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss Universe, Femina Miss India crowned three winners as Femina Miss India World, Femina Miss India Earth and Femina Miss India International, the third winner representend India in Miss International pageant.
In 2010, Tantra Entertainment Pvt. Ltd. (TEPL), in partnership with Sushmita Sen, started a new pageant called I Am She -- Miss Universe India. The winner of this pageant participated in the Miss Universe pageant from 2010 to 2012.
In 2013, The Times Group again acquired the rights to send India 's representatives to the Miss Universe pageant and started a new pageant called Miss Diva. The first ever Miss Diva pageant was held in Mumbai on September 5, 2013. Manasi Moghe of Maharashtra was crowned Miss Diva Universe 2013. Manasi represented India at Miss Universe 2013 and placed in the top 10. Gurleen Grewal from Punjab was crowned Miss Diva International 2013. She represented India at Miss International 2013.
Miss India has been participating in the Miss Universe pageant since 1952, starting with Indrani Rehman and in the Miss World pageant since 1959, starting with Fleur Ezekiel. Historically, the Femina Miss India pageant sent the winner of the pageant to the Miss Universe pageant and a runner up to Miss Asia Pacific pageant and on some occasions the 2nd runner up used to represent India at International Teen Princess contest, whereas Eve 's Weekly, a rival women 's publication sent the winner of its Miss India contest to Miss World and Miss International.
In the 1970s, Femina acquired the rights to send a representative to Miss World as well, and started to send the winner to Miss Universe and the runner - up to the Miss World contest. Later in 1991, Femina Miss India also acquired the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss International pageant.
In 1994, following India 's historic dual wins at both Miss Universe and Miss World, the custom of crowning a single winner was discontinued. Instead, the top three placers were designated winners with equal visibility, equal prizes and responsibilities, and were crowned as Femina Miss India - Universe, Femina Miss India - World, and Femina Miss India - Asia Pacific and a finalist was sent to Miss International. > In 2002, the third title was changed to Femina Miss India - Earth, to designate India 's representation at the newly launched Miss Earth pageant, focused on the cause of environmental advocacy and a finalist was sent to Miss International.
From 2007 to 2009, three equal winners were selected going to Miss Universe, Miss World, and Miss Earth. In 2010, I Am She - Miss Universe India acquired the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss Universe. Later, in 2013 The Times Group again acquired the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss Universe and launched a new pageant for Miss Universe named Miss Diva.
In 1970, Zeenat Aman won Miss Asia Pacific 1970. She became the first Indian and South Asian woman to win the title.
The awards for 1989 were given at the end of the year (December); hence there was no separate contest for 1990.
In 1994, Sushmita Sen won the Miss Universe title after winning the Miss India crown and became the first Indian woman ever to win the Miss Universe crown. The same year the runner - up of Miss India, Aishwarya Rai, won the Miss World title. Sushmita Sen and Aishwarya Rai established themselves in the Bollywood industry after winning their titles.
The success of Rai and Sen spawned coaching institutions which were set up to groom young women in pageant participation skills. The number of participants in the preliminary rounds of the pageant has increased considerably. Miss India World 1997, Diana Hayden won the title of Miss World 1997. In 1999, the Miss India World Yukta Mookhey went on to win the Miss World that year.
In 2000, three of the Miss India winners won their respective international pageants -- Lara Dutta (Miss Universe), Priyanka Chopra (Miss World) and Diya Mirza Miss Asia Pacific. The other country to have won all three major titles in one year were Australia in 1972.
In 2010, after the introduction of I Am She - Miss Universe India, the third title was changed to Femina Miss India - International and the winner represented India at Miss International pageant.
In 2010, Nicole Faria became the first Indian to win the Miss Earth title in Vietnam, which leaves Miss International as the only major international pageant that has not been won by an Indian contestant.
In 2012, Himangini Singh Yadu won Miss Asia Pacific World 2012 and became first Indian and Asian to win the pageant. She was sent by I Am She - Miss Universe India pageant.
In 2013, Srishti Rana won Miss Asia Pacific World 2013 giving India a rare back to back victory. She is the second Indian and first Miss Diva Winner to win Miss Asia Pacific World Crown. She is also the first ever Indian delegate to win an international pageant that has been sent by Femina Miss India 's sister pageant, Miss Diva.
In 2014, Asha Bhat, Miss Diva Supranational 2014 won Miss Supranational 2014 and became the first ever Indian woman to win the crown. Asha is the second Asian to win the crown. The same year Ruhi Singh who was crowned the first ever Femina Miss India Universal Peace and Humanity won the first ever Miss Universal Peace and Humanity pageant held in Lebanon.
After May Myat Noe, the winner of Miss Asia Pacific World 2014 pageant was dethroned, the organisation organised another pageant named Miss Asia Pacific 2014 Supertalent of the World Season 5 under Miss Asia Pacific World title, Swetha Raj who represented India won the crown, giving India a rare back to back to back victory, India is the only country to win any international pageant three years in a row, however Swetha was sent by Miss India Australia organisation.
On some occasions the top finalists have represented India at some other international pageants like Miss Heritage, Miss Tourism International, Miss Tourism. Femina Miss India also sends representatives to other international pageants like Miss United Continent and Miss Universal Peace and Humanity.
The following is the list of Indian winners in the Big Four international beauty pageants:
The following is the list of Indian winners in various minor international pageants:
The following is the list of India 's multiple victories in major international pageants:
In 2008, president of Gladrags, Maureen Wadia, served a legal notice to the newly crowned Pantaloons Femina Miss India Earth 2008, Harshita Saxena for violation of a two - year exclusive contract with Gladrags which had been signed by Harshita in 2006. To participate in any other beauty pageant, Harshita would need a written letter of no - objection from Gladrags. Harshita gave up the title and the crown passed on to Tanvi Vyas who represented India in the Miss Earth 2008 pageant held in November 2008. Harshita was later placed fourth in Miss India 2009 and represented India in Miss International 2009.
In 1989, the winner Kalpana Pandit was found to have misrepresented her nationality (she was holding an American passport); she was stripped of her title and Dolly Mihas was declared winner.
In 2004, Lakshmi Pandit (sister of Kalpana Pandit) was initially declared as the winner but had to return the title as she was married (to Siddarth Mishra); Sayali Bhagat was ultimately declared as the winner.
The following women have represented India in the Big Four international beauty pageants, the four major international beauty pageants for women. These are Miss World, Miss Universe, Miss International and Miss Earth.
India did not compete in the Miss Universe pageant from 1953 to 1963. I AM She -- Miss Universe India sent its delegates to Miss Universe from 2010 to 2012. Traditionally the Miss India Winner was sent to Miss Universe and the runner up was sent to Miss World; however since 2013 a separate pageant Miss Diva has been held to send delegates to Miss Universe and the Miss India winner will represent India at Miss World annually.
India did not send delegates in 1967, 1965, 1964, 1963. From 1959 to 1966 representatives to Miss World were sent by Eve 's Weekly Miss India pageant. In 1968, Bharat Sundari got the franchise to send India 's representative to Miss World. They sent the delegates from 1968 to 1970, 1972, 1975. Femina got the franchise in 1976. Femina also sent delegates to Miss World in 1971 and 1974. Traditionally the runner up in Miss India pageant was sent to Miss World but this changed in 2013 and now the winner of Miss India is sent to represent at Miss World.
Since 2015, Glamanand Supermodel India holds the rights to send India 's representatives to Miss International pageant. India did not send delegates to Miss International in 1963 -- 1967, 1972, 1977, 1989, 1990. From 1960 to 1988 Eve 's Weekly Miss India sent India 's representatives to Miss International pageant. In the year 2013, Miss Diva winner was sent to Miss International.
Femina Miss India and Miss Diva (The Times Group) acquired the rights to send India representatives to Miss Supranational only from the year 2013. In the years 2011 and 2012, contestants were selected by Indian Princess pageant.
In the years 2013 and 2014 India 's delegates to Miss Grand International were sent by Indian Princess. Femina Miss India acquired the franchise in 2015.
The representatives for Miss United Continents have been selected by Femina Miss India since the pageant 's inception in 2013.
In the years 2011 and 2012, I Am She - Miss India sent their runners - up to this pageant. Femina had franchise to select their representatives in the years 2013 and 2014.
India is the only country to win an international pageant three years in a row. In the year 2012, Himangini Singh Yadu was crowned as Miss Asia Pacific World 2012. In the succeeding year Srishti Rana was crowned as Miss Asia Pacific World 2013. In the year 2014, May Myat Noe of Myanmar was originally crowned but later she was dethroned. A new pageant was held by the organizers and Swetha Raj of India became victorious, thus giving India a rare Three - peat victory in an international pageant.
Indian representatives to Miss Intercontinental is being sent by Femina Miss India group.
Sushmita Sen, Miss Universe 1994
Lara Dutta, Miss Universe 2000 and Miss Intercontinental 1997
Aishwarya Rai, Miss World 1994
Diana Hayden, Miss World 1997
Yukta Mookhey, Miss World 1999
Priyanka Chopra, Miss World 2000
Manushi Chhillar, Miss World 2017
Nicole Faria, Miss Earth 2010
Srinidhi Ramesh Shetty, Miss Supranational 2016
Dia Mirza, Miss Asia Pacific 2000
Sonal Chauhan, Miss Tourism 2005
Priyanka Shah, Miss Tourism 2007
Manasvi Mamgai, Miss Tourism International 2009
Celina Jaitly, Miss Universe 2001 - 4th Runner Up
Sangeeta Bijlani, Femina Miss India Universe 1980
Juhi Chawla, Femina Miss India Universe 1984
Sonu Walia, Femina Miss India Universe 1985
Mehr Jesia Rampal, Femina Miss India Universe 1986
Gul Panag, Femina Miss India 1999
Neha Dhupia, Femina Miss India Universe 2002
Tanushree Dutta, Femina Miss India Universe 2004
Puja Gupta, Femina Miss India Universe 2007
Simran Kaur Mundi, Femina Miss India Universe 2008
Manasi Moghe, Miss Diva Universe 2013
Urvashi Rautela, Miss Diva Universe 2015
Parvathy Omanakuttan, Miss World 2008 - 1st Runner Up
Shruti Sharma, Femina Miss India World 2002
Sayali Bhagat, Femina Miss India World 2004
Natasha Suri, Femina Miss India World 2006
Sarah - Jane Dias, Femina Miss India world 2007
Pooja Chopra, Femina Miss India World 2009
Manasvi Mamgai, Femina Miss India world 2010, Miss Tourism International 2008
Kanishtha Dhankhar, Femina Miss India World 2011
Vanya Mishra, Femina Miss India World 2012
Navneet Kaur Dhillon, Femina Miss India World 2013
Amruta Patki, Miss Earth Air 2006
Shamita Singha, Femina Miss India Earth 2001
Reshmi Ghosh, Femina Miss India Earth 2002
Niharika Singh, Femina Miss India Earth 2005
Shriya Kishore, Femina Miss India Earth 2009
Hasleen Kaur, Femina Miss India Earth 2011
Sobhita Dhulipala, Femina Miss India Earth 2013
Alankrita Sahai, Miss Diva Earth 2014
Shonali Nagrani, Miss International 2003 - 1st Runner Up
Pooja Batra, Femina Miss India International 1993
Gayatri Joshi, Femina Miss India International 2000
Gauhar Khan, Femina Miss India International 2002
Vaishali Desai, Femina Miss India International 2005
Sonal Sehgal, Femina Miss India International 2006
Esha Gupta, Femina Miss India International 2007
Neha Hinge, Femina Miss India International 2010
Ankita Shorey, Femina Miss India International 2011
Rochelle Rao, Femina Miss India International 2012
Shonal Rawat, Miss Asia Pacific 2003 - 1st Runner Up
Shweta Menon, Femina Miss India Asia Pacific 1994
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what beatle song is actually two different recordings blended together | Abbey Road - wikipedia
Abbey Road is the eleventh studio album by English rock band the Beatles, released on 26 September 1969 by Apple Records. The recording sessions for the album were the last in which all four Beatles participated. Although Let It Be was the final album that the Beatles completed before the band 's dissolution in April 1970, most of the album had been recorded before the Abbey Road sessions began. A two - sided hit single from the album, "Something '' backed with "Come Together '', released in October, topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US.
Abbey Road is a rock album that incorporates genres such as blues, pop, and progressive rock, and it makes prominent use of the Moog synthesizer and the Leslie speaker. Side two contains a medley of song fragments edited together to form a single piece. The album was recorded amid a more enjoyable atmosphere than the Get Back / Let It Be sessions earlier in the year, but there were still frequent disagreements within the band. John Lennon had privately left the group by the time the album was released and McCartney publicly quit the following year.
Although Abbey Road was an immediate commercial success and reached No. 1 in the UK and US, it initially received mixed reviews, some critics describing its music as inauthentic and bemoaning the production 's artificial effects. Many critics now view the album as the Beatles ' best and rank it as one of the greatest albums of all time. In particular, George Harrison 's contributions, "Something '' and "Here Comes the Sun '', are considered to be among the best songs he wrote for the group. The album 's cover, which features the four band members walking across a zebra crossing outside Abbey Road Studios, has become one of the most famous and imitated images in the history of popular music.
After the unpleasant recording sessions for the proposed Get Back album (ultimately released in 1970 as Let It Be), Paul McCartney suggested to music producer George Martin that the group get together and make an album "the way we used to do it '', free of the conflict that had begun during sessions for The Beatles (also known as the "White Album ''). Martin agreed, but on the strict condition that all the group -- particularly John Lennon -- allow him to produce the record in the same manner as earlier albums and that discipline would be adhered to.
The first sessions for Abbey Road began on 22 February 1969, only three weeks after the Get Back sessions, in Trident Studios. There, the group recorded a backing track for "I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '' with Billy Preston accompanying them on Hammond organ. No further group recording occurred until April because of Ringo Starr 's commitments on the film The Magic Christian. After a small amount of work that month and a session for "You Never Give Me Your Money '' on 6 May, the group took an eight - week break before recommencing on 2 July. Recording continued through July and August, with the last backing track, for "Because '', being taped on 1 August. Overdubs continued through the month, with the final sequencing of the album coming together on 20 August -- the last time all four Beatles were present in a studio together.
McCartney, Starr and Martin have reported positive recollections of the sessions, while George Harrison said, "we did actually perform like musicians again ''. Lennon and McCartney had enjoyed working together on the non-album single "The Ballad of John and Yoko '' in April, contributing friendly banter between takes, and some of this camaraderie carried over to the Abbey Road sessions. Nevertheless, there was a significant amount of tension between the group members. According to author Ian MacDonald, McCartney had an acrimonious argument with Lennon during the sessions. Lennon 's wife Yoko Ono had become a permanent presence at Beatles recordings and clashed with other members. Halfway through recording in June, Lennon and Ono were involved in a car accident. A doctor told Ono to rest in bed, so Lennon had one installed in the studio so she could observe the recording process from there.
The album 's two halves represented a compromise; Lennon wanted a traditional release with distinct and unrelated songs while McCartney and Martin wanted to continue their thematic approach from Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band by incorporating a medley. Lennon ultimately said that he disliked Abbey Road as a whole and felt that it lacked authenticity, calling McCartney 's contributions "(music) for the grannies to dig '' and not "real songs '' and describing the medley as "junk... just bits of songs thrown together ''. During the sessions, Lennon expressed a desire to have all of his songs on one side of the album, with McCartney 's on the other.
Nobody was entirely sure that the work was going to be the group 's last, though Harrison said "it felt as if we were reaching the end of the line ''. After the album was released, the Get Back / Let It Be project was re-examined, and work on it continued into 1970. Therefore, Let It Be became the last album to be finished by the Beatles, even though its recording had begun before Abbey Road.
By September 1969, after the recording of Abbey Road, Lennon had formed a new group, the Plastic Ono Band, in part because the Beatles had rejected his song "Cold Turkey ''. While Harrison worked with such artists as Leon Russell, Doris Troy, Preston and Delaney & Bonnie through to the end of the year, McCartney took a hiatus from the group after his daughter Mary was born on 28 August. On 20 September, Lennon formally announced his departure to the other Beatles. Abbey Road was released on 26 September 1969. The single "Something '' / "Come Together '' followed in October, while Lennon released the Plastic Ono Band 's version of "Cold Turkey '' the same month. The Beatles did little promotion of Abbey Road directly, and no public announcement was made of the band 's split until McCartney announced he was leaving the group in April 1970, at which point they disbanded.
"Come Together '' was an expansion of "Let 's Get It Together '', a song Lennon originally wrote for Timothy Leary 's California gubernatorial campaign against Ronald Reagan. A rough version of the lyrics for "Come Together '' was written at Lennon 's and Ono 's second bed - in event in Montreal.
Beatles author Jonathan Gould suggested that the song has only a single "pariah - like protagonist '' and Lennon was "painting another sardonic self - portrait ''. MacDonald has suggested that the "juju eyeballs '' has been claimed to refer to Dr John and "spinal cracker '' to Ono. The song was later the subject of a lawsuit brought against Lennon by Morris Levy because the opening line in "Come Together '' -- "Here come old flat - top '' -- was admittedly lifted from a line in Chuck Berry 's "You Ca n't Catch Me ''. A settlement was reached in 1973 whereby Lennon promised to record three songs from Levy 's publishing catalogue for his next album.
"Come Together '' was later released as a double A-side single with "Something ''. In the liner notes to the compilation album Love, Martin described the track as "a simple song but it stands out because of the sheer brilliance of the performers ''.
Harrison was inspired to write "Something '' during sessions for the White Album by listening to label - mate James Taylor 's "Something in the Way She Moves '' from his album James Taylor. After the lyrics were refined during the Let It Be sessions (tapes reveal Lennon giving Harrison some songwriting advice during its composition), the song was initially given to Joe Cocker, but was subsequently recorded for Abbey Road. Cocker 's version appeared on his album Joe Cocker! that November.
"Something '' was Lennon 's favourite song on the album, and McCartney considered it the best song Harrison had written. Though the song was written by Harrison, Frank Sinatra once commented that it was his favourite Lennon -- McCartney composition and "the greatest love song ever written ''. Lennon contributed piano to the recording and while most of the part was removed, traces of it remain in the final cut, notably on the middle eight, prior to Harrison 's guitar solo.
The song was issued as a double A-side single with "Come Together '' in October 1969 and topped the US charts for one week, becoming the first Beatles number - one single that was not a Lennon -- McCartney composition; it was also the first Beatles single from an already released album in the UK. Apple 's Neil Aspinall filmed a promotional video, which combined separate footage of the Beatles and their wives.
"Maxwell 's Silver Hammer '', McCartney 's first song on the album, was first performed by the Beatles during the Let It Be sessions (as can be seen in the film). He wrote the song after the group 's trip to India in 1968 and wanted to record it for the White Album, but it was rejected by the others as "too complicated ''.
The recording was fraught with tension between band members, as McCartney annoyed others by insisting on a perfect performance. The track was the first Lennon was invited to work on following his car accident, but he hated it and declined to do so. According to engineer Geoff Emerick, Lennon said it was "more of Paul 's granny music '' and left the session. He spent the next two weeks with Ono and did not return to the studio until the backing track for "Come Together '' was laid down on 21 July. Harrison was also tired of the song, adding "we had to play it over and over again until Paul liked it. It was a real drag ''. Starr was more sympathetic to the song. "It was granny music '', he admitted, "but we needed stuff like that on our album so other people would listen to it ''. Starr played the anvil sound in the chorus. This track also makes use of Harrison 's Moog Synthesizer, played by McCartney.
"Oh! Darling '' was written by McCartney in the doo - wop style, similar to contemporary work by Frank Zappa. It was tried at the Get Back sessions, and a version appears on Anthology 3. It was subsequently re-recorded in April, with overdubs in July and August.
McCartney attempted recording the lead vocal only once a day. He said: "I came into the studios early every day for a week to sing it by myself because at first my voice was too clear. I wanted it to sound as though I 'd been performing it on stage all week. '' Lennon thought he should have sung it, remarking that it was more his style.
As was the case with most of the Beatles ' albums, Starr sang lead vocal on one track. "Octopus 's Garden '' is his second and last solo composition released on any album by the band. It was inspired by a trip to Sardinia aboard Peter Sellers ' yacht after Starr left the band for two weeks with his family during the sessions for the White Album. Starr received a full songwriting credit and composed most of the lyrics, though the song 's melodic structure was partly written in the studio by Harrison. The pair would later collaborate as writers on Starr 's solo singles "It Do n't Come Easy '', "Back Off Boogaloo '' and "Photograph ''.
"I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '' was written by Lennon about his relationship with Ono, and he made a deliberate choice to keep the lyrics simple and concise. Author Tom Maginnis thought the song had a progressive rock influence, with its unusual length and structure, repeating guitar riff, and white noise effects, though he noted the "I Want You '' section has a straightforward blues structure.
The finished song is a combination of two different recording attempts. The first attempt occurred almost immediately after the Get Back / Let It Be sessions, in February 1969, with Preston. This was subsequently combined with a second version made during the Abbey Road sessions proper in April. The two sections together ran to nearly 8 minutes, making it the Beatles ' second - longest released track. Lennon used Harrison 's Moog synthesizer with a white noise setting to create a "wind '' effect that was overdubbed on the second half of the track. During the final edit, Lennon told Emerick to "cut it right there '' at 7 minutes and 44 seconds, creating a sudden, jarring silence that concludes the first side of Abbey Road (the recording tape would have run out within 20 seconds as it was). The final mixing and editing for the track occurred on 20 August 1969, the last day all four Beatles were together in the studio.
"Here Comes the Sun '' was written by Harrison in Eric Clapton 's garden in Surrey while Harrison took a break from stressful band business meetings. The basic track was recorded on 7 July 1969. Harrison sang lead and played acoustic guitar, McCartney provided backing vocals and played bass and Starr played the drums. Lennon was still recuperating from his car accident and did not perform on the track. Martin provided an orchestral arrangement in collaboration with Harrison, who overdubbed a Moog synthesizer part on 19 August, immediately before the final mix.
Though not released as a single, the song attracted attention and critical praise. It has been featured several times on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs, having been chosen by Sandie Shaw, Jerry Springer, Boris Johnson and Elaine Paige. The Daily Telegraph 's Martin Chilton said it was "almost impossible not to sing along to ''. Since digital downloads have become eligible to chart, it reached number 56 in 2010 after the Beatles ' back catalogue was released on iTunes.
Harrison recorded a guitar solo for this track that did not appear in the final mix. It was rediscovered in 2012, and footage of Martin and Harrison 's son Dhani listening to it in the studio was released on the DVD of Living in the Material World.
"Because '' was inspired by Lennon listening to Ono playing Ludwig van Beethoven 's "Moonlight Sonata '' on the piano. He recalled he was "lying on the sofa in our house, listening to Yoko play... Suddenly, I said, ' Can you play those chords backward? ' She did, and I wrote ' Because ' around them. '' The track features three - part harmonies by Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, which were then triple - tracked to give nine voices in the final mix. The group considered the vocals to be some of the hardest and most complex they attempted. Harrison played the Moog synthesizer, and Martin played the harpsichord that opens the track.
Side two contains a 16 - minute medley of eight short songs, recorded over July and August and blended into a suite by McCartney and Martin. Some songs were written (and originally recorded in demo form) during sessions for the White Album and Get Back / Let It Be, which later appeared on Anthology 3. While the idea for the medley was McCartney 's, Martin claims credit for some structure, adding he "wanted to get John and Paul to think more seriously about their music ''.
The first track recorded for the medley was the opening number, "You Never Give Me Your Money ''. McCartney has claimed that the band 's dispute over Allen Klein and what McCartney viewed as Klein 's empty promises were the inspiration for the song 's lyrics. However, MacDonald doubts this given that the backing track, recorded on 6 May at Olympic Studios, predated the worst altercations between Klein and McCartney. The track is a suite of varying styles, ranging from a piano - led ballad at the start to arpeggiated guitars at the end. Both Harrison and Lennon provided guitar solos with Lennon playing the solos at the end of the track, which Beatles author Walter Everett considers his favourite Lennon guitar contribution.
This song transitions into Lennon 's "Sun King '' which, like "Because '', showcases Lennon, McCartney and Harrison 's triple - tracked harmonies. Following it are Lennon 's "Mean Mr. Mustard '' (written during the Beatles ' 1968 trip to India) and "Polythene Pam ''. These in turn are followed by four McCartney songs, "She Came in Through the Bathroom Window '' (written after a fan entered McCartney 's residence via his bathroom window), "Golden Slumbers '' (based on Thomas Dekker 's 17th - century poem set to new music), "Carry That Weight '' (reprising elements from "You Never Give Me Your Money '', and featuring chorus vocals from all four Beatles), and closing with "The End ''.
"The End '' features Starr 's only drum solo in the Beatles ' catalogue (the drums are mixed across two tracks in "true stereo '', unlike most releases at that time where they were hard panned left or right). Fifty - four seconds into the song are 18 bars of lead guitar: the first two bars are played by McCartney, the second two by Harrison, and the third two by Lennon, with the sequence repeating. Harrison suggested the idea of a guitar solo in the track, Lennon decided they should trade solos and McCartney elected to go first. The solos were cut live against the existing backing track in one take. Immediately after Lennon 's third and final solo, the piano chords of the final part of the song begin. The song ends with the memorable final line, "And in the end, the love you take is equal to the love you make ''. This section was taped separately to the first, and required the piano to be re-recorded by McCartney, which was done on 18 August. An alternative version of the song, with Harrison 's lead guitar solo played against McCartney 's (with Starr 's drum solo heard in the background), appears on the Anthology 3 album and the 2012 digital - only compilation album Tomorrow Never Knows.
"Her Majesty '' was recorded by McCartney on 2 July when he arrived before the rest of the group at Abbey Road. It was included in a rough mix of the side two medley, appearing between "Mean Mr. Mustard '' and "Polythene Pam ''. McCartney disliked the way the medley sounded when it included "Her Majesty '', so he asked for it to be cut. The second engineer, John Kurlander, had been instructed not to throw out anything, so after McCartney left, he attached the track to the end of the master tape after 20 seconds of silence. The tape box bore an instruction to leave "Her Majesty '' off the final product, but the next day when mastering engineer Malcolm Davies received the tape, he (also trained not to throw anything away) cut a playback lacquer of the whole sequence, including "Her Majesty ''. The Beatles liked this effect and included it on the album.
"Her Majesty '' opens with the final, crashing chord of "Mean Mr. Mustard '', while the final note of "Her Majesty '' remained buried in the mix of "Polythene Pam ''. This is the result of "Her Majesty '' being snipped off the reel during a rough mix of the medley on 30 July. The medley was subsequently mixed again from scratch although "Her Majesty '' was not touched again and still appears in its rough mix on the album.
Original US and UK pressings of Abbey Road do not list "Her Majesty '' on the album 's cover nor on the record label, making it a hidden track. The song title appears on the inlay card and disc of the 1987 remastered CD reissue, as track 17. It also appears on the sleeve, booklet and disc of the 2009 remastered CD reissue, but not on the cover or record label of the 2012 vinyl reissue.
Three days after the session for "I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '', Harrison recorded solo demos of "All Things Must Pass '' (which became the title track of his 1970 triple album), "Something '' and "Old Brown Shoe ''. The latter was re-recorded by the Beatles in April 1969 and issued as the B - side to "The Ballad of John and Yoko '' the following month. All three of these Harrison demos were later featured on Anthology 3.
During the sessions for the medley, McCartney recorded "Come and Get It '', playing all the instruments. It was assumed to be a demo recording for another artist but McCartney later said that he originally intended to put it on Abbey Road. It was instead covered by Badfinger, while McCartney 's original recording appeared on Anthology 3.
The original backing track to "Something '', featuring a piano - led coda, and "You Never Give Me Your Money '', which leads into a fast rock - n - roll jam session, have appeared on bootlegs.
Abbey Road was recorded on eight - track reel to reel tape machines rather than the four - track machines that were used for earlier Beatles albums such as Sgt Pepper, and was the first Beatles album not to be issued in mono. The album makes prominent use of the Moog synthesizer, and the guitar played through a Leslie speaker. The Moog is not merely as a background effect but sometimes playing a central role, as in "Because '' where it is used for the middle eight. It is also prominent on "Maxwell 's Silver Hammer '' (played using a ribbon strip) and "Here Comes the Sun ''. The instrument was introduced to the band by Harrison who acquired one in November 1968 and subsequently used it to create his Electronic Sound album. Starr made more prominent use of the tom - toms on Abbey Road, later saying the album was "tom - tom madness... I went nuts on the toms. ''
Abbey Road was also the first and only Beatles album to be entirely recorded through a solid state transistor mixing desk, the TG12345 Mk I, as opposed to earlier thermionic valve based REDD desks. The TG console also allowed better support for eight - track multitrack recording, helping the Beatles ' considerable use of overdubbing. Emerick recalls the TG desk used to record the album had individual limiters and compressors on each audio channel and noted the overall sound was "softer '' than the earlier valve desks.
One of the assistant engineers working on the album was a 19 - year - old Alan Parsons. He went on to engineer Pink Floyd 's landmark album The Dark Side of the Moon and produce many popular albums himself with the Alan Parsons Project. Kurlander also assisted on many of the sessions, and went on to become a successful engineer and producer, most noteworthy for his success on the scores for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy.
The cover was designed by Apple Records creative director Kosh. It is the only original UK Beatles album sleeve to show neither the artist name nor the album title on its front cover, which was Kosh 's idea, despite EMI claiming the record would not sell without this information. He later explained that "we did n't need to write the band 's name on the cover... They were the most famous band in the world ''.
The front cover design, a photograph of the group on a zebra crossing, was based on ideas sketched by McCartney, and taken on 8 August 1969 outside EMI Studios in Abbey Road. At 11: 35 that morning, photographer Iain Macmillan was given only ten minutes to take the photo whilst he stood on a step - ladder and a policeman held up traffic behind the camera. Macmillan took six photographs, which McCartney later examined with a magnifying glass before deciding which of the shots would be used upon the album sleeve.
In the image selected by McCartney, the group walk across the street in single file from left to right, with Lennon leading, followed by Starr, McCartney, and Harrison. McCartney is barefoot and out of step with the other members. Apart from Harrison, the group are wearing suits designed by Tommy Nutter. To the left of the picture, parked next to the zebra crossing, is a white Volkswagen Beetle which belonged to one of the people living in the block of flats across from the recording studio. After the album was released, the number plate (LMW 281F) was stolen repeatedly from the car. In 1986, the car was sold at auction for £ 2,530 and in 2001 was on display in a museum in Germany. The man standing on the pavement to the right of the picture is Paul Cole (7 July 1911 -- 13 February 2008), an American tourist unaware he had been photographed until he saw the album cover months later. On the original cover, McCartney holds a cigarette; in 2003 several US poster companies airbrushed this cigarette out of the image, without permission from either Apple or McCartney.
Shortly after the album 's release the cover became part of the "Paul is dead '' rumour that was spreading across college campuses in the United States. According to followers of the rumour, the cover depicted the Beatles walking out of a cemetery in a funeral procession. The procession was led by Lennon, dressed in white, as a religious figure, Starr, dressed in black, as the undertaker, McCartney, out of step with the others, as a barefoot corpse and Harrison, dressed in denim, as the gravedigger. The left - handed McCartney is holding a cigarette in his right hand, said to indicate an imposter and the license plate on the Volkswagen parked on the street is 28IF, meaning McCartney would have been 28 if he had lived.
The image of the Beatles on the Abbey Road crossing has become one of the most famous and imitated in recording history. The crossing is a popular destination for Beatles fans and a webcam, provided by EarthCam, has operated there since 2011. In December 2010, the crossing was given grade II listed status for its "cultural and historical importance ''; the Abbey Road studios themselves had been given similar status earlier in the year. In 2013, Kolkata Police launched a traffic safety awareness advertisement against jaywalking, using the cover and a caption that read: "If they can, why ca n't you? '' The cover image has been parodied on several occasions, including by McCartney on his 1993 live album Paul Is Live. The Red Hot Chili Peppers ' The Abbey Road E.P. parodies the cover, with the band walking near - naked across a similar zebra crossing, although the musical content is different.
Abbey Road initially received mixed reviews from music critics, who criticised the production 's artificial sounds and viewed its music as inauthentic. William Mann of the London Times said that the album will "be called gimmicky by people who want a record to sound exactly like a live performance '', although he considered it to be "teem (ing) with musical invention '' and added: "Nice as Come Together and Harrison 's Something are -- they are minor pleasures in the context of the whole disc... Side Two is marvellous... '' Ed Ward of Rolling Stone called the album "complicated instead of complex '' and felt that the Moog synthesizer "disembodies and artificializes '' the band 's sound, adding that they "create a sound that could not possibly exist outside the studio ''. While he found the medley on side two to be their "most impressive music '' since Rubber Soul, Nik Cohn of The New York Times said that, "individually '', the album 's songs are "nothing special ''. Albert Goldman of Life magazine wrote that Abbey Road "is not one of the Beatles ' great albums '' and, despite some "lovely '' phrases and "stirring '' segues, side two 's suite "seems symbolic of the Beatles ' latest phase, which might be described as the round - the - clock production of disposable music effects ''.
Conversely, Chris Welch wrote in Melody Maker: "the truth is, their latest LP is just a natural born gas, entirely free of pretension, deep meanings or symbolism... While production is simple compared to past intricacies, it is still extremely sophisticated and inventive. '' Derek Jewell of The Sunday Times found the album "refreshingly terse and unpretentious '', and although he lamented the band 's "cod - 1920s jokes (Maxwell 's Silver Hammer) and... Ringo 's obligatory nursery arias (Octopus 's Garden) '', he considered that Abbey Road "touches higher peaks than did their last album ''. John Mendelsohn, writing for Rolling Stone, called it "breathtakingly recorded '' and praised side two especially, equating it to "the whole of Sgt. Pepper '' and stating, "That the Beatles can unify seemingly countless musical fragments and lyrical doodlings into a uniformly wonderful suite... seems potent testimony that no, they 've far from lost it, and no, they have n't stopped trying. ''
Many critics have since cited Abbey Road as the Beatles ' greatest album. In a retrospective review, Nicole Pensiero of PopMatters called it "an amazingly cohesive piece of music, innovative and timeless ''. Mark Kemp of Paste viewed the album as being "among The Beatles ' finest works, even if it foreshadows the cigarette - lighter - waving arena rock that technically skilled but critically maligned artists from Journey to Meatloaf would belabor throughout the ' 70s and ' 80s ''. Neil McCormack of The Daily Telegraph dubbed it the Beatles ' "last love letter to the world '' and praised its "big, modern sound '', calling it "lush, rich, smooth, epic, emotional and utterly gorgeous ''. AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger felt that the album shared Sgt. Pepper 's "faux - conceptual forms '', but had "stronger compositions '', and wrote of its standing in the band 's catalogue: "Whether Abbey Road is the Beatles ' best work is debatable, but it 's certainly the most immaculately produced (with the possible exception of Sgt. Pepper) and most tightly constructed. '' Ian MacDonald gave a mixed opinion of the album, noting that several tracks had been written at least a year previously, and would possibly have been unsuitable without being integrated into the medley on side two. He did, however, praise the production, particularly the sound of Starr 's bass drum.
Abbey Road received high rankings in several "best albums in history '' polls by critics and publications. Time included it in their 2006 list of the All - Time 100 Albums. In 2009, readers of Rolling Stone named Abbey Road the greatest Beatles album. and in 2012, the magazine ranked it number 14 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Musicologist Walter Everett interprets that most of the lyrics on side two 's medley deal with "selfishness and self - gratification -- the financial complaints in ' You Never Give Me Your Money, ' the miserliness of Mr. Mustard, the holding back of the pillow in ' Carry That Weight, ' the desire that some second person will visit the singer 's dreams -- perhaps the ' one sweet dream ' of ' You Never Give Me Your Money '? -- in ' The End. ' '' Everett adds that the medley 's "selfish moments '' are played in the context of the tonal centre of A, while "generosity '' is expressed in songs where C major is central. The medley concludes with a "great compromise in the ' negotiations ' '' in "The End '', which serves as a structurally balanced coda. In response to the repeated A-major choruses of "love you '', McCartney sings in realisation that there is as much self - gratifying love ("the love you take '') as there is of the generous love ("the love you make ''), in A major and C major, respectively.
Abbey Road sold four million copies in its first two months of release. In the UK, the album debuted at number 1, where it remained for 11 weeks before being displaced for one week by the Rolling Stones ' Let It Bleed. The following week (which was Christmas), Abbey Road returned to the top for another six weeks (completing a total of 17 weeks) before being replaced by Led Zeppelin II. In all it spent 81 weeks on the UK albums chart.
Reaction overseas was similar. In the US, the album spent 12 weeks at number one on the Billboard Top LPs chart. It was the National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM) best - selling album of 1969 and was number four on Billboard magazine 's top LPs of 1970 year - end chart. Abbey Road was certified 12 × platinum by the RIAA in 2001. In Japan, it was one of the longest - charting albums to date, remaining in the top 100 for 298 weeks during the 1970s.
In June 1970, Allen Klein reported that Abbey Road was the Beatles ' best - selling album in the US with sales of about five million. By 1992, Abbey Road had sold nine million copies. The album became the ninth-most downloaded on the iTunes Store a week after it was released there on 16 November 2010. A CNN report stated it was the best - selling vinyl album of 2011. It is the first album from the 1960s to sell over five million albums since 1991 when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales. In the US, the album had sold 7,177,797 copies by the end of the 1970s. As of 2011, the album had sold over 31 million copies worldwide and is one of the band 's best - selling albums.
The songs on Abbey Road have been covered many times and the album itself has been covered in its entirety. One month after Abbey Road 's release, George Benson recorded a cover version of the album called The Other Side of Abbey Road. Later in 1969 Booker T. & the M.G. 's recorded McLemore Avenue (the location of Stax Records) which covered the Abbey Road songs and had a similar cover photo.
Additionally, several artists have covered some or all of the side - B medley, including Phil Collins (for the Martin / Beatles tribute album In My Life), The String Cheese Incident, Transatlantic and Tenacious D (who performed the medley with Phish keyboardist Page McConnell). Furthur, a jam band including former Grateful Dead members Bob Weir and Phil Lesh, played the entire Abbey Road album during its Spring Tour 2011. It began with a "Come Together '' opener at Boston on 4 March and ended with the entire medley in New York City on 15 March, including "Her Majesty '' as an encore.
Abbey Road has remained in print since its first release in 1969. The original album was released on 26 September in the UK and 1 October in the US on Apple Records. It was reissued as a limited edition picture disc on vinyl in the US by Capitol on 27 December 1978, while a CD reissue of the album was released in 1987, with a remastered version appearing in 2009. The remaster included additional photographs with additional liner notes and the first, limited edition, run also included a short documentary about the making of the album.
The album continues to be reissued on vinyl. It was included as part of the Beatles ' Collector 's Crate series in September 2009 and saw a remastered LP release on 180 - gram vinyl in 2012.
All tracks written by Lennon -- McCartney, except where noted.
Notes
According to Mark Lewisohn, Ian MacDonald and Barry Miles.
The Beatles
Additional musicians
Production
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
BPI certification awarded only for sales since 1994.
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
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when does season 3 witches of east end start | Witches of East End (TV series) - wikipedia
Witches of East End is an American television series based on the book of the same name by Melissa de la Cruz. The series premiered on Lifetime on October 6, 2013. Set in the fictional seaside town of East End, it follows the lives of a family of witches -- Joanna Beauchamp (Julia Ormond) and her two grown - up daughters, Freya Beauchamp (Jenna Dewan Tatum) and Ingrid Beauchamp (Rachel Boston), as well as her sister Wendy Beauchamp (Mädchen Amick).
On November 22, 2013, Lifetime renewed Witches of East End for a second season to consist of 13 episodes, which premiered on July 6, 2014. On November 4, 2014, Lifetime cancelled Witches of East End after a decline in ratings during the second season. The series finale aired on October 5, 2014.
The series stars Julia Ormond as lead character Joanna Beauchamp, a witch and mother of Freya Beauchamp (Jenna Dewan Tatum) and Ingrid Beauchamp (Rachel Boston), who are part of the next generation of witches. Mädchen Amick co-stars as Joanna 's mischievous witch sister Wendy Beauchamp. The series is loosely based on the book 's plot, with one change being that Freya and Ingrid are initially unaware of their magical powers.
Notes: a ^ Guest in pilot, starring from episode 2 onwards.
On July 19, 2012, it was announced that Lifetime had ordered a pilot for Witches of East End for its 2013 season, and that the show would be executive - produced by both Maggie Friedman and Erwin Stoff, and produced by Fox 21. On January 31, 2013, it was revealed that Lifetime had picked up Witches of East End with ten episodes and that it was scheduled to premiere later that year. The executive VP of programming for Lifetime Networks, Rob Sharenow, said "We 've been thrilled about Witches of East End and its powerful premise since the moment we bought the property, and our friends at Fox 21 helped develop it for television. This is one of the most exciting ensemble casts we 've seen and the whole show is fresh, original and just right for Lifetime. ''
On August 30, 2012, it was announced that Julia Ormond had landed a main role on the show, as Joanna Beauchamp. On September 14, 2012, the role of Freya Beauchamp was officially given to Jenna Dewan Tatum, who publicly announced on December 17, 2012, that she and husband Channing Tatum were expecting their first child. On September 17, 2012, the leading male role of Dash Gardiner was assigned to Patrick Heusinger. And on September 19, 2012, Rachel Boston and model Daniel Di Tomasso were announced to have earned the two remaining main roles, respectively Ingrid Beauchamp and Killian Gardiner. Finally, as announced on September 25, 2012, Nicholas Gonzalez would portray detective Matt Torcoletti. On October 9, 2012, two guest star announcements were made: Mädchen Amick, who then became a part of the permanent main cast, and Glenne Headly - Amick as Wendy (Joanna 's sister) and a leading role and Headly as Penelope (the Gardiner brothers ' mother). Tom Lenk was later given the role of Hudson Rafferty, Ingrid 's best friend, as announced on October 16, 2012.
Casting however underwent a few changes. As revealed by Nicholas Gonzalez himself on his Twitter account, a few days after the pick - up announcement, the actor was dropped from the show, and on June 6, 2013, it was announced that Patrick Heusinger 's role as Dash Gardiner would be recast, for creative reasons. On June 26, TVLine revealed that Eric Winter would replace Patrick Heusinger as Dash Gardiner. On July 9, the recurring role of the detective Adam (formerly Matt Torcoletti) was assigned to Jason George. On July 12, Virginia Madsen replaced Glenne Headly for a multi-episode arc as Penelope, Dash and Killian 's mother. On August 12, Freddie Prinze, Jr. booked a guest role on the show, as Leo Wingate, with a possibility that it could become recurring. On August 14, Anthony Lemke was cast as recurring Harrison Welles.
Filming the pilot episode began on October 16, 2012 in the port town of Wilmington, North Carolina, where several scenes were shot. On October 29, 2012, the crew moved for a week to Macon, Georgia, where they filmed the wedding scenes for the pilot at the historical Hay House. On November 5, 2012, the crew returned to filming in North Carolina for a final day of shooting.
When the network Lifetime announced Witches of East End was going to be a series, it was also revealed that filming the rest of the series would happen in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, instead of continuing in Wilmington, NC. Later on, the filming period was announced as going from July 16 to October 21. Maggie Friedman announced on Twitter on June 10 that she was scouting locations for the series, trying to "find Fair Haven ''.
Critical reaction to Witches of East End has been mixed, with a score of 50 on Metacritic and 70 % for the first season on Rotten Tomatoes with a consensus saying "Although it 's ridiculously soapy, Witches of East End is often campy fun; it 's a supernatural spectacle that 's entertaining despite its silliness. ''
Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun - Times described the show as a "Soapy, silly adaptation of Melissa de la Cruz 's best - seller. '' Matthew Gilbert of Boston Globe reviewed the show saying "(It) will remain a missable new supernatural series populated by wooden actors and feeble plotlines. '' Matt Roush of TV Guide summed up his review saying "Whatever the opposite of spellbinding is, that 's this show. '' Diane Werts of Newsday gave the show a more positive review, saying "What 's utterly clear is that the starter hour picks up steam whenever loose - cannon Amick bops around -- although Ormond does a nice job of grounding its shenanigans in a semblance of reality. '' She finishes her review giving the pilot a B rating. Allison Keene from The Hollywood Reporter also praised the premiere, claiming "Witches of East End is up against a number of other supernatural shows, and there becomes a question of saturation. Fortunately or unfortunately, we are n't at that point, yet. It seems there 's plenty more room at the table, and there, Witches of East End currently looks like the most fun. '' Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times also gave the show a glowing review, starting off by negatively reviewing the "humorless '' witches on shows such as the 2013 debuts of Sleepy Hollow and The Originals, then going on to say Witches of East End is a welcome relief to those series. He further applauds the casting and characters, saying "thanks to zippy repartee among the stars. Ms. Amick is hilarious, and Ms. Dewan Tatum and Ms. Boston make a pretty amusing pair of mismatched sisters. '' He ends the review with "there is a lot of heavy fare on television on Sunday nights. If Witches can retain its wry tone, it will be a satisfying alternative for viewers looking for a lighter way to end the weekend. '' Lily Moayeri of Under the Radar compared the show with Charmed saying "Witch - themed shows work better when both the witches and the target audience are teenagers. The grown - up witches on Witches of East End are just a little too ridiculous - even more so than the witch sister trio of Charmed. ''
The show 's second season currently has a 90 % user rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
Witches of East End premiered on a Sunday night to 1.93 million viewers and a 0.7 18 - 49 rating. The premiere rated on par to the June 23 premiere of Lifetime 's other new show Devious Maids, however, Witches of East End faced a lot of tough competition and ended the night being the number two scripted drama on cable, behind Boardwalk Empire on HBO.
The following week, Witches of East End pulled a total of 1.93 million viewers and rose to a 0.8 18 - 49 rating, despite the return of The Walking Dead and its talk show Talking Dead breaking records on AMC. The show remained the second highest - rated cable drama of the night again, behind The Walking Dead.
(in millions)
Witches of East End premiered in the United Kingdom on November 5, 2013 on the second night of the newly formed UK channel, Lifetime UK. The second season premiered on August 25, 2014. In Australia, Witches of East End premiered on Eleven on August 4, 2014.
On November 4, 2014, it was announced that Lifetime had cancelled Witches of East End after a decline in ratings during the second season. The first season averaged 1.67 million viewers, but dropped in its second season to 1.13 million. After its cancellation, fans launched an online petition campaign to save the show called "Renew Witches of East End ''. The petition became popular on Twitter, where fans were told to use the hashtag # RenewWitchesofEastEnd and tweet it to Lifetime 's Twitter account. Fans have also campaigned the online streaming service Netflix to pick up the show. The campaign received support from celebrities on Twitter who backed the show to be renewed, including Channing Tatum, William Shatner and Snooki as well as stars from cult television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's Sarah Michelle Gellar and Charmed 's Shannen Doherty and Holly Marie Combs. As of June 2017 and after 3 years since the finale, the petition has received more than 272,000 signatures.
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