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what are all the flavors of monster energy drinks | Monster Energy - wikipedia
Monster Energy is an energy drink introduced by Hansen Natural Company (now Monster Beverage Corporation (MNST)) in April 2002. The company is also known for supporting many extreme sports events such as Bellator MMA, Ultimate Fighting Championship, Moto GP, BMX, Motocross, Speedway, skateboarding and snowboarding, as well as electronic sports. In collaboration with Outbreak Presents, Monster Energy promotes a number of music bands around the world, like Fetty Wap, Iggy Azalea, 21 Savage, Asking Alexandria, The Word Alive, Maximum the Hormone and Five Finger Death Punch. Monster currently sponsors the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series and the 25th PBR: Unleash the Beast Professional Bull Riders tour.
There are 34 different drinks under the Monster brand in North America, including its core Monster Energy line, Java Monster, Extra Strength, Import, Rehab and Muscle Monster.
Monster Energy is advertised mainly through sponsorship of sporting events, including motocross, BMX, mountain biking, snowboarding, skateboarding, car racing, speedway, and also through sponsorship of eSports events. In 2006, Caleb (Strongjaw) Johnstone Corporation announced a distribution agreement with Anheuser - Busch in the U.S. and Grupo Jumex in Mexico. Monster became the title sponsor of NASCAR 's top series starting with the 2017 season, renaming it to the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series.
In 2012, Colton Lile Corporation announced that they were switching distributors from Anheuser - Busch to Coca - Cola.
The Monster Energy Drink logo is widely recognized among major beverages and at sponsored events. The design was created by McLean Design, a California - based strategic branding firm. The logo is composed of a vibrant large green '' M '' on a field of black. The '' M '' is stylized in such a way as to imply that it is formed by the claws of a monster ripping through the can.
The caffeine content of most Monster Energy drinks is approximately 10 mg / oz (33.81 mg / 100ml), or 160 mg for a 16 oz can. The packaging usually contains a warning label advising consumers against drinking more than 48 oz per day (16 oz per day in Australia). The drinks are not recommended for pregnant women or people sensitive to caffeine.
The ingredients include carbonated water, sucrose, glucose, citric acid, natural flavors, taurine, sodium citrate, color added, panax ginseng root extract, L - carnitine, caffeine, sorbic acid, benzoic acid, niacinamide, sodium chloride, Glycine max glucuronolactone, inositol, guarana seed extract, pyridoxine hydrochloride, sucralose, riboflavin, maltodextrin, and cyanocobalamin.
In August 2017, Monster renewed a sponsorship with mixed martial arts champion Conor McGregor. McGregor had been a Monster - endorsed athlete since 2015, showcasing the green "M '' logo on his shorts. Other notable MMA athletes sponsored by Monster Energy include Cain Velasquez and Jon "Bones '' Jones.
In November 2012, Monster Energy announced a long - term partnership with the Professional Bull Riders, and sponsors top athletes including J.B. Mauney, Guilherme Marchi, and Derek Kolbaba. Starting in 2018, Monster Energy became the title sponsor of the PBR 's premiership tour, known as the Unleash the Beast tour.
Monster has served as the official energy drink sponsor of multiple X Games contests, most recently the 2017 summer games in Minneapolis and the 2017 winter games in Aspen. A number of athletes on the Monster Energy team regularly compete in the X Games, including skateboarders Nyjah Huston, Ishod Wair and Chris Cole.
X Games winter athletes sponsored by Monster include three - time gold medal - winning skier David Wise, Olympic freestyle skier Gus Kenworthy and Olympic gold medalist snowboarder Iouri Podladtchikov.
Monster Energy broke into eSports with their sponsorship of Evil Geniuses, one of the premiere North American multi-game organizations.
In December 2016, it was announced that Monster Energy would replace outgoing Sprint Corporation as the title sponsor of NASCAR 's premier series. NASCAR 's chief marketing officer cited Monster 's "youthful and edgy '' brand as a driving force behind the deal, as NASCAR seeks to build its younger audience and bolster the sport 's long term health. Monster is endorsed by driver Kurt Busch and currently sponsors his No. 41 Stewart - Haas Racing car; prior to joining SHR, Monster had sponsored the likes of Robby Gordon Ricky Carmichael, and the No. 54 Xfinity Series car of Joe Gibbs Racing / Kyle Busch Motorsports.
Mercedes F1 has been sponsored by Monster since 2010. And are currently endorsed by Valtteri Bottas and four time world champion Lewis Hamilton.
The company was endorsed by Australian touring car driver Jamie Whincup from late 2009 to 2012. The deal was cancelled abruptly for the 2013 season, when his team Triple Eight signed rival company Red Bull as title sponsor. Monster is now associated with Prodrive Racing Australia as the primary sponsor of Cameron Waters Ford Falcon FG X. His teammate, current V8 Supercar Champion, Mark Winterbottom receives minor support as do the Holden Racing Team (since 2015).
Monster has also sponsored several rally drivers and motocross riders, such as Ken Block, Liam Doran, Nani Roma, Jeremy McGrath, Chad Reed, Ryan Villopoto, Ricky Carmichael, Nate Adams and Taka Higashino. Monster Energy also sponsors multiple motocross race teams named "Monster Energy / Pro Circuit / Kawasaki '', and the Monster Energy Factory Yamaha motocross team, based in Hampshire, England. As of 2016, Monster has aided the return of factory Yamaha to United States as the title sponsor of the team, officially named Monster Energy / 360fly / Chaparral / Yamaha Factory Racing.
On January 6, 2012, the Monster Energy Monster Jam truck was debuted in Birmingham, Alabama. It is currently campaigned by drivers Todd LeDuc and Coty Saucier.
Monster Energy has been the title sponsor of the French motorcycle Grand Prix since 2010.
Since 2012, Monster Energy has been the main sponsor of the Speedway Grand Prix and Speedway World Cup.
In June 2015, Monster Energy agreed to a sponsorship deal with Zayat Stables to sponsor the race horse American Pharoah for an undisclosed sum, rumored to be the largest single - horse advertising sponsorship to date. The deal allows the product 's logo to be used on the horse 's horse sheets, on jockey Victor Espinoza 's shirt and boots, as well as caps and other gear worn by people around the horse. "The energy and excitement that American Pharoah has generated around the world syncs perfectly with the brand. ''
Monster Beverage Corporation has been criticized for its policy to sue companies or groups which use the word "Monster '' or the letter "M '' in their marketing for trademark infringement. Examples include the aquarium hobbyist site MonsterFishKeepers.com, Bevreview.com, a beverage review site which published an unfavorable review of the Monster Energy drink and a Vermont microbrewery which marketed a beer named "Vermonster ''. Monster Beverage dropped the lawsuit against the microbrewery due to the negative publicity the lawsuit generated.
In August 2012, the Beastie Boys filed a lawsuit against the company for copyright infringement over Monster 's use of their music in an online campaign. In 2014, a jury found Monster Beverage Corp. had infringed on Beastie Boys copyright by using songs without permission, and owed the group $1.7 million.
In March 2016, Monster filed a lawsuit to revoke the company trademark of Thunder Beast LLC (Washington, DC), a small root beer brewery, insisting the use of "beast '' in the company name encroached on Monster 's trademark slogan "Unleash the Beast. '' The owner of Thunder Beast, Stephen Norberg, is currently fighting Monster 's lawsuit.
In June 2017, Page Zeringue, a former employee of Monster Energy Company, filed a complaint in the U.S District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana against Monster Energy Company alleging that the beverage company violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Zeringue began working for Monster Energy Company in Feb 2008. She alleges she was discriminated against because of her gender and was subjected to sexual harassment and a hostile work environment. The suit states she was terminated in October 2015. Zeringue holds Monster Energy Company responsible because the defendant allegedly retaliated against her when she reported the unwelcome sexual advances to the human resources department.
In June 2017 Sara Rabuse of Los Angeles County filed a personal injury claim against Monster Energy Company Executive, Brent Hamilton and his employer, Monster Energy Company. Rabuse is suing for damages while she was violently attacked during a Monster Energy work function Hamilton invited her to attend. Rabuse Claims Hamilton, Executive of the Monster Energy Music Department, flew her from L.A to meet him at the Country Music Awards in Nashville at Monster Energy 's Company expense. When she arrived in Nashville at the airport, he was drunk. Sara Rabuse claims the heavy drinking led to a fight in the hotel room, where Hamilton choked her. Rabuse claims the only way to free herself from Hamilton 's grasp was to poke him in the eye, but when she did, Hamilton, bit her thumb. Rabuse claimed the bite got infected, forcing her to spend 24 hours in the hospital. Rabuse holds Monster Energy Company responsible because the company allegedly knew of its employees drinking problem and ignored it
In December 2011, 14 - year - old Anais Fournier died of "cardiac arrhythmia due to caffeine toxicity '' after drinking two 710 ml (24 US fl oz) cans of Monster Energy drink containing a combined amount of ~ 475 mg caffeine. Fournier had a pre-existing heart condition, as well as Ehlers -- Danlos syndrome. In October 2012, her parents sued the company. Monster has insisted that its energy drink played no role in Fournier 's death. A Freedom of Information Request revealed that from 2004 to 2012 the Food and Drug Administration had received reports of five deaths occurring after drinking Monster Energy. The reports did not prove a causal link between the drink and any health problems.
In May 2015, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) banned the sale of Monster and other energy drinks that contained both caffeine and ginseng. Also in May 2015, Monster Energy was identified as the company that filed the most trademark objections in their category, for the year ending 2014.
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when does a claim on quantum meruit arise | Quantum meruit - wikipedia
Quantum meruit is a Latin phrase meaning "what one has earned ''. In the context of contract law, it means something along the lines of "reasonable value of services ''.
In the United States, the elements of quantum meruit are determined by state common law. For example, to state a claim for unjust enrichment in New York, a plaintiff must allege that (1) defendant was enriched; (2) the enrichment was at plaintiff 's expense; and (3) the circumstances were such that equity and good conscience require defendants to make restitution.
Quantum meruit is the measure of damages where an express contract is mutually modified by the implied agreement of the parties, or not completed. While there is often confusion between the concept of quantum meruit and that of "unjust enrichment '' of one party at the expense of another, the two concepts are distinct.
The concept of quantum meruit applies in (but is not limited to) the following situations:
The measure of value set forth in a contract may be submitted to the court as evidence of the value of the improvements or services, but the court is not required to use the contract 's terms when calculating a quantum meruit award. (This is because the values set forth in the contract are rebuttable, meaning the one who ultimately may have to pay the award can contest the value of services set in the contract.)
I. An example used in United States law schools is usually as follows:
II. Quantum meruit can also apply where there is a breached contract.
III. If a plaintiff is prohibited from completing work based on a long - term service contract where other contracts have been negotiated, the plaintiff may ask a court to determine a judgment based on the amounts that the defendant benefited. Third parties may also bring actions against the plaintiff.
IV. A promoter enters into a long - term service contract with a theatre to exclusively present events for a specified period. The promoter books events and contracts with others to perform during the entire period but alleges that the theatre is unsafe. The promoter withholds payments until the theatre is made safe. The theatre performs no repairs. Instead, the theatre terminates the entire service contract before the benefit of the events occurs to the plaintiff and refuses to repair the theatre. After the contract is terminated, the theatre operates the events negotiated by the promoter and gains a significant benefit but does not pay the promoter anything. The theatre also cancels some events without cause. A court determines that the promoter is entitled to an assumpsit on a quantum meruit.
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what rights were provided by the french constitution | French constitution of 1791 - wikipedia
The short - lived French Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. One of the basic precepts of the revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty.
The National Assembly began the process of drafting a constitution. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, adopted on 27 August 1789 eventually became the preamble of the constitution adopted on 3 September 1791. The Declaration offered sweeping generalizations about rights, liberty, and sovereignty.
A twelve - member Constitutional Committee was convened on 14 July 1789 (coincidentally the day of the Storming of the Bastille). Its task was to do much of the drafting of the articles of the constitution. It included originally two members from the First Estate (Champion de Cicé, Archbishop of Bordeaux and Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun); two from the Second (the comte de Clermont - Tonnerre and the marquis de Lally - Tollendal); and four from the Third (Jean Joseph Mounier, Abbé Sieyès, Nicholas Bergasse, and Isaac René Guy le Chapelier).
Many proposals for redefining the French state were floated, particularly in the days after the remarkable sessions of 4 -- 5 August 1789 and the abolition of feudalism. For instance, the Marquis de Lafayette proposed a combination of the American and British systems, introducing a bicameral parliament, with the king having the suspensive veto power over the legislature, modeled to the authority then recently vested in the President of the United States.
The main controversies early on surrounded the issues of what level of power to be granted to the king of France (i.e.: veto, suspensive or absolute) and what form would the legislature take (i.e.: unicameral or bicameral). The Constitutional Committee proposed a bicameral legislature, but the motion was defeated 10 September 1789 (849 -- 89) in favor of one house; the next day, they proposed an absolute veto, but were again defeated (673 -- 325) in favor of a suspensive veto, which could be over-ridden by three consecutive legislatures.
A second Constitutional Committee quickly replaced it, and included Talleyrand, Abbé Sieyès, and Le Chapelier from the original group, as well as new members Gui - Jean - Baptiste Target, Jacques Guillaume Thouret, Jean - Nicolas Démeunier, François Denis Tronchet, and Jean - Paul Rabaut Saint - Étienne, all of the Third Estate.
Their greatest controversy faced by this new committee surrounded the issue of citizenship. Would every subject of the French Crown be given equal rights, as the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen seemed to promise, or would there be some restrictions? The October Days (5 -- 6 October) intervened and rendered the question much more complicated. In the end, a distinction was held between active citizens (over the age of 25, paid direct taxes equal to three days ' labor) which had political rights, and passive citizens, who had only civil rights. This conclusion was intolerable to such radical deputies as Maximilien Robespierre, and thereafter they never could be reconciled to the Constitution of 1791.
A second body, the Committee of Revisions, was struck September 1790, and included Antoine Barnave, Adrien Duport, and Charles de Lameth. Because the National Assembly was both a legislature and a constitutional convention, it was not always clear when its decrees were constitutional articles or mere statutes. It was the job of this committee to sort it out. The committee became very important in the days after the Champs de Mars Massacre, when a wave of revulsion against popular movements swept France and resulted in a renewed effort to preserve powers for the Crown. The result is the rise of the Feuillants, a new political faction led by Barnave, who used his position on the committee to preserve a number of powers for the Crown, such as the nomination of ambassadors, military leaders, and ministers.
After very long negotiations, the constitution was reluctantly accepted by King Louis XVI in September 1791. Redefining the organization of the French government, citizenship and the limits to the powers of government, the National Assembly set out to represent the interests of the general will. It abolished many "institutions which were injurious to liberty and equality of rights ''. The National Assembly asserted its legal presence in French government by establishing its permanence in the Constitution and forming a system for recurring elections. The Assembly 's belief in a sovereign nation and in equal representation can be seen in the constitutional separation of powers. The National Assembly was the legislative body, the king and royal ministers made up the executive branch and the judiciary was independent of the other two branches. On a local level, the previous feudal geographic divisions were formally abolished, and the territory of the French state was divided into several administrative units, Departments (Départements), but with the principle of centralism.
The Assembly, as constitution - framers, were afraid that if only representatives governed France, it was likely to be ruled by the representatives ' self - interest; therefore, the king was allowed a suspensive veto to balance out the interests of the people. By the same token, representative democracy weakened the king 's executive authority.
The constitution was not egalitarian by today 's standards. It distinguished between the propertied active citizens and the poorer passive citizens. Women lacked rights to liberties such as education, freedom to speak, write, print and worship.
Keith M. Baker writes in his essay "Constitution '' that the National Assembly threaded between two options when drafting the Constitution: they could modify the existing, unwritten constitution centered on the three estates of the Estates General or they could start over and rewrite it completely. The National Assembly wanted to reorganize social structure and legalize itself: while born of the Estates General of 1789, it had abolished the tricameral structure of that body.
With the onset of war and the threat of the revolution 's collapse, radical Jacobin and ultimately republican conceptions grew enormously in popularity, increasing the influence of Robespierre, Danton, Marat and the Paris Commune. When the King used his veto powers to protect non-juring priests and refused to raise militias in defense of the revolutionary government, the constitutional monarchy proved unworkable and was effectively ended by the 10 August insurrection. A National Convention was called, electing Robespierre as its first deputy; it was the first assembly in France elected by universal male suffrage. The convention declared France a republic on 22 September 1792.
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where did the girl get her arm bitten off | Bethany Hamilton - wikipedia
Bethany Meilani Hamilton - Dirks (born February 8, 1990) is an American professional surfer who survived a 2003 shark attack in which her left arm was bitten off but who ultimately returned to -- and was victorious in -- professional surfing. She wrote about her experience in the 2004 autobiography Soul Surfer: A True Story of Faith, Family, and Fighting to Get Back on the Board. In April 2011, the feature film Soul Surfer was released.
On October 31, 2003, Hamilton, aged 13 at the time, went for a morning surf along Tunnels Beach, Kauai, with best friend Alana Blanchard, Alana 's father, Holt, and brother Byron. Around 7: 30 a.m., with numerous turtles in the area, she was lying on her surfboard with her left arm dangling in the water, when a 14 - foot - long (4.3 m) tiger shark attacked her, severing her left arm just below the shoulder. The Blanchards helped paddle her back to shore, then Alana 's father fashioned a tourniquet out of a surfboard leash and wrapped it around the stump of her arm. She was rushed to Wilcox Memorial Hospital. By the time she arrived there she had lost over 60 % of her blood and was in hypovolemic shock. A doctor living in a hotel nearby raced to the rescue. Her father, who was scheduled to have knee surgery that morning, was already there, but she took his place in the operating room. She spent a week in recovery before being released. During subsequent media interviews, she confirmed that she felt normal when she was bitten and did not feel much pain from the bite at the moment of the disaster, but felt numb on the way to the hospital.
When the news broke out of the shark attack, a family of fishermen led by Ralph Young presented to investigators photos of a 14 - foot - long (4.3 m) tiger shark they had caught and killed about one mile from the attack site. It had surfboard debris in its mouth. When measurements of its mouth were compared with those of Hamilton 's broken board, it matched. In late 2004, the police officially confirmed that it was the one that attacked her.
Despite the trauma of the incident, Hamilton was determined to return to surfing. One month after the attack, she returned to her board.
Initially, she adopted a custom - made board that was longer and slightly thicker than standard and had a handle for her right arm, making it easier to paddle, and she learned to kick more to make up for the loss of her left arm. After teaching herself to surf with one arm, on January 10, 2004, she entered a major competition. She now uses standard competitive performance short - boards. The shark - bitten surfboard that Hamilton was riding during the attack, as well as the bathing suit she was wearing at the time, a gift from ocean photographer Aaron Chang, are on display at the California Surf Museum in Oceanside, California.
Since the attack, she has appeared as a guest on numerous television shows. Her manager, Roy "Dutch '' Hofstetter, who went on to produce the film Soul Surfer, managed her rise through the media from shark attack victim to inspirational role model. The television shows she has appeared on include The Biggest Loser, 20 / 20, Good Morning America, Inside Edition, The Oprah Winfrey Show, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Today Show, and The Tonight Show, as well as in magazines People, Time, and American Girl. Additionally, she was the cover story in the premier issue of niNe magazine.
In 2004, she won the ESPY Award for Best Comeback Athlete and also received the Courage Teen Choice Award.
In 2004, MTV Books published Hamilton 's book, Soul Surfer: A True Story of Faith, Family, and Fighting to Get Back on the Board (ISBN 0 - 7434 - 9922 - 0), which describes her ordeal. Her story is also told in the 2007 short subject documentary film Heart of a Soul Surfer, directed by Becky Baumgartner. Described as a "faith - based documentary, '' the film addresses her devout Christianity and the courage and faith in Jesus Christ in the aftermath of the shark attack, and follows her quest for spiritual meaning.
On August 7, 2009, she was a contestant on Are You Smarter Than a Fifth Grader? and won $25,000. On May 16, 2010, she appeared on an episode of ABC 's Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. In March 2011, Hamilton appeared in a video for the Christian organization I Am Second, telling of her struggle after the shark attack and how she trusted in God to get her through it.
On April 8, 2011, a feature film Soul Surfer, based on her 2004 book, was released in theaters. Hamilton was portrayed by actress AnnaSophia Robb. Hamilton herself performed all the one - armed surfing stunts in it. The movie was released on DVD and Blu - ray on August 2, 2011.
On October 11, 2011, she appeared on the TLC series 19 Kids and Counting, in the episode titled "Duggars Under the Sea, '' when the Duggar family visited her, in Atlanta, Georgia.
Hamilton plays herself in the film Dolphin Tale 2, which revolves around the baby dolphin Hope 's story. Filming began in Clearwater, Florida, on October 7, 2013. It was released on September 12, 2014. Hamilton and her husband, Adam Dirks, competed as a team on the 25th season of The Amazing Race, finishing in third place. Filmed in June 2014, it premiered on September 26 on CBS.
Hamilton was home - schooled from 6th grade and went back to school for high school. Bethany is a Christian. She is the youngest of three siblings. In early 2012, Hamilton met youth minister Adam Dirks through mutual friends. They became engaged in April 2013. The couple were married on August 18, 2013, in front of 300 friends and family members at a secluded 130 - acre estate on Kauai 's north shore, near where she grew up. She and Adam competed on The Amazing Race 25 where they placed in the top 3. In 2015, Hamilton gave birth to a son.
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who did the patriots play in the 2004 super bowl | Super Bowl XXXVIII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XXXVIII was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Carolina Panthers and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2003 season. The Patriots defeated the Panthers by the score of 32 - 29. The game was played at Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas, on February 1, 2004. At the time, this was the most watched Super Bowl ever with 144.4 million viewers.
The Panthers were making their first ever Super Bowl appearance after posting an 11 -- 5 regular season record. They also made it the second straight year that a team from the NFC South division made the Super Bowl, with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers winning Super Bowl XXXVII. The Patriots were seeking their second Super Bowl title in three years after posting a 14 -- 2 record.
NFL fans and sports writers widely consider this game one of the most well - played and thrilling Super Bowls; Sports Illustrated writer Peter King hailed it as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time. '' Although neither team could score in the first and third quarters, they ended up with a combined total of 868 yards and 61 points. The game was scoreless for a Super Bowl record 26: 55 before the two teams combined for 24 points prior to halftime. The clubs then combined for a Super Bowl record 37 points in the fourth quarter. The contest was finally decided when the Patriots kicker Adam Vinatieri 's 41 - yard field goal was made with four seconds left. Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was named Super Bowl MVP for the second time in his career.
The game is also known for its controversial halftime show in which Janet Jackson 's breast, adorned with a nipple shield, was exposed by Justin Timberlake for about half a second, in what was later referred to as a "wardrobe malfunction ''. Along with the rest of the halftime show, it led to an immediate crackdown by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and widespread debate on perceived indecency in broadcasting.
NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXXVIII to Houston during their November 1, 2000 meeting held in Atlanta. This was the first Super Bowl to be played in a stadium with a retractable roof (but it was eventually closed during the game). It also marked the first time in 4 tries that the Patriots played a Super Bowl that was not in New Orleans. This game marked a six - month stretch for Texas hosting the Super Bowl, NCAA men 's Division I basketball Final Four and Major League Baseball (MLB) All - Star Game. The Final Four was played at the Alamodome in San Antonio and the MLB All - Star Game was also played in Houston at nearby Minute Maid Park.
Beginning with this game, all Super Bowl games have been played on the first Sunday in February every year. This is based on the 22 weeks necessary from opening week through Super Bowl Sunday, which includes scheduling no games until after Labor Day, granting a bye week to each team during the sixteen - game season, and granting a bye week to the teams qualifying for the Super Bowl after each wins their respective conference championship game. Consequently, the Super Bowl is currently scheduled no earlier than February 1 and no later than February 7.
This game set the record for most Roman numerals in a Super Bowl title (seven). This will not be matched until Super Bowl LXXVIII after the 2043 NFL season and Super Bowl LXXXVII after the 2052 season, and not surpassed until Super Bowl LXXXVIII after the 2053 season.
The Panthers made their first trip to the Super Bowl after posting a one - win regular season just two years earlier. The franchise was only in their ninth year of existence, joining the league as an expansion team in 1995. In just their second season, they posted a 12 -- 4 regular season record and advanced to the NFC Championship Game, but lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers 30 -- 13 (the Packers coincidentally went on to defeat the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI 35 -- 21). But from 1997 onward, they had just one non-losing season (an 8 -- 8 finish in 1999) until they finally suffered through a franchise worst 1 -- 15 record in 2001, winning only the first game of the regular season against the Minnesota Vikings. After that year, head coach George Seifert was relieved of his duties and replaced by John Fox, former defensive coordinator for the New York Giants who helped lead the Giants to Super Bowl XXXV in 2000.
With John Fox at the helm and the team taking advantage of the free agent market and the salary cap rules, the Panthers improved in 2002, finishing with a 7 -- 9 record. Then in 2003, they recorded an 11 -- 5 record and won the NFC South.
One of the free agents that Carolina signed before the 2003 season was quarterback Jake Delhomme. Delhomme was not picked by any team in the NFL Draft, but later joined the New Orleans Saints as an undrafted free agent in 1998. Delhomme also then played for the NFL Europe 's Frankfurt Galaxy in 1999, and along with Pat Barnes, he was part of the "double - headed quarterback monster '' that led the Galaxy to a World Bowl victory over the Barcelona Dragons.
Although he only played 6 games in his 5 seasons with New Orleans, the Panthers signed Delhomme in 2003 to be the backup to starting quarterback Rodney Peete. However, after the Panthers fell to a 17 -- 0 third quarter deficit in their first game of the season against the Jacksonville Jaguars, gaining only one first down and 36 offensive yards, Fox immediately replaced Peete with Delhomme. Delhomme ended up leading Carolina to a 24 -- 23 comeback victory over the Jaguars.
Delhomme became the team 's starting quarterback for the rest of the season, throwing for 3,219 yards and 19 touchdowns, with 16 interceptions. The team 's main receiving threat was multi-talented third - year wide receiver Steve Smith, who also specialized as a kickoff and punt returner. Smith caught 88 passes for 1,110 yards and 7 touchdowns, rushed for 42 yards, gained 439 yards and another touchdown returning punts, and recorded 309 kickoff return yards. Wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad was also a constant breakaway threat, recording 54 receptions for 837 yards and 3 touchdowns.
However, the Panthers ' strength on offense was their running game, led by running backs Stephen Davis and DeShaun Foster. Davis was the team 's leading rusher with a franchise record 1,444 yards and 8 touchdowns, while Foster rushed for 429 yards and caught 26 passes for 207 yards. Carolina also had running back Rod Smart on their roster, who became widely known for his XFL debut jersey name "He Hate Me '' during that league 's only season in 2001. During 2003, Smart was primarily used as the Panthers ' other kickoff returner, recording 947 yards and one touchdown.
On defense, Carolina 's main strength was their defensive line, anchored by defensive ends Julius Peppers (7 sacks and 3 forced fumbles) and Mike Rucker (12 sacks and 1 interception), and Pro Bowl defensive tackle Kris Jenkins (5 sacks and 1 fumble recovery). The secondary was led by defensive backs Reggie Howard (2 interceptions), Mike Minter (3 interceptions for 100 return yards and 2 touchdowns), Deon Grant (3 interceptions), and Ricky Manning Jr. (3 interceptions for 33 return yards and 1 touchdown).
Despite their victory in Super Bowl XXXVI after the 2001 season, the Patriots stumbled early in the 2002 season, recorded a 9 -- 7 regular season record, and failed to make the playoffs.
Then, New England seemed to implode before the 2003 season ever started. Five days before their opening game against the Buffalo Bills, Pro Bowl safety Lawyer Milloy, one of the Patriots ' defensive leaders, was unexpectedly cut by the team after refusing to restructure his contract. The move devastated many of the New England players, while Milloy immediately signed with the Bills two days later. With the Patriots seemingly in emotional disarray, Buffalo defeated New England, 31 -- 0, with Milloy forcing an interception and recording one sack and five tackles.
However, after a 2 -- 2 start, the Patriots ended up winning their last 12 games (including a mirror 31 -- 0 shutout of the Bills in the final week) to earn a league - best 14 -- 2 record.
Tom Brady, the Super Bowl XXXVI MVP, had become the team 's permanent starter in 2002 after quarterback Drew Bledsoe left the team to lead the Bills. Brady had a solid season in 2003, completing 317 out of 527 (60.2 percent) of his passes for 3,620 yards and 23 touchdowns, with only 12 interceptions. His primary weapon was second year wide receiver Deion Branch, who caught 57 passes for 803 yards. Another key contributor was wide receiver David Givens, who filled in for the injured starter David Patten. Givens recorded 34 receptions for 510 yards and 6 touchdowns. Other weapons in the passing game included veteran wide receiver Troy Brown, who had 40 receptions, 472 yards, 4 touchdowns, and 293 yards returning punts, and tight end Daniel Graham who recorded 28 catches, 409 yards, and 4 touchdowns.
In the backfield, the team 's rushing game was led by running backs Antowain Smith and Kevin Faulk, who carried the ball equally. Smith was the team 's leading rusher with 642 yards and 3 touchdowns, while Faulk rushed for 638 yards and caught 48 passes for 440 yards.
New England 's defense was retooled before the 2003 season when the team signed veteran safety Rodney Harrison as a free agent and traded for defensive lineman Ted Washington. With these additions, the Patriots led the league in fewest passing yards allowed per attempt (5.64), fewest passing touchdowns allowed (11), and most interceptions (29). They also ranked 4th in fewest rushing yards allowed (1,434) and 7th in fewest total yards (4,919).
Washington helped anchor New England 's defensive line, recording 32 tackles and 2 sacks. Pro Bowl defensive tackle Richard Seymour also contributed with 8 sacks. Behind them, the Patriots had 3 outstanding linebackers: Pro Bowl linebacker Willie McGinest (5.5 sacks, 2 fumble recoveries and 1 interception), Mike Vrabel (9.5 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, four forced fumbles, and 2 interceptions), and Tedy Bruschi (131 tackles, 2 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, 3 interceptions, and 2 touchdowns).
Harrison became the veteran leader in the secondary, recording 92 tackles, 3 interceptions, and 3 sacks. Meanwhile, Pro Bowl cornerback Ty Law recorded 6 interceptions, cornerback (and ex-Panthers player) Tyrone Poole had 6 interceptions for 112 return yards and 1 touchdown, and rookie safety Eugene Wilson recorded 4 interceptions. Overall, the secondary combined for 19 interceptions.
The Patriots and Panthers both played against the AFC South and NFC East in the regular season. The Patriots lost to the Washington Redskins 20 -- 17 in Week Four but swept the rest of the NFC East and the entire AFC South; the Patriots shut out Dallas in bitter cold and edged the Giants in the rain while hammering Philly following the infamously erroneous "They hate their coach '' quote from Tom Jackson; the Patriots also edged the Titans, Houston in overtime, and former division rival Indianapolis in shootouts while routing Jacksonville (which, like Carolina, had entered the NFL in 1995) in the regular season, and then edged the Titans and hammered the Colts in the playoffs. The Panthers had less success, going 6 -- 4 against the two divisions, losing to the Titans and Houston while defeating Jacksonville and the Colts, and defeating Washington and the Giants while losing to Philadelphia and Dallas in the regular season, then routing the Cowboys and edging the Eagles in the playoffs.
VS. Jacksonville Jaguars
VS. Philadelphia Eagles
VS. Washington Redskins
VS. Tennessee Titans
VS. New York Giants
VS. Indianapolis Colts
VS. Houston Texans
VS. Dallas Cowboys
Since the Panthers finished with the third best regular season record in the NFC, they had to win three playoff games to reach the Super Bowl. The St. Louis Rams and the Philadelphia Eagles had better regular season records at 12 -- 4, and thus under the playoff format, each would have to win two playoff games to reach the league championship game. Against Carolina 's first opponent, the Dallas Cowboys, Delhomme threw for 273 yards and a touchdown, Davis recorded 104 rushing yards and a touchdown, and kicker John Kasay made 5 field goals, en route to a thorough 29 -- 10 victory.
The Panthers then eliminated the Rams on the road, 29 -- 23 in double overtime. St. Louis built a 6 -- 0 lead early in the second quarter, but Carolina took the lead after Muhammad 's fumble recovery in the end zone. Both teams spent the rest of the second and the third quarter exchanging field goals before Brad Hoover 's 7 - yard rushing touchdown gave the Panthers a 23 -- 12 fourth quarter lead. However, the Rams rallied back with a touchdown, a successful two - point conversion, and a field goal to send the game into overtime. Both teams missed field goals in the first overtime period, but Delhomme threw a 69 - yard touchdown pass to Smith on the first play of the second overtime period to win the game.
The Panthers then went on the road again to eliminate the Eagles in the NFC Championship Game, 14 -- 3. Philadelphia was coming off of a 20 -- 17 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers, that included quarterback Donovan McNabb 's 28 - yard pass to Freddie Mitchell on a famous play known as "4th and 26 ''. This was the third consecutive NFC Championship Game appearance for Philadelphia, and thus they were heavily favored to win. But Carolina 's defense only allowed a field goal and held McNabb to just 10 of 22 completions for 100 yards. Ricky Manning also intercepted McNabb 3 times. Although Carolina 's offense only scored 14 points, it was more than enough for the team to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl with a 14 -- 3 win.
The Panthers became the first No. 3 seed to advance to the Super Bowl since the league expanded to a 12 - team playoff format in 1990. In doing so, they were also the first division winner to advance to the league championship after playing three playoff games. All other instances up to this point where teams advanced to the Super Bowl after playing all three rounds of the playoffs were wild card teams in Super Bowls XV, XX, XXVII, XXXII, XXXIV, and XXXV. Prior to Super Bowl XVII, the Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins both won three playoff games to reach the Super Bowl, but that came during the strike - shortened 1982 season when the regular season was reduced to nine games and the playoffs were expanded to 16 teams, with no teams receiving first - round byes. Since then, there have been six instances of teams advancing to the Super Bowl after playing three playoff games: the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XL as the No. 6 seeded team, the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLI as the No. 3 seed, the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII as the No. 5 seed, the Arizona Cardinals in Super Bowl XLIII as the No. 4 seed, the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV as the No. 6 seed, and again the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLVI as the No. 4 seed. The Colts, Cardinals, and the Giants in 2011, like the Panthers, were division winners in those years (Although in the Colts case, they played the No. 4 seeded New England Patriots in the AFC Championship that year, ensuring at least the second division winner to play three rounds to make it to the Super Bowl.), and all but the Cardinals went on to win it all. The Super Bowl would mark the third game (out of four) of the playoffs in which Carolina scored 29 points.
Meanwhile, the Patriots first defeated the Tennessee Titans, 17 -- 14, in one of the coldest games in NFL history, with temperatures reaching 4 ° F (− 15 ° C). New England jumped to 14 -- 7 lead in the first half with a touchdown pass by Brady and a touchdown run from Smith. However, quarterback Steve McNair 's 11 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Derrick Mason tied the game in the third period. With 4: 06 remaining in the game, Patriots kicker Adam Vinatieri made a 46 - yard field goal to take the lead. New England 's defense later clinched a victory as they stopped the Titans from scoring on fourth down on their last drive of the game.
New England then eliminated the Indianapolis Colts, 24 -- 14, in the AFC Championship Game. The Colts entered the game leading the NFL in passing yards and ranked third in total offensive yards. With quarterback Peyton Manning, wide receiver Marvin Harrison, and running back Edgerrin James, the Colts had scored 79 points in their 2 playoff victories against the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs, including a 38 -- 31 victory over the Chiefs in the first punt-less game in NFL playoff history. However, New England 's defense dominated the Colts, only allowing 14 points, intercepting 4 passes from Manning (3 of them by Ty Law), and forcing a safety. Although New England 's offense only scored one touchdown, Vinatieri scored 5 field goals to make up the difference.
The game was broadcast on television in the United States by CBS, with Greg Gumbel handling the play - by - play duties and color commentator Phil Simms in the broadcast booth. Armen Keteyian and Bonnie Bernstein roamed the sidelines. Jim Nantz hosted all the events with help from his fellow cast members from The NFL Today: Dan Marino, Deion Sanders, and Boomer Esiason. This would be the final Super Bowl game Greg Gumbel would call; as before the 2004 season began, he and Nantz would switch roles; though by the time CBS next aired a Super Bowl; James Brown was brought in as host of The NFL Today while Gumbel had moved to a secondary play - by - play role.
Westwood One carried the game nationwide over terrestrial radio with Marv Albert on play - by - play and Boomer Esiason on color commentary, with Jim Gray hosting the pregame and halftime shows. Locally, Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti called the game for the Patriots and Bill Rosinski and Eugene Robinson served that position for the Panthers.
After the postgame coverage was complete, CBS aired the season premiere for Survivor: All Stars.
Both teams passed on the opportunity for their starters to be introduced individually before the game, a move perpetuated by the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI.
The game was held exactly one year, to the day, after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in Houston, the same city as the Johnson Space Center. Thus, the lost crew of the Columbia was honored in a pregame tribute by singer Josh Groban, performing "You Raise Me Up ''. Also appearing on the field was the crew of STS - 114, the "Return to Flight '' Space Shuttle mission that eventually launched Space Shuttle Discovery on July 26, 2005. Houston - native Beyoncé then sang the national anthem. Aerosmith performed Baby, Please Do n't Go and Dream On as part of the pre-show ceremony.
The coin toss ceremony featured former NFL players and Texas natives Earl Campbell, Ollie Matson, Don Maynard, Y.A. Tittle, Mike Singletary, Gene Upshaw. Tittle tossed the coin.
The NFL logo was painted at midfield for the first time since Super Bowl XXX, and the Super Bowl XXXVIII logo was placed on the 25 - yard lines. From Super Bowls XXXI through XXXVII, the Super Bowl logo was painted at midfield, and the helmets of the teams painted at the 30 - yard lines. From Super Bowl VI through Super Bowl XXX, the NFL logo was painted on the 50 - yard line, except for Super Bowls XXV and XXIX. The Super Bowl XXV logo was painted at midfield and the NFL logo was painted at each 35 - yard line. In Super Bowl XXIX, the NFL 75th Anniversary logo was painted at midfield with the Super Bowl logo at each 30 - yard line.
The most controversial and widely discussed moment of Super Bowl XXXVIII came during halftime. The show was produced by Viacom 's MTV and CBS Sports, and was sponsored by America Online 's TopSpeed software for dial - up Internet service. The show was themed supposedly around MTV 's Choose or Lose vote campaign, however beyond some flag imagery, Jessica Simpson 's declaration that Houston should "Choose to Party! '' and a vague call to action for younger persons to vote in a celebrity montage the first minute of the program and an audio outro about choices, the theme was not called out for the remainder of the show.
After a brief appearance by Simpson, the show began with a joint performance by marching bands the Spirit of Houston, from the University of Houston, and the "Ocean of Soul '' of Texas Southern University. Next, Janet Jackson made her first appearance, singing "All for You ''. Then, P. Diddy, Nelly, and Kid Rock appeared respectively, and performed a mixture of their hits.
After Jackson 's performance of her song "Rhythm Nation '', Justin Timberlake appeared, and he and Jackson sang a duet of Timberlake 's song "Rock Your Body ''. The performance featured many suggestive dance moves by both Timberlake and Jackson. As the song reached the final line, "I 'm gon na have you naked by the end of this song, '' Timberlake pulled off a part of Jackson 's costume, revealing her outer right breast (adorned with a large, sun - shaped nipple shield, a piece of jewelery worn to accentuate the appearance of a nipple piercing). CBS quickly cut to an aerial view of the stadium, however the action was too late to be effective. Many people considered this indecent exposure, and numerous viewers contacted the network to complain, saying it was inappropriate in the context of a football game. This was the most rewatched moment in TiVo history.
Just before the start of the second half, a British streaker, Mark Roberts, ran onto the field disguised as a referee, undressed, and performed a dance wearing only a thong. He was tackled to the ground by Patriots linebacker Matt Chatham and arrested. It is customary for American television to avoid broadcasting such events, but it was later shown on Late Show with David Letterman. He received a $1,000 fine for trespassing.
This game is noted for its unusual scoring pattern between the teams. Nearly ninety percent of the first half and all of the third quarter were scoreless. Twenty - four points were scored in the last three minutes of the first half, and a record 37 points were scored in the fourth quarter.
Most of the first half was a defensive struggle, with neither team able to score until late in the second quarter, despite several early scoring opportunities for New England. After Carolina was forced to punt on their opening drive, Patriots receiver Troy Brown gave his team great field position with a 28 - yard return to the Panthers 47 - yard line. The Patriots subsequently marched to the 9 - yard line, but Carolina kept them out of the end zone and Adam Vinatieri missed a 31 - yard field goal attempt. The Patriots forced Carolina to punt after 3 plays and again got the ball with great field position, receiving Todd Sauerbrun 's 40 - yard punt at the Panthers 49 - yard line. New England then drove to the 31 - yard line, but on third down, linebacker Will Witherspoon tackled Brown for a 10 - yard loss on an end - around play, pushing the Patriots out of field goal range.
Later on, New England drove 57 yards to the Panthers 18 - yard line with 6 minutes left in the second quarter, but once again they failed to score as Carolina kept them out of the end zone and Vinatieri 's 36 - yard field goal attempt was blocked by Panthers defender Shane Burton.
Meanwhile, the Carolina offense was stymied by the New England defense, with quarterback Jake Delhomme completing just one out of his first nine passes, sacked three times, and fumbling once. That fumble occurred 3 plays after Vinatieri 's second missed field goal; Delhomme lost the ball while being sacked by linebacker Mike Vrabel, and Patriots defensive tackle Richard Seymour recovered the ball at the Panthers 20 - yard line; by this point of the game the Panthers had suffered a net loss of nine yards on twenty offensive snaps.
Two plays later, New England faced a third down and 7, but quarterback Tom Brady scrambled 12 yards to the 5 - yard line for a first down. Then wide receiver Deion Branch caught a 5 - yard touchdown pass from Brady on the next play. The play was a play - action fake to Antowain Smith. Carolina 's Dan Morgan bit on the route, causing the touchdown.
Branch 's touchdown came after 26: 55 had elapsed in the game, setting the record for the longest amount of time a Super Bowl remained scoreless. The play also suddenly set off a scoring explosion from both teams for the remainder of the first half.
The Panthers stormed down the field on their ensuing possession, driving 95 yards in 8 plays, and tying the game on a 39 - yard touchdown pass from Delhomme to wide receiver Steve Smith with just 1: 07 left in the half.
The Patriots immediately countered with a 6 - play, 78 - yard scoring drive of their own. Starting from their own 22 - yard line, Brady completed a 12 - yard pass to wide receiver David Givens. Then after throwing an incompletion, Brady completed a long pass to Branch, who caught it at the Panthers 24 - yard line in stride before being tackled at the 14 - yard line for a 52 - yard gain. Three plays later, Givens caught a 5 - yard touchdown from Brady to give New England a 14 -- 7 lead with only 18 seconds left in the half. The Patriots decided to squib kick the ensuing kickoff to prevent a long return, but their plan backfired as Carolina tight end Kris Mangum picked up the ball at his own 35 - yard line and returned it 12 yards to the 47. The Patriots expected a pass play from the Panthers, but instead running back Stephen Davis ran for 21 yards on the next play to set up kicker John Kasay 's 50 - yard field goal as time expired in the half, cutting Carolina 's deficit to 14 -- 10.
The third quarter was scoreless as each team exchanged punts twice. However, with 3: 57 left in the period, the Patriots put together a 71 - yard, 8 - play scoring drive, featuring tight end Daniel Graham 's 33 - yard reception to advance to the Carolina 9 - yard line.
Running back Antowain Smith then capped off the drive with a 2 - yard touchdown run on the second play on the fourth quarter to increase their lead, 21 -- 10. This was the start of another scoring explosion, one that became one of the biggest explosions in Super Bowl history, with both teams scoring a combined 37 points in the last 15 minutes, the most ever in a single quarter of a Super Bowl.
Delhomme started out Carolina 's ensuing drive with a 13 - yard completion to wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad. After committing a false start penalty on the next play, Delhomme completed a pair of passes to Smith for gains of 18 and 22 yards. Running back DeShaun Foster then scored on a 33 - yard touchdown run, cutting the Panthers ' deficit to 21 -- 16 after Delhomme 's 2 - point conversion pass fell incomplete. The Patriots responded on their ensuing possession by driving all the way to Carolina 's 9 - yard line, but the drive ended when Panthers defensive back Reggie Howard intercepted a third down pass from Brady in the end zone. Then on 3rd down from his own 15 - yard line, Delhomme threw for the longest play from scrimmage in Super Bowl history, an 85 - yard touchdown completion to Muhammad. Carolina 's 2 - point conversion attempt failed again, but they took their first lead of the game, 22 -- 21, with 6: 53 remaining. It was the first time in Super Bowl history a team down 10 + points during the 4th quarter had come back to take the lead. Three other times teams have come back to tie the game; the Tennessee Titans against the Rams in Super Bowl XXXIV, the Rams against the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI, and the Patriots against the Falcons in Super Bowl LI.
However, New England retook the lead on their next drive, advancing 68 yards with the aid of a pair of completions from Brady to Givens for gains of 18 and 25 yards. Once again the Patriots were faced with third down and goal, but this time they scored with Brady 's 1 - yard pass to Vrabel, who had lined up in an eligible tight end position. Then on a two - point conversion attempt, running back Kevin Faulk took a direct snap and ran into the end zone to make the score 29 -- 22. Despite amassing over 1,000 combined yards, Faulk 's two - point conversion constituted the only points he scored all season.
The Panthers countered on their next possession. Foster started the drive with a 9 - yard run and a 7 - yard reception. After that, Delhomme completed a 19 - yard pass to Muhammad, followed by a 31 - yard completion to receiver Ricky Proehl. Then Proehl, who caught the fourth quarter game - tying touchdown pass against the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI two years earlier for the St. Louis Rams, finished the drive with a 12 - yard touchdown reception. Kasay 's ensuing extra point tied the game, 29 -- 29, with 1: 08 to play in regulation and it appeared that the game would be the first Super Bowl ever to go into overtime.
However, Kasay kicked the ensuing kickoff out of bounds, giving New England the ball on their own 40 - yard line. Brady led the Patriots offense down the field with a 13 - yard pass to Brown on second down. An offensive pass interference penalty on Brown pushed New England back to their own 43 - yard line, but another 13 - yard reception to Brown and a 4 - yard pass to Graham brought up a critical 3rd down and 3 from the Carolina 40 - yard line. The Panthers defense could not prevent the Patriots from gaining the first down, as Brady completed a 17 - yard pass to Branch. On the next play, Vinatieri kicked a 41 - yard field goal to give New England the lead, 32 -- 29, with four seconds left in the game. Carolina failed on their last chance, as Rod Smart went nowhere on the ensuing kickoff, and the Patriots had won their second Super Bowl in three years. This was the fourth Super Bowl to be decided on a field goal in the final seconds (Super Bowl V was won on a last second kick by the Baltimore Colts ' Jim O'Brien to defeat the Dallas Cowboys, Super Bowl XXV had the Buffalo Bills ' Scott Norwood miss his field goal chance against the New York Giants, and in Super Bowl XXXVI Vinatieri made his to defeat the St. Louis Rams).
at Reliant Stadium, Houston, Texas
The game set a number of marks for offensive production. The two teams combined for 868 yards of total offense, the second - highest total in Super Bowl history. Both starting quarterbacks threw for at least 300 yards for only the second time in Super Bowl history, with Dan Marino and Joe Montana each passing for at least 300 yards in Super Bowl XIX. This was also only the second Super Bowl to feature one 100 - yard receiving performance on each team, with Deion Branch and Muhsin Muhammad each reaching 100 yards. Andre Reed and Michael Irvin first accomplished the feat in Super Bowl XXVII.
The 37 total points scored in the 4th quarter were the most combined points in a 4th quarter in a Super Bowl and the most in any quarter by two teams. Washington 's 35 points in Super Bowl XXII was the previous high for most combined points in a single quarter in a Super Bowl. The fourth quarter was the second in Super Bowl history to have five touchdowns scored in a single quarter, the first being when the Redskins had five in Super Bowl XXII in the second quarter. It was also the first time in Super Bowl history that both teams would score at least two touchdowns in the same quarter.
Delhomme finished the game with 16 completions out of 33 attempts for 323 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions for a passer rating of 113.6. He was seen standing on the field during the Patriots ' post-game celebration; he later commented: "I wanted to catch up to the moment of what it feels like to be on the other side, to be on this side, the losing side. To let it sink in, to hurt, so when we start practice in the fall, the two - a-days and there are days during the season when I 'm tired and I want to go home, but I need to watch that extra film. I want to get back there, but I want to get on the other side of that field. They rope you off, the losing team basically. I just want to get on the other side of that rope. I just wanted to watch and let it sink in and hurt a little bit. When I have a tough day, I 'll just think about that feeling and it will make me dig down just a little deeper. ''
Muhsin Muhammad caught four passes for 140 yards, an average of 35 yards per catch, and a touchdown. Steve Smith caught four passes for 80 yards and a touchdown. He also returned a punt for two yards, and returned a kickoff for 30 yards, giving him 112 total yards. Proehl caught four passes for 71 yards and a touchdown. Proehl joined Jerry Rice as only two players to score touchdowns with two different teams in Super Bowls.
Tom Brady 's 32 completions were the most in Super Bowl history. His 48 attempts were the most for a winning quarterback. His 354 yards passing is now the fifth best total in Super Bowl history. Brady 's passer rating for this game was 100.5. Branch was the top receiver of the game with 10 receptions for 143 yards and a touchdown. Brown caught 8 passes for 76 yards, and returned four punts for 40 yards. Antowain Smith was the top rusher of the game with 83 yards and a touchdown.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXVIII, Super Bowl XXXVIII Play Finder NE, Super Bowl XXXVIII Play Finder Car, USA Today Super Bowl XXXVIII Play by Play
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Source:
Tom Sifferman became the second official to work consecutive Super Bowls on the field. The first was Jim Tunney, the referee for Super Bowls XI and XII.
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what are the countries involved in world war 1 | Participants in World war I - wikipedia
This is a list of countries that participated in World War I, sorted by alphabetical order.
The following table shows the timeline of the several declarations of war among the belligerent powers. Entries on a yellow background show severed diplomatic relations only, not actual declarations of war.
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who is the captain of indian cricket team in test matches | List of India national cricket captains - Wikipedia
The list includes all Indian captains of individual, women 's and youth cricket. India became a full member of the Imperial Cricket Conference (now the International Cricket Council) on 31 May 1926. On 25 June 1932 it became the sixth Test nation after England, Australia, South Africa, the West Indies and New Zealand when they took on England at Lord 's. They played only seven tests, which were all against England, before the Second World War, losing five matches and drawing twice. Their first game against other opposition came in 1947 -- 48 when they played against Sir Donald Bradman 's Invincibles (a name given to the Australia national cricket team of that time).
Where a player has a dagger (†) next to a Test match series in which he captained at least one Test, it denotes that the player deputised for the appointed captain or was appointed for a minor proportion in a series.
This is the list of the 33 cricketers who have captained the Indian cricket team for at least one Test match. So far Mahendra Singh Dhoni is the most successful Indian test captain with 27 wins.
The table of results is complete as of 6 August 2017.
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian cricket team for at least one One Day International.
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 24 September 2017.
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian cricket team for at least one Twenty 20 International.
Where a player has a dagger (†) next to a Test match series in which she captained at least one Test, it denotes that the player deputised for the appointed captain or was appointed for a minor proportion in a series.
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian women 's cricket team for at least one women 's Test match.
The table of results is updated as 11 September 2014.
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian women 's cricket team for at least one women 's one - day international. The World Cup Final appearance against Australia in 2004 / 5 represents India 's best performance in a Women 's World Cup.
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian women 's cricket team for at least one Twenty 20 International.
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian Under - 19 cricket team for at least one under - 19 Test match. The very nature of Under - 19 cricket means that in practice no youth captains the side for more than one year. Four men, Srikkanth, Shastri, Dravid and Virat have gone on to captain the senior side.
The table of results is complete as of August 2014. * mark has been added after the names of players who went on to represent India in at least one men 's international match (Test match or ODI match).
This is a list of cricketers who have captained the Indian U-19 cricket team for at least one Under - 19 One Day International. India 's first great success in Under - 19 ODI cricket was in 1999 / 2000, when they won the Under - 19 World Cup under the captaincy of Mohammad Kaif. The feat was repeated in 2008 / 9 and 2012 under the captaincy of Virat Kohli and Unmukt Chand.
The table of results is complete as of 16 August 2014. * mark has been added after the names of players who went on to represent India in at least one men 's international match (Test match, ODI or T20 match).
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who played mr doolittle in my fair lady | My Fair Lady (film) - wikipedia
My Fair Lady is a 1964 American musical film adapted from the Lerner and Loewe eponymous stage musical based on the 1913 stage play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. With a screenplay by Alan Jay Lerner and directed by George Cukor, the film depicts a poor Cockney flower seller named Eliza Doolittle who overhears an arrogant phonetics professor, Henry Higgins, as he casually wagers that he could teach her to speak "proper '' English, thereby making her presentable in the high society of Edwardian London.
The film stars Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison as Eliza Doolittle and Henry Higgins respectively, with Stanley Holloway, Gladys Cooper and Wilfrid Hyde - White in supporting roles. A critical and commercial success, it won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Director. In 1998, the American Film Institute named it the 91st greatest American film of all time.
In Edwardian London, Professor Henry Higgins (Rex Harrison), a scholar of phonetics, believes that the accent and tone of one 's voice determines a person 's prospects in society. In Covent Garden one evening, he boasts to a new acquaintance, Colonel Hugh Pickering (Wilfrid Hyde - White), himself an expert in phonetics, that he could teach any person to speak in a way that he could pass them off as a duke or duchess at an embassy ball. Higgins selects as an example a young flower seller, Eliza Doolittle (Audrey Hepburn), who has a strong Cockney accent. Eliza 's ambition is to work in a flower shop, but her thick accent makes her unsuitable. Having come from India to meet Higgins, Pickering is invited to stay with the professor. The following morning, Eliza shows up at Higgins ' home, seeking lessons. Pickering is intrigued and offers to cover all expenses, should the experiment be successful.
Eliza 's father, Alfred P. Doolittle (Stanley Holloway), a dustman, shows up three days later, ostensibly to protect his daughter 's virtue, but in reality simply to extract some money from Higgins, and is bought off with £ 5. Higgins is impressed by the man 's honesty, his natural gift for language, and especially his brazen lack of morals. Higgins recommends Alfred to a wealthy American who is interested in morality. Eliza goes through many forms of speech training, such as speaking with marbles in her mouth, enduring Higgins ' harsh approach to teaching and his treatment of her personally. She makes little progress, but just as she, Higgins, and Pickering are about to give up, Eliza finally "gets it ''; she instantly begins to speak with an impeccable upper class accent.
As a test, Higgins takes her to Ascot Racecourse, where she makes a good impression initially, only to shock everyone by a sudden lapse into vulgar Cockney while cheering on a horse. Higgins, who dislikes the pretentiousness of the upper class, partly conceals a grin behind his hand. He next has Eliza pose as a mysterious lady at an embassy ball where she dances with a foreign prince. At the ball is Zoltan Karpathy (Theodore Bikel), a Hungarian phonetics expert trained by Higgins. After a brief conversation with Eliza, he certifies that she is not only Hungarian, but of royal blood, declaring her to be a Princess.
After all the effort she has put in, however, Eliza 's actions are barely acknowledged, with all the praise going to Higgins. This, and his callous treatment towards her afterwards, especially his indifference to her future, causes her to throw Higgins ' slippers at him, and to walk out on him, leaving him mystified by her ingratitude. Accompanied by Freddy Eynsford - Hill (Jeremy Brett), a young man she met at Ascot and who is charmed by her, Eliza makes an attempt to return to her old life, but finds that she no longer fits in. She meets her father, who has been left a large fortune by the wealthy American to whom Higgins had recommended him, and is resigned to marrying Eliza 's stepmother. Alfred feels that Higgins has ruined him, since he is now bound by morals and responsibility. Eliza kindly refuses an invitation to the wedding and eventually ends up visiting Higgins ' mother (Gladys Cooper), who is outraged at her son 's behaviour.
The next day, Higgins finds Eliza gone and searches for her, eventually finding her at his mother 's house. Higgins attempts to talk Eliza into coming back to him. He becomes angered when Eliza announces that she is going to marry Freddy and become Karpathy 's assistant. He makes his way home, stubbornly predicting that she will come crawling back. However, he comes to the realization that he has "grown accustomed to her face. '' Henry returns to his study to lament his loneliness. As he listens to Eliza 's recorded voice, she reappears in the doorway behind him, turning off the recording and saying in her old Cockney accent, "I washed my hands and face before I come I did. '' Higgins looks surprised then pleased before asking for his slippers once more as Eliza smiles on behind him, leaving the audience to decide what happens next.
Uncredited Cast
The head of CBS, William S. Paley, put up the money for the original Broadway production in exchange for the rights to the cast album (through Columbia Records). When Warner bought the film rights in February 1962 for the then - unprecedented sum of $5 million, it was agreed that the rights to the film would revert to CBS seven years following release.
The order of the songs in the show was followed faithfully, except for "With a Little Bit of Luck ''. The song is listed as being the third musical number in the play; in the film it is the fourth. Onstage, the song is split into two parts sung in two different scenes. Part of the song is sung by Doolittle and his cronies just after Eliza gives him part of her earnings, immediately before she makes the decision to go to Higgins 's house to ask for speech lessons. The second half of the song is sung by Doolittle just after he discovers that Eliza is now living with Higgins. In the film, the entire song is sung in one scene that takes place just after Higgins has sung "I 'm an Ordinary Man ''. However, the song does have a dialogue scene (Doolittle 's conversation with Eliza 's landlady) between verses.
The instrumental "Busker Sequence '', which opens the play immediately after the Overture, is the only musical number from the play omitted in the film version. However, there are several measures from this piece that can be heard as we see Eliza in the rain, making her way through the cars and carriages in Covent Garden.
All of the songs in the film were performed near complete; however, there were some verse omissions, as there sometimes are in film versions of Broadway musicals. For example, in the song "With a Little Bit of Luck '', the verse "He does not have a Tuppence in his pocket '', which was sung with a chorus, was omitted, due to space and its length. The original verse in "Show Me '' was used instead.
The stanzas of "You Did It '' that came after Higgins says "she is a Princess '' were originally written for the Broadway version, but Harrison hated the lyrics, and refused to perform the song unless and until those lyrics were omitted, which they were in most Broadway versions. However, Cukor insisted that the omitted lyrics be restored for the film version or he would not direct at all, causing Harrison to oblige. The omitted lyrics end with the words "Hungarian Rhapsody '' followed by the servants shouting "Bravo '' three times, to the strains of Liszt 's "Hungarian Rhapsody '' before the servants sing "Congratulations, Professor Higgins ''.
Hepburn 's singing was judged inadequate, and she was dubbed by Marni Nixon, who sang all songs except "Just You Wait '', where Hepburn 's voice was left undubbed during the harsh - toned chorus of the song and Nixon sang the melodic bridge section. Some of Hepburn 's original vocal performances for the film were released in the 1990s, affording audiences an opportunity to judge whether the dubbing was necessary. Less well known is the dubbing of Jeremy Brett 's songs (as Freddy) by Bill Shirley.
Harrison declined to pre-record his musical numbers for the film, explaining that he had never talked his way through the songs the same way twice and thus could not convincingly lip - sync to a playback during filming (as musical stars had, according to Jack L. Warner, been doing for years. "We even dubbed Rin - Tin - Tin ''). George Groves decided to use a wireless microphone, the first such use during filming of a motion picture. The sound department earned an Academy Award for its efforts.
One of the few differences in structure between the stage version and the film is the placement of the intermission. In the stage play, the intermission comes after the embassy ball where Eliza dances with Karpathy. In the film, the intermission comes before the ball, as Eliza, Higgins, and Pickering are seen departing for the embassy.
Gene Allen, Cecil Beaton, and George James Hopkins won an Academy Award for Best Production Design for art direction of the film. Beaton 's inspiration for the library in Higgins ' home, where much of the action takes place, was a room at the Château de Groussay, Montfort - l'Amaury, in France, which had been decorated opulently by its owner Carlos de Beistegui. Hats were created by Parisian milliner Paulette at Beaton 's request.
All tracks played by the Warner Bros. Studio Orchestra conducted by André Previn. Between brackets the singers.
With a production budget of $17 million, My Fair Lady was the most expensive film shot in the United States up to that time. The film was re-released in 1971 and earned North American rentals of $2 million. It was re-released again in 1994 after a thorough restoration.
My Fair Lady currently holds a 96 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The consensus states: "George Cukor 's elegant, colorful adaptation of the beloved stage play is elevated to new heights thanks to winning performances by Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison. '' Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four, and, in 2006, he put it on his "Great Movies '' list, praising Hepburn 's performance, and calling the film "the best and most unlikely of musicals. ''
My Fair Lady won eight Oscars:
My Fair Lady won three Golden Globes:
The film was restored in 1994 by James C. Katz and Robert A. Harris, who had restored Spartacus three years earlier. The restoration was commissioned and financed by CBS, to which the film rights reverted from Warner Bros. in 1971. CBS would later hire Harris to lend his expertise to a new 4K restoration of the film for a 2015 Blu - ray release, working from 8K scans of the original camera negative and other surviving 65mm elements.
A new film of the musical was planned in 2008 with a screenplay by Emma Thompson but the project did not materialize. Keira Knightley, Carey Mulligan, and Colin Firth were among those in consideration for the lead roles.
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legal aid and it's relevance in manipur | Legal aid - Wikipedia
Legal aid is the provision of assistance to people otherwise unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system. Legal aid is regarded as central in providing access to justice by ensuring equality before the law, the right to counsel and the right to a fair trial. This article describes the development of legal aid and its principles, primarily as known in Europe, the Commonwealth of Nations and the United States.
A number of delivery models for legal aid have emerged, including duty lawyers, community legal clinics and the payment of lawyers to deal with cases for individuals who are entitled to legal aid.
Legal aid is essential to guaranteeing equal access to justice for all, as provided for by Article 6.3 of the European Convention on Human Rights regarding criminal law cases. Especially for citizens who do not have sufficient financial means, the provision of legal aid to clients by governments will increase the likelihood, within court proceedings, of being assisted by legal professionals for free (or at a lower cost) or of receiving financial aid.
Legal aid has a close relationship with the welfare state, and the provision of legal aid by a state is influenced by attitudes towards welfare. Legal aid is a welfare provision by the state to people who could otherwise not afford counsel from the legal system. Legal aid also helps to ensure that welfare provisions are enforced by providing people entitled to welfare provisions, such as social housing, with access to legal advice and the courts.
Historically, legal aid has played a strong role in ensuring respect for economic, social and cultural rights which are engaged in relation to social security, housing, social care, health and education service provision, which may be provided publicly or privately, as well as employment law and anti-discrimination legislation. Jurists such as Mauro Cappelletti argue that legal aid is essential in providing individuals with access to justice, by allowing the individual legal enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights. His views developed in the second half of the 20th century, when democracies with capitalist economies established liberal welfare states that focused on the individual. States acted as contractors and service providers within a market - based philosophy that emphasised the citizen as consumer. This led to an emphasis on individual enforcement to achieve the realisation of rights for all.
Prior to the mid-20th century, literature on legal aid emphasised collective enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights. As classic welfare states were built in the 1940s and following World War II, an underlying principle was that citizens had collective responsibility for economic, social and cultural rights; and the state assumed responsibility for those unable to provide for themselves through illness and unemployment. The enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights was to be collective, through policies rather than individual legal action. Laws were enacted to support welfare provisions, though these were regarded as laws for planners, not lawyers. Legal aid schemes were established, as it was assumed that the state had a responsibility to assist those engaged in legal disputes, but they initially focused primarily on family law and divorce.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the role of the welfare state changed, and social goals were no longer assumed to be common goals. Individuals were free to pursue their own goals. The welfare state in this time expanded, along with legal aid provisions, as concerns emerged over the power of welfare providers and professionals. In the 1960s and 1970s, demand rose for the right of individuals to legally enforce economic, social and cultural rights and the welfare provisions they as individuals were entitled to. Mechanisms emerged through which citizens could legally enforce their economic, social and cultural rights, and welfare lawyers used legal aid to advise those on low income when dealing with state officials. Legal aid was extended from family law to a wide range of economic, social and cultural rights.
In the 1980s, the role of the classic welfare state was no longer regarded as necessarily positive, and welfare was increasingly provided by private entities. Legal aid was increasingly provided through private providers, but they remained focused on providing assistance in court cases. Citizens were increasingly regarded as consumers, who should be able to choose among services. Where it was not possible to provide such a choice, citizens were given the right to voice their dissatisfaction through administrative complaints processes. This resulted in tension, as legal aid was not designed to offer advice to those seeking redress through administrative complaints processes. Tensions also began to emerge as states which emphasised individual enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights, rather than collective enforcement through polices, reduced funding for legal aid as a welfare state provision. Individual enforcement of welfare entitlement requires the kind of legal aid funding states emphasising collective enforcement were more likely to provide.
Historically legal aid has its roots in the right to counsel and right to a fair trial movement of the 19th - century continental European countries. "Poor man 's laws '' waived court fees for the poor and provided for the appointment of duty solicitors for those who could not afford to pay for a solicitor. Initially the expectation was that duty solicitors would act on a pro bono basis. In the early 20th century, many European countries had no formal approach to legal aid, and the poor relied on the charity of lawyers. Most countries went on to establish laws that provided for the payment of a moderate fee to duty solicitors. To curb demand, legal aid was restricted to lawyer costs in judicial proceedings requiring a lawyer. Countries with a civil law legal system and common law legal systems take different approaches to the right to counsel in civil and criminal proceedings. Civil law countries are more likely to emphasise the right to counsel in civil law proceedings, and therefore provide legal aid where a lawyer is required. Common law countries emphasise the right to counsel and provide legal aid primarily in relation to criminal law proceedings.
In response to rapid industrialisation in the late 19th - century Europe, trade union and workers ' parties emerged that challenged the social policies of governments. They gained passage of laws to provide workers with legal rights in the event of illness or accidents, in an attempt to prevent industrial action by industrial workers. Workers unions in turn started to provide workers with legal advice on their new economic, social and cultural rights. Demand for these services was high and in an attempt to provide workers with non-partisan advice, many governments started to provide legal aid by the early 20th century.
In the 20th century, legal aid has developed together with progressive principles; it has often been supported by those members of the legal profession who felt that it was their responsibility to care for those on low income. Legal aid is driven by what lawyers can offer to meet the "legal needs '' of those they have identified as poor, marginalised or discriminated against. According to Francis Regan, legal aid provision is supply driven, not demand driven, leading to wide gaps between provisions that meet perceived needs and actual demand. Legal service initiatives, such as neighbourhood mediation and legal services, frequently have to close due to lack of demand, while others are overwhelmed with clients.
Australia has a federal system of government comprising federal, state and territory jurisdictions. The Australian (Commonwealth) and state and territory governments are each responsible for the provision of legal aid for matters arising under their laws. In addition there is a network of approximately 200 independent, not for profit, Community Legal Centres.
Legal aid for both Commonwealth and state matters is primarily delivered through state and territory legal aid commissions (LACs), which are independent statutory agencies established under state and territory legislation. The Australian Government funds the provision of legal aid for Commonwealth family, civil and criminal law matters under agreements with state and territory governments and LACs. The majority of Commonwealth matters fall within the family law jurisdiction.
Legal aid commissions use a mixed model to deliver legal representation services. A grant of assistance legal representation may be assigned to either a salaried in - house lawyer or referred to a private legal practitioner. The mixed model is particularly advantageous for providing services to clients in regional areas and in cases where a conflict of interest means the same lawyer can not represent both parties.
The Australian Government and most state and territory governments also fund community legal centres, which are independent, non-profit organisations which provide referral, advice and assistance to people with legal problems. Additionally, the Australian Government funds financial assistance for legal services under certain statutory schemes and legal services for Indigenous Australians.
By way of history, the Australian Government established the Legal Services Bureaux in 1942 to develop a national system. In 1973 the Attorney - General in the Whitlam Labor government, Lionel Murphy, established the Australian Legal Aid Office. Murphy recognised the urgent need for legal aid in order for justice to be equally available for all. Murphy recognised that: "one of the basic causes of the inequality of citizens before the laws is the absence of adequate and comprehensive legal aid arrangements throughout Australia... The ultimate object of the Government is that legal aid be readily and equally available to citizens everywhere in Australia and that aid be extended for advice and assistance of litigation as well as for litigation in all legal categories and in all courts. '' (Senator the Hon Lionel Murphy AO QC, Attorney General) The establishment of the Australian Legal Aid Office in 1973 was followed by the establishment of state - based Legal Aid Commissions. These offices now provide the majority of free or lowcost legal assistance to those in need. In 1977, the Australian Government enacted the Commonwealth Legal Aid Commission Act 1977 (LAC Act), which established cooperative arrangements between the Australian Government and state and territory governments, under which legal aid would be provided by independent legal aid commissions to be established under state and territory legislation. The process of establishing the LACs took more than a decade. It commenced in 1976 with the establishment of the Legal Aid Commission of Western Australia, followed in 1978 the Legal Aid Commission of Victoria (LACV), and ended in 1990 with the establishment of the Legal Aid Commission of Tasmania. The cooperative arrangements that were established by the LAC Act provided for Commonwealth and state and territory legal aid funding agreements, which began in 1987.
In July 1997, the Australian Government changed its arrangements to directly fund legal aid services for Commonwealth law matters. Under this arrangement, the states and territories fund assistance in respect of their own laws. In 2013, a murder trial in the Supreme Court of Victoria was delayed because legal aid was unavailable. This has been cited as the effect of a reduction in government - funding for legal aid agencies in Australia and led to an increase in popularity for online legal aid resources such as the Law Handbook and LawAnswers.
Legal aid in Australia was discussed in the case of Dietrich v The Queen (1992). It was found that although there is no absolute right to have publicly funded counsel, in most circumstances a judge should grant any request for an adjournment or stay when an accused is unrepresented.
The legal aid system in New Zealand provides Government - funded legal assistance to those who are unable to afford a lawyer. Legal aid is available for almost all court actions across all levels of the court system. This includes criminal charges, civil issues, family disputes, appeals and Waitangi Tribunal claims.
In Canada, the modern system of legal aid developed after the federal government instituted a system of cost - sharing between the federal and provincial governments in the early 1970s. The federal financial contribution was originally set at 50 % of the cost of the legal aid system, but that level of funding has fluctuated over the years.
The actual delivery of legal aid is by the provincial level of government, as part of provincial jurisdiction over the administration of justice. For example, Legal Aid Ontario provides legal services for residents of Ontario, the Legal Services Society provides it to residents of British Columbia, and Commission des Services Juridiques does the same in the province of Quebec.
Article 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union provides that legal aid will be made available to those who lack sufficient resources, in so far as such aid is necessary to ensure effective access to justice.
According to PILnet: the Global Network for Public Interest Law,
for over a decade, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and Russia have been in the process of reforming and restructuring their legal systems. While many critical justice sector reforms have been undertaken throughout the region, the mechanisms to ensure individuals ' access to legal information and assistance often remain inadequate and ineffective. Consequently, many people -- especially those who are poor or otherwise disadvantaged -- are left without any real access to legal counsel in both criminal and non-criminal matters.
In the Czech Republic, qualifying persons (usually those who evidence inadequacy of funds) can apply to the courts or the Czech Bar Association to have an attorney appointed to them.
In Denmark, applicants must satisfy the following criteria to receive legal aid for civil cases: The applicant must not earn more than kr. 289,000 ($50,000) a year and the claims of the party must seem reasonable. In respect to criminal cases, the convicted will only have to cover the costs if he or she has a considerable fixed income - this is to prevent recidivism.
Legal aid was originally established by the Legal Aid and Advice Act 1949. In 2009, legal aid in England and Wales cost the taxpayer £ 2bn a year -- a higher per capita spend than anywhere else in the world -- and was available to around 29 % of adults.
Legal aid in England and Wales is administered by the Legal Aid Agency (until 31 March 2013 by the Legal Services Commission), and is available for most criminal cases, and many types of civil cases. Exception include libel, most personal injury cases (which are now dealt with under Conditional Fee Agreements, a species of contingent fee), and cases associated with the running of a business. Family cases are also sometimes covered. Depending on the type of case, legal aid may or may not be means tested and in some cases legal aid can be free to those on benefits, out of work and have no savings or assets.
In July 2004 the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the lack of legal aid in defamation cases, which was the position under the Legal Aid Act 1988, applicable at the time of the McLibel case, could violate a defendant 's right. The Access to Justice Act 1999 has exceptional funding provisions, which allow the Lord Chancellor to authorise legal aid funding in cases which are otherwise out of scope of the legal aid scheme. A defendant in a position similar to the McLibel defendants could potentially have legal aid assistance if the application met the exceptional funding criteria.
Criminal legal aid is generally provided through private firms of solicitors and barristers in private practice. A limited number of public defenders are directly employed by the Legal Aid Agency in Public Defender Service offices; they provide advice in police stations and advocacy in magistrates and crown courts. Civil legal aid is provided through solicitors and barristers in private practice but also by lawyers working in Law Centres and not - for - profit advice agencies.
The provision of legal aid is governed by the Access to Justice Act 1999 and supplementary legislation, most recently the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012. There are complaints cuts to legal aid have prevented the poorest people getting justice.
In civil cases including employment, administrative, constitutional and social cases, assistance under the Legal Advice Scheme Act (advice and, where necessary, representation) is given. In criminal cases, the defendant has a right to counsel, and in certain cases when the penalty is at least one year of confinement, the defendant can be given counsel even against his or her wishes.
Known as Patrocinio a spese dello Stato, legal aid is provided by the Italian Law DPR n. 115 / 2002 - Articles. 74 - 141. It is intended to implement Article 24 of the Italian Constitution and ensure access to the right of defense (in civil, administrative and criminal cases) to persons not able to independently obtain the services of a lawyer due to the inability to pay for them from their income (less than € 10.776, 33 per capita).
The Constitution of the Italian Republic, Clause 24 states:
Everyone is allowed to take legal action for the protection of her / his rights and legitimate interests. Defence is an inviolable right at any grade of the proceedings. The means of action and defence before all Courts are guaranteed to the indigent by public institutions. The law determines the conditions and legal means to remedy miscarriages of justice.
Legal aid in Italy is a service to allow everyone to be assisted by a lawyer or by an expert witness free of any legal fees or costs in all criminal, civil, administrative, accounting or fiscal proceeding and "voluntary jurisdiction '' and whenever the presence of a lawyer or expert witness is required by law. Legal aid is granted for all grades or stages of the trial, including all further connected incidental and contingent proceedings. It is granted before Tribunals, Courts of Appeal, the Supreme Court, surveillance courts and judges, Regional Administrative Tribunals, Judicial Review Committees, Provincial and Regional Fiscal Commissions and the State Auditors ' Court.
Legal aid is in principle available for all civil actions in the Court of Session and Sheriff Court in Scotland, with the significant exception of actions of defamation. It is also available for some statutory tribunals, such as the Immigration Appeal Adjudicator and the Social Security Commissioners. There is a separate system of criminal legal aid, and legal aid is also available for legal advice.
Legal aid is means - tested. In practice it is available only to less than one - quarter of the population. It is administered by the Scottish Legal Aid Board. Legal Aid in Scotland is also available in Criminal Cases, where more than 90 % of Summary applications are granted. An Interests of Justice test is applied, as well as a means test. In Solemn case (Jury Trials) the Court assesses Legal Aid.
A unitary jurisdiction, Hong Kong provides legal aid solely provided through the Legal Aid Department, which is in turn overseen by the Legal Aid Services Council.
Administratively the Legal Aid Department was under the Administration Wing of the Chief Secretary 's Office. In 2007 it was moved to the Home Affairs Bureau, which chiefly oversees cultural matters and local administration. This was heavily criticised by the opposition pro-democracy camp for jeopardising neutrality of the provision of legal aid. They voted en bloc against the whole package of reorganisation of policy bureaus, of which the transfer of the Legal Aid Department was part.
Article 39A of the Constitution of India, provides for equal justice and free legal aid:
The State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice, on a basis of equal opportunity, and shall, in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities.
This Article emphasises that free legal service is an inalienable element of ' reasonable, fair and just ' procedure, for without it a person suffering from economic or other disabilities would be deprived of the opportunity for securing justice.
In the civil side, Order XXXIII. R. 18 of the Code of Civil Procedure 1908 provided that the state and central governments may make supplementary provisions as it thinks fit for providing free legal services to those who have been permitted to sue as an indigent person. The Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 made drastic changes in the field of legal services. It is an Act to constitute legal services authorities to provide free and competent legal services to the weaker sections of the society to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities, and to organize Lok Adalats to secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity.
A number of delivery models for legal aid have emerged. The Legal Services Corporation was authorized at the federal level to oversee these programs. In a "staff attorney '' model, lawyers are employed by levels of government on salary solely to provide legal assistance to qualifying low - income clients, similar to staff doctors in a public hospital. In a "judicare '' model, private lawyers and law firms are paid to handle cases from eligible clients alongside cases from fee - paying clients, much like doctors are paid to handle Medicare patients in the U.S. The "community legal clinic '' model comprises non-profit clinics serving a particular community through a broad range of legal services (e.g. representation, education, law reform) and provided by both lawyers and non-lawyers, similar to community health clinics.
Defendants under criminal prosecution who can not afford to hire an attorney are not only guaranteed legal aid related to the charges, but they are guaranteed legal representation, either in the form of public defenders, or in absence of provisions for such or due to case overloads, a court - appointed attorney.
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when does it start to snow in nova scotia | Climate of Nova Scotia - wikipedia
Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone and, although the province is almost surrounded by water, the climate is closer to continental rather than maritime. The temperature extremes of the continental climate are moderated by the ocean.
Nova Scotia has frequent coastal fog and marked changeability of weather from day to day. The main factors influencing Nova Scotia 's climate are:
Described on the provincial vehicle - licence plate as Canada 's Ocean Playground, the sea is a major influence on Nova Scotia 's climate. Nova Scotia 's cold winters and warm summers are modified and generally moderated by ocean influences. The province is surrounded by four major bodies of water, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the north, the Bay of Fundy to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southwest, and Atlantic Ocean to the southeast.
Temperature varies marginally from one end of the province to the other, and more notably in terms of precipitation, as illustrated by the following graphs. They show Yarmouth, Halifax and Sydney representing the southwestern, central and northeastern extremes, respectively. Temperatures at the southern end of the province are moderated by oceanic (Gulf Stream) currents, whereas the northern end is influenced by the colder waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Though milder, and with less winter precipitation, the southeastern end has more fog.
In 1990, While the constant temperature of the Atlantic Ocean moderates the climate of the south and east coasts of Nova Scotia, heavy ice build - up in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence makes winters colder in northern Nova Scotia; the shallowness of the Gulf 's waters mean that they warm up more than the Atlantic Ocean in the summer, warming the summers in northern Nova Scotia. Summer unofficially lasts from the first Sunday in April to the Saturday before the last Sunday in October. Although Nova Scotia has a somewhat moderated climate, there have been some very intense heatwaves and cold snaps recorded over the past 160 years. The highest temperature ever recorded in the province was 38.3 ° C (101 ° F) on August 19, 1935, at Collegeville, which is located about 15 km southwest of Antigonish. The coldest temperature ever recorded was − 41.1 ° C (− 42 ° F) on January 31, 1920, at Upper Stewiacke.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Halifax was 37.2 ° C (99 ° F) on July 10, 1912, and the lowest was − 29.4 ° C (− 21 ° F) on Feb 18, 1922. For Sydney, the highest temperature ever recorded was 36.7 ° C (98 ° F) on August 18, 1935, and the lowest was − 31.7 ° C (− 25 ° F) on January 31, 1873, and January 29, 1877.
The annual temperatures are:
Due to the ocean 's moderating effect, Nova Scotia, on average, is the warmest of the provinces in Canada, owing primarily to the milder winter temperatures experienced in Nova Scotia compared to the rest of Canada.
All of Nova Scotia has precipitation well distributed around the year, with a slight summer maximum in some northern / interior areas, but a slight fall to early winter (October to January) maximum in southern and coastal areas, where July or August is the driest month on average. Fall and winter storms, arriving in or near Nova Scotia from the U.S. Northeastern and New England states (called "nor'easters '' in the US), often attain tremendous intensity across coastal areas, resulting in high winds, heavy rain, ice or snow and sometimes all of the above in a single storm. Average annual precipitation changes from 140 centimetres (55 in) in the south with its intense cold - season storm activity, to 100 centimetres (40 in) elsewhere. In the northeast, Sydney is an especially wet area, with an average annual precipitation of nearly 60 inches, with a noticeable fall to early winter (October to January) concentration, and December the wettest month on average. Nova Scotia is also very foggy in places, with Halifax averaging 196 foggy days per year and Yarmouth 191.
Because Nova Scotia juts out into the Atlantic, it is prone to intense cold - season storms ("nor'easters '' - primarily November to March) arriving from the Northeastern United States, and occasional tropical storms and hurricanes in late summer and autumn. However due to the relatively cooler waters off the coast of Nova Scotia, tropical storms are usually weak by the time they reach Nova Scotia. Even where a storm retains much of its strength, as with Hurricane Arthur, it is most often extratropical by the time it makes landfall on Nova Scotia.
Altogether there have been 33 such storms, including 12 hurricanes, since records were kept in 1871 -- about once every four years. In addition, at least two of these hurricanes (Juan and Ginny) made landfall at Category 2 intensity (there are no recorded Category 3 landfalls). The last hurricane was category - one Hurricane Earl in September 2010, and the last tropical storm was Tropical Storm Noel in 2007 (downgraded from Hurricane Noel by the time the storm reached Nova Scotia). The most destructive hurricane was Hurricane Juan in 2003.
Very high winds are frequently experienced in Grand Étang in northern Nova Scotia, which result from the effect of low mountains on southwesterly winds. They are known as Suetes.
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when did the industrial revolution in america start and end | Industrial Revolution - wikipedia
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system.
Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological innovations were British. By the mid-18th century Britain controlled a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa, and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per - capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.
The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.
An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These new innovations included new steel making processes, the large - scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam - powered factories.
The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution '' seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis - Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise. In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for "Industry '': "The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the (19th) century. '' The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme - Adolphe Blanqui 's description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society ''. However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.
Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians.
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies:
The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6 % in 1760, 17 % in 1801 and 22.4 % in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1 % in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760 approximately one - third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two - thirds by 1800. In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800 less than 0.1 % of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years.
Wages in Lancashire, a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about one - sixth those in India in 1770, when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India.
Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle - East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange. In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality.
The Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century. Following the opening of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (abbr. VOC) or Dutch East India Company and the British founded the East India Company, along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid 1760s cloth was over three - quarters of the East India Company 's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century.
By 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The Moors in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century.
British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India 's labor cost was approximately one - fifth that of Britain 's. In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.
The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian, a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft. Flax was used for the warp because wheel - spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100 % cotton and was more difficult to sew.
On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting - out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting - out system, home - based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers ' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver. The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay, with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John 's son, Robert, invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors.
Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer - and - bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743 a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt 's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis 's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.
In 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles. The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting. It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £ 6 for a 40 - spindle model in 1792, and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft, not warp.
The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright. For each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre, which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather - covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100 % cotton cloth to be made in Britain. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name.
Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule was introduced in 1779. Mule implies "hybrid '' because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating. Crompton 's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities.
Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two - man operated loom which was more conventional. Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers. Cartwright 's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock 's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co.
The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin. With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day.
These advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs, of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power -- first horse power and then water power -- which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery. Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories.
Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand woven Indian cloth, in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high tread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low - wage India, eventually destroying the industry.
The earliest attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant, but was far less that that of cotton.
Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe 's water - powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, since the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Although Lombe 's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe 's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London.
A major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, and coal was more abundant than wood.
In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and to a lesser degree coke produced inferior iron than charcoal because the impurities in coal, at least until solutions to contamination were developed. Use of coal in smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different (and later) innovation.)
This was followed by Abraham Darby, who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke pig iron he made was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron in forges until the mid-1750s, when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron. Since cast iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it began being a structural material following the building of the innovative Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III.
Wrought iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges, as it long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The first is referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was superseded by Henry Cort 's puddling process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784. Rolling replaced hammering for consolidating wrought iron and expelling some of the dross. Rolling was 15 times faster than hammering with a trip hammer. Roller mills were first used for making sheets, but later were developed for rolling structural shapes such as angles and rails.
Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost. Puddling was a means of decarburizing pig iron by slow oxidation as the iron was manually stirred using a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob was large enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40. Puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, allowing coal or coke to be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised.
Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally from Sweden from the mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased because of the new iron making technology, and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods.
Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one - third using coal or two - thirds using coke; however, the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved. Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive; however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably.
Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process.
The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and other hardware items. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.
The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp.
The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low - lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its "brand name '', The Miner 's Friend). Savery 's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century.
The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt. With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder, thereby making the low - pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20 -- 25 % as much coal per horsepower - hour as Newcomen 's. Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795.
By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double - acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt 's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (3.7 to 7.5 kW).
Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine - house, but soon various patterns of self - contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher - pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.
The development of machine tools, such as the engine lathe, planing, milling and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century. These included crank - powered, treadle - powered and horse - powered workshop and light industrial machinery.
Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen -- millwrights built water and wind mills, carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners.
The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch - produce small mechanisms.
Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve.
The first large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large - diameter cylinders on early steam engines. The planing machine, the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.
Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of Jan Verbruggen. In 1774 Jan Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size Lathe in the UK. He was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template. The slide rest lathe was called one of history 's most important inventions, although not entirely Maudslay 's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest and change gears.
Maudslay left Bramah 's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships ' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These machines were all - metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth.
James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high - quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.
The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass - produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass - produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century.
In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added.
The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt 's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.
The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, and also to potash (potassium carbonate) produced from hardwood ashes.
These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small - scale operations with more cost - effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.
The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant 's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world.
After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry. Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860 -- 1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead the practice was to hire German - trained chemists.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 ° C (2,552 ° F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel. Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later.
Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large - scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton & Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large - scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.
A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.
A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint - Léger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, who were stationers in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today.
The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.
The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy. However, per - capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or delining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century.
Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine.
Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull 's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century.
Joseph Foljambe 's Rotherham plough of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough. The threshing machine, invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail, a laborious job that took about one - quarter of agricultural labour. It took several decades to diffuse and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.
Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass - producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders and combine harvesters.
Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales, started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton 's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt 's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The Cornish engine, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine.
Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.
Other developments included more efficient water wheels, based on experiments conducted by the British engineer John Smeaton the beginnings of a machine industry and the rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar) by John Smeaton, which had been lost for 1300 years.
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century.
The Industrial Revolution improved Britain 's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.
Building of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand Canal in China, "the world 's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence, '' parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804 km) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing.
In the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater. From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost £ 168,000 (£ 22,589,130 as of 2013), but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half. This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania. New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively.
By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world, and opened Manchester as a port. However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper.
Britain 's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam, with the first ' macadamised ' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stage coaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.
Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England.
"A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load. ''
Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high pressure steam engine also around 1800.
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast - iron plates used). Horse - drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy
Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam - hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825.
The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill Trials, which demonstrated Robert Stephenson 's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of Hot blast, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the blast furnace.
On 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened, the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington. The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool. The opening was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania.
Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self - employed farmers as land owners or tenants, or as landless agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India, China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world 's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods.
In Britain by the 16th century the putting - out system, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes, often described as cottage industry, was being practiced. Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece, and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system.
Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers. Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories.
The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers. Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: British Agricultural Revolution, Threshing machine)
The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx, however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.
Women 's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women. Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle - and upper - class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower - class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.
In a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women 's emancipation. Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the "family wage economy '' of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the "family consumer economy, '' in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.
Some economists, such as Robert E. Lucas, Jr., say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that "for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility. '' Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy 's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers ' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15 % between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.
The effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s. A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards. During 1813 -- 1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.
Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45 -- 50 years although U.S. life expectancy declined a few years by the mid 18th century.
The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices. In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by Thomas Malthus. This condition is called the Malthusian trap, and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships. Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution.
The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London. The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms. Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s.
A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high. Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions.
Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house.
Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, founder of Wedgwood fine china and porcelain, created goods such as tableware, which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s. Europe 's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.
The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.
In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10 - hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20 % to 40 % less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life; however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children. Also, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel -- child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.
Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis '', and the world 's first industrial city. Manchester experienced a six - times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50 % every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50 % of the population of Bradford was actually born there.
For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water - powered and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.
In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.
By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.
The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly. There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two - thirds of the workers in 143 water - powered cotton mills were described as children.
Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, 10 -- 20 % of an adult male 's wage. Children as young as four were employed. Beatings and long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm. Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions. Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25. Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper apprentices '', working without wages for board and lodging. Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape. Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated. Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw. Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories, and these helped to popularise the children 's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers ' welfare.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century.
The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.
The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.
In 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George 's brother James Loveless, George 's brother in - law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas 's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs. In the 1830s and 1840s, the Chartist movement was the first large - scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.
Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class.
Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.
Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party.
The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures, using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life.
Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions, and further pressure for reform.
The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved.
Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, cotton was grown in small plots in the Old World -- the uncrowned Americas were far better able to recruit available land with the potential for new cotton production. Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies, particularly in Haiti, but Haitian cotton production was halted by the Haitian Revolution in 1791. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable, leading to widespread growth of cotton plantations in the United States and Brazil. (A strain of cotton seed brought to Natchez in 1806, Gossypium hirsutum, would become the parent genetic material for over 90 % of world cotton production to come: it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick.) The Americas, particularly the U.S., had labor shortages and high priced labor, which made slavery attractive. America 's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable, and able to keep up with demand. The U.S. Civil war created a "cotton famine '' that lead to increased production in other areas of the world, including new colonies in Africa.
The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. The first large - scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain 's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under supervision.
The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812 -- 1820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity. The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits.
In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass - roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829.
The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3 % of the world 's population lived in cities, compared to nearly 50 % today (the beginning of the 21st century). Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.
The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called ' Miniature England ' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.
Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: Wallonia (French speaking southern Belgium) was the first region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi. The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill. His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.
Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille '' was coined in Wallonia), the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel, ' Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal - mining and iron - making... '. Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain. '' "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent. '' Michel De Coster, Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: "The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal - mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated. ''
Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade - unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In ' Breaking stereotypes ', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:
The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city - dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal - mining and iron - making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal - mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.
The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take - off. Instead, France 's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy - Leboyer:
Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world 's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical.
Germany 's political disunity -- with three dozen states -- and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self - sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain 's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state - owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France
During the period 1790 -- 1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s.
During 1815 -- 1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen, textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in Norrland. Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.
During 1850 -- 1890, Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873.
During 1890 -- 1930, Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution. New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile.
The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western - based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan).
In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state - led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1882, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.
Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.
During the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy. The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period.
Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts, the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world 's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century.
Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid 1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production.
The United States originally used horse - powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States, which has fast - moving rivers. The newer water - powered production lines proved more economical than horse - drawn production. In the late 19th century steam - powered manufacturing overtook water - powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest.
Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era, and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that the horse - drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water - powered milling structure used in Slater 's Mill.
In 1793, Samuel Slater (1768 -- 1835) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire, England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater 's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills. Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of "America 's Hardest - Working River ', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island, was the birthplace of America 's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater 's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America 's Industrial and Technological Development.
Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell and his partners built America 's second cotton - to - cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. After his death in 1817, his associates built America 's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering, one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, using 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short - lived utopia - like Waltham - Lowell system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.
A major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The milling machine, a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by Ely Whitney, who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by Thomas Blanchard. The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing.
Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry. and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company, with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.
Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass - production, which are said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution '', beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality. Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century.
This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical industries, petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive industry, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.
The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.
A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries. The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal - deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s.
By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world 's stock markets.
The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour - intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self - sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories. The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.
Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply - oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.
Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates. He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock ''. He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time - keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.
The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them. Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.
Governments ' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors. Watt 's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William Murdoch, or Jonathan Hornblower, whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power.
One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages. Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), "modern '' government, "modern '' work attitudes, ecology, and culture.
China was the world 's most technological advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society. Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe.
Historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo - Christianity and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism), resulting in very different worldviews. Other factors include the considerable distance of China 's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea.
Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain. '' In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire, with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas, Sikhs, Bengal Subah, and Kingdom of Mysore. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors -- agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over.
Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that political fragmentation (the presence of a large number of European states) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India. China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an "integrated market for ideas '' where Europe 's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe 's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters.
Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution. Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland; (2) no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint - stock companies (corporations); (5) absence of tolls, which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century, but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world, and (6) a free market (capitalism).
Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe.
There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self - interest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution. These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions.
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5 % of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution. Even though slavery accounted for so little, Caribbean - based demand accounted for 12 % of Britain 's industrial output.
Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy). Britain 's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain 's geographical position -- an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.
Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.
The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution, and British society 's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism. (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc 's The Servile State.)
The French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, Letters on the English (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country 's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. "Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan (Muslim), and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker 's word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another 's throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace. ''
Britain 's population grew 280 % 1550 -- 1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50 -- 80 %. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750 -- 1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse 's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 ha) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy.
In 1700, 5 / 6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe 's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.
Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur. These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies.
Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study - touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.
Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss ' natural philosophy ' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution ''. Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London - based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.
There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris 's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Abraham Rees 's Cyclopaedia (1802 -- 1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot 's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.
Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work. The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.
Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England 's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland 's four universities). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences -- areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.
During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes. Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature '' in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous '' machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills '' of Blake 's poem "And did those feet in ancient time ''. Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two - edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry.
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wwe summerslam 2002 brock lesnar vs the rock | SummerSlam (2002) - wikipedia
SummerSlam (2002) was the fifteenth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay - per - view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was presented by Foot Locker. It took place on August 25, 2002, at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale, New York. With this event, SummerSlam became the first pay - per - view to have events in the three major indoor venues in the New York metropolitan area. Madison Square Garden hosted the event in 1988, 1991, and 1998. The Izod Center in East Rutherford, New Jersey hosted the event in 1989, 1997, and later in 2007.
The main match on the SmackDown! brand was for the WWE Undisputed Championship between The Rock and Brock Lesnar. Lesnar won the match and the championship after pinning Rock following an F - 5. The main match on the Raw brand featured an Unsanctioned Street Fight between the returning Shawn Michaels and Triple H, which Michaels won after pinning Triple H by reversing Triple H 's Pedigree attempt into a jackknife roll - up. There was also an interpromotional match for the Intercontinental Championship between Rob Van Dam from Raw and Chris Benoit from SmackDown!, which Van Dam won by pinfall after performing a Five - Star Frog Splash. The other matches on the undercard included The Undertaker versus Test and Kurt Angle versus Rey Mysterio.
The professional wrestling matches at SummerSlam featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown! with the Raw and SmackDown! brands -- storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs.
The main feud heading into SummerSlam on the SmackDown! brand was between The Rock and Brock Lesnar, with the two feuding over the WWE Undisputed Championship. On the June 24 episode of Raw, it was announced that Lesnar would face off against the champion at SummerSlam. At the King of the Ring, Lesnar defeated Test in the semifinals, then during the latter event he defeated Rob Van Dam in the King of the Ring tournament to earn the right to face the WWE Undisputed Champion at SummerSlam. At Vengeance, the pay - per - view one month before SummerSlam, The Rock defeated The Undertaker and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to win the WWE Undisputed Championship by pinning Angle after executing a Rock Bottom. On the July 25 episode of SmackDown!, during The Rock 's WWE Tag Team Championship match against The Un-Americans (Lance Storm and Christian), Lesnar interfered by nailing Rock 's tag team partner Hollywood Hulk Hogan with an F - 5. Due to Lesnar 's interference, Rock and Hogan won the match by disqualification, but not the title. On the August 8 episode of SmackDown!, Lesnar would put his SummerSlam title shot on the line against Hogan with the stipulation added that if Hogan were to defeat Lesnar, he would face The Rock in a WrestleMania X8 rematch at SummerSlam for the WWE Undisputed Championship. At the end, Lesnar locked Hogan in a bear hug. When Hogan kayfabe passed out, the referee stopped the contest. After the match, Lesnar then nailed Hogan in the head with the steel chair, causing Hogan to bleed. The following week on SmackDown, The Rock took on the Intercontinental Champion Chris Benoit in a "Champion vs. Champion '' match, which again involved Lesnar. During the match, Lesnar taunted The Rock while Rock was placed in the Crippler Crossface by Benoit. The Rock, however, was able to defeat Benoit following a Rock Bottom. On the final episode of SmackDown! before SummerSlam, after The Rock and Edge defeated Benoit and Eddie Guerrero in a tag team match, Lesnar appeared to the ring for another stare down with The Rock, which led to a brawl between the two that ended the show.
Another feud heading into SummerSlam was between Shawn Michaels and Triple H. At Vengeance, Michaels returned after being out of wrestling (due to a back injury) for four years. Triple H was given the choice of deciding which brand he would appear for, Raw or SmackDown!, and Michaels helped him decide by offering to reform D - Generation X (DX) on the Raw brand. Triple H chose to go to Raw, but the following night, as Michaels and Triple H were in the middle of reforming DX, Triple H turned on Michaels by nailing him with the Pedigree. On the July 29 episode of Raw, Michaels was found in the parking lot, laying motionless following an ambush assault. He was also bleeding from the head due to someone putting his head through a car window. The next week on Raw, a security camera revealed to be Triple H that had attacked Michaels from behind. Triple H told Michaels that he did it to prove a point that Michaels was "weak ''. Michaels then told Triple H that he was n't 100 %, but he would be at SummerSlam. On the August 19 episode of Raw, Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff announced an Unsanctioned Street Fight between Triple H and Michaels for SummerSlam then later that night, Michaels interfered in Triple H 's non-title match with The Rock and assaulted Triple H. At the beginning of the show, Brock Lesnar brought a front - row seat ticket to watch the main event between Rock and Triple H, but even when Lesnar tried to interfere on Triple H 's behalf, Michaels delivered a Sweet Chin Music on Lesnar. Michaels then leaped on top of Triple H and the security and ended the show by knocking Triple H down, sending a clear message that he is not weak as they head into their match at SummerSlam.
Van Dam and Benoit, meanwhile, had been feuding over the Intercontinental Championship since Benoit won it on the July 29, episode of Raw. Shortly after this match, Benoit took advantage of what was referred to as "open season '' on wrestler contracts and took his title with him to SmackDown!, where he had originally been drafted. Benoit was still required to defend the title against a Raw roster member at SummerSlam and Van Dam defeated Jeff Hardy on the August 12 episode of Raw in a match to determine the # 1 contender.
The event unofficially began with a Sunday Night Heat match between Spike Dudley and Steven Richards. Dudley pinned Richards.
The first match was between Kurt Angle and Rey Mysterio. The match started off with Mysterio getting the advantage over Angle, as he hid under the ring, and when Mysterio 's music hit, he took down Angle with a headscissors. The two entered the ring, which saw Mysterio execute a headscissors takeover. Mysterio attempted the 619 but Angle ducked and dominated Mysterio. However, Mysterio was able to execute a senton from the ring to the floor on Angle. Mysterio then delivered the 619 and the West Coast Pop for a near - fall. Angle reversed a diving hurricarana into the ankle lock, to which Mysterio submitted.
The next match was a contest between Ric Flair and Chris Jericho. Jericho put Flair into the figure - four leglock. Jericho insisted that Flair submitted, but the referee ordered the match to continue. Flair then won the match by applying the hold on Jericho.
The third match of the night was between Edge and Eddie Guerrero. During the match, Guerrero targeted Edge 's shoulder. Guerrero also countered a spear attempt with a dropkick to the shoulder, and executed a frog splash onto Edge 's shoulder. Edge retaliated with an Edgecution and a spear for the win.
The next match was for the WWE Tag Team Championship between The Un-Americans (Lance Storm and Christian) and Booker T and Goldust. During the match, Booker executed a scissors kick to both Storm and Christian, but Test made a run - in and gave Booker T a big boot. Christian pinned Booker to retain the title.
The fifth match on the card was for the Intercontinental Championship between Chris Benoit and Rob Van Dam. Van Dam won the title by pinning Benoit after a Five Star Frog Splash.
The Undertaker against Test was next. Lance Storm and Christian both interfered in the match, but received a chokeslam from The Undertaker. Undertaker won the match with a Tombstone Piledriver. After the match, Undertaker waved an American flag.
The seventh match was the Unsanctioned Street Fight between Shawn Michaels and Triple H. This was Shawn Michaels ' first wrestling match since WrestleMania XIV. Michaels came out fast, using a punch - kick offense to start and executing a plancha. Triple H executed a series of backbreakers on Michaels. Michaels hit Triple H with a ladder. Michaels executed a splash on Triple H from the top rope through a table on the floor and a diving elbow drop off a ladder. The match came to an end when Michaels went for the Sweet Chin Music, which Triple H countered into a Pedigree attempt, but Michaels countered into a jackknife roll - up for the win. After the match, Triple H hit Michaels with a sledgehammer twice, forcing Michaels to be carried away on a stretcher.
The main event was for the WWE Undisputed Championship between The Rock and Brock Lesnar. Lesnar dominated early with some power moves. The Rock went for the Sharpshooter. Lesnar 's manager Paul Heyman got involved in the match, as he was attacked by The Rock, who executed a Rock Bottom through a broadcast table on Heyman. The Rock and Brock Lesnar gave each other a Rock Bottom. The match came to an end when Lesnar stopped a People 's Elbow and a Rock Bottom and then executed the F - 5 on The Rock for the win and the title. Lesnar remained the youngest world champion in WWE history until Randy Orton won the World Heavyweight Championship in 2004, although Lesnar remains the youngest WWE Champion in history.
On the August 26 episode of Raw, due to the requirements of the WWE Undisputed Championship being defended on both shows, Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff expected Brock Lesnar to be able to return on Raw the next night. Lesnar and SmackDown! General Manager Stephanie McMahon appeared to announce that Lesnar 's contract only required him to defend the title on SmackDown!; subsequently Bischoff established the World Heavyweight Championship as a separate world title. On the September 2 episode of Raw, Bischoff awarded Triple H, Raw 's designated number - one contender, the World Heavyweight Championship in the form of the Big Gold Belt.
The Undertaker went on to challenge Lesnar for the now renamed WWE Championship at Unforgiven, and again at No Mercy in a Hell in a Cell match. Shawn Michaels would return full - time to the ring at Survivor Series and win the World Heavyweight Championship from Triple H in the first ever Elimination Chamber match.
The Rock took a six - month hiatus from WWE, and did not return until late February 2003, as a heel, when Mr. McMahon booked him in a WrestleMania X8 rematch with Hulk Hogan at No Way Out.
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what are certificate of deposits and how do they work | Certificate of deposit - wikipedia
A certificate of deposit (CD) is a time deposit, a financial product commonly sold in the United States and elsewhere by banks, thrift institutions, and credit unions.
CDs are similar to savings accounts in that they are insured "money in the bank '' and thus virtually risk free. In the USA, CDs are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) for banks and by the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA) for credit unions. They differ from savings accounts in that the CD has a specific, fixed term (often one, three, or six months, or one to five years) and, usually, a fixed interest rate. The bank intends that the customer hold the CD until maturity, at which time they can withdraw the money and accrued interest.
In exchange for the customer depositing the money for an agreed term, institutions usually grant higher interest rates than they do on accounts that customers can withdraw from on demand -- though this may not be the case in an inverted yield curve situation. Fixed rates are common, but some institutions offer CDs with various forms of variable rates. For example, in mid-2004, interest rates were expected to rise -- and many banks and credit unions began to offer CDs with a "bump - up '' feature. These allow for a single readjustment of the interest rate, at a time of the consumer 's choosing, during the term of the CD. Sometimes, financial institutions introduce CDs indexed to the stock market, bond market, or other indices.
Some features of CDs are:
CDs typically require a minimum deposit, and may offer higher rates for larger deposits. The best rates are generally offered on "Jumbo CDs '' with minimum deposits of $100,000.
The consumer who opens a CD may receive a paper certificate, but it is now common for a CD to consist simply of a book entry and an item shown in the consumer 's periodic bank statements. That is, there is often no "certificate '' as such. Consumers who want a hard copy that verifies their CD purchase may request a paper statement from the bank, or print out their own from the financial institution 's online banking service.
Withdrawals before maturity are usually subject to a substantial penalty. For a five - year CD, this is often the loss of up to twelve months ' interest. These penalties ensure that it is generally not in a holder 's best interest to withdraw the money before maturity -- unless the holder has another investment with significantly higher return or has a serious need for the money.
Commonly, institutions mail a notice to the CD holder shortly before the CD matures requesting directions. The notice usually offers the choice of withdrawing the principal and accumulated interest or "rolling it over '' (depositing it into a new CD). Generally, a "window '' is allowed after maturity where the CD holder can cash in the CD without penalty. In the absence of such directions, it is common for the institution to roll over the CD automatically, once again tying up the money for a period of time (though the CD holder may be able to specify at the time the CD is opened not to roll over the CD).
The Truth in Savings Regulation DD requires that insured CDs state, at time of account opening, the penalty for early withdrawal. It is generally accepted that these penalties can not be revised by the depository prior to maturity. However, there have been cases in which a credit union modified its early withdrawal penalty and made it retroactive on existing accounts. The second occurrence happened when Main Street Bank of Texas closed a group of CDs early without full payment of interest. The bank claimed the disclosures allowed them to do so.
The penalty for early withdrawal deters depositors from taking advantage of subsequent better investment opportunities during the term of the CD. In rising interest rate environments, the penalty may be insufficient to discourage depositors from redeeming their deposit and reinvesting the proceeds after paying the applicable early withdrawal penalty. Added interest from the new higher yielding CD may more than offset the cost of the early withdrawal penalty.
While longer investment terms yield higher interest rates, longer terms also may result in a loss of opportunity to lock in higher interest rates in a rising - rate economy. A common mitigation strategy for this opportunity cost is the "CD ladder '' strategy. In the ladder strategies, the investor distributes the deposits over a period of several years with the goal of having all one 's money deposited at the longest term (and therefore the higher rate), but in a way that part of it matures annually. In this way, the depositor reaps the benefits of the longest - term rates while retaining the option to re-invest or withdraw the money in shorter - term intervals.
For example, an investor beginning a three - year ladder strategy starts by depositing equal amounts of money each into a 3 - year CD, 2 - year CD, and 1 - year CD. From that point on, a CD reaches maturity every year, at which time the investor can re-invest at a 3 - year term. After two years of this cycle, the investor has all money deposited at a three - year rate, yet have one - third of the deposits mature every year (which the investor can then reinvest, augment, or withdraw).
The responsibility for maintaining the ladder falls on the depositor, not the financial institution. Because the ladder does not depend on the financial institution, depositors are free to distribute a ladder strategy across more than one bank. This can be advantageous, as smaller banks may not offer the longer terms of some larger banks. Although laddering is most common with CDs, investors may use this strategy on any time deposit account with similar terms.
The amount of insurance coverage varies, depending on how accounts for an individual or family are structured at the institution. The level of insurance is governed by complex FDIC and NCUA rules, available in FDIC and NCUA booklets or online. The standard insurance coverage is currently $250,000 per owner or depositor for single accounts or $250,000 per co-owner for joint accounts.
Some institutions use a private insurance company instead of, or in addition to, the federally backed FDIC or NCUA deposit insurance. Institutions often stop using private supplemental insurance when they find that few customers have a high enough balance level to justify the additional cost. The Certificate of Deposit Account Registry Service program lets investors keep up to $50 million invested in CDs managed through one bank with full FDIC insurance. However rates will likely not be the highest available.
There are many variations in the terms and conditions for CDs.
The federally required "Truth in Savings '' booklet, or other disclosure document that gives the terms of the CD, must be made available before the purchase. Employees of the institution are generally not familiar with this information; only the written document carries legal weight. If the original issuing institution has merged with another institution, or if the CD is closed early by the purchaser, or there is some other issue, the purchaser will need to refer to the terms and conditions document to ensure that the withdrawal is processed following the original terms of the contract.
CD interest rates closely track inflation. For example, in one situation interest rates may be 15 % and inflation may be 15 %, and in another situation interest rates may be 2 % and inflation may be 2 %. Of course, these factors cancel out, so the real interest rate is the same in both cases.
In this situation, it is a misinterpretation that the interest is an increase in value. However, to keep the same value, the rate of withdrawal must be the same as the real rate of return, in this case, zero. People may also think that the higher - rate situation is "better '', when the real rate of return is actually the same.
Also, the above does not include taxes. When taxes are considered, the higher - rate situation above is worse, with a lower (more negative) real return, although the before - tax real rates of return are identical. The after - inflation, after - tax return is what 's important.
Author Ric Edelman writes: "You do n't make any money in bank accounts (in real economic terms), simply because you 're not supposed to. '' On the other hand, he says, bank accounts and CDs are fine for holding cash for a short amount of time.
Even if CD rates track inflation, this can only be the expected inflation at the time the CD is bought. The actual inflation will be lower or higher. Locking in the interest rate for a long term may be bad (if inflation goes up) or good (if inflation goes down). For example, in the 1970s, inflation increased higher than it had been, and banks were slow to raise their interest rates. This does not much affect a person with a short note, since they get their money back, and they can go somewhere else (or the same place) that gives a higher rate. But longer notes are locked in their rate. This gave rise to amusing nicknames for CDs. A bit later, the opposite happened, where inflation was declining. This does not greatly help a person with a short note, since they shortly get their money back and they are forced to reinvest at a new, lower rate. But longer notes become very valuable since they have a higher interest rate.
However, this applies only to "average '' CD interest rates. In reality, some banks pay much lower than average rates, while others pay much higher rates (two-fold differences are not unusual, e.g., 2.5 % vs 5 %). In the United States, depositors can take advantage of the best FDIC - insured rates without increasing their risk.
Investors should be suspicious of an unusually high interest rate on a CD. Allen Stanford used fraudulent CDs with high rates to lure people into his Ponzi scheme.
Finally, the statement that "CD interest rates closely track inflation '' is not necessarily true. For example, during a credit crunch banks are in dire need of funds, and CD interest rate increases may not track inflation.
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who are the members of the privy council | List of current members of the British Privy Council - wikipedia
List of Privy Counsellors (1679 -- 1714) List of Privy Counsellors (1714 -- 1820) List of Privy Counsellors (1820 -- 1837) List of Privy Counsellors (1837 -- 1901) List of Privy Counsellors (1901 -- 1910) List of Privy Counsellors (1910 -- 1936) List of Privy Counsellors (1936 -- 1952) List of Privy Counsellors (1952 -- present)
List of Privy Counsellors of Ireland (1660 -- 1922) List of Privy Counsellors of Northern Ireland (1922 -- 1971)
List of current members of the Privy Council
This is a list of current members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, along with the roles they fulfil and the date when they were sworn of the Council. Throughout this article, the prefix The Rt Hon. is omitted, because every Counsellor bears it, as is the postnominal PC, as every Counsellor who is also a peer uses it.
The Council is composed mostly of politicians (be they from the British government, other parties, or Commonwealth governments) and civil servants, both current and retired (since membership is for life). Among those politicians generally sworn of the council are Ministers of the Crown, the few most senior figures of the Loyal Opposition, the Parliamentary leader of the third - largest party (currently SNP Westminster Leader Ian Blackford), and a couple of the most senior figures in the devolved British governments, including the First Ministers. Besides these, the Council includes a very few members of the Royal Family (usually the consort and heir apparent only), a few dozen judges (the Supreme Court Justices, the Senior Judges of England and Wales, and the Senators of the College of Justice of the Inner House in Scotland) and a few clergy (the three most senior Church of England bishops).
Leader of the Liberal Democrats (2017 -- Present)
(1976 -- 1979) Shadow Secretary of State for the Environment (1979 -- 1980) Shadow Home Secretary (1980 -- 1983; 1987 -- 1992) Deputy Leader of the Labour Party (1983 -- 1992) Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (1983 -- 1987)
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what name did l write in death note | L (Death Note) - wikipedia
L Lawliet (Japanese: エル ・ ロー ライト, Hepburn: Eru Rōraito) is a fictional character in the manga series Death Note, created by Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata. He is an eccentric genius and international private detective, reputed to be the world 's greatest, who takes on cases that have stymied national governments and Interpol. He opposes the series ' main character Light Yagami by trying to prove his suspicion that Light is the mass - murderer called "Kira '' who is attempting to create and rule a world "cleansed of evil '' as its "God ''. He basically serves as the archenemy of Kira / Light.
In the anime adaptation, he is voiced by Kappei Yamaguchi in Japanese, and by Alessandro Juliani in English. He is portrayed by Kenichi Matsuyama in the live - action film series, and by Kento Yamazaki in the TV drama. His counterpart in the American film is portrayed by Lakeith Stanfield.
Tsugumi Ohba, the writer of the series, created L as a young adult, since he believed the story would not hold much interest if L were significantly older than his opponent, Light. For L 's name, he wanted to use a single letter with a lot of significance; he considered "I '' and "J '', but eventually he chose "L '' after careful consideration. Ohba left most of L 's character design to Takeshi Obata, artist of the series. Obata asked Ohba if L could be "unattractive ''. Afterwards Ohba included ideas in his thumbnails, including L 's manner of sitting, "he 's English '', and "he 's listless ''. Ohba added details regarding L 's mannerisms and his interests in sweets. Ohba credits Obata for the character designs. Obata commented that L 's thumbnails by Ohba had no bags under his eyes, and that he had a "plain face with no expression '' which was very useful. Obata drew L as an "attractive young man '' until chapter 11, when the character appeared in person. After chapter 11, Obata and Ohba agreed to contrast his appearance with Light 's.
During the development of the early manga chapters, Obata feared L would appear "so suspicious that Light would know instantly it was L if they ever met ''. When Obata 's editor told him that he wanted L to have a face "looking cool based on the angle '', Obata added black bags under L 's eyes. Obata cited Devilman 's Akira Fudou when stating that he believed that black bags were appealing. In addition, Obata thought of a "dead eyes '' concept, which involved L having "all - black eyes '' and "mostly no eyebrows ''. Obata believes that black eyes usually makes a character goofier, but the bags "sharpen the character 's gaze ''. Obata believes that the design evokes "a feeling of mystery '' and that the reader can not determine L 's true thoughts. Obata also said that the bags under L 's eyes were useful for inspiring speculation about his lifestyle and background. The outfit Obata designed for L was a "simple '' white, long - sleeved shirt and jeans, to convey that L does not put thought into choosing his clothing. In Death Note 13: How to Read, Ohba presented an initial rough draft of L and said that, with a "cool expression '' and without the bags under his eyes, L looked like a different person.
Obata stated that the peculiar traits exhibited by L are best revealed "gradually ''. Obata added that if he drew L eating "mountains of sweets '' before revealing his face, he would not have "much credibility as a super detective '' and people would ask if he was "crazy ''. Both Ohba and Obata chose L as their favorite character from the series, with the former noting him as the "strongest '' character in the series besides Light, and the latter due to "appearance, personality, everything ''. Obata said that he could never have created a character like L and that he enjoyed drawing him. Obata added that because of this, L was not "real '' to him and that he liked that aspect of the character.
L 's fighting style has been described as similar to capoeira. However, Obata has denied considering this when drawing L 's fights, saying that he was thinking of the most effective way to kick someone whilst handcuffed. He added that if the style resembles capoeira, then this "adds another element to it '' and "that makes me happy ''. When designing color book covers Obata assigned colors to characters to "get the atmosphere right ''; gold was assigned to L.
Matsuyama had trouble portraying L and worried about his performance. He reasoned that L rarely interacted with others, and so portrayed him as if he did not "quite understand other people on an emotional level ''. Describing himself as "not very flexible physically '', Matsuyama had trouble emulating L 's postures. He also ate sweets like those that L would eat, and considered the details of L 's signature gestures. Matsuyama said that he and Tatsuya Fujiwara, the actor portraying Light, became "so immersed '' in their character portrayals that they did not speak to one another while on the set; when filming ceased they conversed and "went out for a drink or two ''. Hideo Nakata, the director of L: Change the World, told The Daily Yomiuri that he wanted to exhibit L 's "human side '' that was not exhibited in the Death Note series.
L, who also uses the aliases Hideki Ryuga (流 河 旱 樹, Ryūga Hideki), Ryuzaki (竜崎, Ryūzaki), Eraldo Coil (エラルド = コイル, Erarudo Koiru), and Deneuve (ドヌーヴ, Donūvu), the latter two for which he has developed reputations as the second - and third - best detectives in the world, is quite secretive and only communicates with the world through his assistant Watari. He never shows his face to the world, instead representing himself with a capital L in Cloister Black font. His real name, L Lawliet, is only revealed in the guidebook Death Note 13: How to Read. When asked about L 's ethnicity, Ohba responded saying "I think of him as a quarter Japanese, a quarter English, a quarter Russian, a quarter French or Italian, like that ''. After revealing himself to the Kira investigation team, he requests that the task force refer to him as Ryuzaki for discretion. Ohba said that L is the most intelligent character in the entire Death Note series because "the plot requires it ''. He added that he personally views L as "slightly evil ''.
L 's disheveled and languid appearance masks his great powers of deduction and insight. He tends to second - guess everything he is presented with, and is extremely meticulous and analytical. He has several quirks such as preferring to crouch rather than sit, eating only sweet foods like desserts, candy and fruits, and holding items very delicately using his thumb and index finger. L stayed in England for five years, and during that time he was the champion in tennis for the England Junior Cup, and he is still a good player, suggesting he might still practice. He plays tennis with Light, who used to be a champion himself. In chapter 38 of the manga, L suggests that even though he eats only sweet foods, he remains underweight because the brain uses the most calories of any organ in the body. He also says that if he sits normally, his reasoning ability would drop 40 %. Whenever L gives percentages to indicate how much he suspects a person of committing a crime, such as "five percent '', in reality he means over 90 percent; Ohba said about L, "The truth is, he 's a liar (laughs) ''.
L suspects early in the investigation that Light Yagami is Kira, but can not obtain any concrete evidence. In several situations, Light seems to be proven innocent by the circumstances, but L remains skeptical. If Light were Kira, the case would be solved, and L has trouble letting go of this simple and complete solution, finding Light "too perfect '' and noting how close his age and intelligence match his exact concept for what Kira must be like. L can easily present his conclusions publicly at any time, and with his reputation, is taken seriously. He also intends to tell Light that he can "take the offensive ''. After capturing a man who also has a Death Note, Light tricks Rem, the Shinigami owner of a Death Note that she gives to Misa, into killing L for his own personal gain, making her believe that she must kill him for the sake of Misa 's life. L 's last sight before death is Light triumphantly smiling over him, and in his last moment L confirms to himself that he was right about Light being the first Kira. Light then takes over L 's identity and uses it to his advantage. However, when one of L 's true successors, Near, begins to suspect that Light is Kira, Light remains haunted by the memory of L and feels as though he is still battling against him each time he and Near communicate. In the anime series, when Light himself dies, an apparition of L is shown standing over him, mirroring Light standing over L at his own death.
L is portrayed by Kenichi Matsuyama in the live - action films that adapt the Death Note manga, with his portrayal and characterization of the character receiving wide praise for being earnestly faithful to his original manga counterpart. Unlike the manga, in the second film, his "death '', caused by Rem writing his name in her Death Note, does not take effect, as L had written his own name in Misa 's Death Note earlier. It is his self - sacrifice that allows himself to stay alive for a longer duration (as he supposed Kira would kill him on that day), and allows the investigation team to apprehend Light. However, he reveals he was shocked when Watari was killed, having not expected anyone else but himself to be a target and regarding it as his "last mistake ''. After Ryuk kills Light, Ryuk offers L the Death Note, but L refuses. Twenty - three days after writing his name in the Death Note, burning all the remaining Death Notes, and having a conversation with Soichiro, L dies peacefully while eating a chocolate bar.
In L: Change the World, which takes place in the 23 days that L has left before he dies, L decides to solve one last case. He tries to stop a bio-terrorist organization led by "K '' from spreading a deadly virus around the world, along the way he meets a girl named Maki, FBI agent Suruga and a boy who he names Near. The light novel adaptation of L: Change the World has many creative changes. For example, instead of discovering him during his final 23 - days of living, L has long since claimed Near as his successor. Furthermore, details concerning L 's character are revealed during the course of the novel by delving deeper into L 's relationship with Watari and exploring L 's personal demons. Rather than end abruptly after L drops off Near in the orphanage like in the film, the novel ends with L imagining himself playing chess with Light moments before the Death Note takes effect.
In Death Note: Light Up the New World, Kenichi Matsuyama reprises his role as L. He makes a cameo appearance with child Ryuzaki, who inherits his DNA, giving him a lollipop and telling him to not use the Death Note as Ryuzaki promises not to. He is also seen in a CG video that Ryuzaki created.
Lakeith Stanfield portrays L in the American film adaptation, as an enigmatic and highly - intelligent FBI investigator, who only takes up on crime cases that interest him. A number of changes were made to this version of the character, though his quirky, eccentric and socially awkward personality, fondness for sweets, preference to crouch than sit and genius - level intellect remain the same. He is shown to be of African - American origin, is a lot more aggressive, emotional and quick - tempered than his manga counterpart, wears a dark - colored hoodie and jeans, is more prone to aggressive outbursts, is less morally rooted and emotionally insecure, and has a willingness to kill "Kira '', after his assistant and foster - father, Watari, meets his end at the hands of the serial - killer, despite his early moral code to never kill criminals. Although L initially suspects that high school student, Light Turner, is the world - famous serial - killer, "Kira '', he is unable to detain him due to lack of evidence and the fact that one of the co-investigators and Light 's father, Seattle detective James Turner, refuses to believe that his son is a serial - killer, with the rest of the film following L 's efforts to prove that Light is "Kira '', and comes to a climax when L goes on his own manhunt to apprehend Light, but is outwitted by Light in the end and is forced to leave Seattle. In the end, after L learns the involvement of Light 's deceased girlfriend, Mia Sutton, in the serial - killings and uncovers a hidden page of the Death Note in her room, he contemplates writing Light 's name in the Death Note page out of anger and thirst for vengeance, while the Death Note 's original owner, Ryuk, learns of what L has done and simply comments to a bed - ridden Light in his hospital room, "You humans are so interesting '', with a sinister grin in his face, possibly due to the fact that L had written down Light 's name in the Death Note page.
In the light novel Another Note: The Los Angeles BB Murder Cases, L recruits FBI agent Naomi Misora to investigate a series of murders. While the story includes several phone discussions with him from Misora 's perspective, he only appears in person at the end of the novel, when he goes by the name "Ryuzaki '' - an alias he appropriates from the novel 's serial murderer, Beyond Birthday, who masquerades as L under the alias "Rue Ryuzaki ''. The light novel also says that L won the aliases Eraldo Coil and Deneuve in a "detective war '' with the real Coil and Deneuve.
In the musical adaptation, L is portrayed by Teppei Koike in the Japanese version and Kim Junsu in the Korean version.
In the live - action TV drama, L is portrayed by Kento Yamazaki. A few differences with different attitude has made to this character. White shirt and white trouser is his all - time outfit. While capturing Higuchi, Light saves L 's life from Higuchi 's gunshot. Later, while confessing Light, with a fake death note, Mikami kills him. Then Near takes L 's place and follows the videos left by L. L 's funeral is shown at the end of the series.
Publications from manga and anime have commented on L 's character. Tom S. Pepirium of IGN describes L as "the coolest, most well developed character in anime today ''. Pepirium said that the "excellent translation '' is responsible for L being a "success '' in the English - language dub of Death Note. Anime News Network 's Theron Martin found that the mental duels between L and Light are appealing to viewers of the series due to how each attempts to discover the identity of the other while at the same time wanting to hide their own. The Hyper staff and Mania Entertainment 's Julie Rosato agreed with Martin, with the latter commenting that L 's and Light 's rivalry as one of the best parts from the series to the point of being something "unique '' in a manga. Although PopCultureShock writer Carlos Alexandre also praised their rivalry, he still found L to be "too smart '' noting that "some careful listening and application of critical thinking will make apparent the holes in L 's supposedly superhuman logic, holes that simply, given L 's character, should not be there ''. While reviewing the manga 's third volume, Rosato concludes the article by saying that L "wins this volume; he really drove it forward '' due to how close he gets to Light in such little time, which makes Light lose his temper after meeting him despite how calm he normally is. Pepirium adds that Alessandro Juliani, L 's voice actor, portrays his slurping and gulping sweets as "somehow non-irritating ''. Theron Martin has also repeatedly praised Juliani 's work, noting that he "captures the eccentric brilliance of L ''. IGN ranked him as the 19th greatest anime character of all time, saying that "Every good lead character needs a challenge, and L provided the opposition that the Death Note series required to captivate fans. ''
In January 2007, Oricon made a poll in which they asked Japanese fans from manga and anime which characters from any series they would most like to see in spinoff series. The overall winner from the poll was L, who also ranked first in the women 's poll and second in the men 's poll. In the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation Awards (SPJA) from 2008 Alessandro Juliani was the winner in the category "Best Voice Actor (English) '' for his work as L. Kappei Yamaguchi was the winner in the category "Best Voice Actor (Japanese) '' from the 2009 SPJA Industry Awards for his work as L. L also won in the category "Best Male Character ''. In the NEO Awards 2007 from Neo, L won in the category "Best Manga Character ''.
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what is the lowest temperature in new hampshire | U.S. state Temperature Extremes - wikipedia
The following table lists the highest and lowest temperatures recorded in each state in the United States, in both Fahrenheit and Celsius during the past two centuries.
* Also on earlier date or dates in that state
Canadian provincial and territorial temperature extremes
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who was the first person to suggest that light is an electromagnetic wave | James Clerk Maxwell - wikipedia
James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE (/ ˈmækswɛl /; 13 June 1831 -- 5 November 1879) was a Scottish scientist in the field of mathematical physics. His most notable achievement was to formulate the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, bringing together for the first time electricity, magnetism, and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon. Maxwell 's equations for electromagnetism have been called the "second great unification in physics '' after the first one realised by Isaac Newton.
With the publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field '' in 1865, Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. Maxwell proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves.
Maxwell helped develop the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the rigidity of rod - and - joint frameworks (trusses) like those in many bridges.
His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th - century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th - century physics. His contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. In the millennium poll -- a survey of the 100 most prominent physicists -- Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein. On the centenary of Maxwell 's birthday, Einstein described Maxwell 's work as the "most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton ''.
James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831 at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, to John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie, an advocate, and Frances Cay daughter of Robert Hodshon Cay and sister of John Cay. (His birthplace now houses a museum operated by the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation.) His father was a man of comfortable means of the Clerk family of Penicuik, holders of the baronetcy of Clerk of Penicuik. His father 's brother was the 6th Baronet. He had been born "John Clerk '', adding the surname Maxwell to his own after he inherited (as an infant in 1793) the Middlebie country estate near Corsock, Kirkcudbrightshire, from connections to the Maxwell family, themselves members of the peerage. James was a first cousin of both the artist Jemima Blackburn (the daughter of his father 's sister) and the civil engineer William Dyce Cay (the son of his mother 's brother). Cay and Maxwell were close friends and Cay acted as his best man when Maxwell married.
Maxwell 's parents met and married when they were well into their thirties; his mother was nearly 40 when he was born. They had had one earlier child, a daughter named Elizabeth, who died in infancy.
When Maxwell was young his family moved to Glenlair House, which his parents had built on the 1,500 acres (610 ha) Middlebie estate. All indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age. By the age of three, everything that moved, shone, or made a noise drew the question: "what 's the go o ' that? '' In a passage added to a letter from his father to his sister - in - law Jane Cay in 1834, his mother described this innate sense of inquisitiveness:
He is a very happy man, and has improved much since the weather got moderate; he has great work with doors, locks, keys, etc., and "show me how it doos '' is never out of his mouth. He also investigates the hidden course of streams and bell - wires, the way the water gets from the pond through the wall...
Recognising the potential of the young boy, Maxwell 's mother Frances took responsibility for James 's early education, which in the Victorian era was largely the job of the woman of the house. At eight he could recite long passages of Milton and the whole of the 119th psalm (176 verses). Indeed, his knowledge of scripture was already detailed; he could give chapter and verse for almost any quotation from the psalms. His mother was taken ill with abdominal cancer and, after an unsuccessful operation, died in December 1839 when he was eight years old. His education was then overseen by his father and his father 's sister - in - law Jane, both of whom played pivotal roles in his life. His formal schooling began unsuccessfully under the guidance of a 16 year old hired tutor. Little is known about the young man hired to instruct Maxwell, except that he treated the younger boy harshly, chiding him for being slow and wayward. The tutor was dismissed in November 1841 and, after considerable thought, Maxwell was sent to the prestigious Edinburgh Academy. He lodged during term times at the house of his aunt Isabella. During this time his passion for drawing was encouraged by his older cousin Jemima.
The 10 year old Maxwell, having been raised in isolation on his father 's countryside estate, did not fit in well at school. The first year had been full, obliging him to join the second year with classmates a year his senior. His mannerisms and Galloway accent struck the other boys as rustic. Having arrived on his first day of school wearing a pair of homemade shoes and a tunic, he earned the unkind nickname of "Daftie ''. He never seemed to resent the epithet, bearing it without complaint for many years. Social isolation at the Academy ended when he met Lewis Campbell and Peter Guthrie Tait, two boys of a similar age who were to become notable scholars later in life. They remained lifelong friends.
Maxwell was fascinated by geometry at an early age, rediscovering the regular polyhedra before he received any formal instruction. Despite winning the school 's scripture biography prize in his second year, his academic work remained unnoticed until, at the age of 13, he won the school 's mathematical medal and first prize for both English and poetry.
Maxwell 's interests ranged far beyond the school syllabus and he did not pay particular attention to examination performance. He wrote his first scientific paper at the age of 14. In it he described a mechanical means of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of twine, and the properties of ellipses, Cartesian ovals, and related curves with more than two foci. His work "Oval Curves '' was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh by James Forbes, a professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, because Maxwell was deemed too young to present the work himself. The work was not entirely original, since René Descartes had also examined the properties of such multifocal ellipses in the 17th century, but he had simplified their construction.
Maxwell left the Academy in 1847 at age 16 and began attending classes at the University of Edinburgh. He had the opportunity to attend the University of Cambridge, but decided, after his first term, to complete the full course of his undergraduate studies at Edinburgh. The academic staff of the University included some highly regarded names; his first year tutors included Sir William Hamilton, who lectured him on logic and metaphysics, Philip Kelland on mathematics, and James Forbes on natural philosophy. He did not find his classes at the University demanding, and was therefore able to immerse himself in private study during free time at the University and particularly when back home at Glenlair. There he would experiment with improvised chemical, electric, and magnetic apparatus, however his chief concerns regarded the properties of polarised light. He constructed shaped blocks of gelatine, subjected them to various stresses, and with a pair of polarising prisms given to him by William Nicol, viewed the coloured fringes that had developed within the jelly. Through this practice he discovered photoelasticity, which is a means of determining the stress distribution within physical structures.
At age 18, Maxwell contributed two papers for the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. One of these, "On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids '', laid the foundation for an important discovery later in his life, which was the temporary double refraction produced in viscous liquids by shear stress. His other paper was "Rolling Curves '' and, just as with the paper "Oval Curves '' that he had written at the Edinburgh Academy, he was again considered too young to stand at the rostrum to present it himself. The paper was delivered to the Royal Society by his tutor Kelland instead.
In October 1850, already an accomplished mathematician, Maxwell left Scotland for the University of Cambridge. He initially attended Peterhouse, however before the end of his first term transferred to Trinity, where he believed it would be easier to obtain a fellowship. At Trinity he was elected to the elite secret society known as the Cambridge Apostles. Maxwell 's intellectual understanding of his Christian faith and of science grew rapidly during his Cambridge years. He joined the "Apostles '', an exclusive debating society of the intellectual elite, where through his essays he sought to work out this understanding.
Now my great plan, which was conceived of old,... is to let nothing be wilfully left unexamined. Nothing is to be holy ground consecrated to Stationary Faith, whether positive or negative. All fallow land is to be ploughed up and a regular system of rotation followed... Never hide anything, be it weed or no, nor seem to wish it hidden... Again I assert the Right of Trespass on any plot of Holy Ground which any man has set apart... Now I am convinced that no one but a Christian can actually purge his land of these holy spots... I do not say that no Christians have enclosed places of this sort. Many have a great deal, and every one has some. But there are extensive and important tracts in the territory of the Scoffer, the Pantheist, the Quietist, Formalist, Dogmatist, Sensualist, and the rest, which are openly and solemnly Tabooed... ``
Christianity -- that is, the religion of the Bible -- is the only scheme or form of belief which disavows any possessions on such a tenure. Here alone all is free. You may fly to the ends of the world and find no God but the Author of Salvation. You may search the Scriptures and not find a text to stop you in your explorations...
The Old Testament and the Mosaic Law and Judaism are commonly supposed to be "Tabooed '' by the orthodox. Sceptics pretend to have read them, and have found certain witty objections... which too many of the orthodox unread admit, and shut up the subject as haunted. But a Candle is coming to drive out all Ghosts and Bugbears. Let us follow the light.
The extent to which Maxwell "ploughed up '' his Christian beliefs and put them to the intellectual test, can be judged only incompletely from his writings. But there is plenty of evidence, especially from his undergraduate days, that he did deeply examine his faith. Certainly, his knowledge of the Bible was remarkable, so his confidence in the Scriptures was not based on ignorance.
In the summer of his third year, Maxwell spent some time at the Suffolk home of the Rev C.B. Tayler, the uncle of a classmate, G.W.H. Tayler. The love of God shown by the family impressed Maxwell, particularly after he was nursed back from ill health by the minister and his wife.
On his return to Cambridge, Maxwell writes to his recent host a chatty and affectionate letter including the following testimony,
... I have the capacity of being more wicked than any example that man could set me, and... if I escape, it is only by God 's grace helping me to get rid of myself, partially in science, more completely in society, -- but not perfectly except by committing myself to God...
In November 1851, Maxwell studied under William Hopkins, whose success in nurturing mathematical genius had earned him the nickname of "senior wrangler - maker ''.
In 1854, Maxwell graduated from Trinity with a degree in mathematics. He scored second highest in the final examination, coming behind Edward Routh and earning himself the title of Second Wrangler. He was later declared equal with Routh in the more exacting ordeal of the Smith 's Prize examination. Immediately after earning his degree, Maxwell read his paper "On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending '' to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. This is one of the few purely mathematical papers he had written, demonstrating Maxwell 's growing stature as a mathematician. Maxwell decided to remain at Trinity after graduating and applied for a fellowship, which was a process that he could expect to take a couple of years. Buoyed by his success as a research student, he would be free, apart from some tutoring and examining duties, to pursue scientific interests at his own leisure.
The nature and perception of colour was one such interest which he had begun at the University of Edinburgh while he was a student of Forbes. With the coloured spinning tops invented by Forbes, Maxwell was able to demonstrate that white light would result from a mixture of red, green, and blue light. His paper "Experiments on Colour '' laid out the principles of colour combination and was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1855. Maxwell was this time able to deliver it himself.
Maxwell was made a fellow of Trinity on 10 October 1855, sooner than was the norm, and was asked to prepare lectures on hydrostatics and optics and to set examination papers. The following February he was urged by Forbes to apply for the newly vacant Chair of Natural Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen. His father assisted him in the task of preparing the necessary references, but died on 2 April at Glenlair before either knew the result of Maxwell 's candidacy. Maxwell accepted the professorship at Aberdeen, leaving Cambridge in November 1856.
The 25 - year - old Maxwell was a good 15 years younger than any other professor at Marischal. He engaged himself with his new responsibilities as head of a department, devising the syllabus and preparing lectures. He committed himself to lecturing 15 hours a week, including a weekly pro bono lecture to the local working men 's college. He lived in Aberdeen during the six months of the academic year and spent the summers at Glenlair, which he had inherited from his father.
He focused his attention on a problem that had eluded scientists for 200 years: the nature of Saturn 's rings. It was unknown how they could remain stable without breaking up, drifting away or crashing into Saturn. The problem took on a particular resonance at that time because St John 's College, Cambridge had chosen it as the topic for the 1857 Adams Prize. Maxwell devoted two years to studying the problem, proving that a regular solid ring could not be stable, while a fluid ring would be forced by wave action to break up into blobs. Since neither was observed, Maxwell concluded that the rings must be composed of numerous small particles he called "brick - bats '', each independently orbiting Saturn. Maxwell was awarded the £ 130 Adams Prize in 1859 for his essay "On the stability of the motion of Saturn 's rings ''; he was the only entrant to have made enough headway to submit an entry. His work was so detailed and convincing that when George Biddell Airy read it he commented "It is one of the most remarkable applications of mathematics to physics that I have ever seen. '' It was considered the final word on the issue until direct observations by the Voyager flybys of the 1980s confirmed Maxwell 's prediction.
In 1857 Maxwell befriended the Reverend Daniel Dewar, who was then the Principal of Marischal. Through him Maxwell met Dewar 's daughter, Katherine Mary Dewar. They were engaged in February 1858 and married in Aberdeen on 2 June 1858. On the marriage record, Maxwell is listed as Professor of Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Seven years Maxwell 's senior, comparatively little is known of Katherine, although it is known that she helped in his lab and worked on experiments in viscosity. Maxwell 's biographer and friend, Lewis Campbell, adopted an uncharacteristic reticence on the subject of Katherine, though describing their married life as "one of unexampled devotion ''.
In 1860 Marischal College merged with the neighbouring King 's College to form the University of Aberdeen. There was no room for two professors of Natural Philosophy, so Maxwell, despite his scientific reputation, found himself laid off. He was unsuccessful in applying for Forbes 's recently vacated chair at Edinburgh, the post instead going to Tait. Maxwell was granted the Chair of Natural Philosophy at King 's College, London, instead. After recovering from a near - fatal bout of smallpox in 1860, Maxwell moved to London with his wife.
Maxwell 's time at King 's was probably the most productive of his career. He was awarded the Royal Society 's Rumford Medal in 1860 for his work on colour and was later elected to the Society in 1861. This period of his life would see him display the world 's first light - fast colour photograph, further develop his ideas on the viscosity of gases, and propose a system of defining physical quantities -- now known as dimensional analysis. Maxwell would often attend lectures at the Royal Institution, where he came into regular contact with Michael Faraday. The relationship between the two men could not be described as being close, because Faraday was 40 years Maxwell 's senior and showed signs of senility. They nevertheless maintained a strong respect for each other 's talents.
This time is especially noteworthy for the advances Maxwell made in the fields of electricity and magnetism. He examined the nature of both electric and magnetic fields in his two - part paper "On physical lines of force '', which was published in 1861. In it he provided a conceptual model for electromagnetic induction, consisting of tiny spinning cells of magnetic flux. Two more parts were later added to and published in that same paper in early 1862. In the first additional part he discussed the nature of electrostatics and displacement current. In the second additional part, he dealt with the rotation of the plane of the polarisation of light in a magnetic field, a phenomenon that had been discovered by Faraday and is now known as the Faraday effect.
In 1865 Maxwell resigned the chair at King 's College, London, and returned to Glenlair with Katherine. In his paper "On reciprocal figures, frames and diagrams of forces '' (1870) he discussed the rigidity of various designs of lattice. He wrote the textbook Theory of Heat (1871) and the treatise Matter and Motion (1876). Maxwell was also the first to make explicit use of dimensional analysis, in 1871.
In 1871 he returned to Cambridge to become the first Cavendish Professor of Physics. Maxwell was put in charge of the development of the Cavendish Laboratory, supervising every step in the progress of the building and of the purchase of the collection of apparatus. One of Maxwell 's last great contributions to science was the editing (with copious original notes) of the research of Henry Cavendish, from which it appeared that Cavendish researched, amongst other things, such questions as the density of the Earth and the composition of water.
Maxwell died in Cambridge of abdominal cancer on 5 November 1879 at the age of 48. His mother had died at the same age of the same type of cancer. The minister who regularly visited him in his last weeks was astonished at his lucidity and the immense power and scope of his memory, but comments more particularly,
... his illness drew out the whole heart and soul and spirit of the man: his firm and undoubting faith in the Incarnation and all its results; in the full sufficiency of the Atonement; in the work of the Holy Spirit. He had gauged and fathomed all the schemes and systems of philosophy, and had found them utterly empty and unsatisfying -- "unworkable '' was his own word about them -- and he turned with simple faith to the Gospel of the Saviour.
As death approached Maxwell told a Cambridge colleague,
I have been thinking how very gently I have always been dealt with. I have never had a violent shove all my life. The only desire which I can have is like David to serve my own generation by the will of God, and then fall asleep.
Maxwell is buried at Parton Kirk, near Castle Douglas in Galloway close to where he grew up. The extended biography The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, by his former schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor Lewis Campbell, was published in 1882. His collected works were issued in two volumes by the Cambridge University Press in 1890.
As a great lover of Scottish poetry, Maxwell memorised poems and wrote his own. The best known is Rigid Body Sings, closely based on "Comin ' Through the Rye '' by Robert Burns, which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar. It has the opening lines
Gin a body meet a body
Flyin ' through the air. Gin a body hit a body, Will it fly? And where?
A collection of his poems was published by his friend Lewis Campbell in 1882.
Descriptions of Maxwell remark upon his remarkable intellectual qualities being matched by social awkwardness.
Maxwell was an evangelical Presbyterian and in his later years became an Elder of the Church of Scotland. Maxwell 's religious beliefs and related activities have been the focus of a number of papers. Attending both Church of Scotland (his father 's denomination) and Episcopalian (his mother 's denomination) services as a child, Maxwell later underwent an evangelical conversion in April 1853. One facet of this conversion may have aligned him with an antipositivist position.
Maxwell had studied and commented on electricity and magnetism as early as 1855 when his paper "On Faraday 's lines of force '' was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday 's work and how electricity and magnetism are related. He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential equations with 20 equations in 20 variables. This work was later published as "On Physical Lines of Force '' in March 1861.
Around 1862, while lecturing at King 's College, Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light (see speed of light # electromagnetic constants). He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, commenting, "We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. ''
Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 metres per second (1.0195 × 10 ft / s). In his 1864 paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field '', Maxwell wrote, "The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws ''.
His famous twenty equations, in their modern form of four partial differential equations, first appeared in fully developed form in his textbook A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873. Most of this work was done by Maxwell at Glenlair during the period between holding his London post and his taking up the Cavendish chair. Maxwell expressed electromagnetism in the algebra of quaternions and made the electromagnetic potential the centrepiece of his theory. In 1881 Oliver Heaviside replaced Maxwell 's electromagnetic potential field by ' force fields ' as the centrepiece of electromagnetic theory. Heaviside reduced the complexity of Maxwell 's theory down to four differential equations, known now collectively as Maxwell 's Laws or Maxwell 's equations. According to Heaviside, the electromagnetic potential field was arbitrary and needed to be "murdered ''. The use of scalar and vector potentials is now standard in the solution of Maxwell 's equations.
A few years later there was a debate between Heaviside and Peter Guthrie Tait about the relative merits of vector analysis and quaternions. The result was the realisation that there was no need for the greater physical insights provided by quaternions if the theory was purely local, and vector analysis became commonplace. Maxwell was proven correct, and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great accomplishments of 19th century mathematical physics.
Maxwell also introduced the concept of the electromagnetic field in comparison to force lines that Faraday described. By understanding the propagation of electromagnetism as a field emitted by active particles, Maxwell could advance his work on light. At that time, Maxwell believed that the propagation of light required a medium for the waves, dubbed the luminiferous aether. Over time, the existence of such a medium, permeating all space and yet apparently undetectable by mechanical means, proved impossible to reconcile with experiments such as the Michelson -- Morley experiment. Moreover, it seemed to require an absolute frame of reference in which the equations were valid, with the distasteful result that the equations changed form for a moving observer. These difficulties inspired Albert Einstein to formulate the theory of special relativity; in the process Einstein dispensed with the requirement of a stationary luminiferous aether.
As most physicists of the time, Maxwell had a strong interest in psychology. Following the steps of Isaac Newton and Thomas Young, he was particularly interested in the study of colour vision. From 1855 to 1872, Maxwell published at intervals a series of investigations concerning the perception of colour, colour - blindness, and colour theory, and was awarded the Rumford Medal for "On the Theory of Colour Vision ''.
Isaac Newton had demonstrated, using prisms, that white lights, such as sunlight, are composed of a number of monochromatic components which could then be recombined into white light. Newton also showed that an orange paint made of yellow and red could look exactly like a monochromatic orange light, although being composed of two monochromatic yellow and red lights. Hence the paradox that puzzled physicists of the time: two complex lights (composed of more than one monochromatic light) could look alike but be physically different, called metameres. Thomas Young later proposed that this paradox could be explained by colours being perceived through a limited number of channels in the eyes, which he proposed to be threefold, the trichromatic colour theory. Maxwell used the recently developed Linear algebra to prove Young 's theory. Any monochromatic light stimulating three receptors should be able to be equally stimulated by a set of three different monochromatic lights (in fact, by any set of three different lights). He demonstrated that to be the case, inventing colour matching experiments and Colourimetry.
Maxwell was also interested in applying his theory of colour perception, namely in colour photography. Stemming directly from his psychological work on colour perception: if a sum of any three lights could reproduce any perceivable colour, then colour photographs could be produced with a set of three coloured filters. In the course of his 1855 paper, Maxwell proposed that, if three black - and - white photographs of a scene were taken through red, green and blue filters and transparent prints of the images were projected onto a screen using three projectors equipped with similar filters, when superimposed on the screen the result would be perceived by the human eye as a complete reproduction of all the colours in the scene.
During an 1861 Royal Institution lecture on colour theory, Maxwell presented the world 's first demonstration of colour photography by this principle of three - colour analysis and synthesis. Thomas Sutton, inventor of the single - lens reflex camera, took the picture. He photographed a tartan ribbon three times, through red, green, and blue filters, also making a fourth photograph through a yellow filter, which, according to Maxwell 's account, was not used in the demonstration. Because Sutton 's photographic plates were insensitive to red and barely sensitive to green, the results of this pioneering experiment were far from perfect. It was remarked in the published account of the lecture that "if the red and green images had been as fully photographed as the blue, '' it "would have been a truly - coloured image of the riband. By finding photographic materials more sensitive to the less refrangible rays, the representation of the colours of objects might be greatly improved. '' Researchers in 1961 concluded that the seemingly impossible partial success of the red - filtered exposure was due to ultraviolet light, which is strongly reflected by some red dyes, not entirely blocked by the red filter used, and within the range of sensitivity of the wet collodion process Sutton employed.
Maxwell also investigated the kinetic theory of gases. Originating with Daniel Bernoulli, this theory was advanced by the successive labours of John Herapath, John James Waterston, James Joule, and particularly Rudolf Clausius, to such an extent as to put its general accuracy beyond a doubt; but it received enormous development from Maxwell, who in this field appeared as an experimenter (on the laws of gaseous friction) as well as a mathematician.
Between 1859 and 1866, he developed the theory of the distributions of velocities in particles of a gas, work later generalised by Ludwig Boltzmann. The formula, called the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution, gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature. In the kinetic theory, temperatures and heat involve only molecular movement. This approach generalised the previously established laws of thermodynamics and explained existing observations and experiments in a better way than had been achieved previously. Maxwell 's work on thermodynamics led him to devise the thought experiment that came to be known as Maxwell 's demon, where the second law of thermodynamics is violated by an imaginary being capable of sorting particles by energy.
In 1871 he established Maxwell 's thermodynamic relations, which are statements of equality among the second derivatives of the thermodynamic potentials with respect to different thermodynamic variables. In 1874, he constructed a plaster thermodynamic visualisation as a way of exploring phase transitions, based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs 's graphical thermodynamics papers.
Maxwell published a paper "On governors '' in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 16 (1867 -- 1868). This paper is considered a central paper of the early days of control theory. Here "governors '' refers to the governor or the centrifugal governor used to regulate steam engines.
His name is honoured in several ways:
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what is the guy's name from ratatouille | Ratatouille (film) - Wikipedia
Ratatouille (/ rætəˈtuːiː /; French pronunciation: (ʁatatuj)), is a 2007 American computer - animated comedy film produced by Pixar and released by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution. It is the eighth film produced by Pixar and was co-written and directed by Brad Bird, who took over from Jan Pinkava in 2005. The title refers to a French dish, "ratatouille '', which is served at the end of the film and is also a play on words about the species of the main character. The film stars the voices of Patton Oswalt as Remy, an anthropomorphic rat who is interested in cooking; Lou Romano as Linguini, a young garbage boy who befriends Remy; Ian Holm as Skinner, the head chef of Auguste Gusteau 's restaurant; Janeane Garofalo as Colette, a rôtisseur at Gusteau 's restaurant; Peter O'Toole as Anton Ego, a restaurant critic; Brian Dennehy as Django, Remy 's father and leader of his clan; Peter Sohn as Emile, Remy 's older brother; and Brad Garrett as Auguste Gusteau, a recently deceased chef. The plot follows a rat named Remy, who dreams of becoming a chef and tries to achieve his goal by forming an alliance with a Parisian restaurant 's garbage boy.
Development of Ratatouille began in 2000 when Pinkava wrote the original concepts of the film. In 2005, Bird was approached to direct the film and revise the story. Bird and some of the film 's crew members also visited Paris for inspiration. To create the food animation used in the film, the crew consulted chefs from both France and the United States. Bird also interned at Thomas Keller 's The French Laundry restaurant, where Keller developed the confit byaldi, a dish used in the film.
Ratatouille premiered on June 22, 2007, at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles, California, with its general release June 29, 2007, in the United States. The film grossed $620.7 million at the box office and received critical acclaim. The film won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, and was later voted one of the 100 greatest motion pictures of the 21st century by a 2016 poll of international critics conducted by BBC.
Remy is an idealistic and ambitious young rat, gifted with highly developed senses of taste and smell. Inspired by his idol, the recently deceased chef Auguste Gusteau, Remy dreams of becoming a cook himself. When an old French woman discovers Remy 's colony in her house and attempts to exterminate them with a shotgun, they are forced to flee, and Remy becomes separated from his family in the panic. He ends up in the sewers of Paris and eventually finds himself at a skylight overlooking the kitchen of Gusteau 's restaurant.
As Remy watches through the window, a young man named Alfredo Linguini is hired as a garbage boy by Skinner, the restaurant 's current owner and Gusteau 's former sous - chef. When Linguini spills a pot of soup and attempts to recreate it, Remy sees that he is ruining it, and fixes his mistakes. Linguini catches Remy, but hides him when he is then confronted by Skinner for tampering with the soup. As the two argue, the soup is accidentally served and proves to be a success. The staff convinces Skinner to retain Linguini, who is assumed to be the soup 's creator. When Skinner catches Remy trying to escape, he orders Linguini to kill the rat, but Linguini discovers Remy 's intelligence and decides to keep him instead.
On Linguini 's first day as a chef, he and Remy find a way to communicate: Remy guides Linguini like a marionette by pulling on his hair while hidden under Linguini 's toque. Skinner assigns Colette Tatou, the staff 's only female chef, to train his new cook.
Suspicious, Skinner learns that Linguini is Gusteau 's illegitimate son and the rightful owner of the restaurant. Remy discovers the evidence of Linguini 's inheritance and, after eluding Skinner, gives it to Linguini, who deposes Skinner as owner. The restaurant continues to thrive, as all of Remy 's recipes become immediate hits. A romance develops between Linguini and Colette, and Remy begins to feel left out. Remy finds that his clan has come to Paris as well, and is taken to their new lair, but his father Django 's attempt to rid his son of his admiration for humans fails and Remy leaves.
France 's top restaurant critic, Anton Ego, whose previous negative review cost Gusteau 's one of its stars and caused Gusteau 's death, announces he will dine at the restaurant the following evening. That night, Remy and Linguini have a heated argument. Remy leads his clan to raid the restaurant 's pantries in retaliation, but Linguini catches them and drives them out. Having discovered Remy 's skills, Skinner captures him in an attempt to use him to create a line of frozen foods. However, Remy is freed by Django and his brother Emile. He returns to the restaurant to find Linguini, who has been unable to cook without him. Linguini apologizes and reveals the truth to the staff, but they all leave in disbelief. Colette later returns after recalling Gusteau 's motto, "Anyone can cook. ''
Django arrives with the rest of the clan, offering to help after seeing his son 's determination. Remy has the rats cook, while Linguini waits tables. For Ego and Skinner, Remy creates a variation of ratatouille, confit byaldi, which reminds an astonished Ego of his own mother 's cooking. During the meal, the rats are forced to tie up Skinner and a health inspector to prevent them from revealing the rats ' involvement in the cooking. When Ego requests to see the chef, Linguini and Colette make him wait until the rest of the diners have left before introducing Remy. Ego is stunned and leaves the restaurant, deep in thought. He writes a positive and thoughtful review for the newspaper the next day, stating that Gusteau 's chef is "nothing less than the finest chef in France. ''
Linguini and Remy have to release Skinner and the health inspector, however; thus, despite receiving a good review, Gusteau 's is forced into closure, and Ego loses his job and his credibility as a critic. Luckily, Ego funds (and frequents for Remy 's cooking) a popular new bistro, La Ratatouille, created and run by Remy, Linguini, and Colette. The rats settle into their new home in the bistro 's roof.
Jan Pinkava came up with the concept in 2000, creating the original design, sets and characters and core storyline, but he was never formally named the director of the film. Lacking confidence in Pinkava 's story development, Pixar management replaced him with Bird in 2005. Bird was attracted to the film because of the outlandishness of the concept and the conflict that drove it: that rats feared kitchens, yet a rat wanted to work in one. Bird was also delighted that the film could be made a highly physical comedy, with the character of Linguini providing endless fun for the animators. Bird rewrote the story, with a change in emphasis. He killed off Gusteau, gave larger roles to Skinner and Colette, and also changed the appearance of the rats to be less anthropomorphic.
Because Ratatouille is intended to be a romantic, lush vision of Paris, giving it an identity distinct from previous Pixar films, director Brad Bird, producer Brad Lewis and some of the crew spent a week in the city to properly understand its environment, taking a motorcycle tour and eating at five top restaurants. There are also many water - based sequences in the film, one of which is set in the sewers and is more complex than the blue whale scene in Finding Nemo. One scene has Linguini wet after jumping into the Seine to fetch Remy. A Pixar employee (Shade / Paint department coordinator Kesten Migdal) jumped into Pixar 's swimming pool wearing a chef 's uniform and apron to see which parts of the suit stuck to his body and which became translucent from water absorption.
Ratatouille was originally going to be released in 2006; however, in December 2004, the date was changed to 2007. This happened because Disney / Pixar changed the release date of Cars, from November 2005 to June 2006, thus pushing Ratatouille to 2007.
A challenge for the filmmakers was creating computer - generated images of food that would appear delicious. Gourmet chefs in both the U.S. and France were consulted and animators attended cooking classes at San Francisco - area culinary schools to understand the workings of a commercial kitchen. Sets / Layout department manager Michael Warch, a culinary - academy - trained professional chef before working at Pixar, helped teach and consult animators as they worked. He also prepared dishes used by the Art, Shade / Paint, Effects and Sets Modeling departments. Renowned chef Thomas Keller allowed producer Brad Lewis to intern in his French Laundry kitchen. For the film 's climax, Keller designed a fancy, layered version of the title dish for the rat characters to cook, which he called "confit byaldi '' in honor of the original Turkish name. The same sub-surface light scattering technique that was used on skin in The Incredibles was used on fruits and vegetables, while new programs gave an organic texture and movement to the food. Completing the illusion were music, dialogue, and abstract imagery representing the characters ' mental sensations while appreciating food. The visual flavor metaphors were created by animator Michel Gagné inspired by the work of Oscar Fischinger and Norman McLaren. To create a realistic compost pile, the Art Department photographed fifteen different kinds of produce, such as apples, berries, bananas, mushrooms, oranges, broccoli, and lettuce, in the process of rotting.
According to Pixar designer Jason Deamer, "Most of the characters were designed while Jan (Pinkava) was still directing... He has a real eye for sculpture. '' For example, according to Pinkava, the critic Anton Ego was designed to resemble a vulture. Rat expert Debbie Ducommun (a.k.a. the "Rat Lady '') was consulted on rat habits and characteristics. A vivarium containing pet rats sat in a hallway for more than a year so animators could study the movement of the animals ' fur, noses, ears, paws, and tails as they ran. The cast members strove to make their French accents authentic yet understandable. John Ratzenberger notes that he often segued into an Italian accent. To save time, human characters were designed and animated without toes.
Promotional material for Intel credits their platform for a 30 percent performance improvement in rendering software. They used Remy in some of their marketing materials.
Brad Bird reteamed with Michael Giacchino on the score for Ratatouille since they got along well during the scoring of The Incredibles. Giacchino had written two themes for Remy, one about his thief self and the other about his hopes and dreams. He also wrote a buddy theme for both Remy and Linguini that plays when they 're together. In addition to the score, Giacchino wrote the main theme song, "Le Festin '', about Remy and his wishes to be a chef. Camille was hired to perform "Le Festin '' after Giacchino listened to her music and realized she was perfect for the song; as a result, the song is sung in French in all versions of the film.
The music for Ratatouille gave Giacchino his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score as well as his first Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album. Giacchino returned to Pixar to score their 2009 blockbuster Up.
Ratatouille 's world premiere was on June 22, 2007, at Los Angeles ' Kodak Theater. The commercial release was one week later, with the short film Lifted preceding Ratatouille in theaters. Earlier in the year, it had received an Academy Award nomination. A test screening of the film was shown at the Harkins Cine Capri Theater in Scottsdale, Arizona on June 16, 2007, at which a Pixar representative was present to collect viewer feedback. Disney CEO Bob Iger announced an upcoming theatrical re-release of the film in 3D at the Disney shareholders meeting in March 2014.
The trailer for Ratatouille debuted with the release of its immediate predecessor, Cars. It depicts an original scene where Remy is caught on the cheese trolley in the restaurant 's dining area sampling the cheese and barely escaping the establishment, intercut with separate scenes of the rat explaining directly to the audience why he is taking such risks. Similar to most of Pixar 's teaser trailers, the scene was not present in the final film release.
A second trailer was released on March 23, 2007. The Ratatouille Big Cheese Tour began on May 11, 2007, with cooking demonstrations and a film preview. Voice actor Lou Romano attended the San Francisco leg of the tour for autograph signings.
Disney and Pixar were working to bring a French - produced Ratatouille - branded wine to Costco stores in August 2007, but abandoned plans because of complaints from the California Wine Institute, citing standards in labeling that restrict the use of cartoon characters to avoid attracting under - age drinkers.
In the United Kingdom, in place of releasing a theatrical trailer, a theatrical commercial featuring Remy and Emile was released in cinemas before its release to discourage obtaining unlicensed copies of films. Also in the United Kingdom, the main characters were used for a theatrical commercial for the Nissan Note, with Remy and Emile watching an original commercial for it made for the "Surprisingly Spacious '' ad campaign and also parodying it, respectively.
Disney / Pixar were concerned that audiences, particularly children, would not be familiar with the word "ratatouille '' and its pronunciation. The title was therefore also spelled phonetically within trailers and on posters. For similar reasons, in the American release of the film, on - screen text in French was printed in English, such as the title of Gusteau 's cookbook and the sign telling kitchen staff to wash their hands, though in the British English release, these are rendered in French. In Canada, the film was released theatrically with text in English, but on DVD, the majority of the text (including Gusteau 's will) was in French.
Disney released Ratatouille on high - definition Blu - ray Disc and DVD in North America on November 6, 2007. A new animated short film featuring Remy and Emile entitled Your Friend the Rat was included as a special feature, in which the two rats attempt to entreat the viewer, a human, to welcome rats as their friends, demonstrating the benefits and misconceptions of rats towards humanity through several historical examples. The eleven - minute short uses 3D animation, 2D animation, live action and even stop - motion animation, a first for Pixar.
The disc also includes a CG short entitled Lifted, which screened before the film during its theatrical run. It depicts an adolescent extraterrestrial attempting to abduct a sleeping human. Throughout the sequence, he is graded by an adult extraterrestrial in a manner reminiscent of a driver 's licensing exam road test. The entire short contains no dialogue, which is typical of Pixar Shorts not based on existing properties. Also included among the special features are deleted scenes, a featurette featuring Brad Bird discussing filmmaking and chef Thomas Keller discussing culinary creativity entitled "Fine Food and Film '', and four easter eggs. Although the Region 1 Blu - ray edition has a French audio track, the Region 1 DVD does not, except for some copies marked as for sale only in Canada.
It was released on DVD on November 6, 2007, and earned 4,919,574 units (equivalent to US $73,744,414) on its first week (November 6 -- 11, 2007) during which it topped the DVD charts. In total it sold 12,531,266 units (US $189,212,532) becoming the second - best - selling animated DVD of 2007, both in units sold and sales revenue, behind Happy Feet.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 96 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.5 / 10 based on 245 reviews. The site 's consensus reads: "Fast - paced and stunningly animated, Ratatouille adds another delightfully entertaining entry -- and a rather unlikely hero -- to the Pixar canon. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator website which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 96 out of 100 based on 37 reviews, the highest of any Pixar film and the twenty - first highest rated film on the site.
A.O. Scott of The New York Times called Ratatouille "a nearly flawless piece of popular art, as well as one of the most persuasive portraits of an artist ever committed to film ''; echoing the character Anton Ego in the film, he ended his review with a simple "thank you '' to the creators of the film. Wally Hammond of Time Out gave the film five out of five stars, saying "A test for tiny tots, a mite nostalgic and as male - dominated as a modern kitchen it may be, but these are mere quibbles about this delightful addition to the Pixar pantheon. '' Andrea Gronvall of the Chicago Reader gave the film a positive review, saying "Brad Bird 's second collaboration with Pixar is more ambitious and meditative than his Oscar - winning The Incredibles. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B, saying "Ratatouille has the Pixar technical magic without, somehow, the full Pixar flavor. It 's Brad Bird 's genial dessert, not so much incredible as merely sweetly edible. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "What makes Ratatouille such a hilarious and heartfelt wonder is the way Bird contrives to let it sneak up on you. And get a load of that score from Michael Giacchino, a perfect compliment to a delicious meal. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars, saying "For parents looking to spend time in a theater with their kids or adults who want something lighter and less testosterone - oriented than the usual summer fare, Ratatouille offers a savory main course. '' Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film a positive review, saying "Ratatouille is free of the kind of gratuitous pop - culture references that plague so many movies of the genre; it tells a story, it 's very much of our world but it never goes for the cheap, easy gag. '' Justin Chang of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "The master chefs at Pixar have blended all the right ingredients -- abundant verbal and visual wit, genius slapstick timing, a soupcon of Gallic sophistication -- to produce a warm and irresistible concoction. ''
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars, saying "The film may be animated, and largely taken up with rats, but its pulse is gratifyingly human. And you have never seen a computer - animated feature with this sort of visual panache and detail. '' Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film three out of four stars, saying "So many computer - animated movies are brash, loud and popping with pop - culture comedy, but Ratatouille has the warm glow of a favorite book. The characters are more than the sum of their gigabyte - consuming parts -- they feel handcrafted. '' Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Has Pixar lost its magic recipe? Ratatouille is filled with fairly generic animated imagery, a few modest chases, a couple of good gags, not a lot of laughs. '' Scott Foundas of LA Weekly gave the film a positive review, saying "Bird has taken the raw ingredients of an anthropomorphic - animal kiddie matinee and whipped them into a heady brew about nothing less than the principles of artistic creation. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film four out of four stars, saying "It 's not just the computer animation that is vibrantly three - dimensional. It 's also the well - rounded characters... I defy you to name another animated film so overflowing with superfluous beauty. '' Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "With Ratatouille, Bird once again delivers not just a great, witty story, but dazzling visuals as well. '' Bill Muller of The Arizona Republic gave the film four - and - a-half stars out of five, saying "Like the burbling soup that plays a key part in Ratatouille, the movie is a delectable blend of ingredients that tickles the palette and leaves you hungry for more. ''
Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Ratatouille is the most straightforward and formulaic picture to date from Pixar Animation Studios, but it is also among the most enchanting and touching. '' Jack Mathews of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars, saying "The Pixar magic continues with Brad Bird 's Ratatouille, a gorgeous, wonderfully inventive computer - animated comedy. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Fresh family fun. Although there are those slightly noxious images of rodents scampering around a kitchen, the movie does n't stoop to kid - pandering jokes based on back talk and bodily gases. '' David Ansen of Newsweek gave the film a positive review, saying "A film as rich as a sauce béarnaise, as refreshing as a raspberry sorbet, and a lot less predictable than the damn food metaphors and adjectives all us critics will churn out to describe it. OK, one more and then I 'll be done: it 's yummy. '' Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Ratatouille never overwhelms, even though it 's stocked with action, romance, historical content, family drama and serious statements about the creation of art. '' Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review, saying "From the moment Remy enters, crashing, to the final happy fadeout, Ratatouille parades the brio and depth that set Pixar apart from and above other animation studios. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four out of four stars, saying "A lot of animated movies have inspired sequels, notably Shrek, but Brad Bird 's Ratatouille is the first one that made me positively desire one. '' Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Had Bird gone the safe route, he would have robbed us of a great new cartoon figure in Remy, who like the rest of the film is rendered with animation that is at once fanciful and life - like. It 's also my pick for Pixar 's best. ''
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal gave the film a positive review, saying "The characters are irresistible, the animation is astonishing and the film, a fantasy version of a foodie rhapsody, sustains a level of joyous invention that has n't been seen in family entertainment since The Incredibles. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four - and - a-half stars out of five, saying "Brad Bird 's Ratatouille is so audacious you have to fall in love with its unlikely hero. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "Ratatouille is delicious fun sure to be savored by audiences of all ages for its sumptuous visuals, clever wit and irresistibly inspiring tale. '' Miriam Di Nunzio of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "Ratatouille will make you wonder why animation needs to hide behind the mantle of ' it 's for children, but grownups will like it, too. ' This one 's for Mom and Dad, and yep, the kids will like it, too. '' Michael Booth of The Denver Post gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "Writer and director Brad Bird keeps Ratatouille moving without resorting to the cute animal jokes or pop - culture wisecracking that ruined so many other recent animated films. '' Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film an A, saying "Ratatouille has the technical genius, emotional core and storytelling audacity to lift it into the ranks of (the best) Pixar films, the crème de la crème of modern animation. '' Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "No sketchy backgrounds here -- Ratatouille 's scenes feels like deep - focus camera shots. The textures, from the gleam of copper pans to the cobblestone streets, are almost palpable. '' Desson Thomson of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, saying "Ratatouille does n't center on the over-familiar surfaces of contemporary life. It harks back to Disney 's older era, when cartoons seemed part of a more elegant world with less edgy characters. ''
In its opening weekend in North America, Ratatouille opened in 3,940 theaters and debuted at number one with $47 million, the lowest Pixar opening since A Bug 's Life. However, in France, where the film is set, the film broke the record for the biggest debut for an animated film. In the UK, the film debuted at number one with sales over £ 4 million. The film has grossed $206.4 million in the United States and Canada and a total of $620.7 million worldwide, making it the seventh - highest - grossing Pixar film.
Ratatouille won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 80th Academy Awards and was nominated for four others: Best Original Score, Best Sound Editing, Best Sound Mixing, Best Original Screenplay, losing to Atonement, The Bourne Ultimatum (for both Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing), and Juno, respectively. At the time, the film held the record for the greatest number of Oscar nominations for a computer animated feature film, breaking the previous record held by Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo, and The Incredibles at four nominations, but tied with Aladdin for any animated film. In 2008, WALL - E surpassed that record with six nominations. As of 2013, Ratatouille is tied with Up and Toy Story 3 for animated film with the second - greatest number of Oscar nominations. Beauty and the Beast still holds the record for most Oscar nominations (also 6) for an animated feature film.
Furthermore, Ratatouille was nominated for 13 Annie Awards including twice in the Best Animated Effects, where it lost to Surf 's Up, and three times in the Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production for Janeane Garofalo, Ian Holm, and Patton Oswalt, where Ian Holm won the award. It won the Best Animated Feature Award from multiple associations including the Chicago Film Critics, the National Board of Review, the Annie Awards, the Broadcast Film Critics, the British Academy of Film and Television (BAFTA), and the Golden Globes.
If magazine described Ratatoing, a 2007 Brazilian computer graphics cartoon by Vídeo Brinquedo, as a "ripoff '' of Ratatouille. Marco Aurélio Canônico of Folha de S. Paulo described Ratatoing as a derivative of Ratatouille. Canônico discussed whether lawsuits from Pixar would appear. The Brazilian Ministry of Culture posted Marco Aurélio Canônico 's article on its website. In the end, Pixar reportedly did not seek legal action.
The primary video game adaptation of the film, titled Ratatouille, was released for all major consoles and handhelds in 2007. A Nintendo DS exclusive game, titled Ratatouille: Food Frenzy, was released in October 2007. Ratatouille is also among the films represented in Kinect Rush: A Disney - Pixar Adventure, released in March 2012 for Xbox 360.
The video game based on the movie was released in 2007 for Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Java ME, and mobile phones. A PlayStation 3 version was released on October 23, 2007. The other versions, however were all released on June 26, 2007.
A Disney theme park attraction based on the film has been constructed in Walt Disney Studios Park, Disneyland Paris. Ratatouille: L'Aventure Totalement Toquée de Rémy is based upon scenes from the film and uses trackless ride technology. In the attraction, riders "shrink down to the size of a rat ''. At the 2017 D23 Expo, Disney announced a similar, Ratatouille - based attraction would be built at the France Pavilion in Epcot 's World Showcase by 2021.
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when are the abdominal muscles involved in breathing | Muscles of respiration - wikipedia
The muscles of respiration are those muscles that contribute to inhalation and exhalation, by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm and, to a lesser extent, the intercostal muscles drive respiration during quiet breathing. Additional ' accessory muscles of respiration ' are typically only used under conditions of high metabolic demand (e.g. exercise) or respiratory dysfunction (e.g. an asthma attack).
The diaphragm is the major muscle responsible for breathing. It is a thin, dome - shaped muscle that separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, so that its center moves caudally (downward) and its edges move rostrally (upward). This compresses the abdominal cavity, raises the ribs upward and outward and thus expands the thoracic cavity. This expansion draws air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, elastic recoil of the thoracic wall causes the thoracic cavity to contract, forcing air out of the lungs.
The diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions, helping to expel vomit, faeces, and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.
Along with the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles are one of the most important groups of respiratory muscles. These muscles are attached between the ribs and are important in manipulating the width of the rib cage. There are three layers of intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles are most significant in respiration. These have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and forward from rib to rib. The contraction of these fibres raises each rib toward the rib above, with the overall effect of raising the rib cage, assisting in inhalation.
"Accessory muscles '' refers to muscles that assist, but do not play a primary role, in breathing. There is some controversy concerning which muscles may be considered accessory muscles of inhalation. However, the sternocleidomastoid and the scalene muscles (anterior, middle and posterior scalene) are typically considered accessory muscles of breathing. Both assist in elevating the rib cage. The involvement of these muscles seems to depend on the degree of respiratory effort. During quiet breathing, the scalenes are consistently phasically active, while the sternocleidomastoids are quiet. With an increase in the respiratory volume, sternocleidomastoids also become active. Both muscles are simultaneously activated when one breathes in at the maximal flow rate.
Apart from the above neck muscles, the following muscles have also been observed contributing to respiration: serratus anterior, pectoralis major and pectoralis minor, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, iliocostalis lumborum, quadratus lumborum, serratus posterior superior, serratus posterior inferior, levatores costarum, transversus thoracis, subclavius (Kendall et al., 2005).
Use of the accessory muscles while at rest is often interpreted as a sign of respiratory distress.
During quiet breathing, there is little or no muscle contraction involved in exhalation; this process is simply driven by the elastic recoil of the thoracic wall. When forceful exhalation is required, or when the elasticity of the lungs is reduced (as in emphysema), active exhalation can be achieved by contraction of the abdominal wall muscles (rectus abdominis, transverse abdominis, external oblique muscle and internal oblique muscle). These press the abdominal organs cranially (upward) into the diaphragm, reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
The internal intercostal muscles have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and backward from rib to rib. These muscles can therefore assist in lowering the rib cage, adding force to exhalation.
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when did gandhinagar become the capital of gujarat | Gandhinagar - wikipedia
Gandhinagar / ɡɑːndɪˈnɑːɡər / (pronunciation (help info)) is the capital of the state of Gujarat in Western India. Gandhinagar is located approximately 23 km north of Ahmedabad, on the west central point of the Industrial corridor between Delhi, the political capital of India, and Mumbai, the financial capital of India.
Gandhinagar, Gujarat 's new capital city, lies on the west bank of the Sabarmati River, about 545 km (338 miles) north of Mumbai, the financial capital of India and 901 km (560 miles) southwest of Delhi, the political capital. There is a provision of parks, extensive planting and a recreational area along the river giving the city a green garden - city atmosphere.
The Akshardham temple is located in Gandhinagar. There was a determination to make Gandhinagar a purely Indian enterprise, partly because the state of Gujarat was the birthplace of Mahatma Gandhi. For this reason, the planning was done by two Indian town planners: Prakash M Apte & H.K. Mewada, who had apprenticed with Le Corbusier in Chandigarh.
The new capital city was planned by Chief Architect H.K. Mewada, educated at Cornell University, and his assistant Prakash M Apte.
As of 2001 India census, Gandhinagar had a population of 195,891. Males constitute 53 % of the population and females 47 %. Gandhinagar has an average literacy rate of 77.11 %. Male literacy is 82 %, and female literacy is 73 %. In Gandhinagar, 11 % of the population is under 6 years of age. Over 95 % of the population of Gandhinagar are Hindus.
Gandhinagar has an average elevation of 81 metres (266 feet). The city sits on the banks of the Sabarmati River, in north - central - East Gujarat. The 20,543 km Area Around Gandhinagar is defined by Gujarat capital Territory. It spans an area of 205 km (79 sq mi). The river frequently dries up in the summer, leaving only a small stream of water. Gandhinagar is India 's tree capital With 54 % green cover on its land area.
Gandhinagar has a tropical wet and dry climate with three main seasons: summer, monsoon and winter. The climate is generally dry and hot outside of the monsoon season. The weather is hot to severely hot from March to June when the maximum temperature stays in the range of 36 to 42 ° C (97 to 108 ° F), and the minimum in the range of 19 to 27 ° C (66 to 81 ° F). It is pleasant in the winter days and quite chilling in the night during December to February. The average maximum temperature is around 29 ° C (84 ° F), the average minimum is 14 ° C (57 ° F), and the climate is extremely dry. The southwest monsoon brings a humid climate from mid-June to mid-September. The average annual rainfall is around 803.4 mm (31.63 in).
On 1 May 1960, Gujarat was created out of the 17 northern districts of former State of Bombay. These districts were further subdivided later on. There are 33 administrative districts in the state. Gandhinagar is a politics hub for the state of Gujarat. Sri L.k. Advani is Present Elected member for 19 years from Gandhinagar seat in Loksabha Election.
Congress won the first municipality election in 2011. Mahendrasinh Rana became the first mayor of the city.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport located in Ahmedabad is 18 km away from Gandhinagar, providing both domestic and international flights.
Gandhinagar Capital railway station (GNC) is located in Sector 14. Many trains running on the western zones pass through Gandhinagar. Currently there are 5 trains running from this station in which 3 are express trains and 2 are MEMU trains. Jaipur - Bandra Garib Rath, Haridwar mail for Delhi and Haridwar and Shanti Express for Indore Junction BG are main express trains running through this station.
Ahmedabad Railway Station in Kalupur Ahmedabad is the nearest rail junction (25 km away) which provides connectivity with all the major cities and towns of India. The Indian Railways transports are Available for Moving in Northern India & Eastern India From Kalol Railway Station.
The Governing Body of Gujarat planned for rapid transit in the city by proposing the Metro - Link Express for Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad (MEGA) also known as the Ahmedabad Metro. The contract for the four corridors of the system were awarded to Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) which also manages the Delhi Metro. Delhi Metro carried out a pre-feasibility survey in 2004 -- 05. In 2003, when the project was conceived, its cost was worked out at Rs 45 billion.
The DMRC (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd) has already done its techno - feasibility study and submitted its report. Gujarat government has recently re-approached Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) for a modified detailed project report (DRP) for a metro rail project in Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar.
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what do you call a person with two sexes | Hermaphrodite - wikipedia
In biology, a hermaphrodite is an organism that has complete or partial reproductive organs and produces gametes normally associated with both male and female sexes. Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have separate sexes. In these groups, hermaphroditism is a normal condition, enabling a form of sexual reproduction in which either partner can act as the "female '' or "male ''. For example, the great majority of tunicates, pulmonate snails, opisthobranch snails and slugs are hermaphrodites. Hermaphroditism is also found in some fish species and to a lesser degree in other vertebrates. Most plants are also hermaphrodites.
Historically, the term hermaphrodite has also been used to describe ambiguous genitalia and gonadal mosaicism in individuals of gonochoristic species, especially human beings. The word intersex has come into preferred usage for humans, since the word hermaphrodite is considered to be misleading and stigmatizing, as well as "scientifically specious and clinically problematic ''.
A rough estimate of the number of hermaphroditic animal species is 65,000. Since the estimated total number of animal species is 8.6 million, the percentage of animal species that are hermaphroditic is about 0.7 %. Arthropods are the phylum with the largest number of species. Most hermaphroditic species exhibit some degree of self - fertilization. The distribution of self - fertilization rates among animals is similar to that of plants, suggesting that similar processes are operating to direct the evolution of selfing in animals and plants.
The term derives from the Latin: hermaphroditus, from Ancient Greek: ἑρμαφρόδιτος, translit. hermaphroditos, which derives from Hermaphroditus (Ἑρμαφρόδιτος), the son of Hermes and Aphrodite in Greek mythology. According to Ovid, he fused with the nymph Salmacis resulting in one individual possessing physical traits of male and female sexes; according to the earlier Diodorus Siculus, he was born with a physical body combining male and female sexes. The word hermaphrodite entered the English lexicon as early as the late fourteenth century. Alexander ab Alexandro stated, using the term hermaphrodite, that the people who bore the sexes of both man and woman were regarded by the Athenians and the Romans as monsters, and thrown into the sea at Athens and into the Tiber at Rome.
Sequential hermaphrodites (dichogamy) occur in species in which the individual is born as one sex, but can later change into the opposite sex. This contrasts simultaneous hermaphrodites, in which an individual may possess fully functional male and female genitalia. Sequential hermaphroditism is common in fish (particularly teleost fish) and some jellyfish, many gastropods (such as the common slipper shell), and some flowering plants. Sequential hermaphrodites can only change sex once. Sequential hermaphroditism can best be understood in terms of behavioral ecology and evolutionary life history theory, as described in the size - advantage mode first proposed by Michael T. Ghiselin which states that if an individual of a certain sex could significantly increase its reproductive success after reaching a certain size, it would be to their advantage to switch to that sex.
Sequential hermaphrodites can be divided into three broad categories:
Dichogamy can have both conservation - related implications for humans, as mentioned above, as well as economic implications. For instance, groupers are favoured fish for eating in many Asian countries and are often aquacultured. Since the adults take several years to change from female to male, the broodstock are extremely valuable individuals.
A simultaneous (or synchronous) hermaphrodite (or homogamous) is an adult organism that has both male and female sexual organs at the same time. Self - fertilization often occurs.
When spotted hyenas were first discovered by explorers, they were thought to be hermaphrodites. Early observations of spotted hyenas in the wild led researchers to believe that all spotted hyenas, male and female, were born with what appeared to be a penis. The apparent penis in female spotted hyenas is in fact an enlarged clitoris, which contains an external birth canal. It can be difficult to determine the sex of wild spotted hyenas until sexual maturity, when they may become pregnant. When a female spotted hyena gives birth, they pass the cub through the cervix internally, but then pass it out through the elongated clitoris.
Hermaphrodite is used in older literature to describe any person whose physical characteristics do not neatly fit male or female classifications, but the term has been replaced by intersex. Intersex describes a wide variety of combinations of what are considered male and female biology. Intersex biology may include, for example, ambiguous - looking external genitalia, karyotypes that include mixed XX and XY chromosome pairs (46XX / 46XY, 46XX / 47XXY or 45X / XY mosaic).
Clinically, medicine currently describes intersex people as having disorders of sex development, a term vigorously contested. This is particularly because of a relationship between medical terminology and medical intervention. Intersex civil society organizations, and many human rights institutions, have criticized medical interventions designed to make intersex bodies more typically male or female.
Some people who are intersex, such as some of those with androgen insensitivity syndrome, outwardly appear completely female or male, frequently without realizing they are intersex. Other kinds of intersex conditions are identified immediately at birth because those with the condition have a sexual organ larger than a clitoris and smaller than a penis.
Some humans were historically termed true hermaphrodites if their gonadal tissue contained both testicular and ovarian tissue, or pseudohermaphrodites if their external appearance (phenotype) differed from sex expected from internal gonads. This language has fallen out of favor due to misconceptions and pejorative connotations associated with the terms, and also a shift to nomenclature based on genetics.
Intersex is in some caused by unusual sex hormones; the unusual hormones may be caused by an atypical set of sex chromosomes. One possible pathophysiologic explanation of intersex in humans is a parthenogenetic division of a haploid ovum into two haploid ova. Upon fertilization of the two ova by two sperm cells (one carrying an X and the other carrying a Y chromosome), the two fertilized ova are then fused together resulting in a person having dual genitalial, gonadal (ovotestes) and genetic sex. Another common cause of being intersex is the crossing over of the SRY from the Y chromosome to the X chromosome during meiosis. The SRY is then activated in only certain areas, causing development of testes in some areas by beginning a series of events starting with the upregulation of SOX9, and in other areas not being active (causing the growth of ovarian tissues). Thus, testicular and ovarian tissues will both be present in the same individual.
Fetuses before sexual differentiation are sometimes described as female by doctors explaining the process. This is technically not true. Before this stage, humans are simply undifferentiated and possess a Müllerian duct, a Wolffian duct, and a genital tubercle.
Hermaphrodite is used in botany to describe a flower that has both staminate (male, pollen - producing) and carpellate (female, ovule - producing) parts. This condition is seen in many common garden plants. A closer analogy to hermaphroditism in botany is the presence of separate male and female flowers on the same individual -- such plants are called monoecious. Monoecy is especially common in conifers, but occurs in only about 7 % of angiosperm species. The condition also occurs in some algae.
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season 1 episode 1 of big bang theory | The Big Bang Theory (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory was originally aired on CBS from September 24, 2007, to May 19, 2008, over 17 episodes. An unaired pilot also exists. The Season 1 DVD came without a gag reel and is, so far, the only Big Bang Theory DVD set not to have one. The reissued Blu - ray, was released July 10, 2012, and includes a gag reel that is exclusive to the set. The episodes on Blu - ray are all in remastered surround sound, whereas the DVD version had stereo. Two of the main cast, Sheldon and Leonard, are named after actor, director, and producer Sheldon Leonard.
Johnny Galecki and Sara Gilbert both selected the episode "The Hamburger Postulate '' as a Primetime Emmy Award submission for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series, respectively, at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards, but both ended up not receiving a nomination. Jim Parsons selected the episode "The Pancake Batter Anomaly '' as a Primetime Emmy Award submission for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards, but ended up not receiving a nomination.
The lives of physicists Dr. Leonard Hofstadter and Dr. Sheldon Cooper are shaken up when an attractive young aspiring actress from Omaha, Nebraska named Penny moves into the apartment across the hall from theirs. Leonard begins to become hopelessly enamored of Penny, while she feels only platonic affection for him; as a result, she finds herself putting up with his closest and ever - present friends: his roommate, Sheldon, who appears borderline obsessive - compulsive; engineering whiz Howard Wolowitz, a desperately sex - crazed mama 's boy who thinks that his 1960s - style clothing and hairstyle give him an air of cool hipness; and Dr. Rajesh "Raj '' Koothrappali, who will not speak to her as he is too shy to talk to women (a case of selective mutism), unless intoxicated in which case he becomes a smooth talking yet highly overly aggressive womanizing flirt.
During Season One, Sheldon loses his job for insulting his new boss, finds his ego bruised by a child prodigy, becomes unable to bear being part of a lie that Leonard has told, and is always attacking the world with a relentless need to assert his supremacy. Rajesh first learns that he can talk to women, but only when he is drunk, and Penny and Leonard finally go out in the season finale. It is so far the only season not to feature John Ross Bowie as the recurring character Barry Kripke and Kevin Sussman as Stuart Bloom.
The program 's initial pilot, developed for the 2006 / 07 television season, was substantially different from its current form. Only Johnny Galecki and Jim Parsons were in the cast, and their across - the - hall neighbor Katie was envisioned as "a street - hardened, tough - as - nails woman with a vulnerable interior ''. Katie was played by actress Amanda Walsh. They also had a female friend called Gilda (played by Iris Bahr). The program 's original theme music was also different, using Thomas Dolby 's hit "She Blinded Me with Science ''. The program was not picked up, but the creators were given an opportunity to revise it, bringing in the remaining leading cast and retooling the show to its current format. The original unaired pilot has never been released on any official format, but copies of it are on the internet with various collectors.
The second pilot of The Big Bang Theory was directed by James Burrows, who did not continue with the show. This reworked pilot led to a 13 - episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Prior to its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on iTunes free of charge. The show premiered September 24, 2007, and was picked up for a full 22 - episode season on October 19, 2007.
Production on the show was halted on November 6, 2007, due to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, only to be replaced by a short - lived sitcom, Welcome to the Captain on February 4, 2008, but returning on March 17, 2008, in an earlier time slot with nine new episodes.
David Saltzberg, a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, checks scripts and provides dialogue, math equations and diagrams used as props.
Clips from the season finale, "The Tangerine Factor '', gained popularity on the Chinese video - sharing website Tudou because of Sheldon 's inaccurate Mandarin.
When Sheldon and Leonard drop off a box of flat pack furniture that came for Penny, Sheldon is deeply disturbed at how messy and disorganized her apartment is. Later that night, while Penny sleeps, the obsessive - compulsive Sheldon, unable to sleep, sneaks into her apartment to organize and clean it. Leonard finds out and reluctantly helps him. The next morning, Penny is furious to discover they had been in her apartment. Sheldon tries to apologize to Penny but fails by remarking that Leonard is a "gentle and thorough lover ''. Later, Penny encounters Raj in the hallway. Though he can not talk to Penny, she calms down whilst telling him about the issue, reasoning the guys were just trying to help her, and hugs Raj. Then Leonard apologizes, prompting Penny to forgive and hug him.
When he sees Penny kissing a man in front of her apartment door, Leonard is devastated that she has "rejected '' him. The guys persuade him to date someone at work, so he approaches fellow scientist Leslie Winkle. In an experiment to strip the usual dating procedure to its essentials, she suggests fast forwarding to a kiss. She finds their kiss good but unexciting, so she turns him down. As Leonard becomes more depressed, thinking of buying a cat (hypoallergenic in view of Sheldon 's asthma - though in later episodes Leonard is the one with asthma), Sheldon points out Leonard was not actually rejected by Penny as he never asked her out, so Leonard asks her out to dinner. As she misinterprets this as an invitation to hang out with all the guys, he devises reasons for their absence from the date. Penny says the man Leonard saw was not her boyfriend: casual weekend sex helps her get over relationships. Leonard, excited, regains his confidence, but he accidentally hurts himself and Penny has to take him home. In the end, Leonard does not find the courage to reveal his true feelings to Penny, though she suspected what he was up to.
At the university Sheldon is fired from his job as a physicist after insulting his new boss Dr. Eric Gablehauser. Sheldon 's change of circumstance triggers a downward spiral of depression in which he fails to improve scrambled eggs, develops luminous fish for nightlights, and weaves on a hand loom. Worried, Leonard calls Sheldon 's mother, Mary Cooper. When she visits, the men realize she is the complete opposite of their expectations: she is sweet, down - to - earth, a devout Christian, and a loving and caring mother. Mary finally forces Sheldon to apologize, who is given his job back after she flirts with Dr. Gablehauser.
The guys, eating at the Cheesecake Factory where Penny works, are approached by Leslie Winkle. She wants Leonard to play cello in her string quartet as the other players are uncomfortable near the current cellist who was possibly irradiated at work. After the quartet practise in Leonard and Sheldon 's apartment, Leslie seduces Leonard for the night, making Sheldon so uneasy that he repeatedly asks Penny 's advice. Penny later congratulates Leonard, who tries to figure out what she meant. Leonard decides to pursue a real relationship with Leslie rather than an imaginary one with Penny, but at her lab, Leslie makes it clear she is not interested in a relationship: she just needed him for a one - night stand to satisfy her sex drive - which is now satisfied until New Year. Leonard later tells Penny, who reassures him and walks away smiling.
Penny invites the guys to her Halloween party. They at first decline as they do not dance, but accept when costumes are mentioned. At the party they have problems socializing: Sheldon is unable to explain his Doppler effect costume since none of Penny 's friends are physicists or smart enough to understand it; Raj (dressed as Thor) can not speak to women; Howard as Robin Hood is mistaken for Peter Pan; and Leonard (dressed as Frodo Baggins from The Lord of the Rings) is insecure. Penny 's ex-boyfriend Kurt (underdressed as a very tall, muscular caveman) later shows up and aggressively confronts Leonard, causing him (and later Penny) to leave. Penny goes to check on Leonard and apologizes for Kurt 's behavior. She is very upset, but Leonard tells her she is perfect, and they kiss, though Penny confesses she is drunk. They kiss again, in sight of Kurt, Leonard saying "That 's how we roll at the Shire! '' before locking his apartment door in panic. Meanwhile, Howard can not find Raj, who is at home sleeping with a girl who finds him to be a "very good listener ''.
Penny 's promiscuous acquaintance Christy from Omaha, Nebraska, "kind of family '' since she slept with Penny 's brother whilst engaged to her cousin, arrives to visit Penny indefinitely, and immediately beds Howard in Penny 's apartment which the pair take over. Penny replaces Howard as a Halo 3 player and displays natural talent, to Sheldon 's disbelief. To avoid the noisy "lovers '', Penny sleeps on Leonard and Sheldon 's couch that night. Next day, Howard invites Christy to move in with him (and his mother), taking up all his time. Distraught at the odd number in the group, Sheldon invites Penny to play Halo again, but she prefers to go dancing. The guys believe their group is falling apart and go to speak to Howard. There they hear Howard 's mother arguing loudly with Christy, causing her to leave. Howard, single again, goes to play Halo with the guys, and the group is restored, completely ignoring Penny and her three attractive dancing friends who briefly appear at the door.
Raj introduces his parents, Dr. V.M. Koothrappali and Mrs. Koothrappali, to his friends via webcam. However, Raj is overwhelmed when his parents try to arrange him a date with Lalita Gupta, a childhood friend and dental student, as he can not talk to women. To Raj 's annoyance, Howard, using a fake Indian accent to impersonate Raj, phones Lalita to set up a date for them. Meanwhile, Penny takes up bar tending for some extra money. She practices mixing drinks with the guys, and they discover Raj is able to speak to women after drinking alcohol. They decide his date should be at Penny 's restaurant so she and the guys can keep an eye on Raj 's behavior when drinking. On his date, Raj becomes an obnoxious drunk. After Sheldon flatters Lalita with compliments comparing her to Princess Panchali, an Indian fairy tale princess, she takes him away for a meal, to Raj 's horror. When Raj tries to explain all this to his parents, they are angry about his drinking. Leonard asks Sheldon if he plans to see Lalita again, but he replies that he already has a dentist.
Leonard cleans up after an Internet experiment, and in the trash can he finds an invitation to him and Sheldon to present their joint research at an academic conference. Sheldon disapproves of presenting research in person, but Leonard defies him and goes alone. This causes a rift between the two which Penny tries to mend but accidentally makes worse. Sheldon appears at the conference and tries to discredit Leonard 's presentation by attempting to "blow up '' Leonard 's head with his mind à la the movie Scanners, starting a physical altercation between the two. Howard films the fight on his cellphone and puts it on YouTube, but angers Penny by also posting a photo on Facebook of her sleeping on his shoulder during the presentation, entitled "Me and my girlfriend ''.
Penny is given a part in the musical Rent, but after Leonard and Sheldon hear her off - key singing (Sheldon commenting, "if cats could sing, they 'd hate it too ''), Leonard lies to avoid having to see her perform and hurt her feelings. Sheldon, worried that Leonard 's lie was inadequate, devises an intricate lie about his nonexistent drug - addicted cousin "Leopold Houston '' needing an intervention the night of the play). Sheldon is so obsessed with his lie 's credibility that he has Toby Loobenfeld, a research assistant who double majored in Physics and Theatre, impersonate cousin "Leo '' to convince Penny the lie is true. In the end, Leonard must still see the video of Penny 's performance, and Penny and "Leo '' start flirting.
Penny returns from visiting family in Nebraska, but mentions while picking up mail from Leonard that most of her relatives became sick. Sheldon, a germophobe according to Leonard, freaks out and becomes sick, becoming demanding on top of his already obnoxious personality. Familiar with Sheldon being sick, Leonard and the guys hide from him at a Planet of the Apes series marathon, leaving Penny to care for Sheldon. However, Leonard breaks his glasses in the cinema and has to retrieve his spare pair from the apartment, piloted by Howard and Raj using a laptop, an endoscope, and a Bluetooth helmet camera worn by the short - sighted Leonard. Penny intercepts him and abandons him to his fate with Sheldon. Leonard tries to escape, but runs into a wall and nearly knocks himself out. In the end, injured Leonard and sick Sheldon sit miserably on the couch.
Sheldon becomes envious when he meets 15 - year - old child prodigy Dennis Kim, who was invited to work at the university, and soon realizes that not only is Kim similar to himself (an obnoxious and arrogant child prodigy), but is even smarter than he. Sheldon loses faith in his own research and annoys his friends by criticizing their work more than ever and forcing his own contributions on them. Finding his physics work useless, he aims for the Nobel Peace Prize by attempting to solve all Middle East conflicts, but he annoys everyone, including a Jewish professor, with his proposal that an exact duplicate of Jerusalem be built in the Mexican desert. The others, tired of Sheldon 's behavior, decide to distract Kim with girls of the same age. Their plan unexpectedly works at Kim 's welcome party, and Kim leaves with a blonde 15 - year - old. Sheldon resumes his research while the others are perplexed at how easily Kim was able to get a girl. In a park, the guys spot him drinking heavily and making out. They feel sorry at his demise, but the victorious Sheldon mocks him.
The guys decide to compete in a physics bowl after the strong competitors drop out, but Sheldon 's showboating is too much, and they eject him from the team. Sheldon, upset, vows to form his own team and compete against them. The guys, in need of a fourth member, ask Leslie Winkle. She at first declines, but accepts on hearing they are opposing Sheldon, who has often criticized her research and gender. The guys name themselves PMS (Perpetual Motion Squad, an unintentional pun on premenstrual syndrome). Sheldon 's team is named AA (Army Ants, an unintentional pun on Alcoholics Anonymous), and comprises Sheldon (who forbids answers from his team mates), the 3rd floor janitor, the lunch lady, and her son (or possibly her butcher). PMS win when Sheldon, unable to answer the last question, refuses to accept the janitor 's answer, which is actually correct: he explains that despite working as a janitor in America, he was a physicist in the former Soviet Union.
In an online auction, Leonard buys a full - sized replica of the time machine from the 1960 film The Time Machine, believing it to be a miniature. The men 's efforts to move the cumbersome object into the apartment cause Penny to lose a work shift, and she lashes out at them for their obsession with childish memorabilia. This upsets Leonard, who decides to sell all his collectibles. His friends try to dissuade him, but they also want his collectibles and argue over who should get what. Sheldon later accuses Penny of hypocrisy, pointing out her own love of such things as Hello Kitty or Care Bears. Penny apologizes to Leonard and dissuades him from abandoning the things he loves; he decides to keep his belongings. His hope of a relationship with her is thus very briefly renewed until her current boyfriend Mike appears and pulls her into her apartment. Sheldon later has nightmares of being attacked by Morlocks, and persuades Leonard to return the time machine replica.
Sheldon introduces his twin sister Missy to the guys, and all are attracted to her. Raj decides to take part in a drug trial to cure his inability to talk to women, and Leonard insists Missy stay with them at the apartment. Predictably, the men all awkwardly flirt with her, so Penny comes to her rescue. Leonard, hoping for an advantage over Howard and Raj, convinces Sheldon he is Missy 's guardian as concerns her choice of partner. Sheldon deems all three guys to be unsuitable for her. On learning of Sheldon 's plan to find her a suitable mate, Missy confronts her brother, and after she kicks him in the groin he agrees she can date whoever she likes. She turns down Leonard, and then Howard, who fails to charm her with simple conjuring tricks. Finally Raj goes to talk to Missy, who shows interest in him, but the drug wears off and he is unable to speak to her, forcing Raj to leave defeated.
Penny learns that Leonard has never had a birthday party, as his parents did not believe in celebrating anything other than achievements. She decides to throw him a surprise party, and blackmails Sheldon to join in by threatening to draw a smiley face on each of his mint condition comic books. However, on the day of the party, Penny discovers Sheldon has not yet bought a present, so she has to drive him to a computer store to buy one. Meanwhile, Howard has the task of keeping Leonard out of his apartment before the party. Howard pretends to eat a peanut bar, to which he is allergic, so that Leonard will drive him to the emergency room. However, Sheldon 's lack of focus at the computer store means Howard has to distract Leonard even longer, and he eventually actually eats the peanut bar, swelling up in a severe allergic reaction. After several hours at the hospital, Howard and Leonard arrive back at the apartment to find the party has ended, though Penny does kiss Leonard.
Penny furiously breaks up with Mike after he posts details of their sex life on his blog, while Sheldon, determined to prove that the Chinese restaurant uses oranges instead of tangerines in their "Tangerine chicken '', asks Howard to teach him Mandarin. When Penny laments her choice of men, Leonard awkwardly asks her out. After a few days, both worry that this relationship could ruin their friendship, and each seeks Sheldon 's advice. Sheldon uses the "Schrödinger 's cat '' thought experiment to explain that the date has both "good '' and "bad '' possible outcomes, and the only way to determine which outcome is to go on the date. When Leonard arrives to pick up Penny, he mentions the thought experiment and kisses her passionately. She concludes that "the cat is alive '' and they leave for dinner. Leonard and Penny go to the Chinese restaurant, but they leave before entering on seeing Sheldon arguing with the owner in Mandarin, and doing it very badly, disturbing the patrons.
The Big Bang Theory initially received mixed reviews, receiving 55 % "rotten '' score on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 22 reviews, with the critics consensus reading "The Big Bang Theory brings a new class of character to mainstream television, but much of the comedy feels formulaic and stiff. '' It also received a 57 - point score on review aggregator Metacritic, indicating "mixed or average reviews '', based on 23 reviews.
Tom Shales of The Washington Post gave the show a positive review, saying "Big Bang is the funniest new sitcom of the season ''. Robert Bianco of USA Today also gave the show a positive review, saying "This may not be the sitcom breakthrough for which we 've all been hoping, but Lorre has produced a first episode that leaves you eager to try the second ''.
David Bianculli of New York Daily News criticized the dialogue, particularly when the male characters explain jokes, writing that "People tuning in to Big Bang may not all be Mensa members, but they wo n't all be idiots, either '', Henry Goldblatt of Entertainment Weekly criticized the premise and plot of early episodes, writing that "To call this a one - joke sitcom would be a stretch '', and Tim Goodman of San Francisco Chronicle criticized the stereotypes presented in the characters, and wrote that "the writing here is so moronic and the situations so forced and mundane ''.
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why did britain and france declare war on germany in september 1939 | British and French Declaration of war on Germany - wikipedia
The Declaration of war by France and the United Kingdom was given on 3 September 1939, after German forces invaded Poland. Despite the speech being the official announcement of both France and the United Kingdom, the speech was given by the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, in Westminster, London.
Below is the speech, given by Neville Chamberlain.
I am speaking to you from the Cabinet Room at 10, Downing Street.
This morning the British Ambassador in Berlin Nevile Henderson handed the German Government a final note stating that unless we heard from them by 11 o'clock, that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland, that a state of war would exist between us.
I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany.
You can imagine what a bitter blow it is to me that all my long struggle to win peace has failed. Yet I can not believe that there is anything more or anything different that I could have done and that would have been more successful.
Up to the very last it would have been quite possible to have arranged a peaceful and honourable settlement between Germany and Poland, but Hitler would not have it.
He had evidently made up his mind to attack Poland whatever happened; and although he now says he put forward reasonable proposals which were rejected by the Poles, that is not a true statement.
The proposals were never shown to the Poles nor to us; and though they were announced in a German broadcast on Thursday night, Hitler did not wait to hear comments on them, but ordered his troops to cross the Polish frontier the next morning.
His action shows convincingly that there is no chance of expecting that this man will ever give up his practice of using force to gain his will. He can only be stopped by force, and we and France are today, in fulfilment of our obligations, going to the aid of Poland, who is so bravely resisting this wicked and unprovoked attack upon her people. We have a clear conscience. We have done all that any country could do to establish peace. The situation in which no word given by Germany 's ruler could be trusted and no people or country could feel itself safe has become intolerable.
And now that we have resolved to finish it, I know that you will all play your part with calmness and courage.
At such a moment as this the assurances of support that we have received from the Empire are a source of profound encouragement to us.
When I have finished speaking certain detailed announcements will be made on behalf of the Government. Give these your closest attention.
The Government have made plans under which it will be possible to carry on the work of the nation in the days of stress and strain that may be ahead. But these plans need your help.
You may be taking part in the fighting Services or as a volunteer in one of the branches of civil defence. If so you will report for duty in accordance with the instructions you have received.
You may be engaged in work essential to the prosecution of war for the maintenance of the life of the people -- in factories, in transport, in public utility concerns or in the supply of other necessaries of life. If so, it is of vital importance that you should carry on with your jobs.
Now may God bless you all. May He defend the right. It is the evil things that we shall be fighting against -- brute force, bad faith, injustice, oppression and persecution -- and against them I am certain that the right will prevail.
At the conclusion of the First World War, the German Empire signed the First Armistice at Compiègne on 11 November 1918 as an end to hostilities with France, the British Empire, and the United States during the convoluted German Revolution of 1918 -- 19, which began 29 October 1918.
Negotiations between the Allied powers regarding post-war Europe started on 18 January 1919 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Seventy delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. The opposing nations of the German Empire and the Austro - Hungarian Empire were excluded from the negotiations. At first a "Council of Ten '' comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan met officially to decide the peace terms. It became the "Big Four '' when Japan dropped out and the top person from each of the other four nations met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions to be ratified by the entire assembly. In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June 1919, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty.
On 28 June 1919, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, a peace treaty which ended the formal state of war and imposed various punitive measures upon Germany, including military restriction, loss of territory and colonies, war debt, and effective acceptance of blame for the initiation of hostilities in World War I. At the time of the armistice, an attempted Communist revolution transpired (October 1918 - August 1919), resulting in the abdication of the Emperor of Germany in November 1918, and what became known as the Weimar Republic was subsequently established in the wake of the uprising. The transition from monarchy to republic was difficult, and many in the new government were not supportive of the democratic system of government. The officer class gave little support to the Republic, and Germany was forced to borrow money from the United States and others to pay its war debt, imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. In the early 1920s a period of hyperinflation made the Reichsmark almost worthless. In January 1922, one US dollar was worth 191 Marks, but by November of the same year it was equal to 4,200,000,000 Marks.
In 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Reich following a contentious election. Under Hitler 's leadership, the Reichstag turned the government into an effective dictatorship under Hitler 's oversight on 21 March 1933 with the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, and the economic hardships were significantly diminished via implementation of new economic and social policies. After five years in power, Hitler annexed Austria, former component of the Austro - Hungarian Empire (allies of the former German Empire), into Germany, despite such an act (specifically, "prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations '') being banned by both the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye and the Treaty of Versailles. In early November 1938, the First Vienna Award was signed, allowing Germany to seize the Sudetenland, a German - speaking area of Czechoslovakia which had been a part of the German Empire - allied Austro - Hungarian Empire. Soon after, Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and also gained Memelland (part of the former German Empire from 1871 - 1920) through the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania.
While some sources claim Hitler still wanted more, to create Lebensraum, or "living space '', for Germany, other sources claim evidence of hostility on behalf of Polish partisans toward ethnic Germans in the Danzig Corridor (territory lost to Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles) which may have served as a motivating factor for the German invasion (often portrayed as propaganda to justify German expansionism).
Two Western powers, the United Kingdom and France, gave guarantees to Poland that they would declare war if Polish independence came under threat, as presented in a statement to the House of Commons by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 31 March 1939 (formalized by the British 6 April 1939; not ratified until 4 September 1939 by the French):
... in the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence, and which the Polish Government accordingly considered it vital to resist with their national forces, His Majesty 's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all support in their power. They have given the Polish Government an assurance to this effect.
I may add that the French Government have authorised me to make it plain that they stand in the same position in this matter as do His Majesty 's Government.
Although they honoured these guarantees by declaring war soon after Germany 's Invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, and although the dominions of the British Empire quickly followed suit, so little practical assistance was given to Poland, which was soon defeated, that in its early stages the war declared by Britain and France was described as a "Phoney War ''.
Further, neither the British Empire, nor the French, ever declared war upon the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland on 17 September 1939 (17 days after Nazi Germany invaded from the West) and held sway over the former - Polish territory at the war 's conclusion, having become a part of the Allied front in the course of World War II. At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the post-war Yalta Conference in 1945 sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government - in - exile based in London.
The following excerpts of the speech were sampled by the drum and bass artist S.P.Y. in his remix of Black Sun Empire 's track "Potemkin '': - "that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland, a state of war would exist between us '' - "I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany '',
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i want to be in that number meaning | Talk: when the Saints go Marching in - Wikipedia
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I have consolidated as many varients of the title as I could find, redirecting the others here. I then rewrote the article using information gleaned from them all and adding substantial new work of my own. B00P 08: 14, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
... in 1926. Stephan KŒNIG 01: 10, 26 February 2006 (UTC)
((WikiProject Songs)) ((WikiProject R&B and Soul Music class = C auto = Inherit importance =)) removed, ((WikiProject The Beatles)) contains same functionality
I do not agree with this song being placed only under the Beatles banner as it is not primarily known as a Beatles song. This is n't a "She Loves You '' situation. 23skidoo 18: 00, 16 August 2006 (UTC)
With the creation of the Performers of When the Saints Go Marching In page, and the transfer of the artists ' templates there, the issue has become moot. B00P (talk) 07: 06, 12 November 2008 (UTC)
(WHEN THE SAINTS GO MARCHING IN
Is an American Negro Spiritual and is the theme song for both the City of New Orleans and the football team, the Saints who were named for the City 's theme song.
The practice of copyrighting songs which would have been considered folk or spiritual was ubiquitous in the 1800 's and into the early 1900 's. But Alan Lomax in "Folk Songs of North America '' 1960 places "Saints '' in the Negro Spiritual section of his book. Page 449.
"The backwoods whites, who owned few slaves, often brought them to their summer revival meetings, where the Negroes contributed to the singing and to the general excitement. This contemporary account of a camp meeting in frontier Alabama captures the irony inherent in this moment of human comedy... ''
Lomax then quotes an amusing episode from Johnson Hooper 's (1815 -- 1862) "Simon Suggs Attends Camp Meeting ''.
Lomax goes on to write "The white camp meeting hymn, "The Old Ship of Zion '', crossed the race line on some such occasion... Negro Folk singers have used the melody to create a whole family of spirituals -- "The Gospel Train '', "The Whole Round World '', "Way Beyond the Sun '', and, best known of all, "The Saints ''. '' Lomax includes the verse, "When the sun refuse to shine ''.
The song IS apocalyptic. Our church sang, "When the stars refuse to shine '' The words refer to the biblical end of world concept when the stars will no longer be seen because the sun will fill the sky both day and night. Of course people will never live to see it because we will all be burned to a crisp long before the sun goes nova. Expanding to a red sun will kill all life upon the earth, boil away all water and set the volcanoes ablaze. The Saints will have marched on in by then.
Is n't it notable that those non-literate African shepherds got the order right, from the beginning ball of gas without form and void to the blazing fiery finish when the sun goes nova and wipes out the solar system and returns to a ball of gas without form and void.
The ' playmate ' concept is modern. The original (sic) words were "Oh once I had a brother, he was near and dear to my soul. But he did not love the Lord, so he shall not go! ''
Yes the Preservation Hall musicians ' sign changed from $1, $2, $5 in increments of $2, $5, $10 to $5, $10, $20 conforming to inflation.
And no the song did not originate in the Bahamas.
© 9 - 11 - 2013 Roselyn Lionhart, New Orleans, LA 70172 - 0813)
There appears to be at least some evidence that the song originated in the Bahamas, for instance here - (1) - I think this could be added to the article.
(This Negro Spiritual was sung in Alabama & Tennessee before the Civil War.)
I originally heard from people in my area that the writer of this song was Luther Presley and he was from just outside of Searcy in White County, Arkansas. Further investigation leads me to believe that this may be true. Here is an article originally published in the Arkansas Democrat Gazette (2) -- -- The preceding unsigned comment was added by 162.40. 177.30 (talk contribs).
(The Fisk Jubilee Singers first sang "THE SAINTE '' as part of their repertoire of Spirituals in 1867!)
Origin: late 1890 's. I have 1950 's Dukes of Dixieland record liner notes which state the first documented accounts of hearing Oh When the Saints come from the late 1890 's. I can quote that if you 're interested. Furthermore, I found: When The Saints Go Marching In - 1896 (by Katherine E. Purvis & James M. Black) on popular music of the 1800s
A section on origins are needed. Fig (talk) 16: 18, 13 December 2009 (UTC)
The explanation of the song 's origins is a real mess the way it is written. The article says that the song is a "Belgian christian hymn '' of "unknown origins '' that "originated as an "American gospel hymn '' that was written by Luther G. Presley & Virgil Oliver Stamps. Several contradictions in there. Jim C. (talk) 13: 16, 23 October 2012 (UTC)
I think this song is far too ubiquitous to have every version mentioned, but blues artist Barbecue Bob did a version of the song (would have been 1927 - 28) that had some other lyrics. MDuchek (talk) 18: 53, 17 November 2007 (UTC)
Back when I consolidated this article (see above), one feature was out of proportion to the rest. So many athletic teams use the song that merely naming them threatened to overwhelm the article. It seemed a good idea to create a separate page, When The Saints Go Marching In in sport, and move the entries there. By organising the teams by categories, fixing a standard layout for entries, and supplying links to the teams themselves, the new article made it easy for fans to include their favorite sides. They have done so, and the page is doing quite well, thank you.
It is now time to repeat the process. The removal of the sports entries to their own page granted space for the expansion of this article, and contributors have improved it beyond what was originally here. However, one type of contribution is problematic. So many artists have performed the song that, again, just listing them takes up too much space. Additionally, merely mentioning that singer X has recorded it, or that it plays when one scores on pinball machine Y, can for this article only be considered Trivia. Therefore, I have created a new article, Performers of When the Saints Go Marching In, and transferred such information there. On that page such entries will be valuable contributions. Further, contributors will not feel constrained to limit themselves to the bare mention of particular performances, but will be free to expand on them.
It is now necessary to determine the proper place to draw the line in this article regarding artists. As Louis Armstrong was the one most responsible for bringing the song to full public consciouness, he belongs here. Anyone before him is, also, part of the historical development, and remains. Later artists may be considered as "covering '' Armstrong, and should be noted on the new page. The exceptions are Fats Domino and Bill Haley, who get brief mentions here (and longer ones there), for transforming it to a rock - and - roll format.
Some Wikiproject announcements and categories have been shifted to the new article, where they make more sense. B00P (talk) 21: 59, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
I am removing the following line "The song is a slight modification (in 1927) of the similarly titled song "When the Saints are Marching In '' from 1896 by Katharine Purvis (lyrics) and James Milton Black (music). ", for although the two songs have similar names, they do not have similar music or lyrics. There is good information about this at NetHymnal.org (3). -- Preceding unsigned comment added by LadyIslay (talk contribs) 06: 15, 26 October 2009 (UTC)
Regarding the song 's composition, the website of the Southern Gospel Music Association (SGMA) claims that harp (i.e. shaped note) composer V.O. Stamps wrote the music and Luther G. Presley wrote the lyrics.
Whether this is true or not, non-identification of the song 's authors is a major shortcoming of the main article. 76.247. 164.135 (talk) 19: 14, 6 January 2010 (UTC)
What 's the meaning of "Lord, I want to be in that number ''? I guess it 's something like "when the saints are marching in, I want to be part of the event '' / "join them '' but I do n't really understand the "number '' part and ca n't find the "wanting to be in that number '' as a phrase anywhere else. Joepnl (talk) 01: 27, 13 August 2010 (UTC)
NHawke (talk) 21: 28, 9 February 2011 (UTC)
As you have inferred, Joepnl, "that number '' has a very specific meaning. As the article 's section had already explained, the verses of the song are recounting events told in the Book of Revelations, with eclipses of the Sun and Moon, etc. The "number '' given in Revelations is the 144 thousand people who were "sealed '' and "redeemed from the earth ''. The book lists where these 144 thousand come from, with 12 thousand from each of the Tribes of Israel (12 x 12 = 144). I 've just added this info to the article, including a link to the article on 144,000. It 's interesting to note that the Bible does not refer to this group as saints, but if out of all the billions of people alive on the planet only 144 thousand are redeemed (that 's roughly 0.2 % of one percent!) then one might conclude that the author of the lyrics is making a safe assumption. -- Tdadamemd (talk) 19: 43, 17 April 2012 (UTC)
Removed specific Jehovas Witness explanation of "saints '' as strict 144000. The common religious interpretation of the term "saints '' is either an especially holy member of heaven or any general resident; using the JW interpretation (and explaining it here) does n't really make sense, as A) there 's no evidence presented that the original author meant the song in the JW sense, B) the JW interpretation of the passage referring to 144,000 as the total of saints in heaven represents a fringe minority of general christian interpretation, and C) as Tdadamemd noted, the JW bible does n't refer to these people as "saints '' at all, so applying JW theology to the term seems particularly inappropriate. -- 71.63. 21.14 (talk) 15: 31, 1 October 2015 (UTC)
While they had many real fight songs, this was used by the Naval Academy (and probably other colleges as well) as yet another song played at football games in the 1950s. It was a "crowd pleaser '' at the time and got quite a rise out of everyone. Student7 (talk) 19: 42, 1 November 2010 (UTC)
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what are the caesars properties in las vegas | List of Caesars Entertainment properties - wikipedia
List of Caesars Entertainment properties contains all properties owned or operated by Caesars Entertainment Corporation.
(Formerly owned by London Clubs International)
(Formerly owned by London Clubs International)
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when did they stop selling cigarettes in vending machines | Cigarette machine - wikipedia
A cigarette machine is a vending machine that takes cash in payment for packs of cigarettes. Vending machines often dispense packs containing 16 or 18 cigarettes, although the dimensions of the packaging are the same as the equivalent pack containing 20.
In order to aid the restriction of sale of tobacco to minors, cigarette machines are regulated in many countries.
Since July 2008, companies may face prosecution if found selling tobacco to anyone under the legal age, 20 years old. To avoid this, Japan has introduced a government registered electronic smart card, called Taspo, that allows the user to purchase from the machines. To get a Taspo card, the purchaser must present their passport or ID to any government - authorized business offering the service.
As an automated way of determining age, the Fujitaka company is developing a technology that allows the vending machine to determine, using a digital camera and based on the facial wrinkles and sags of the potential buyer, whether the buyer is old enough to purchase cigarettes. The system compares facial characteristics including bone structure, sags, and crow 's feet against a record of more than 100,000 people. However, if the user fails they can still use the machine with a Taspo card.
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why there is accumulation of fluid in hypoproteinemia | Hypoproteinemia - Wikipedia
Hypoproteinemia is a condition where there is an abnormally low level of protein in the blood. There are several causes that all result in edema once serum protein levels fall below a certain threshold.
Decreased serum protein reduces the osmotic pressure of the blood, leading to loss of fluid from the intravascular compartment, or the blood vessels, to the interstitial tissues, resulting in edema. This is termed as hypoproteinemia.
Hypoproteinemia is often confirmed by testing for serum albumin and total protein levels.
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when did can't touch this come out | U Ca n't Touch This - wikipedia
"U Ca n't Touch This '' is a song co-written, produced and performed by MC Hammer from his 1990 album Please Hammer, Do n't Hurt ' Em. The track is considered to be Hammer 's signature song and is his most successful single.
Along with Hammer, Rick James shares songwriting credits with Alonzo Miller because the song samples the prominent opening riff of "Super Freak ''. The song has been used or referenced in multiple television shows, films, commercials and other forms of media. It has also received numerous awards and recognitions.
The song is notable as the winner of the Best R&B Song and a Best Rap Solo Performance and the first rap song to be nominated for Record of the Year at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards in 1991 as well as the Best Rap Video and Best Dance Video at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards. It peaked at number one in the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks and on the charts in several countries.
The song samples the prominent opening riff of the Rick James song "Super Freak '', which is repeated throughout the recording. The lyrics describe Hammer as having "toured around the world, from London to the Bay '' and as being "magic on the mic '', which Hammer says coincides with James ' "beat that you ca n't touch ''. Additionally, the song lyrics "You ca n't touch this '' and "Stop! Hammer time! '' became pop culture catchphrases. Hammertime was later used as the title of a reality show starring Hammer on the A&E Network in the summer of 2009.
The sample of "Super Freak '' that forms the basis of the song led Rick James and other performers on the original record to file a lawsuit for infringement of copyright. The suit was settled out of court when Hammer agreed to credit James as a songwriter, effectively granting James millions of dollars in royalties.
The song was first performed publicly on a late 1989 episode of The Arsenio Hall Show.
Because the song was not initially released as a single, listeners had to purchase the album, which as a result, went on to sell more than 18 million copies, gaining multi-platinum certifications from the RIAA, as well as in other countries.
Directed by Rupert Wainwright, a music video was produced to promote the single, showing Hammer doing some of his signature dances, such as "The Running Man '' and the "Hammer Dance ''.
In April 1990 "U Ca n't Touch This '' hit the Top 40. The song also secured a Best R&B Song and a Best Rap Solo Performance in 1991, a new category at the time and the first rap song to be nominated for Record of the Year. The single was a major success, reaching # 1 on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks and no. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100. The track also performed successfully in other parts of the world, peaking at no. 1 in Australia, Netherlands, New Zealand and Sweden, and no. 3 on the UK Singles Chart.
In September 1990, the video for "U Ca n't Touch This '' won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video and Best Dance Video and was nominated for Best Male Video, Best Editing, and Best Choreography. In 1991, Kids Incorporated covered "U Ca n't Touch This '' in the Season 7 episode "Pipe Dreams ''.
In 1999, MTV 's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made included "U Ca n't Touch This '' at No. 71. In October 2000, VH1 's "100 Greatest Dance Songs '' included "U Ca n't Touch This '' at No. 88. In May 2001, VH1 's 100 Greatest Videos included "U Ca n't Touch This '' at No. 59.
In August 2005, "U Ca n't Touch This '' was certified gold. In December 2007, VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s '' included the song at No. 16. During 2008, the song ranked as No. 26 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.
The song is used comically in various films of the 2000s and 2010s such as Bubble Boy, Charlie 's Angels: Full Throttle, Kung Pow! Enter the Fist, Shark Tale, White Chicks, Racing Stripes, Transformers: Age of Extinction and Transformers: The Last Knight, among others.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1991, a parody entitled "I Ca n't Watch This '' was released by "Weird Al '' Yankovic for his album Off the Deep End, with lyrics complaining about bad TV shows overlaid on the song 's music track and featuring samples of various commercials during the breakdowns. A groove metal cover of the song was performed by the Austrian NDH band Stahlhammer, infused with death growls and heavy guitar riffs.
Before the 1990 NFL season started, the Miami Dolphins parodied the song as "U Ca n't Touch Us ''.
Peter Griffin parodies this song as "Ca n't Touch Me '' in the Family Guy episode, "E. Peterbus Unum '', giving examples of flaunting his diplomatic immunity, including telling MC Hammer that he can not sue for plagiarism and walking on the grass.
Grup Vitamin, Turkish parody group, parodies this song as "Dokundur '' in "Bol Vitamin '' album in 1990 and as "Sürtündürt '' in "Grup Vitamin '' one in 1991.
The TV sitcom Mrs. Brown 's Boys performed "U Ca n't Touch This '' as a dance routine at the end of the 2015 Christmas episode. It is also played by Agnes Brown 's Christmas tree, that punches anyone who gets too close; the tree says the opening "U Ca n't Touch This! '', then boxing gloves extend, punching the would - be thief.
The Annoying Orange parodies the song as "Ca n't Squash This ''.
The theme song for the British children comedy talk TV show Hacker Time is a parody of the song, but the lyrics ended with "Sorted Hacker Time ''.
The YouTube channel "How It Should Have Ended '' created a parody, titled "Not Worthy '', featuring various clips of Thor within the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
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avatar the last airbender season 2 episode 29 | Avatar: the Last Airbender (season 2) - wikipedia
Season Two (Book Two: Earth) of Avatar: The Last Airbender, an American animated television series on Nickelodeon, first aired its 20 episodes from March 17, 2006 to December 1, 2006. The season was created and produced by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, and starred Zach Tyler Eisen, Mae Whitman, Jack DeSena, Jessie Flower, Dante Basco, Dee Bradley Baker, Mako Iwamatsu and Grey DeLisle as the main character voices.
In this season, Aang and his friends Katara and Sokka are on a quest to find an Earthbending teacher which finishes when they recruit Toph Beifong. After finding important information concerning the war with the Fire Nation, Appa ends up kidnapped. Their journey leads to Ba Sing Se, the capital of the Earth Kingdom, where they uncover great internal government corruption. Meanwhile, due to their actions at the North Pole, Zuko and Iroh are declared enemies of the Fire Nation and desert their country, becoming fugitives in the Earth Kingdom. Pursuing both Zuko and Aang is Princess Azula, Zuko 's younger sister.
Throughout the season 's airing, the show received much critical acclaim, with praises such as, "As a flat concept, Avatar: The Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children 's entertainment '', and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent. '' Season 2 has won multiple awards, including the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production '' award from the 34th Annie Awards and the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation '' award from the 2007 Emmy Awards.
Between January 23, 2007 and September 11, 2007, Nickelodeon released five DVD sets for the season: four sets containing five episodes each, and a fifth DVD collection of all twenty episodes. All DVDs were encoded in Region 1. In the United Kingdom, only the season boxset was released without being released in four volumes first. The boxset was released on July 20, 2009.
The season was produced by and aired on Nickelodeon, which is owned by Viacom. The season 's executive producers and co-creators are Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, who worked alongside episode director and co-producer Aaron Ehasz. Most of the individual episodes were directed by Ethan Spaulding, Lauren MacMullan and Giancarlo Volpe. Episodes were written by a team of writers, which consisted of Aaron Ehasz, Elizabeth Welch Ehasz, Tim Hedrick, John O'Bryan; along with creators DiMartino and Konietzko.
The season 's music was composed by "The Track Team '', which consists of Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn, who were known to the show 's creators because Zuckerman was Konietzko 's roommate.
Most of the main characters from the first season remained the same: Zach Tyler Eisen voices Aang, Mae Whitman voices Katara, Jack DeSena voices Sokka, Dee Bradley Baker voices both Appa and Momo, and Dante Basco voices Zuko.
However, several new characters appear: Jessie Flower voices Toph Beifong, Grey DeLisle voices Azula, Cricket Leigh voices Mai, Olivia Hack voices Ty Lee, and Clancy Brown voices Long Feng.
Mako Iwamatsu, who voiced Iroh, died from throat cancer after production was completed; he was replaced by Greg Baldwin for the following season and The Legend of Korra.
In a review of the Volume 2 DVD Release for Book 2, Gabriel Powers from DVDActive.com described the series as one of the best children 's series in recent times, making comparisons with Samurai Jack and Justice League, and complimented it for its depth and humour. Powers also comments:
For the video and audio quality, Powers says "Season two generally looks better than the bulk of season one, but still has some issues '' concerning image sharpness. Rotten Tomatoes gave it an 87 % fresh rating in 2008. Jamie S. Rich from DVD Talk says that "As a flat concept, Avatar the Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children 's entertainment '', and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent ''.
The show also received acclaim for its visual appeal. In the 34th Annie Awards, the show was nominated for and won the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production '' award, for Jae - Myung Yu 's animation in "The Blind Bandit '', and the "Best Directing in an Animated Television Production '' award, for the episode "The Drill ''. In 2007, the show was nominated for "Outstanding Animated Program '' in the 2007 Emmy Awards for the "City of Walls and Secrets '' episode, though it did not win. However, the show did win the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation '' award for Sang - Jin Kim 's animation in the "Lake Laogai '' episode.
Sokka decides the group needs some intelligence to defeat the Fire Lord. At an oasis, the group encounters a professor who tells them about a hidden Spirit Library in the desert. Inside, Sokka discovers a crucial weakness to the Fire Nation that could end the war: the date of the upcoming solar eclipse which will cripple the firebenders ' firebending. The spirit of the library, Wan Shi Tong, refuses to allow them to leave with the knowledge and sinks the library into the sand. Meanwhile, Appa is kidnapped by Sandbenders. They all escape from the library but are devastated by the loss of Appa.
Aang and the rest of the group arrive in Ba Sing Se to find Appa and inform the Earth King about the solar eclipse, but they are constantly hindered by their tour guide, Joo Dee. They soon learn that any mention of war is forbidden and enforced by the Dai Li, secret police of Ba Sing Se, and their corrupt leader, Long Feng, who appears to know something about Appa. Elsewhere, Jet repeatedly tries and fails to gather evidence that Zuko and Iroh are firebenders. His last attempt, challenging Zuko to a sword fight, ends in his own arrest and being brainwashed by the Dai Li into believing there is no war in the city.
"The Tales of Ba Sing Se '' is a set of vignettes about each of the main characters ' adventures in Ba Sing Se, providing a glimpse of their personalities and private lives.
Note: Iroh 's tale was dedicated to his voice actor Mako Iwamatsu, who had just died 7 days after Chapters 10 and 11 initially aired.
After being abducted, Appa is traded to the Fire Nation Circus where the Circus Trainer mistreats him, though the Sky Bison soon escapes with the help of a small boy. He later unwillingly enters a fight with a Boarcupine, and though wins, is badly wounded. By fortune, Suki and the Kyoshi warriors come across Appa and help him recover from his injuries, but are later attacked by Azula and her team and Appa is forced to flee. He returns to his childhood home at the Eastern Air Temple, where he encounters a mysterious guru. The guru aids Appa in his search for Aang, telling him to find Aang in Ba Sing Se, but before he is able to, he is captured by Long Feng.
Nickelodeon began releasing DVDs for Book 2 on January 23, 2007. The first four DVD releases contain one disc that consisted of five episodes each. The final DVD was the "Complete Book 2 Box Set '', which contains all of the episodes in the season on four discs, and packaged with a special features disc. All of the DVD sets for Book 2 were released with Region 1 encoding, meaning that they can only play on North American DVD players. Book 2 was released on Region 2 on July 20, 2009.
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when was the administration of justice act passed | Administration of Justice Act 1774 - wikipedia
The Administration of Justice Act, or Act for the Impartial Administration of Justice, also popularly called the Murdering Act or Murder Act, was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain. It became law on 20 May 1774. It is one of the measures (variously called the Intolerable Acts, the Punitive Acts or the Coercive Acts by many colonists) that were designed to secure Britain 's jurisdiction over the American dominions. These Acts included the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, and the Quebec Act. The Act allowed the royally appointed governor to remove any acquisition placed on a royal official by a patriot, if the governor did not believe the official would have a fair trial. The Act was referred to as the "Murder Act '' because the patriots believed that the official could get away with capital offences.
To assure trials more conducive to the Crown than the prejudices of local juries, the Act granted a change of venue to another British colony or Great Britain in trials of officials charged with a crime growing out of their enforcement of the law or suppression of riots. Witnesses for both sides were also required to attend the trial and were to be compensated for their expenses.
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describe an interesting tradition of the u.s. senate | Traditions of the United States Senate - wikipedia
The United States Senate observes a number of traditions, some formal and some informal. Some of the current and former traditions are described below:
From the Senate 's earliest days, the new members have observed a ritual of remaining silent during floor debates for a period of time. Depending on the era and the Senator, this has ranged from several months to several years. Today, this obsolescent Senate tradition survives only in part -- the special attention given to a member 's first major address, or maiden speech.
Beginning in 1904 and continuing every other year until the 1950s, new members of Congress were given a copy of the Jefferson Bible, an edited version of the Bible by Thomas Jefferson that excluded what he felt were statements about the supernatural. Until the practice first stopped, copies were provided by the Government Printing Office. A private organization, the Libertarian Press, revived the practice in 1997.
The procedural activities of the Senate are guided by the Standing Rules of the Senate. Tradition states that each day is begun with the Chaplain 's Daily Prayer, which can be given by the Senate chaplain, or a representative of any faith. Following the prayer, the Senate recites the Pledge of Allegiance.
At the end of a session of Congress it is traditional for Senators to read speeches into the Congressional Record praising the efforts of colleagues who will not be returning for the next session.
If a Senator dies in office, it is traditional for the Senate to adjourn for a day and for U.S. flags to be flown at half - staff. A black cloth and a vase filled with white roses are placed over the deceased Senator 's desk, and a large contingent of Senators often travel to the home state of the departed senator to pay their respects.
The Senate holds an annual reading of President George Washington 's Farewell Address. This tradition, originally designed to be a morale - boosting gesture during the darkest hours of the American Civil War, began on February 22, 1862.
A number of items located around the Senate chamber are steeped in tradition.
In 1819 new desks were ordered for the senators to replace the original set which was destroyed in the British attack on Washington in the War of 1812. The Daniel Webster desk has the oldest design as it lacks a 19th - century modification to add extra storage space to the top. When Daniel Webster acquired this seat, he pronounced that if his predecessor could organize himself to work with the reduced desk space, so could he. Every subsequent senator who has sat at that desk has also declined to have it improved. In keeping with a 1974 Senate resolution, this desk is assigned to the senior Senator from Webster 's birth state, New Hampshire. Jeanne Shaheen has been the occupant of this desk since 2011.
In the early twentieth century, a tradition of senators engraving their own name on the bottom of the desk drawers emerged.
In 1965, California senator George Murphy began a tradition of keeping a desk near the back of the chamber stocked with candy. This continues today.
The unique Senate gavel is made of ivory and has an hourglass shape with no handle. It was presented to the Senate by the Republic of India and first used on November 17, 1954. It replaced the gavel in use since at least 1789, which had deteriorated over the years and finally cracked during the 1954 Senate session when then Vice President Richard Nixon (acting as President of the Senate) used it. Prior to this an attempt to further prevent damage to the old gavel was done by adding silver plates to both ends. Both gavels are kept in a mahogany box that is carried to the senate floor by a page; at the adjournment of a senate session the gavels are taken to the Sergeant at Arms ' office for safekeeping.
According to custom, bean soup is available on the Senate dining room menu every day. This tradition, which dates back to the early twentieth century, is variously attributed to a request by Senator Fred Dubois of Idaho, or, in another version of the story, to Senator Knute Nelson of Minnesota. The Dubois includes mashed potatoes and yields five gallons of soup.
There are two Senate soup recipes:
The Famous Senate Restaurant Bean Soup Recipe 2 pounds dried navy beans four quarts hot water 1 1 / 2 pounds smoked ham hocks 1 onion, chopped 2 tablespoons butter salt and pepper to taste Wash the navy beans and run hot water through them until they are slightly whitened. Place beans into pot with hot water. Add ham hocks and simmer approximately three hours in a covered pot, stirring occasionally. Remove ham hocks and set aside to cool. Dice meat and return to soup. Lightly brown the onion in butter. Add to soup. Before serving, bring to a boil and season with salt and pepper. Serves 8.
Bean Soup Recipe (for five gallons) 3 pounds dried navy beans 2 pounds of ham and a ham bone 1 quart mashed potatoes 5 onions, chopped 2 stalks of celery, chopped four cloves garlic, chopped half a bunch of parsley, chopped Clean the beans, then cook them dry. Add ham, bone and water and bring to a boil. Add potatoes and mix thoroughly. Add chopped vegetables and bring to a boil. Simmer for one hour before serving.
As a body, the Senate tends to afford great deference to any member 's objection regarding a nominee to a federal office having geographical ties to that member 's state, especially when the objecting member has the same party affiliation as the president. Objections from members of the party in opposition to the president generally are not afforded the same weight. However, the blue slip policy of the Judiciary Committee allows even members of the president 's opposition party to block nominees to positions as federal district and appellate court judges, U.S. attorneys, and federal marshals.
Another custom relating to the Senate 's power "to advise and consent '' is that when a nominee for federal office is a current or former U.S. senator, the nomination generally proceeds towards a vote without first being referred to the relevant committee. Additionally, senators will tend vote their approval of the nominee, even when the nominee is of the other party, although they are not bound by the custom to do so. Only in exceedingly rare instances has the Senate referred such nominations to committee or rejected the nominee.
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who plays bernadette on the big bang theory | Melissa Rauch - wikipedia
Melissa Ivy Rauch (born June 23, 1980) is an American actress and comedian. She is known for playing Dr. Bernadette Rostenkowski - Wolowitz on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory.
Rauch was born in Marlboro Township, New Jersey, to a Jewish family. Her parents are Susan and David Rauch. She has a brother, Ben. She developed an interest in acting while attending Marlboro High School. Rauch graduated from Marymount Manhattan College in New York City in 2002.
Some of Rauch 's early work was as a regular contributor to VH1 's Best Week Ever television show.
In 2009, Rauch began playing the recurring role of Bernadette Rostenkowski, a co-worker of Penny who began to date Howard Wolowitz, in the third season of TV 's The Big Bang Theory. The following season her character became Howard 's fiancée and Rauch was promoted to a series regular. The characters married in the season five finale. In December 2011, Rauch and fellow cast members of The Big Bang Theory received the first of four nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series.
Other acting credits include True Blood (on which she had a recurring role in 2010 as Summer, a girl who likes Hoyt), The Office, the American remake of the Australian TV series Kath & Kim, Wright v Wrong, and the film I Love You, Man.
Rauch is also part of the cast of the comedic stage show The Realest Real Housewives with Casey Wilson, June Diane Raphael, Jessica St. Clair and Danielle Schneider. The show began running at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in 2011.
Rauch co-wrote and co-produced the film The Bronze, in which she starred as Hope Annabelle Greggory, a bronze medal - winning gymnast clinging to her glory days of 12 years earlier. It opened the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. Variety said, "Rauch, who co-wrote the screenplay with her husband Winston, has never carried a film before. But she delivers the best breakthrough comedic performance by an actress since Melissa McCarthy in Bridesmaids. '' Sony Pictures Classics acquired the film in September 2015.
In 2017, Rauch voiced Harley Quinn in the animated film Batman and Harley Quinn.
Rauch is married to writer Winston Rauch (né Beigel), who collaborated with her on The Miss Education of Jenna Bush and other projects. Rauch announced that she was pregnant on July 11, 2017, and disclosed that she had a miscarriage previously.
Rauch modeled the voices of Bernadette after her parents: the "sweet, high - pitched purr '' is modeled after her mother, while the "eerie, haranguing imitation '' of Mrs. Wolowitz is modeled after her father. Both are "very different '' from Rauch 's real voice.
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where do the organisms in the first trophic level get their energy from | Trophic level - wikipedia
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The word trophic derives from the Greek τροφή (trophē) referring to food or nourishment. A food chain represents a succession of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn, eaten themselves. The number of steps an organism is from the start of the chain is a measure of its trophic level. Food chains start at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, move to herbivores at level 2, predators at level 3 and typically finish with carnivores or apex predators at level 4 or 5. The path along the chain can form either a one - way flow or a food "web ''. Ecological communities with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths.
The concept of trophic level was developed by Raymond Lindeman (1942), based on the terminology of August Thienemann (1926): "producers '', "consumers '' and "reducers '' (modified to "decomposers '' by Lindeman).
The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers.
Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.
In real world ecosystems, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. A diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web. Decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain. Thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. Since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level.
In general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level. Food chains can be diagrammed to illustrate the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to the next in a food chain. This is called an energy pyramid. The energy transferred between levels can also be thought of as approximating to a transfer in biomass, so energy pyramids can also be viewed as biomass pyramids, picturing the amount of biomass that results at higher levels from biomass consumed at lower levels.
The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is called the ecological efficiency. Consumers at each level convert on average only about 10 % of the chemical energy in their food to their own organic tissue (the ten - percent law). For this reason, food chains rarely extend for more than 5 or 6 levels. At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the food chain), plants convert about 1 % of the sunlight they receive into chemical energy. It follows from this that the total energy originally present in the incident sunlight that is finally embodied in a tertiary consumer is about 0.001 %
Both the number of trophic levels and the complexity of relationships between them evolve as life diversifies through time, the exception being intermittent mass extinction events.
Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers, because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level. For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are carnivores. A large carnivore may eat both smaller carnivores and herbivores; the bobcat eats rabbits, but the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. Animals can also eat each other; the bullfrog eats crayfish and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. The feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up.
The fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers), three in secondary consumers, and so on. The definition of the trophic level, TL, for any consumer species is:
where T L j (\ displaystyle TL_ (j)) is the fractional trophic level of the prey j, and D C i j (\ displaystyle DC_ (ij)) represents the fraction of j in the diet of i.
In the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes value between 2.0 and 5.0. The upper value, 5.0, is unusual, even for large fish, though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and killer whales.
In addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through stable isotope analysis of animal tissues such as muscle, skin, hair, bone collagen. This is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3 -- 4 ‰.
In fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year y as:
where Y i y (\ displaystyle Y_ (iy)) is the catch of the species or group i in year y, and T L i (\ displaystyle TL_ (i)) is the trophic level for species i as defined above.
Fish at higher trophic levels usually have a higher economic value, which can result in overfishing at the higher trophic levels. Earlier reports found precipitous declines in mean trophic level of fisheries catch, in a process known as fishing down the food web. However, more recent work finds no relation between economic value and trophic level; and that mean trophic levels in catches, surveys and stock assessments have not in fact declined, suggesting that fishing down the food web is not a global phenomenon. However Pauly et al. note that trophic levels peaked at 3.4 in 1970 in the northwest and west - central Atlantic, followed by a subsequent decline to 2.9 in 1994. They report a shift away from long - lived, piscivorous, high - trophic - level bottom fishes, such as cod and haddock, to short - lived, planktivorous, low - trophic - level invertebrates (e.g., shrimps) and small, pelagic fish (e.g., herrings). This shift from high - trophic - level fishes to low - trophic - level invertebrates and fishes is a response to changes in the relative abundance of the preferred catch. They argue this is part of the global fishery collapse.
Since biomass transfer efficiencies are only about 10 %, it follows that the rate of biological production is much greater at lower trophic levels than it is at higher levels. Fisheries catches, at least to begin with, will tend to increase as the trophic level declines. At this point the fisheries will target species lower in the food web. In 2000, this led Pauly and others to construct a "Fisheries in Balance '' index, usually called the FiB index. The FiB index is defined, for any year y, by
where Y y (\ displaystyle Y_ (y)) is the catch at year y, T L y (\ displaystyle (TL) _ (y)) is the mean trophic level of the catch at year y, Y 0 (\ displaystyle Y_ (0)) is the catch, T L 0 (\ displaystyle (TL) _ (0)) the mean trophic level of the catch at the start of the series being analyzed, and T E (\ displaystyle TE) is the transfer efficiency of biomass or energy between trophic levels.
The FiB index is stable (zero) over periods of time when changes in trophic levels are matched by appropriate changes in the catch in the opposite direction. The index increases if catches increase for any reason, e.g. higher fish biomass, or geographic expansion. Such decreases explain the "backward - bending '' plots of trophic level versus catch originally observed by Pauly and others in 1998.
One aspect of trophic levels is called tritrophic interaction. Ecologists often restrict their research to two trophic levels as a way of simplifying the analysis; however, this can be misleading if tritrophic interactions (such as plant -- herbivore -- predator) are not easily understood by simply adding pairwise interactions (plant -- herbivore plus herbivore -- predator, for example). Significant interactions can occur between the first trophic level (plant) and the third trophic level (a predator) in determining herbivore population growth, for example. Simple genetic changes may yield morphological variants in plants that then differ in their resistance to herbivores because of the effects of the plant architecture on enemies of the herbivore. Plants can also develop defenses against herbivores such as chemical defenses.
Depending on the nature of the species the precise trophic level of the species may be somewhat ambiguous and its precise value may vary depending on the source. Virtually all plants as well as phytoplankton and similar organisms are classified at level 1.0. Many worms would be typically classified at level 2.1; a typical insect 2.2; a jellyfish 3.0; a typical bird 3.6. A 2013 study published in the National Academy of Sciences estimates the average trophic level of human beings at 2.21, similar to pigs or anchovy. This is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. For example, a traditional Eskimo living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5.
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where did the plague first strike in europe how long did it take to reach england | Black Death in England - wikipedia
The Black Death was a pneumonic plague pandemic, which reached England in June 1348. It was the first and most severe manifestation of the Second Pandemic, caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria. The term "Black Death '' was not used until the late 17th century.
Originating in China, it spread west along the trade routes across Europe and arrived on the British Isles from the English province of Gascony. The plague seems to have been spread by flea - infected rats, as well as individuals who had been infected on the continent. Rats were the reservoir hosts of the Y. pestis bacteria and the Oriental rat flea was the primary vector.
The first known case in England was a seaman who arrived at Weymouth, Dorset, from Gascony in June 1348. By autumn, the plague had reached London, and by summer 1349 it covered the entire country, before dying down by December. Low estimates of mortality in the early twentieth century have been revised upwards due to re-examination of data and new information, and a figure of 40 -- 60 % of the population is widely accepted.
The English government handled the crisis well, and the country did not experience the extreme reactions that were seen elsewhere in Europe. The most immediate consequence was a halt to the campaigns of the Hundred Years ' War. In the long term, the decrease in population caused a shortage of labour, with subsequent rise in wages, resisted by the landowners, which caused deep resentment among the lower classes. The Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 was largely a result of this resentment, and even though the rebellion was suppressed, in the long term serfdom was ended in England. The Black Death also affected artistic and cultural efforts, and may have helped advance the use of the vernacular.
In 1361 -- 62 the plague returned to England, this time causing the death of around 20 % of the population. After this the plague continued to return intermittently throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, in local or national outbreaks. From this point on its effect became less severe, and one of the last outbreaks of the plague in England was the Great Plague of London in 1665 -- 66.
It is impossible to establish with any certainty the exact number of inhabitants in England at the eve of the Black Death, and estimates range from 3 to 7 million. The number is probably in the higher end, and an estimate of around 6 million inhabitants seems likely. Earlier demographic crises − in particular the Great Famine of 1315 -- 1317 − had resulted in great numbers of deaths, but there is no evidence of any significant decrease in the population prior to 1348. England was still a predominantly rural and agrarian society; close to 90 % of the population lived on the countryside. Of the major cities, London was in a class of its own, with perhaps as many as 70,000 inhabitants. Further down the scale were Norwich, with around 12,000 people, and York with around 10,000. The main export, and the source of the nation 's wealth, was wool. Until the middle of the century the export had consisted primarily of raw wool to cloth makers in Flanders. Gradually though, the technology for cloth making used on the Continent was appropriated by English manufacturers, who started an export of cloths around mid-century that would boom over the following decades.
Politically, the kingdom was evolving into a major European power, through the youthful and energetic kingship of Edward III. In 1346, the English had won a decisive battle over the Scots at the Battle of Neville 's Cross, and it seemed that Edward III would realise his grandfather Edward I 's ambition of bringing the Scots under the suzerainty of the English crown. The English were also experiencing military success on the continent. Less than two months before the Battle of Neville 's Cross, a numerically inferior English army led by the king himself won a spectacular victory over the French royal forces at the Battle of Crécy. The victory was immediately followed by Edward laying siege to the port city of Calais. When the city fell the next year, this provided the English with a strategically important enclave that would remain in their possession for over two centuries.
The term "Black Death '' -- which refers to the first and most serious outbreak of the Second Pandemic -- was not used by contemporaries, who preferred such names as the "Great Pestilence '' or the "Great Mortality ''. It was not until the seventeenth century that the term under which we know the outbreak today became common, probably derived from Scandinavian languages. It is generally agreed today that the disease in question was plague, caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria. These bacteria are carried by fleas, which can be transferred to humans through contact with rats. Flea bites carry the disease into the lymphatic system, through which it makes its way to the lymph nodes. Here the bacteria multiply and form swellings called buboes, from which the term bubonic plague is derived. After three or four days the bacteria enter the bloodstream, and infect organs such as the spleen and the lungs. The patient will then normally die after a few days. A different strain of the disease is pneumonic plague, where the bacteria become airborne and enter directly into the patient 's lungs. This strain is far more virulent, as it spreads directly from person to person. These types of infection probably both played a significant part in the Black Death, while a third strain was more rare. This is the septicaemic plague, where the flea bite carries the bacteria directly into the blood stream, and death occurs very rapidly.
A study reported in 2011 of skeletons exhumed from the "Black Death '' cemetery in East Smithfield London found Yersina Pestis DNA. An archeological dig in the vicinity of Thornton Abbey in Lincolnshire was reported in the science section of The Guardian for Nov. 30 2016 not only confirming evidence of Yersina Pestis in the DNA of the human remains exhumed there but dating it to mid-1349.
Genotyping showed that it was (at that time) a newly evolved strain, ancestor of all modern strains and proved the "Black Death '' was caused by bubonic plague. Modern medical knowledge would suggest that because it was a new mutation meant immune systems would have had little or no defence against it, which helps to explain its virulence.
The "Black Death '' seems to have originated in Central Asia, where Yersina Pestis bacterium is endemic in the rodent population. It is unknown exactly what caused the outbreak, but a series of natural occurrences likely brought humans into contact with the infected rodents. The epidemic reached Constantinople in the late spring of 1347, through Genoese merchants trading in the Black Sea. From here it reached Sicily in October that same year, and by early 1348 it had spread all over the Italian mainland. It spread rapidly through France, and had reached as far north as Paris in June 1348. Moving simultaneously westward, it arrived in the English province of Gascony around the same time.
According to the chronicle of the grey friars at King 's Lynn, the plague arrived by ship from Gascony to Melcombe in Dorset -- today normally referred to as Weymouth -- shortly before "the Feast of St. John The Baptist '' on 24 June 1348. Other sources mention different points of arrival, including Bristol and Southampton. Though the plague might have arrived independently at Bristol at a later point, the Grey Friars ' Chronicle is considered the most authoritative account. If it is assumed that the chronicle reports the first outbreak of the plague, rather than its actual arrival, then the arrival most likely happened around 8 May.
From Weymouth the disease spread rapidly across the south - west. The first major city to be struck was Bristol. London was reached in the autumn of 1348, before most of the surrounding countryside. This had certainly happened by November, though according to some accounts as early as 29 September. Arrival in London happened by three principal roads: overland from Weymouth -- through Salisbury and Winchester -- overland from Gloucester, and along the coast by ship. The full effect of the plague was felt in the capital early the next year. Conditions in London were ideal for the plague: the streets were narrow and flowing with sewage, and houses were overcrowded and poorly ventilated. By March 1349 the disease was spreading in a haphazard way across all of southern England.
During the first half of 1349 the Black Death spread northwards. A second front opened up when the plague arrived by ship at the Humber, wherefrom it spread both south and north. In May it reached York, and during the summer months of June, July and August, it ravaged the north. Certain northern counties, like Durham and Cumberland, had been the victim of violent incursions from the Scots, and were therefore left particularly vulnerable to the devastations of the plague. Pestilence is less virulent during the winter months, and spreads less rapidly. The Black Death in England had survived the winter of 1348 -- 49, but during the following winter it gave in, and by December 1349 conditions were returning to relative normalcy. It had taken the disease approximately 500 days to traverse the entire country.
In order to treat patients infected with the plague, various methods were used including sweating, bloodletting, forced vomiting, and urinating. Several symptoms of the illness included blotches, hardening of the glands under the groin and underarms, and dementia. Within the initial phase of the disease, bloodletting was performed on the same side of where the physical manifestations of the buboes or risings appeared. For instance, if a rising appeared on the right side of the groin the physician would bleed a vein in the ankle on the same side. In the case of sweating, it was achieved with such medicines as Mithridate, Venice - Treacle, Matthiolus, Bezoar - Water, Serpentary Roots and Electuarium de Ovo. Sweating was used when measures were desperate; if a patient had tokens, a severe version of risings, the physician would wrap the naked patient in a blanket drenched in cold water. This measure was only performed while the patient still had natural heat in his system. The desired effect was to make the patient sweat violently and thus purge all corruption from the blood which was caused by the disease.
Another practice was the use of pigeons when treating swellings. Swellings which were white in appearance and deep were unlikely to break and must be anointed with Oil of Lillies or Camomil. Once the swelling rises to a head and is red in appearance and not deep in the flesh, it can be broken with the use of a feather from a young pigeon 's tail. The feather 's fundament was held to the swelling and would draw out the venom. However, if the swelling dropped and became black in appearance since it had taken in coldness, the physician had to be cautious when drawing the cold from the swelling. If it was too late to prevent, the physician would take the young pigeon, cut her open from breast to back, break her open and apply the pigeon (while still alive) over the cold swelling. The cupping therapy was an alternative method which was heated and then placed over the swellings. Once the sore was broken, the physician would apply Mellilot Plaister with Linimentum Arcei and heal the sore with digence.
Although historical records for England were more extensive than those of any other European country, it is still extremely difficult to establish the death toll with any degree of certainty. Difficulties involve uncertainty about the size of the total population, as described above, but also issues regarding the proportion of the population that died from the plague. Contemporary accounts are often grossly inflated, stating numbers as high as 90 %. Modern historians give estimates of death rates ranging from around 25 % to over 60 % of the total population.
The pioneering work in the field was made by Josiah William Russell in his 1948 British Medieval Population. Russell looked at inquisitions post mortem (IPMs) -- taken by the crown to assess the wealth of the greatest landowners after their death -- to assess the mortality caused by the Black Death, and from this arrived at an estimate of 23.6 % of the entire population. He also looked at episcopal registers for the death toll among the clergy, where the result was between 30 -- 40 %. Russell believed the clergy was at particular risk of contagion, and eventually concluded with a low mortality level of only 20 %.
Several of Russell 's assumptions have been challenged, and the tendency since has been to adjust the assessment upwards. Philip Ziegler, in 1969, estimated the death rate to be at around one third of the population. Jeremy Goldberg, in 1996, believed a number closer to 45 % would be more realistic. A 2004 study by Ole Jørgen Benedictow suggests the exceptionally high mortality level of 62.5 %. Assuming a population of 6 million, this estimate would correspond to 3,750,000 deaths. Such a high percentage would place England above the average that Benedictow estimates for Western Europe as a whole, of 60 %. A death rate at such a high level has not been universally accepted in the historical community.
In 2016, Carenza Lewis reported the results of a new method of assessing the death toll. She argues that pottery before and after the Black Death is datable because there was a change at that time from the high medieval to the late medieval style, and that counts of pottery of each type therefore provide a useful proxy for long term changes in population. She and her colleagues analysed pottery sherds from test pits in over fifty continuously occupied rural settlements in eastern England, and found a decline in the number of pottery producing pits of 45 %. Norfolk had the greatest drop of 65 %, while there was no drop in 10 % of settlements, mostly commercial centres.
Archbishop Zouche of York issued a warning throughout the diocese in July 1348 (when the epidemic was raging further south) of ' great mortalities, pestilences and infections of the air '.
The ' Great Mortality ', as it was then known, entered Yorkshire around February 1349 and quickly spread through the diocese. The clergy were on the front line of the disease, bringing comfort to the dying, hearing final confessions and organising burials. This, almost by necessity, put them at a greater risk of infection.
Estimates suggest that the death rate of clergy in some parts of the archdiocese could have been as high as 48 %. This is reflected in the Ordination Register, which shows a massive rise in ordained clergy over the period -- some being recruited before the arrival of plague in a clerical recruitment drive, but many once plague had arrived, replacing those who had been killed. The nation 's population decreased by a third causing a labor shortage and giving the lower class negotiating power against their overlords. In 1346, 111 priests and 337 acolytes were recruited. In 1349, 299 priests and 683 acolytes are named, with 166 priests being ordained in one session alone in February 1350. ''
Russell trusted the IPMs to give a true picture of the national average, because he assumed death rates to be relatively equal across the social spectrum. This assumption has later been proven wrong, and studies of peasant plague mortality from manor rolls have returned much higher rates. This could be a consequence of the elite 's ability to avoid infection by escaping plague - infected areas. It could also result from lower post-infection mortality among those more affluent, due to better access to care and nursing. If so, this would also mean that the mortality rates for the clergy -- who were normally better off than the general population -- were no higher than the average.
The manorial records offer a good opportunity to study the geographical distribution of the plague. Its effect seems to have been about the same all over England, though a place like East Anglia, which had frequent contact with the Continent, was severely affected. On a local level, however, there were great variations. A study of the Bishop of Worcester 's estates reveal that, while his manors of Hartlebury and Hambury had a mortality of only 19 %, the manor of Aston lost as much as 80 % of its population. The manor rolls are less useful for studying the demographic distribution of the mortality, since the rolls only record the heads of households, normally an adult male. Here the IPMs show us that the most vulnerable to the disease were infants and the elderly.
There seem to have been very few victims of the Black Death at higher levels of society. The only member of the royal family who can be said with any certainty to have died from the Black Death was in France at the time of her infection. Edward III 's daughter Joan was residing in Bordeaux on her way to marry Pedro of Castile in the summer of 1348. When the plague broke out in her household she was moved to a small village nearby, but she could not avoid infection, and died there on 2 September. It is possible that the popular religious author Richard Rolle, who died on 30 September 1349, was another victim of the Black Death. The English philosopher William of Ockham has been mentioned as a plague victim. This, however, is an impossibility. Ockham was living in Munich at the time of his death, on 10 April 1347, two years before the Black Death reached that city.
Among the most immediate consequences of the Black Death in England was a shortage of farm labour, and a corresponding rise in wages. The medieval world - view was unable to interpret these changes in terms of socio - economic development, and it became common to blame degrading morals instead. The landowning classes saw the rise in wage levels as a sign of social upheaval and insubordination, and reacted with coercion. In 1349, King Edward III passed the Ordinance of Labourers, fixing wages at pre-plague levels. The ordinance was reinforced by Parliament 's passing of the Statute of Labourers in 1351. The labour laws were enforced with ruthless determination over the following decades.
These legislative measures proved largely inefficient at regulating the market, but the government 's repressive measures to enforce them caused public resentment. These conditions were contributing factors to the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381. The revolt started in Kent and Essex in late May, and once the rebels reached London they burnt down John of Gaunt 's Savoy Palace, and killed both the Chancellor and the Treasurer. They then demanded the complete abolition of serfdom, and were not pacified until the young King Richard II personally intervened. The rebellion was eventually suppressed, but the social changes it promoted were already irreversible. By around 1400 serfdom was virtually extinct in England, replaced by the form of tenure called copyhold.
It is conspicuous how well the English government handled the crisis of the mid-fourteenth century, without descending into chaos and total collapse in the manner of the Valois government of France. To a large extent this was the accomplishment of administrators such as Treasurer William de Shareshull and Chief Justice William Edington, whose highly competent leadership guided the governance of the nation through the crisis. The plague 's greatest effect on the government was probably in the field of war, where no major campaigns were launched in France until 1355.
Another notable consequence of the Black Death was the raising of the real wage of England (due to the shortage of labour as a result of the reduction in population), a trait shared across Western Europe, which in general led to a real wage in 1450 that was unmatched in most countries until the 19th or 20th century. The higher wages for workers combined with sinking prices on grain products led to a problematic economic situation for the gentry. As a result, they started to show an increased interest for offices like justice of the peace, sheriff and member of parliament. The gentry took advantage of their new positions and a more systematic corruption than before spread. A result of this was that the gentry as a group became highly disliked by commoners.
The omnipresence of death also inspired greater piety in the upper classes, which can be seen in the fact that three Cambridge colleges were founded during or shortly after the Black Death. England did not experience the same trend of roving bands of flagellants, common on the continent. Neither were there any pogroms against the Jews, since the Jews had been expelled by Edward I in 1290. In the long run, however, the increase in public participation may have served to challenge the absolute authority of the church hierarchy, and thus possibly helped pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.
The high rate of mortality among the clergy naturally led to a shortage of priests in many parts of the country. The clergy were seen to have an elevated status among ordinary people and this was partly due to their closeness with God, being his envoys on earth. However, as the church itself had given the cause of the Black Death to be the impropriety of the behaviour of men, the higher death rate among the clergy led the people to lose faith in the Church as an institution − it had proved as ineffectual against the horror of Y. Pestis as every other medieval institution. The corruption within the Catholic priesthood also angered the English people. Many priests abandoned the terrified people. Others sought benefits from the rich families who needed burials. The dissatisfaction led to anti-clericalism and the rise of John Wycliffe, an English priest. His ideas paved a path for the Christian reformation in England. Some people did n't lose their Christian faith, if anything it was renewed; they began to long for a more personal relationship with God − around the time after the Black Death many chantries (private chapels) began to spread in use from not just the nobility, but to among the well to do. This change in the power of the papacy in England is demonstrated by the statutes of Praemunire.
The Black Death also affected arts and culture significantly. It was inevitable that a catastrophe of such proportions would affect some of the greater building projects, as the amount of available labour fell sharply. The building of the cathedrals of Ely and Exeter was temporarily halted in the years immediately following the first outbreak of the plague. The shortage of labour also helped advance the transition from the Decorated style of building to the less elaborate Perpendicular style. The Black Death may also have promoted the use of vernacular English, as the number of teachers proficient in French dwindled. This, in turn, would have contributed to the late - fourteenth century flowering of English literature, represented by writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower.
The Black Death was the first occurrence of the Second Pandemic, which would continue to strike England and the rest of Europe more or less regularly until the eighteenth century. The first serious recurrence in England came in the years 1361 − 62. We know less about the death rates caused by these later outbreaks, but this so - called pestis secunda may have had a mortality of around 20 %. This epidemic was also particularly devastating for the population 's ability to recover, since it disproportionately affected infants and young men. This was also the case with the next occurrence, in 1369, where the death rate was around 10 − 15 %.
Over the following decades the plague would return -- on a national or a regional level -- at intervals of five to twelve years, with gradually dwindling death tolls. Then, in the decades from 1430 to 1480, the disease returned in force. An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10 -- 15 % of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479 -- 80 could have been as high as 20 %. From this point on outbreaks became fewer and more manageable. This was to a large extent the result of conscious efforts by central and local governments -- from the late fifteenth century onwards -- to curtail the disease. By the seventeenth century the Second Pandemic was over. One of its last occurrences in England was the famous Great Plague of London in 1665 -- 66.
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when does season 7 of game of thrones finish | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also adapting material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran Stark returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons. On April 25, 2017, it was reported by Daily Express that the actors ' new salary made them each earn £ 2 million ($2.6 million USD) per episode.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, and Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season. After some speculation, UFC President Dana White announced that Conor McGregor would appear in a cameo role in the seventh season. However, in January 2017, McGregor confirmed it was a rumor. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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who won the first mvp award in basketball | NBA Most Valuable player award - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) award given since the 1955 -- 56 season to the best performing player of the regular season.
The winner receives the Maurice Podoloff Trophy, which is named in honor of the first commissioner (then president) of the NBA, who served from 1946 until 1963.
Until the 1979 -- 80 season, the MVP was selected by a vote of NBA players. Since the 1980 -- 81 season, the award is decided by a panel of sportswriters and broadcasters throughout the United States and Canada.
Each member of the voting panel casts a vote for first to fifth place selections. Each first - place vote is worth 10 points; each second - place vote is worth seven; each third - place vote is worth five, fourth - place is worth three and fifth - place is worth one. Starting from 2010, one ballot was cast by fans through online voting. The player with the highest point total wins the award. As of June 2017, the current holder of the award is Russell Westbrook of the Oklahoma City Thunder.
Every player who has won this award and has been eligible for the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame has been inducted. Kareem Abdul - Jabbar won the award a record six times. Both Bill Russell and Michael Jordan won the award five times, while Wilt Chamberlain and LeBron James won the award four times. Russell and James are the only players to have won the award four times in five seasons. Moses Malone, Larry Bird and Magic Johnson each won the award three times, while Bob Pettit, Karl Malone, Tim Duncan, Steve Nash and Stephen Curry have each won it twice. Only two rookies have won the award: Wilt Chamberlain in the 1959 -- 60 season and Wes Unseld in the 1968 -- 69 season. Hakeem Olajuwon of Nigeria, Tim Duncan of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Steve Nash of Canada and Dirk Nowitzki of Germany are the only MVP winners considered "international players '' by the NBA.
Stephen Curry in 2015 -- 16 is the only player to have won the award unanimously. Shaquille O'Neal in 1999 -- 2000 and LeBron James in 2012 -- 13 are the only two players to have fallen one vote shy of a unanimous selection, both receiving 120 of 121 votes. The most recent winner, Russell Westbrook, is the first to have played for a team that failed to win at least 50 regular - season games since the 1982 -- 83 season. Every player to have won the award has made at least one appearance as a player in the NBA Finals, with the exceptions of Steve Nash and Derrick Rose.
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william shakespeare's romeo + juliet music from the motion picture volume 2 | Romeo + Juliet (Soundtrack) - wikipedia
William Shakespeare 's Romeo + Juliet: Music from the Motion Picture is the soundtrack to the 1996 film of the same name. The soundtrack contained two separate releases: the first containing popular music from the film and the second containing the score to the film composed by Nellee Hooper, Craig Armstrong and Marius de Vries.
William Shakespeare 's Romeo + Juliet: Music from the Motion Picture was the first soundtrack album to accompany the film. Released on the Capitol Records label, the soundtrack features songs by a number of artists including Garbage, Butthole Surfers and Radiohead (their song "Exit Music (For a Film) '', which appears over the end credits, was not included on the soundtrack however, but appeared a year later on Radiohead 's album OK Computer).
The soundtrack was a popular and solid seller, reaching No. 2 on the Billboard 200 albums chart and doing triple - platinum sales in the U.S. It was especially successful in Australia, where it was the second - highest selling album in 1997, going five times Platinum in sales. A number of hit singles also resulted from the soundtrack, including "Lovefool '' by The Cardigans, the love theme "Kissing You '' by Des'ree, and a cover of "Young Hearts Run Free '' by Kym Mazelle. Quindon Tarver 's choral rendition of Rozalla 's "Everybody 's Free (To Feel Good) '' was later used in Luhrmann 's "Everybody 's Free (To Wear Sunscreen) '' single.
The album featured bonus tracks in the 10th Anniversary re-release in 2007.
The soundtrack was later followed by a "sequel '' of sorts, William Shakespeare 's Romeo + Juliet: Music from the Motion Picture, Volume 2, which featured the film 's orchestral score, dialog from the film, and songs not featured on the previous album.
The score to Romeo + Juliet was composed by British music producer Nellee Hooper, Scottish composer Craig Armstrong, and English music composer and producer Marius de Vries. It was arranged, orchestrated, and conducted by Craig Armstrong using the London Session Orchestra and The Metro Voices.
The score fuses bombastic choral sequences produced by The Metro Voices as well as flamboyant orchestral pieces by the London Session Orchestra. It also contains Hooper 's favorite trip hop sequences, especially seen in the track "Introduction to Romeo ''. Some high - beat techno tunes were fused with the chorus and orchestra in the track "Escape from Mantua ''.
Dialogue from the film was also inserted into several of the tracks. Justin Warfield of One Inch Punch as well the Butthole Surfers and Mundy also contribute vocals to the score. A cover of Prince 's "When Doves Cry '' by Quindon Tarver features on the album; it became a hit for him in Australia in 1997.
Craig Armstrong 's Film Works 1995 -- 2005 solo disc work contained several of these tracks. The score won BAFTA Award for Best Film Music for best film score in 1997. Composer Nellee Hooper was also awarded BAFTA 's Anthony Asquith Award for Music for his composition of the score in 1998.
All music composed by Nellee Hooper, Craig Armstrong, and Marius de Vries (except where noted).
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who sings the song as you walk on by | You 'll Never Walk Alone - wikipedia
"You 'll Never Walk Alone '' is a show tune from the 1945 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel. In the second act of the musical, Nettie Fowler, the cousin of the protagonist Julie Jordan, sings "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' to comfort and encourage Julie when her husband, Billy Bigelow, the male lead, commits suicide after a failed robbery attempt. It is reprised in the final scene to encourage a graduation class of which Louise (Billy and Julie 's daughter) is a member. The now invisible Billy, who has been granted the chance to return to Earth for one day in order to redeem himself, watches the ceremony and is able to silently motivate the unhappy Louise to join in the song.
The song is also sung at association football clubs around the world, where it is performed by a massed chorus of supporters on matchday; this tradition began at Liverpool F.C. in the early 1960s.
Christine Johnson, who created the role of Nettie Fowler, introduced the song in the original Broadway production. Later in the show Jan Clayton, as Julie Jordan, reprised it, with the chorus joining in.
In the film, it is first sung by Claramae Turner as Nettie. The weeping Julie Jordan (Shirley Jones) tries to sing it but can not; it is later reprised by Julie and those attending the graduation.
Besides the recordings of the song on the Carousel cast albums and the film soundtrack, the song has been recorded by many artists, with notable hit versions made by Roy Hamilton, Frank Sinatra, Gerry and the Pacemakers, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Andy Williams, Johnny Maestro and The Brooklyn Bridge, Olivia Newton - John and Doris Day. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd took a recording by the Liverpool Kop choir, and "interpolated '' it into their own song, "Fearless '', on their 1971 album Meddle.
From 1964 through 2010, Jerry Lewis concluded the annual Jerry Lewis Labor Day MDA Telethon by singing the song. After the end of a concert by the rock band Queen, the audience spontaneously sang this song, according to lead guitarist Brian May, and this helped to inspire the creation of their songs "We Are the Champions '' and "We Will Rock You ''. Italian - American tenor Sergio Franchi sang a notable version accompanied by the Welsh Men 's Choir on the June 9, 1968 telecast of The Ed Sullivan Show. He also covered this song in his 1964 RCA Victor album The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi. American singer and songwriter Barbra Streisand sang this song in a surprise appearance at the close of the 2001 Emmy Awards, in honor of the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks.
In 1990 at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium London, the audience spontaneously broke out into a mass rendition. Mandela turned to Adelaide Tambo who accompanied him onto the stage and asked what the song was. She replied, "A football song ''.
Renée Fleming sang the song at the Concert for America, which marked the first anniversary of 9 / 11, and for the Inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.
In 2010, this was sung during the festivities of the Last Night of the Proms, with the choir at the Royal Albert Hall joined by crowds of the public from Hillsborough Castle, Northern Ireland; Caird Hall, Dundee; Hyde Park, London; Salford, Greater Manchester; and Wales, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the death of Oscar Hammerstein II.
In the second season of American Horror Story, this song was recited as a poem.
It has been the song of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps song since 1954, where they first performed it as a part of their first field show in 1954. Challenged by the Rosemont Cavaliers singing "Over the Rainbow '' in 1957, the corps responded with "You 'll Never Walk Alone '', and it has been the official corps song ever since.
Punk band Dropkick Murphys covered the song for their 2017 album 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory. Vocalist / bassist Ken Casey said in a December 2016 interview discussing the reason behind their version. "As you may know, opiate overdoses are an epidemic in America now particularly in (the Boston) area. I 've been to thirty wakes in two years, three this week, one being my cousin, Al 's lost a brother in law. It 's hit home close to us. I was leaving one of the wakes and this song came on and as I was listening to the lyrics it summed up exactly how I was feeling. Sad, but knowing there is hope. You never have to be alone. I hope you like our version ''.
In the UK, the song 's most successful cover was released in 1963 by the Liverpudlian Merseybeat group Gerry and the Pacemakers, peaking at number one on the UK singles chart for four consecutive weeks. Sung by Liverpool fans in 1963, the song quickly became the anthem of Liverpool F.C. and is sung by its supporters moments before the start of each home game with the Gerry and the Pacemakers version played over the public address system.
According to former player Tommy Smith, lead vocalist Gerry Marsden presented Liverpool manager Bill Shankly with a recording of his forthcoming cover single during a pre-season coach trip in the summer of 1963. "Shanks was in awe of what he heard... Football writers from the local newspapers were travelling with our party and, thirsty for a story of any kind between games, filed copy back to their editors to the effect that we had adopted Gerry Marsden 's forthcoming single as the club song. '' The squad was subsequently invited to perform the track with the band on The Ed Sullivan Show with Marsden stating, "Bill came up to me. He said, ' Gerry my son, I have given you a football team and you have given us a song '. ''
Shankly picked the song as his eighth and final selection for the BBC 's Desert Island Discs on the eve of the 1965 FA Cup Final. As Liverpool fans sang "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' at Wembley during the 1965 FA Cup Final win over Leeds, commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme referred to it as "Liverpool 's signature tune ''. Marsden told BBC Radio how, in the 1960s, the disc jockey at Anfield would play the top - ten commercial records in descending order, with the number one single played last, shortly before kickoff. Liverpool fans on the Kop would sing along, but unlike with other hit singles, once "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' dropped out of the top - ten, instead of disregarding the song, supporters continued to sing it.
The song was adopted by Scottish team Celtic after a 1966 Cup Winners Cup semi-final against Liverpool at Anfield. It is now sung by Celtic fans prior to every home European tie. The song has also been adopted by Dutch team Feyenoord, SC Cambuur, Germany 's Borussia Dortmund, TSV 1860 Munich, Japan 's F.C. Tokyo, Spain 's CD Lugo. and the Marist St. Pats MSP 80 / 80 Blues. In Ice Hockey, the song has been adopted by German Deutsche Eishockey Liga side Krefeld Pinguine and Croatian Medveščak Zagreb.
A special recording of the song was made in solidarity with Bradford City following the Valley Parade fire in 1985, when 56 spectators died and many more were seriously injured. The song was performed by The Crowd, which was a supergroup featuring Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney and others, and spent two weeks at number - one in the UK.
Some years later, after witnessing a rendition of "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' at Anfield in 2007, the President of the Spanish Olympic Committee, Alejandro Blanco, said he felt inspired to seek lyrics to his country 's wordless national anthem, the Marcha Real, ahead of Madrid 's bid to host the 2016 Olympic Games.
During the 2014 Hong Kong protests, legislator Tam Yiu Chung quoted the song during a Legislative Council of Hong Kong meeting, to salute the Hong Kong Police, who had received widespread criticism for using excessive force against pro-democracy protesters. More than 2,000 Liverpool Football Club fans in Hong Kong condemned his inappropriate use of the song, comparing his support of the police action to the police actions in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, where South Yorkshire Police were found to have distorted facts relating to the unlawful killing by negligence of 96 Liverpool supporters.
On March 13, 2016, after Borussia Dortmund 's 2 - 0 win against 1. FSV Mainz 05 in the German Bundesliga, supporters of both teams performed the song to commemorate a Dortmund fan who died from a cardiac arrest in the stands during the game.
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highest filmfare award winner actor in south india | Filmfare Awards South - wikipedia
Filmfare Awards South is the South Indian segment of the annual Filmfare Awards, presented by The Times Group to honour both artistic and technical excellence of professionals in the South Indian film industry. The Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada actors perform their talents on the stage. They were introduced in 1954, around the films released in 1953 and Filmfare Awards initially recognizing the Hindi film industries. In 1964 awards were extended to Best Picture in Tamil, Telugu, Bengali and Marathi, around the films released in 1963. The inclusion of Malayalam cinema in the awards came in 1967 while Kannada cinema was recognized in 1970. Each industry is given its own set of creative awards in annual ceremonies that have predominantly been held in Chennai and Hyderabad.
Unlike the National Film Awards, which are decided by a panel appointed by Government of India, the Filmfare Awards South are voted for by both the public and a committee of experts. The Filmfare Awards has been referred to as India 's equivalent to the Academy Awards for its ostentatious ceremonies and media coverage, although the National Film Awards is more commonly given this distinction for its critical rigour and pan-Indian appeal.
The awards were first given in 1953 and the ceremony used to be held along with Bollywood Filmfare Awards. The awards were being held in the Kalaivanar Arangam, Chennai. Later the ceremony shifted to the distinctive Music Academy.
In 1953 initially recognizing the Hindi film industry. In 1963 Awards extended to Best Picture in Tamil, Telugu, Bengali & Marathi, for the awards and from 1966 Malayalam films were added. Kannada films became a part of the event in 1969. In 1972 the awards were extended to Best Actor, Best Actress and Best Director categories in all south Indian films. The categories for Special Awards were introduced in the 1980s and Best Music Direction in 1990s. Lifetime Achievement Award - South was first given in 1983. Award for Best Male debut and Female debut were given irregularly during the same period. Categories for Best Male Playback Singing and Best Female Playback Singing were introduced in 1997. In 2002, awards for Best Supporting actors were given for Tamil and Telugu films. Since 2005, these awards were extended to the Malayalam and Kannada film industries. In the same year, additional categories such as Best Lyricist, Best Playback Singing were also introduced. Awards for Best Comedian were given from 2002 till 2006 and discontinued later.
The statuette, depicting a woman whose arms uprise in a dance number with her fingers touching, is commonly referred to as "The Black Lady '' (or "The Lady in Black ''). Originally designed by N.G. Phansare under the supervision of Times of India 's art director Walter Langhammer, it is generally made of bronze, its height is 46.5 cm and it weighs around five kg. To celebrate the 25th year of the awards, the statues were made in silver and to celebrate the 50th year the statues were made in gold.
As of 2006, there are a total of 10 categories across each of the four film industries.
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where does the prime minister of india hoist the flag on 15th august | Independence Day (India) - Wikipedia
Independence Day is annually celebrated on 15 August, as a national holiday in India commemorating the nation 's independence from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, the UK Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 transferring legislative sovereignty to the Indian Constituent Assembly. India still retained King George VI as head of state until its transition to full republican constitution. India attained independence following the Independence Movement noted for largely nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience led by the Indian National Congress (INC). Independence coincided with the partition of India, in which the British India was divided along religious lines into the Dominions of India and Pakistan; the partition was accompanied by violent riots and mass casualties, and the displacement of nearly 15 million people due to religious violence. On 15 August 1947, the Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru raised the Indian national flag above the Lahori Gate of the Red Fort in Delhi. On each subsequent Independence Day, the prime minister customarily raises the flag and gives an address to the nation.
The holiday is observed throughout India with flag - hoisting ceremonies, parades and cultural events. There is a national holiday, and schools and government offices distribute sweets, but no official work is done.
European traders had established outposts in the Indian subcontinent by the 17th century. Through overwhelming military strength, the British East India company subdued local kingdoms and established themselves as the dominant force by the 18th century. Following the First War of Independence of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led the British Crown to assume direct control of India. In the decades following, civic society gradually emerged across India, most notably the Indian National Congress Party, formed in 1885. The period after World War I was marked by British reforms such as the Montagu -- Chelmsford Reforms, but it also witnessed the enactment of the repressive Rowlatt Act and calls for self - rule by Indian activists. The discontent of this period crystallised into nationwide non-violent movements of non-cooperation and civil disobedience, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
During the 1930 s, reform was gradually legislated by the British; Congress won victories in the resulting elections. The next decade was beset with political turmoil: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress ' final push for non-cooperation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism led by the All - India Muslim League. The escalating political tension was capped by Independence in 1947. The jubilation was tempered by the bloody partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan.
At the 1929 Lahore session of the Indian National Congress, the Purna Swaraj declaration, or "Declaration of the Independence of India '' was promulgated, and 15 August was declared as Independence Day. The Congress called on people to pledge themselves to civil disobedience and "to carry out the Congress instructions issued from time to time '' until India attained complete independence. Celebration of such an Independence Day was envisioned to stoke nationalistic fervour among Indian citizens, and to force the British government to consider granting independence. The Congress observed 26 January as the Independence Day between 1930 and 1946. The celebration was marked by meetings where the attendants took the "pledge of independence ''. Jawaharlal Nehru described in his autobiography that such meetings were peaceful, solemn, and "without any speeches or exhortation ''. Gandhi envisaged that besides the meetings, the day would be spent "... in doing some constructive work, whether it is spinning, or service of ' untouchables, ' or reunion of Hindus and Mussalmans, or prohibition work, or even all these together ''. Following actual independence in 1947, the Constitution of India came into effect on and from 26 January 1950; since then 26 January is celebrated as Republic Day.
In 1946, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, realised that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless India. In February 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British government would grant full self - governance to British India by June 1948 at the latest.
The new viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, believing the continuous contention between the Congress and the Muslim League might lead to a collapse of the interim government. He chose the second anniversary of Japan 's surrender in World War II, 15 August, as the date of power transfer. The British government announced on 3 June 1947 that it had accepted the idea of partitioning British India into two states; the successor governments would be given dominion status and would have an implicit right to secede from the British Commonwealth. The Indian Independence Act 1947 (10 & 11 Geo 6 c. 30) of the Parliament of the United Kingdom partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan (including what is now Bangladesh) with effect from 15 August 1947, and granted complete legislative authority upon the respective constituent assemblies of the new countries. The Act received royal assent on 18 July 1947.
Millions of Muslim, Sikh and Hindu refugees trekked the newly drawn borders in the months surrounding independence. In Punjab, where the borders divided the Sikh regions in halves, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Mahatma Gandhi 's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was mitigated. In all, between 250,000 and 1,000,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence. While the entire nation was celebrating the Independence Day, Gandhi stayed in Calcutta in an attempt to stem the carnage. On 14 August 1947, the Independence Day of Pakistan, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being; Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi.
The Constituent Assembly of India met for its fifth session at 11 pm on 14 August in the Constitution Hall in New Delhi. The session was chaired by the president Rajendra Prasad. In this session, Jawaharlal Nehru delivered the Tryst with Destiny speech proclaiming India 's independence.
Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment, we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity.
The members of the Assembly formally took the pledge of being in the service of the country. A group of women, representing the women of India, formally presented the national flag to the assembly.
The Dominion of India became an independent country as official ceremonies took place in New Delhi. Nehru assumed office as the first prime minister, and the viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, continued as its first governor general. Gandhi 's name was invoked by crowds celebrating the occasion; Gandhi himself however took no part in the official events. Instead, he marked the day with a 24 - hour fast, during which he spoke to a crowd in Calcutta, encouraging peace between Hindu and Muslim.
Independence Day, one of the three National holidays in India (the other two being the Republic Day on 26 January and Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday on 2 October), is observed in all Indian states and union territories. On the eve of Independence Day, the President of India delivers the "Address to the Nation ''. On 15 August, the prime minister hoists the Indian flag on the ramparts of the historical site Red Fort in Delhi. Twenty - one gun shots are fired in honour of the solemn occasion. In his speech, the prime minister highlights the past year 's achievements, raises important issues and calls for further development. He pays tribute to the leaders of the Indian independence movement. The Indian national anthem, "Jana Gana Mana '', is sung. The speech is followed by march past of divisions of the Indian Armed Forces and paramilitary forces. Parades and pageants showcase scenes from the independence struggle and India 's diverse cultural traditions. Similar events take place in state capitals where the Chief Ministers of individual states unfurl the national flag, followed by parades and pageants.
Flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural programmes take place in governmental and non-governmental institutions throughout the country. Schools and colleges conduct flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural events. Major government buildings are often adorned with strings of lights. In Delhi and some other cities, kite flying adds to the occasion. National flags of different sizes are used abundantly to symbolise allegiance to the country. Citizens adorn their clothing, wristbands, cars, household accessories with replicas of the tri-colour. Over a period of time, the celebration has changed emphasis from nationalism to a broader celebration of all things India.
The Indian diaspora celebrates Independence Day around the world with parades and pageants, particularly in regions with higher concentrations of Indian immigrants. In some locations, such as New York and other US cities, 15 August has become "India Day '' among the diaspora and the local populace. Pageants celebrate "India Day '' either on 15 August or an adjoining weekend day.
As early as three years after independence, the Naga National Council called for a boycott of Independence Day in northeast India. Separatist protests in this region intensified in the 1980s; calls for boycotts and terrorist attacks by insurgent organisations such as the United Liberation Front of Assam and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland, marred celebrations. With increasing insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir from the late 1980s, separatist protesters boycotted Independence Day there with bandh (strikes), use of black flags and by flag burning. Terrorist outfits such as Lashkar - e-Taiba, the Hizbul Mujahideen and the Jaish - e-Mohammed have issued threats, and have carried out attacks around Independence Day. Boycotting of the celebration has also been advocated by insurgent Maoist rebel organisations.
In the anticipation of terrorist attacks, particularly from militants, security measures are intensified, especially in major cities such as Delhi and Mumbai and in troubled states such as Jammu and Kashmir. The airspace around the Red Fort is declared a no - fly zone to prevent aerial attacks and additional police forces are deployed in other cities.
On Independence Day and Republic Day, patriotic songs in regional languages are broadcast on television and radio channels. They are also played alongside flag hoisting ceremonies. Patriotic films are broadcast. Over the decades, according to The Times of India, the number of such films broadcast has decreased as channels report that audiences are oversaturated with patriotic films. The population cohort that belong to the Generation Next often combine nationalism with popular culture during the celebrations. This mixture is exemplified by outfits and savouries dyed with the tricolour and designer garments that represent India 's various cultural traditions. Retail stores offer Independence Day sales promotions. Some news reports have decried the commercialism. Indian Postal Service publishes commemorative stamps depicting independence movement leaders, nationalistic themes and defence - related themes on 15 August.
Independence and partition inspired literary and other artistic creations. Such creations mostly describe the human cost of partition, limiting the holiday to a small part of their narrative. Salman Rushdie 's novel Midnight 's Children (1980), which won the Booker Prize and the Booker of Bookers, wove its narrative around children born at midnight of 14 -- 15 August 1947 with magical abilities. Freedom at Midnight (1975) is a non-fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947. Few films centre on the moment of independence, instead highlighting the circumstances of partition and its aftermath. On the Internet, Google has commemorated Independence Day since 2003 with a special doodle on its Indian homepage.
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what is the name of the football team in facing the giants | Facing the Giants - wikipedia
Facing the Giants is a 2006 American Christian drama sports film directed by and starring Alex Kendrick. The supporting cast was composed of volunteers from Sherwood Baptist Church, and it is the second film that Sherwood Pictures has done. Shot in Albany, Georgia, the film relates an underdog story about American football from a Christian worldview.
The film was released to DVD in early 2007 and made its television debut on September 21, 2008, on Trinity Broadcasting Network.
In 2003, Grant Taylor (Alex Kendrick) is the head coach at Shiloh Christian Academy, and has yet to post a winning record in his six - year tenure. After his seventh season begins with a three - game losing streak, the players ' fathers start making noises about replacing him with defensive coordinator Brady Owens. This is not the only problem Grant is facing; his car is breaking down, and he discovers that he is the reason that his wife Brooke can not become pregnant.
He creates a new coaching philosophy and decides to praise God, no matter what the result. At the same time he guides and urges each one of his players to give the maximum effort, and motivates them to believe they can win under God 's guidance. This influence spreads to the rest of the school. From that point on, the Eagles win all their remaining regular season games after losing the first three and make the state playoffs. As a result, Grant is given a raise in salary rather than being fired and is also provided with a brand - new truck from grateful boosters. The Eagles lose their playoff opener, but are declared the winner after the opponent used ineligible players. The Eagles then advance all the way to the state championship game against the three - time defending champion Richland Giants. Even though the Eagles have only a third as many players as the Giants, the Eagles hold their own and ultimately win the game on a 51 - yard field goal from a backup kicker who had never kicked more than a 35 - yarder before. Grant 's prayers for children are also answered as he and Brooke have children after two years.
Most of the cast and crew were members of Sherwood Baptist Church in Albany, Georgia. For example, the role of Bobby Lee Duke, the opposing coach in the state final, was played by Sherwood Baptist associate pastor Jim McBride.
The movie was shot on high definition digital video tape (using the Panasonic Varicam) and transferred to film. Using real high school football teams, the football action sequences were shot by the film 's director of photography, Bob Scott, who is a veteran cinematographer for NFL Films. Another NFL Films technician, Rob Whitehurst, recorded the movie 's sound. Filming started on April 27, 2004.
The film received mostly negative reviews from mainstream critics. It holds an average ranking 13 % on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 24 reviews. Site consensus reads: "The tropes of both football and evangelical movies are gracelessly on parade in this banal, insipid drama. '' The film also received criticism from some Christians for portraying a prosperity gospel version of Christianity, where one simply gets whatever they want the minute they follow Jesus.
In its first weekend, the film opened on 441 screens nationwide in the United States. Despite such a small number of theaters, the film opened in twelfth place with $1,343,537. Only three films in the top ten released that weekend grossed more per theater. For such a small budget of $100,000, the film ultimately was shown in over 1,000 theaters and grossed a total of $10,178,331. The film opened in South Korea on April 16, 2010, eventually grossing $64,828. The worldwide total (as of June 20, 2010) for the movie stands at $10,243,159. DVD sales have also been strong, with 2.3 million units sold in 57 countries.
In May 2006, the producers of Facing the Giants received notice from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) that the film would be receiving a "Parental Guidance Suggested '' rating, or PG rating. The Drudge Report picked up the story on June 8, 2006, which sparked a controversy alleging that the film was being given a "PG '' rating solely because of its religious theme. The New York Times, Good Morning America, Fox News, and many talk radio programs covered this story.
According to the film 's producers, they were told the motion picture received a PG rating because of its strong religious themes and because it elevated one religion over another. However, MPAA later explained that Facing the Giants contains football violence and also deals with the mature topics of infertility and depression.
The Kendrick brothers expected the PG rating because of the movie 's mature themes and did not appeal the board 's rating.
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who does the voice of the gecko on geico | GEICO advertising campaigns - wikipedia
GEICO advertising campaigns are known for using surreal humor and satire, often featuring distinctive characters such as the company 's mascot, the GEICO gecko. The advertising strategy incorporates a saturation - level amount of print (primarily mail circulars) and television parody advertisements, as well as radio advertisements. A common line used by GEICO is "15 minutes could save you 15 % or more on car insurance. ''
Investor Warren Buffett, chairman and CEO of GEICO parent Berkshire Hathaway, has stated that he would spend $2 billion on GEICO ads if he could, approximately double the spending in 2012, which was $1.1 billion, over twice that of second place Progressive Corporation, with 6.8 % of premiums going into commercials. In 2016, GEICO was the top spending brand in the United States, with over $1.4 billion in advertising, ousting second place Verizon and previous leader AT&T. However, this is offset by not paying agents commissions, since GEICO uses a direct to consumer model. This has resulted in GEICO being the second largest auto insurer in the United States (behind State Farm).
Many of the most prominent TV ad campaigns, such as the GEICO Gecko, the GEICO Cavemen, the Rhetorical Questions campaign featuring Mike McGlone, Maxwell the Pig, and the GEICO Hump Day Camel were developed by The Martin Agency.
Animated advertisements were part of the early GEICO Direct ads as well as the "Dumb Things '' campaign. The 15 - second long commercials, animated by Bill Plympton, featured a curious little man walking up to an object and eventually getting hurt due to his curiosity of the object. One of the commercials, for example, involved him finding a cannon and pressing a button, causing a resulting cannonball to fire out and stick to his face. The original saying in the commercial was "You could still save money on car insurance. Even if you made a few mistakes. ''; later modified to "We all do dumb things. Paying too much for car insurance does n't have to be one of them. ''
The company 's ads sometimes focus on its reptilian mascot, The Gecko, an anthropomorphic Day Gecko created by The Martin Agency, modified in 2005 to a CGI character by Animation Director David Hulin and his team at Framestore. The gecko first appeared in 1999, during the Screen Actors Guild strike that prevented the use of live actors. The original commercial features the Gecko, voiced by actor Kelsey Grammer, who climbs onto a microphone on a podium and utters "This is my final plea: I am a gecko, not to be confused with GEICO, which could save you hundreds on car insurance. So, STOP CALLING ME! '', before licking his eye. Later "wrong number '' ads used Dave Kelly as the voice of the gecko. In the subsequent commercials with Jake Wood (which portray him as a representative of the company), the gecko speaks with a British Cockney accent, because it would be unexpected, according to Martin Agency 's Steve Bassett. In 2010s commercials, the gecko 's accent is more working - class, perhaps in an effort to further "humanize '' him. "As computer animation got better and as we got to know the character better, we did a few things, '' says Steve Bassett, creative director at The Martin Agency. "We wanted to make him a little more guy - next - door. And he looks a lot more real than he 's looked before. '' Chelsea Clinton, daughter of former president Bill Clinton and then - Secretary of State and 2016 Democratic Presidential candidate Hillary Clinton, interviewed the Geico Gecko in April 2013. He had since became GEICO 's longest - running mascot, appearing in more than 150 commercials as of 2017.
Maxwell is an anthropomorphic talking pig and recurring character in GEICO advertisements. Maxwell debuted in an installment of the Rhetorical Questions campaign as the "little piggy who cried ' wee wee wee ' all the way home '' (referencing the famous nursery rhyme "This Little Piggy '') being driven home by a friend 's mother, squealing along the way. While Maxwell was originally intended as a one - time character, the popularity of his debut commercial resulted in him being spun off into his own series of commercials which usually feature him as a tech - savvy, informative pig who is most concerned with his GEICO - related objects.
A popular series of well - received advertisements uses cavemen as pitchmen. Also developed by the Martin Agency, the ads center on Neanderthal - like cavemen, no different from modern - day individuals (outside of somewhat prehistoric facial features), encountering either an ad or commercial with the tagline "GEICO: so easy a caveman could do it, '' followed by their disgust with the supposed stereotype of caveman stupidity. The ads posit a world where cavemen are still alive and active members of society in the present day, behaving and living nothing at all like the stereotypical caveman. The main characters presented in the ads are affluent, educated, and cultured, eating at fancy restaurants, going to exclusive parties, and seeing their therapists (portrayed in the commercials by two - time Oscar - nominated actress Talia Shire). The humor revolves around the relative normality of the cavemen 's presence and their reactions to the stereotype represented in the ads, and their attempts at defending themselves from the stereotype.
The ads were so successful that the commercial actors are appearing in a successful series of interactive websites written and produced by GEICO 's in - house creative team at Caveman 's Crib and most recently, iHeartcavemen. A spin - off TV series, titled Cavemen and starring new actors, debuted on ABC in October 2007 to overwhelmingly negative critical reaction. It was canceled after only six episodes were aired.
Another common theme is misdirection, in which the commercial appears to be about an unrelated product (or, in fact, may not even be a commercial), suddenly changing to become a plug for GEICO. The commercials use a variety of fictional characters such as Speed Racer, Chatty Cathy, Jed Clampett, and Bill Dutchess. Other commercials relate to a hair loss doctor who has saved by switching to GEICO, a nature show about a fish, workout with Tony Little, and a soap opera of a couple who are breaking up. Another set of GEICO ads involved a fictional reality show called "Tiny House '' in which contestants were forced to live in a half - scale house.
An additional commercial theme is the promotion of fictional products. In 2006 parody ads featured such products as long distance phone service, tomato soda, fast - food, a reality TV show, dolls, and even poking fun at the Old Navy commercials -- in all cases, the parody portion of the ad ends with "but it wo n't save you any money on car insurance. '' After the GEICO slogan is heard, the commercials end with "Why have n't you called GEICO? '' Including Wonder Glue.
The parody pitch crossed over to the Caveman campaign in 2007, in a 10 - second spot that appears to be a talking heads news interview, but features the popular caveman.
In response to some of the parody ads, Seth Green and Matthew Senreich wrote a sketch using the character C in a parody of one of the celebrity ads for their second Robot Chicken Star Wars special.
MADtv also made a sketch parodying these ads using characters of Elmo (who was performed by Frank Caeti) and Carlos Mencia (who was played by Johnny Sanchez).
Actor Scott Whyte has made a series of commercial parodies, calling the company, "Schmeiko '', while performing a series of impressions.
In another ad campaign, a character would be breaking bad news to another (such as a baseball manager replacing a struggling pitcher with a reliever), but then offers helpfully, "I 've got good news: I just saved a bunch of money on my car insurance by switching to GEICO! '' That news, of course, is of no immediate use at all to the other character (s). Some of the ads were parodies and / or featured celebrities including, for example, Esteban; one featured the popular anime character Speed Racer. The exchange became parodied for a time while the ads were popular. One of the most watched "I 've got good news '' spots was a soap opera parody featuring television actor Sebastian Siegel.
In another series of ads, a GEICO pitchman is played by actor Jerry Lambert in an extremely bland and understated way, parodying the stereotype of an insurance man, such as reading to a group of uninterested children from a book of fairy tales about insurance, watching a view of cats in the living room where a gecko is standing on the couch, relaxing on a hot tub with a couple, and a flashback about "Honk If You Like ''. In one segment, he reads a supposed e-mail from a viewer saying it would be "da bomb '' (i.e., something good), if the Gecko would do a dance called "The Robot ''. Cut to the Gecko doing that dance smoothly and gracefully (to the tune of a not - for - public - sale melody called "Sweet World '' by a group called Omega Men, which was used in the arcade video game In the Groove 2) and then back to the insurance salesman attempting to do the same dance, seemingly more stiffly than an actual robot would. The newest commercial featuring the GEICO gecko depicts the Gecko receiving a business suit from the salesman, in order to present a more professional appearance, but he declines.
In this campaign, a real GEICO customer would present his / her testimonials, while a celebrity standing next to, or behind, the customer uses his / her signature styles to help get the customer 's word across.
Some of these celebrities included:
The slogan exclusive to this campaign is "GEICO: Real service, real savings ''.
In 2007, GEICO also launched a social networking site, My Great Rides, for motorcycle owners. My Great Rides is a place for cycle owners to share stories about trips they have taken on their bikes, as well as post pictures of their motorcycles, and comment on other members ' stories and pictures. My Great Rides was taken down on 27 February 2012.
The number 7 car of the NASCAR Nationwide Series is driven by Mike Wallace and was sponsored by GEICO prior to 2009. Commercials involving the race team are of a memorably disdainful young boy, played by actor Eddie Heffernan claiming to be a relative of Mike Wallace and being a better driver. The boy says, "When people see Mike Wallace and the GEICO number 7 doing well, they 'll think of saving a bunch of money on car insurance. But when they see me, they 'll say, ' There goes Lauren Wallace; the greatest thing to ever climb into a race car. ' ''
The commercials are sometimes presented in an interview fashion, where an unseen narrator speaks to the ambitious go - kart driver. "What do you think of Mike Wallace? '' the child is asked, to which he responds, "Whatever, he 's out there selling car insurance, I 'm out there to win. '' When questioned on his relation to the NASCAR driver, Lauren shakes his head and concludes, "I did n't say I would n't go fishing with the man, all I 'm saying is if he comes near me, I 'll put him in the wall. '' To which the narrator questions him, "You do n't race in the Busch Series. '' Lauren replies "Listen, go - kart track, grocery store, those remote controlled boats; when it comes to Mike Wallace the story ends with me putting him in the wall. ''
New ads in this lineup include Lauren referring to himself as being, "100 miles away and ready to strike, '' and "lightning in a bottle. ''
The success of those ads resulted in the launch of an interactive website written and produced by GEICO 's in - house creative team at GEICO Garage. The site includes cameo appearances by Lauren Wallace and drivers Mike Wallace, his daughter Chrissy Wallace, Speed TV 's Tommy Kendall, Paul Tracy, Christian Fittipaldi and Max Papis.
Introduced in 2 August 2007, this series of ads features an E! True Hollywood Story - type show about famed fictional characters such as Fred Flintstone, Jed Clampett, and even a Cabbage Patch Kid named Ben Winkler claiming to have their cars (the Flintmobile, Jed 's 1923 Oldsmobile truck, and a Plymouth Reliant / Dodge Aries, respectively) insured by GEICO, featuring interviews with made - up investigators (however, the Ben Winkler spot does not have an interview). These commercials were voiced over by narrator David O'Brien.
Starting in 2008, GEICO has aired a series of TV ads featuring two paper - banded stacks of U.S. bills with a pair of big, googly eyes on top. Kash, who never says anything, just sits and stares at people (in a manner intended to be unsettling), set to a remix of a Rockwell / Michael Jackson song, "Somebody 's Watching Me '' by Mysto & Pizzi.
Toward the end of 2009 until mid 2012, GEICO introduced another advertising campaign in which Mike McGlone walks into an empty room and queries the viewer, "Could switching to GEICO really save you 15 % or more on car insurance? '' After this, he pauses and then asks a rhetorical and / or obvious question which is immediately followed by a scene cut to the subject at hand. Such questions have included (in no particular order):
Starting in 2010, there have been TV commercials in which a nursery rhyme, being read to the audience from an illustrated book entitled Short Stories and Tall Tales, turns into an ad for GEICO homeowner 's and renters insurance:
Near the end of 2010, a new advertising campaign began made up of amateurish computer animated advertisements, supposedly made in 15 minutes, created with the computer software program Xtranormal.
Starting in the summer of 2011, a new series of advertising involved people discovering unusual ways to save money.
This campaign shows two people in a sticky situation. One of them is not as worried as the other, explaining "I 'm looking on the brighter side. I save over 15 % on my car insurance by switching to GEICO. '' Commercials from this campaign include:
From early - 2012 to early 2013, GEICO had a family of commercials where bluegrass pickers named Ronnie (played by director / musician Alex Harvey) and Jimmy (played by actor / comedian Timothy Ryan Cole) talk about how happy saving money on insurance can make someone do certain things intended to be humorous:
This campaign involves paintings in a museum encouraging their fellow paintings to switch to GEICO.
From mid-June 2013 to late 2014, a family of TV ads came on where one person reads a GEICO ad, which has the well - known tagline (often with the Gecko in it as well) and a second person says "Everybody knows that. '' to which the first person says, "Well, did you know... '' followed by an amusing (and fictional) "fact '' which is then illustrated in a cutaway scene. Prior to Did You Know Pinocchio Was a Bad Motivational Speaker?, the closing line was temporarily changed to "GEICO: 15 minutes could save you... well, you know. ''
From late 2014 to 2017, a family of commercials featured people doing irrelevant or weird actions, while in the end the long - time endboard narrator says, "If (you 're) (...), you (...). It 's what you do. If you want to save 15 % or more on car insurance, you switch to GEICO. It 's what you do. '' When the ads appear in a movie theater before the previews start, the second line would be replaced with, "If you 're in the movie theater, you silence your cell phone. It 's what you do. ''
Debuted in 2015, these ads employ a satire of the technique of frame freezing, by showing live actors attempting to mimic a freeze - frame, often in awkward positions and sometimes assisted by intentionally visible stunt tools, such as suspension cords when paused in mid-air. The premise is that when viewing ads on sites like YouTube, usually a viewer can not skip the ad until 5 seconds in then the commercial announcer saying "You ca n't skip this GEICO ad because it 's already over '' then the commercial announcer saying the GEICO slogan. If a user watches the entire video, events turn disastrous.
Debuted in 2016, these ads show the beginning portion of a 45 -- 90 - second ad before a blue screen disclaimer appears telling the viewers that the ad is being fast forward to the end portion so that they can get to their video faster. If an extended version of the ad or just the regular 15 - second ad is shown on sites like YouTube, the viewer is usually welcome to skip the ad when 5 seconds have been used.
Debuted in 2016, these ads depict celebrities or historical figures in outlandish situations.
spoiled Oysters Rockefeller.
These ads show a person seemingly in trouble, until they state that switching to GEICO could save you money on car insurance; at which point this unrelated answer is accepted as a great answer.
Since late 2016, a series of TV ads shows two people talking about GEICO, and one of them saying he / she should "take a closer look '' at it; the camera then focuses on an inanimate object or animal in the background, which starts talking about the insurance company.
Since 2017 on ESPN, the VO 's tagline: "You had one job, brought to you by GEICO '' and referee Shaun Irving blows his whistle to do jobs right.
Since 2017, there have been ads in which one person is talking to another person about switching to GEICO and during each cut, the one who switched to GEICO gets more stuff.
Since 2018, the announcer proclaims interrupting your life for multiple GEICO ads at the end of each ad and proclaims "We interrupt this message to bring you our logo. ''
Since 2017, there has been a new campaign in which humorous situations are presented as spokesman Steve Tom says, "As long as (such and such), you can count on GEICO saving folk money. ''
Since 2018, there has been a new campaign that breaks the fourth wall revealing the actors are actually in an advertisement for GEICO, as revealed by spokesman David Ebert.
Who provided the voice of the Geico Insurance Company gecko in its TV ad debut?
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what is the meaning of rayan in arabic | Rayan - Wikipedia
Rayan (Arabic: ريان ) is a masculine given name of Arabic origin.
A similar name, Rayyan (ريّان), is the name of one of Islam 's Heaven gates through which only the observers of Ramadan would enter on the Day of Resurrection.
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list of all engineering colleges in mumbai pdf | List of colleges in Mumbai - Wikipedia
Most of the colleges in Mumbai either come under several Autonomous university or affiliated to the University of Mumbai and are spread throughout the city as well as the suburbs. At the undergraduate level, BA, BSc, and BCom are popular courses in these colleges. Along with these conventional courses, many colleges also offer professional courses which concentrate on a specialized field. Almost all colleges also offer courses at Junior college level, which is equivalent to last 2 years of high schools in other countries. The Junior colleges are governed by the Maharashtra State Board for Secondary and Higher Secondary Education.
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the statement of changes in stockholders' equity is part of the statement of retained earnings | Statement of changes in equity - wikipedia
A Statement of changes in equity and similarly the statement of changes in owner 's equity for a sole trader, statement of changes in partners ' equity for a partnership, statement of changes in Shareholders ' equity for a Company or statement of changes in Taxpayers ' equity for Government financial statements is one of the four basic financial statements.
The statement explains the changes in a company 's Share Capital, accumulated reserves and retained earnings over the reporting period. It breaks down changes in the owners ' interest in the organization, and in the application of retained profit or surplus from one accounting period to the next. Line items typically include profits or losses from operations, dividends paid, issue or redemption of shares, revaluation reserve and any other items charged or credited to accumulated other comprehensive income. It also includes the Non-Controlling Interest attributable to other individuals and organisations.
The statement is expected under the generally accepted accounting principles and explains the owners ' equity shown on the balance sheet, where:
owners ' equity = assets − liabilities
In the United States this is called a statement of retained earnings and it is required under the U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (U.S. GAAP) whenever comparative balance sheets and income statements are presented. It may appear in the balance sheet, in a combined income statement and changes in retained earnings statement, or as a separate schedule.
Therefore, the statement of retained earnings uses information from the income statement and provides information to the balance sheet.
Retained earnings are part of the balance sheet (another basic financial statement) under "stockholders equity (shareholders ' equity) '' and is mostly affected by net income earned during a period of time by the company less any dividends paid to the company 's owners / stockholders. The retained earnings account on the balance sheet is said to represent an "accumulation of earnings '' since net profits and losses are added / subtracted from the account from period to period.
Retained Earnings are part of the "Statement of Changes in Equity ''. The general equation can be expressed as following:
This equation is necessary to use to find the Profit Before Tax to use in the Cash Flow Statement under Operating Activities when using the indirect method. This is used whenever a comprehensive income statement is not given but only the balance sheet is given.
IAS 1 requires a business entity to present a separate statement of changes in equity (SOCE) as one of the components of financial statements.
The statement shall show: (IAS1. 106)
However, the amount of dividends recognised as distributions, and the related amount per share, may be presented in the notes instead of presenting in the statement of changes in equity. (IAS1. 107)
For small and medium enterprises (SMEs), the statement of changes in equity should show all changes in equity including:
They can omit the statement of changes in equity if the entity has no owner investments or withdrawals other than dividends, and elects to present a combined statement of comprehensive income and retained earnings.
The following statement of changes in equity is a very brief example prepared in accordance with IFRS. It does not show all possible kinds of items, but it shows the most usual ones for a company. Because it shows Non-Controlling Interest, it 's a consolidated statement.
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where is the fuel stored in a plane | Aircraft fuel tanks - wikipedia
Aircraft fuel tanks are a major component of aircraft fuel systems. They can be classified into internal or external tanks and further classified by method of construction or intended use. Safety aspects of aircraft fuel tanks were examined during the investigation of the 1996 TWA Flight 800 in - flight explosion accident.
Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to allow fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing '' commonly used in larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they can not be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be provided to allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the tank. Most large transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the wings, fuselage, and empennage of the aircraft.
Rigid removable tanks are installed in a compartment designed to accommodate the tank. They are typically of metal, plastic or fibreglass construction, and may be removed for inspection, replacement, or repair. The aircraft does not rely on the tank for structural integrity. These tanks are commonly found in smaller general aviation aircraft, such as the Cessna 172. Combat aircraft and helicopters generally use self - sealing fuel tanks.
Bladder tanks, bag tanks or fuel cells, are reinforced rubberised bags installed in a section of aircraft structure designed to accommodate fuel. The bladder is rolled up and installed into the compartment through the fuel filler neck or access panel, and is secured by means of snap fasteners or cord and loops inside the compartment. Many high - performance light aircraft, helicopters and some smaller turboprop aircraft use bladder tanks.
Many aircraft designs feature fixed tip tanks mounted at the end of each wing. The weight of the tanks and fuel counteract wing bending loads during manoeuvres and reduce fatigue on the spar structure.
Conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) or ' Fast Packs ' are additional fuel tanks fitted closely to the profile of an aircraft which extend either the range or endurance of the aircraft, with a reduced aerodynamic penalty compared to external drop tanks.
Drop tanks, external tanks, wing tanks, pylon tanks or belly tanks are all terms used to describe auxiliary externally mounted fuel tanks. Drop tanks are generally expendable and often jettisonable. External tanks are commonplace on modern military aircraft and occasionally found in civilian ones, although the latter are less likely to be discarded except in the event of emergency.
Drop tanks were originally designed to be jettisoned when empty or in the event of combat or emergency in order to reduce drag and weight, increasing manoeuvrability and range. Modern external tanks may be retained in combat, to be dropped in an emergency and are often not designed for the stresses of supersonic flight.
Fuel tanks have been implicated in aviation disasters, being the cause of the accident or worsening it (fuel tank explosion).
The official explanation for the explosion and subsequent crash of TWA Flight 800 is that an explosive fuel / air mixture was created in one of the aircraft 's fuel tanks. Faulty wiring then provided an ignition source within the tank, destroying the airliner. While the accuracy of the official findings is still questioned in this case, similar explosions have occurred in other aircraft. It is possible to reduce the chance of fuel tank explosions by a fuel tank inerting system or fire fighting foam in the tanks.
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dwight yoakam ain't that lonely yet lyrics | Ai n't That Lonely Yet - wikipedia
"Ai n't That Lonely Yet '' is a song written by Kostas and James House, and recorded by American country music artist Dwight Yoakam. It was released in March 1993 as the first single from his CD This Time. It peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks. It served as the lead - off single to his CD, This Time; in addition, it went on to win a Grammy award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance.
The song is a mid-tempo in which the narrator has just left his lover because of what she has put him through. She tries to win him back with phone calls and notes (left on his door). The narrator denies his former lover, and tries to convince himself that he "ai n't that lonely yet, '' or not lonely enough to return to her.
Bill Janovitz of Allmusic gave the song a positive review. He says the most compelling verse in the song is the second verse, because of the metaphor of the narrator 's ex-lover as a spider.
The music video was directed by Dwight Yoakam and Carolyn Mayer.
"Ai n't That Lonely Yet '' debuted at number 60 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of March 13, 1993.
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where does the rogue river in michigan start | Rogue River (Michigan) - wikipedia
The Rogue River is a river in the U.S. state of Michigan, running through Kent and Newaygo counties and through the Rogue River State Game Area. It is 48 miles (77 km) long and has a drainage basin of 234 square miles (610 km).
Its headwaters are a series of ditches that drain the old Rice Lake bed near Grant for agricultural purposes. In this area the stream has been dredged and straightened leaving limited fish habitat. The river joins the Grand River southeast of Belmont in Plainfield Township. The Blythefield Country Club is now situated on a bluff just northeast of where the Rogue flows into the Grand.
Originally named "Rouge River '', the river 's appellation was altered in the 19th century due to the printing error of a Wisconsin mapmaker. As a frontier waterway, the historic Rogue River was of major importance to local tribes and traders. During the lumber era in the latter 19th century its waters floated timber to the mills of the Grand River valley, and the riverboat Algoma plied its way northward along Rogue giving its name to the Kent county township of Algoma.
Rogue River is designated as "Country Scenic '' under Michigan 's Natural Rivers Act. It is popular with trout fishers and local youth who have floated the river by innertube since the mid-20th century. It is intersected in parts by the White Pine Trail. It varies from 15 feet (4.6 m) wide in the upper sections to 80 feet (24 m) wide near its end and is 1 to 4 feet (0.3 to 1.2 m) deep. There are "holes '' in the river up to 15 feet (4.6 m) in depth.
The Rockford Dam restrains the Rogue in the city of Rockford.
In July 2010, the Rogue River was designated a Trout Unlimited Home River. This provides funding for habitat restoration and land use management planning.
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what kind of vitamins are in fish oil | Fish oil - wikipedia
Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. Fish oils contain the omega - 3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors of certain eicosanoids that are known to reduce inflammation in the body, and have other health benefits, such as treating hypertriglyceridemia, although claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes have not been supported. Fish oil and omega - 3 fatty acids have been studied in a wide variety of other conditions, such as clinical depression, anxiety, cancer, and macular degeneration, yet benefits in these conditions have not been verified.
The fish used as sources do not actually produce omega - 3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them by consuming either microalgae or prey fish that have accumulated omega - 3 fatty acids.
Fatty predatory fish like sharks, swordfish, tilefish, and albacore tuna may be high in omega - 3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the food chain, these species may also accumulate toxic substances through biomagnification. For this reason, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends limiting consumption (especially for women of childbearing age) of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g. albacore tuna, shark, king mackerel, tilefish and swordfish) due to high levels of the toxic contaminant mercury. Dioxin, PCBs and chlordane are also present. Fish oil is used as a component in aquaculture feed. More than 50 percent of the world 's fish oil used in aquaculture feed is fed to farmed salmon.
Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in contents of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA. The various species range from lean to fatty and their oil content in the tissues has been shown to vary from 0.7 % to 15.5 %. They also differ in their effects on organ lipids. Studies have revealed that there is no relation between total fish intake or estimated omega − 3 fatty acid intake from all fish, and serum omega − 3 fatty acid concentrations. Only fatty fish intake, particularly salmonid, and estimated EPA + DHA intake from fatty fish has been observed to be significantly associated with increase in serum EPA + DHA.
Often marketed and sold for consumption as part of the diet or in dietary supplements in contemporary societies, fish oils also have found roles in external use, as emollients or as general ointments as well as in body art, or for alleged insulation against cold.
The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is cold - water oily fish, such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much omega - 3 oils as omega - 6 oils. Other oily fish, such as tuna, also contain omega - 3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish is a dietary source of omega - 3 oils, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae (microalgae in particular) or plankton in their diets.
For comparison, note the omega - 3 levels in some common non-fish foods:
In a 2009 letter on a pending revision to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the American Heart Association recommended 250 -- 500 mg / day of EPA and DHA. The Guidelines were revised again for 2015 - 2020; included is a recommendation that adults consume at least eight ounces of a variety of types of fish per week, equating to at least 250 mg / day of EPA + DHA. The Food and Drug Administration recommends not exceeding 3 grams per day of EPA + DHA from all sources, with no more than 2 grams per day from dietary supplements.
The effect of fish oil consumption on prostate cancer is controversial, as one study showed decreased risk with higher blood levels of DPA, whereas another reported increased risk of more aggressive prostate cancer with higher blood levels of combined EPA and DHA. Some evidence indicated an association between high blood levels of omega - 3 fatty acids and an increased prostate cancer risk.
Fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. Earlier, in 2007, the American Heart Association had recommended the consumption of 1 gram of fish oil daily, preferably by eating fish, for patients with coronary artery disease, but cautioned pregnant and nursing women to avoid eating fish with high potential for mercury contaminants including mackerel, shark, and swordfish. (Optimal dosage was related to body weight.)
The US National Institutes of Health lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega - 3 sources are most highly recommended: hypertriglyceridemia (high triglyceride level), preventing secondary cardiovascular disease, and hypertension (high blood pressure). It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega - 3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil / omega - 3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke. ''
There is also some evidence that fish oil may have a beneficial effect on certain abnormal heart rhythms. However, a 2012 meta - analysis found no such significant benefit.
A 2008 meta - study by the Canadian Medical Association Journal found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with ventricular arrhythmias. A 2012 meta - analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, covering 20 studies and 68,680 patients, found that Omega - 3 Fatty Acid supplementation did not reduce the chance of death, cardiac death, heart attack or stroke.
There have been some human trials that have concluded that consuming omega - 3 fatty acids slightly reduces blood pressure (DHA could be more effective than EPA). It is important to note that because omega - 3 fatty acids can increase the risk of bleeding, a qualified healthcare provider should be consulted before supplementing with fish oil.
A 2008 Cochrane systematic review found that limited data is available. In the one eligible study, omega - 3s were an effective adjunctive therapy for depressed but not manic symptoms in bipolar disorder. The authors found an "acute need '' for more randomised controlled trials.
A 2009 metastudy found that patients taking omega - 3 supplements with a higher EPA: DHA ratio experienced fewer depressive symptoms. The studies provided evidence that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. However, this metastudy concluded that due to the identified limitations of the included studies, larger, randomized trials are needed to confirm these findings.
In a 2011 meta - analysis of PubMed articles about fish oil and depression from 1965 to 2010, researchers found that "nearly all of the treatment efficacy observed in the published literature may be attributable to publication bias. ''
A 2014 meta - analysis of eleven trials conducted respectively on patients with a DSM - defined diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and of eight trials with patients with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD demonstrated significant clinical benefit of omega - 3 PUFA treatment compared to placebo. The study concluded that: "The use of omega - 3 PUFA is effective in patients with diagnosis of MDD and on depressive patients without diagnosis of MDD. ''
A Cochrane meta - analysis published in June 2012 found no significant protective effect for cognitive decline for those aged 60 and over and who started taking fatty acids after this age. A co-author of the study said to Time, "Our analysis suggests that there is currently no evidence that omega - 3 fatty acid supplements provide a benefit for memory or concentration in later life ''.
Diets supplemented with cod liver oil have shown beneficial effects on psoriasis.
Some studies reported better psychomotor development at 30 months of age in infants whose mothers received fish oil supplements for the first four months of lactation. In addition, five - year - old children whose mothers received modest algae based docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for the first 4 months of breastfeeding performed better on a test of sustained attention. This suggests that docosahexaenoic acid intake during early infancy confers long - term benefits on specific aspects of neurodevelopment.
In addition, provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce an infant 's sensitization to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of certain skin diseases in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and / or severity of eczema, hay fever and asthma.
A 2014 Cochrane review found that, based on two large studies, fish oil supplements did not appear to be effective for maintenance of remission in Crohn 's disease.
Fish oil is a commonly used dietary supplement, with sales in the U.S. alone reaching $976 million in 2009. Problems of quality have been identified in periodic tests by independent researchers of marketed supplements containing fish oil and other marine oils. These problems include contamination, inaccurate listing of EPA and DHA levels, spoilage and formulation issues.
Fish can accumulate toxins such as mercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and spoiled fish oil may produce peroxides. There appears to be little risk of contamination by microorganisms, proteins, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, and trans - fats.
Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin - like PCBs and total PCBs. While the U.S. FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin - like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED 's limit. Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.
Peroxides can be produced when fish oil spoils. A study commissioned by the government of Norway concluded there would be some health concern related to the regular consumption of oxidized (rancid) fish / marine oils, particularly in regards to the gastrointestinal tract, but there is not enough data to determine the risk. The amount of spoilage and contamination in a supplement depends on the raw materials and processes of extraction, refining, concentration, encapsulation, storage and transportation. ConsumerLab.com reports in its review that it found spoilage in test reports it ordered on some fish oil supplement products.
According to independent laboratory tests, the concentrations of EPA and DHA in supplements can vary from between 8 and 80 % fish oil content. The concentration depends on the source of the omega - 3s, how the oil is processed, and the amounts of other ingredients included in the supplement. A 2012 report claims 4 of 35 fish oil supplements it covered contained less EPA or DHA than was claimed on the label, and 3 of 35 contained more A ConsumerLab.com publication in 2010 claims 3 of 24 fish oil supplements it covered contained less EPA and / or DHA than was claimed on the label. However, the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from both capsular and emulsified fish oils has been shown to be high.
Fish oil supplements are available as liquids or capsules. Some capsules are enteric - coated to pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and "fish burps ''. Poorly manufactured enteric - coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for - profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric - coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely.
Fish oil preparations that are only available with a doctor 's prescription undergo the same FDA regulatory requirements as other prescription pharmaceuticals, with regard to both efficacy and safety.
A 2013 review concluded that the potential for adverse events amongst older adults taking fish oil "appear mild -- moderate at worst and are unlikely to be of clinical significance ''.
The FDA recommends that consumers do not exceed more than three grams per day of EPA and DHA combined, with no more than 2 grams from a dietary supplement. This is not the same as 3000 mg of fish oil. A 1000 mg pill typically has only 300 mg of omega - 3; 10 such pills would equal 3000 mg of omega - 3. According to the European Food Safety Authority 's (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, supplementation of 5 grams of EPA and DHA combined does not pose a safety concern for adults. Dyerberg studied healthy Greenland Inuit and found an average intake of 5.7 grams of omega - 3 EPA per day; among other effects these people had prolonged bleeding times, i.e., slower blood clotting.
The liver and liver products (such as cod liver oil) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega - 3, but also the active form of vitamin A. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous (Hypervitaminosis A).
Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat - soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins, which are known to accumulate up the food chain. After extensive review, researchers from Harvard 's School of Public Health in the Journal of the American Medical Association (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks.
Fish oil supplements came under scrutiny in 2006, when the Food Standards Agency in the UK and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland reported PCB levels that exceeded the European maximum limits in several fish oil brands, which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards (IFOS) Program, a third - party testing and accreditation program for fish oil products, was created by Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
A March 2010 lawsuit filed by a California environmental group claimed that eight brands of fish oil supplements contained excessive levels of PCB 's, including CVS / pharmacy, Nature Made, Rite Aid, GNC, Solgar, Twinlab, Now Health, Omega Protein and Pharmavite. The majority of these products were either cod liver or shark liver oils. Those participating in the lawsuit claim that because the liver is the major filtering and detoxifying organ, PCB content may be higher in liver - based oils than in fish oil produced from the processing of whole fish.
An analysis based on data from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) with regards to the dangers of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in cod liver came to the conclusion that "in Norwegian women, fish liver consumption was not associated with an increased cancer risk in breast, uterus, or colon. In contrast, a decreased risk for total cancer was found. ''
A report by the Harvard Medical School studied five popular brands of fish oil, including Nordic Ultimate, Kirkland and CVS. They found that the brands had "negligible amounts of mercury, suggesting either that mercury is removed during the manufacturing of purified fish oil or that the fish sources used in these commercial preparations are relatively mercury - free ''.
Microalgae oil is a vegetarian alternative to fish oil. Supplements produced from microalgae oil provide a balance of omega - 3 fatty acids similar to fish oil, with a lower risk of pollutant exposure.
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when does the new show the rookie start | The Rookie (TV series) - wikipedia
The Rookie is an upcoming American crime drama television series created for ABC by Alexi Hawley. Based on true events, the series follows John Nolan, a forty - year - old man, who becomes the oldest rookie at the Los Angeles Police Department. The series is produced by ABC Studios and The Mark Gordon Company.
The series stars Nathan Fillion, Afton Williamson, Eric Winter, Melissa O'Neil, Richard T. Jones, Titus Makin, Alyssa Diaz, and Mercedes Mason. In October 2017, The Rookie received a series order from ABC, and is set to premiere on October 16, 2018.
The series follows John Nolan, a forty - year - old man, who moves from his comfortable, small town life to Los Angeles to pursue his dream of being a police officer for the Los Angeles Police Department. He must navigate the dangerous, humorous and unpredictable world of a "young '' cop, determined to make his second shot at life count.
On October 26, 2017, ABC announced a straight - to - series order for The Rookie, starring Nathan Fillion, and written by Castle executive producer and co-showrunner Alexi Hawley. Fillion and Hawley will serve as executive producers, along with Mark Gordon, Nicholas Pepper, Michelle Chapman, and Jonathan E. Steinberg. The series is produced by ABC Studios and The Mark Gordon Company, and is set to premiere on October 16, 2018.
With the series order in October 2017, Fillion was cast as John Nolan. On February 7, 2018, Afton Williamson and Eric Winter were cast as Talia Bishop and Tim Bradford, respectively. They were shortly followed by Melissa O'Neil as Lucy, Richard T. Jones as sergeant Wade Grey, Titus Makin as Jackson West, Alyssa Diaz as Angela, and Mercedes Mason as captain Zoe Andersen.
In January 2018, Liz Friedlander signed on to direct and executive produce the pilot. Production on the pilot began on March 7, 2018, with filming taking place in Los Angeles and New York.
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where did the film saving face take place | Saving Face (2004 film) - wikipedia
Saving Face is a 2004 American romantic comedy drama film directed by Alice Wu. The film focuses on Wilhelmina, a young Chinese - American surgeon; her unwed, pregnant mother; and her dancer girlfriend.
The name itself is a reference to the pan-East Asian social concept of face.
Wilhelmina ("Wil ''), a successful young Chinese American surgeon, lives in New York City. Forced by her mother Gao to come to the typical gathering at Planet China amongst family friends, Wil is closeted to her mother and the rest of the older adults. Her mother has plans to set her up with a son of a friend. Wil is drawn to Vivian, the daughter of one of the Chinese mothers who recently got a divorce. They run into each other at the hospital where Wil works, only to discover that Vivian 's father is Wil 's boss. Vivian and her father have a tense relationship since Vivian is currently pursuing her love of modern dance instead of the more respectable ballet.
Wil comes home to discover her mother has been kicked out by her grandfather for being pregnant out of wedlock, bringing shame to the family. Wil asks for the identity of the father, but Gao refuses to answer. From then on, Gao lives with Wil. Vivian invites Wil to one of her dance shows and after the show, the two hang out. Vivian reveals the fact that they had met once before when they were children; Vivian kissed Wil on the nose after Wil rescued her from bullies; Wil ran away afterwards. Vivian and Wil go to Vivian 's apartment and the two kiss.
The couple goes on several dates, but Wil is afraid of kissing Vivian in public. Set up by Wil, Gao goes on several dates to find a man to father her child but remains uninterested. She debates on whether to accept the affections of Cho, a man who has loved her for 15 years and is willing to father the child. On Vivian 's request, Wil presents Vivian to her mother as a friend so that they can meet and the three share an awkward dinner. It is revealed later that her mother knows of her homosexuality, but is in denial of it.
Vivian reveals to Wil that she was accepted into a prestigious ballet program in Paris and is considering the offer. Wil congratulates Vivian and gives her encouragement to accept the offer. While Vivian still debates on the offer, Vivian 's father speaks to Wil and talks her into convincing Vivian to accept the offer. Wil then breaks up with her, knowing the offer is best for Vivian 's career.
Gao accepts Cho 's marriage proposal. At the wedding, Wil interrupts with a love note from the father of the child saying how much he loves her and wants to marry her despite their large age gap. Wil points out the elderly pharmacist Yu as the father, who protests. The son of the pharmacist stands up and admits he is the father of the child. Wil and her mother run out of the wedding and onto a bus, laughing. After realizing that love dominates over societal expectations, Wil rushes to the airport to catch Vivian. Wil apologizes, but Vivian challenges Wil to kiss her to prove her sincerity. Unable to publicly display her love out of fear, Wil is left at the terminal as Vivian leaves for Paris.
Three months later, Wil goes to another party at Planet China, and Gao is now a couple with the father of her child. Wil sees Vivian, who has come to see her mother. Wil approaches her and asks her to dance, even though there 's no music, and kisses her in front of everyone. Gao and Vivian 's mother smile at each other while giving a thumbs up, revealing they planned the reunion, while some people leave in disgust at their behavior. The girls ignore them, while everyone else joins in to dance.
Alice Wu, who directed the movie, wrote the script several years earlier, drawing on her own experiences "coming out. '' In 2001, the script won the CAPE screenwriting award, which led to the production of the film. Filming began in fall 2003 on the $2.5 million project.
Featuring the New York City Chinese - American community, the film is in a mixture of Mandarin Chinese and English.
Saving Face premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 12 September 2004, and made its way around the independent film circuit, screening at Sundance Film Festival, Seattle International Film Festival et al.; before going into a very limited release in the US on 27 May 2005.
Saving Face initially opened at only 6 theaters, making $75,104 (averaging $12,517 / theater) in its opening weekend, and went on to gross $1,187,266 from 56 theaters in its theatrical run. It grossed an additional $49,252 in the UK, for a worldwide gross of $1,236,518.
The critical reaction to the movie was mostly positive, with most critics praising the tender romance and the light - hearted comedy, although some critics lambasted it for a lack of depth and a "soap opera - like '' ending.
Stephen Holden of The New York Times, Wesley Morris of the Boston Globe, Ed Park of Village Voice, among others, gave positive reviews, with Holden in particular calling it an ' amiable ' romance spanning three generations of Chinese - Americans. Holden 's overall positive review noted that the film had failings at the end: "Sadly, as "Saving Face '' ties up the strands of its story, it forfeits its credibility at a wedding finale with a series of instant feel - good solutions and reconciliations. ''
Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader was notably critical of the film, especially the latter half, describing it as collapsing into "nonsense ''.
Autostraddle ranked the film # 3 of the best 102 Lesbian Movies of All Time.
It currently holds a rating of 87 % at Rotten Tomatoes giving making it certified "Fresh '', and 65 % at Metacritic.
Saving Face was nominated for the Breakthrough Director Award at the 2005 Gotham Awards, the Viewer 's Choice Award and the Best Actress Award for Michelle Krusiec at the 2005 Golden Horse Film Festival, and the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Film in Limited Release at the 2006 GLAAD Media Awards. Out of these, it won the Viewer 's Choice Award at the 2005 Golden Horse Film Festival.
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where do the vesicles that are being made | Vesicle (biology and Chemistry) - wikipedia
In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Alternatively, they may be prepared artificially, in which case they are called liposomes (not to be confused with lysosomes). If there is only one phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar liposome vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar. The membrane enclosing the vesicle is also a lamellar phase, similar to that of the plasma membrane and vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Vesicles perform a variety of functions. Because it is separated from the cytosol, the inside of the vesicle can be made to be different from the cytosolic environment. For this reason, vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances. Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control, and temporary storage of food and enzymes. They can also act as chemical reaction chambers.
The 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by James Rothman, Randy Schekman and Thomas Südhof for their roles in elucidating (building upon earlier research, some of it by their mentors) the makeup and function of cell vesicles, especially in yeasts and in humans, including information on each vesicle 's parts and how they are assembled. Vesicle dysfunction is thought to contribute to Alzheimer 's disease, diabetes, some hard - to - treat cases of epilepsy, some cancers and immunological disorders and certain neurovascular conditions.
Vacuoles are vesicles which contain mostly water.
Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell. Cells have many reasons to excrete materials. One reason is to dispose of wastes. Another reason is tied to the function of the cell. Within a larger organism, some cells are specialized to produce certain chemicals. These chemicals are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life including complex eukaryotes, both Gram - negative and Gram - positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi.
These are often separated by density by differential centrifugation.
Ectosomes were named in 2008, but in 2012 are not considered a separate type.
In humans, endogenous extracellular vesicles likely play a role in coagulation, intercellular signaling and waste management. The extracellular vesicles of (mesenchymal) stem cells, also known as the secretome of stem cells, are being researched and applied for therapeutic purposes, predominantly degenerative, auto - immune and / or inflammatory diseases.
In Gram - negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram - positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In host - pathogen interactions, gram negative bacteria produce vesicles which play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells and modulating host defense and response.
Ocean cyanobacteria have been found to continuously release vesicles containing proteins, DNA and RNA into the open ocean. Vesicles carrying DNA from diverse bacteria are abundant in coastal and open - ocean seawater samples.
Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, bacteria and planktonic microorganisms, possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, or possibly to position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting. These vesicles are typically lemon - shaped or cylindrical tubes made out of protein; their diameter determines the strength of the vesicle with larger ones being weaker. The diameter of the vesicle also affects its volume and how efficiently it can provide buoyancy. In cyanobacteria natural selection has worked to create vesicles that are at the maximum diameter possible while still being structurally stable. The protein skin is permeable to gasses but not water, keeping the vesicles from flooding.
Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. Using electron microscopy they were discovered independently in 1967 by H. Clarke Anderson and Ermanno Bonucci. These cell - derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralisation of the matrix in a variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self - destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium - loading also leads to formation of phosphatidylserine: calcium: phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue 's matrix unless the Golgi are non-existent.
Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane - bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles.
Some vesicles are made when part of the membrane pinches off the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi complex. Others are made when an object outside of the cell is surrounded by the cell membrane.
The vesicle "coat '' is a collection of proteins that serve to shape the curvature of a donor membrane, forming the rounded vesicle shape. Coat proteins can also function to bind to various transmembrane receptor proteins, called cargo receptors. These receptors help select what material is endocytosed in receptor - mediated endocytosis or intracellular transport.
There are three types of vesicle coats: clathrin, COPI and COPII. The various types of coat proteins help with sorting of vesicles to their final destination. Clathrin coats are found on vesicles trafficking between the Golgi and plasma membrane, the Golgi and endosomes and the plasma membrane and endosomes. COPI coated vesicles are responsible for retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER, while COPII coated vesicles are responsible for anterograde transport from the ER to the Golgi.
The clathrin coat is thought to assemble in response to regulatory G protein. A protein coat assembles and disassembles due to an ADP ribosylation factor (ARF) protein.
Surface proteins called SNAREs identify the vesicle 's cargo and complementary SNAREs on the target membrane act to cause fusion of the vesicle and target membrane. Such v - SNARES are hypothesised to exist on the vesicle membrane, while the complementary ones on the target membrane are known as t - SNAREs.
Often SNAREs associated with vesicles or target membranes are instead classified as Qa, Qb, Qc, or R SNAREs owing to further variation than simply v - or t - SNAREs. An array of different SNARE complexes can be seen in different tissues and subcellular compartments, with 36 isoforms currently identified in humans.
Regulatory Rab proteins are thought to inspect the joining of the SNAREs. Rab protein is a regulatory GTP - binding protein and controls the binding of these complementary SNAREs for a long enough time for the Rab protein to hydrolyse its bound GTP and lock the vesicle onto the membrane.
Vesicle fusion can occur in one of two ways: full fusion or kiss - and - run fusion. Fusion requires the two membranes to be brought within 1.5 nm of each other. For this to occur water must be displaced from the surface of the vesicle membrane. This is energetically unfavorable and evidence suggests that the process requires ATP, GTP and acetyl - coA. Fusion is also linked to budding, which is why the term budding and fusing arises.
Membrane proteins serving as receptors are sometimes tagged for downregulation by the attachment of ubiquitin. After arriving an endosome via the pathway described above, vesicles begin to form inside the endosome, taking with them the membrane proteins meant for degradation; When the endosome either matures to become a lysosome or is united with one, the vesicles are completely degraded. Without this mechanism, only the extracellular part of the membrane proteins would reach the lumen of the lysosome and only this part would be degraded.
It is because of these vesicles that the endosome is sometimes known as a multivesicular body. The pathway to their formation is not completely understood; unlike the other vesicles described above, the outer surface of the vesicles is not in contact with the cytosol.
Producing membrane vesicles is one of the methods to investigate various membranes of the cell. After the living tissue is crushed into suspension, various membranes form tiny closed bubbles. Big fragments of the crushed cells can be discarded by low - speed centrifugation and later the fraction of the known origin (plasmalemma, tonoplast, etc.) can be isolated by precise high - speed centrifugation in the density gradient. Using osmotic shock, it is possible temporarily open vesicles (filling them with the required solution) and then centrifugate down again and resuspend in a different solution. Applying ionophores like valinomycin can create electrochemical gradients comparable to the gradients inside living cells.
Vesicles are mainly used in two types of research:
Phospholipid vesicles have also been studied in biochemistry. For such studies, a homogeneous phospholipid vesicle suspension can be prepared by extrusion or sonication, injection of a phospholipid solution into the aqueous buffer solution membranes. In this way aqueous vesicle solutions can be prepared of different phospholipid composition, as well as different sizes of vesicles.
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which historical books do protestant bibles consider not part of the canon | Protestant Bible - wikipedia
A Protestant Bible is a Christian Bible translation or revision that comprises 39 books of the Old Testament (according to the Jewish Hebrew Bible canon, sometimes known to non-Protestants as the protocanonical books) and the 27 books of the New Testament for a total of 66 books.
This practice was standardized among Protestants following the 1825 decision by the British and Foreign Bible Society. This is often contrasted with the 73 books of the Catholic Bible, which includes 7 deuterocanonical books according to Roman Catholic Canon Law 825, as a part of the Old Testament.
From the Reformation, Protestants have usually excluded the books which Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians consider to be Deuterocanonical, viewing them as non-canonical. However, prior to an 1825 British and Foreign Bible Society decision, most Protestant Bibles did include these additional books within the same printed bibles. It was usually to be found in a separate section under the heading of Apocrypha and sometimes carrying a statement to the effect that the such books were non-canonical. A surviving quarto edition of the Great Bible, produced some time after 1549, does not contain the Apocrypha although most copies of the Great Bible did. A 1575 quarto edition of the Bishop 's Bible also does not contain them. Subsequently, some copies of the 1599 and 1640 editions of the Geneva Bible were also printed without them.
A Protestant Bible excludes the seven books which Catholics and Eastern Christians consider to be deuterocanonical as Protestants view these as non-canonical. Without these books there is a 400 - year gap in the chronology of the Christian scriptures between the Old and New Testaments. This intertestamental period is known to Protestants as the "400 Silent Years '' because it is believed to have been a span where God revealed nothing new to his people..
The books that comprise a Protestant Bible with their commonly accepted names among the Protestant churches are given below. Note that "1 '', "2 '', or "3 '' as a leading numeral is normally pronounced as the ordinal number, thus "First Samuel '' for "1 Samuel ''.
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation.
Most Bible translations into English conform to the Protestant canon and ordering. Notable English translations include:
A 2014 study into the Bible in American Life found that of those survey respondents who read the Bible, there was an overwhelming favouring of Protestant translations. 55 % reported using the King James Version, followed by 19 % for the New International Version, 7 % for the New Revised Standard Version (printed in both Protestant and Catholic editions), 6 % for the New American Bible (a Catholic Bible translation) and 5 % for the Living Bible. Other versions were used by fewer than 10 %.
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who played harry on harry and the hendersons movie | Kevin Peter Hall - wikipedia
Kevin Peter Hall (May 9, 1955 -- April 10, 1991) was an American actor best known for his roles as the title character in the first two films in the Predator franchise and the title character of Harry in the film and television series, Harry and the Hendersons. He also appeared in the television series Misfits of Science and 227 along with the film, Without Warning.
Hall was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. His parents were of above - average stature; his father, Charles Hall, was 6 ft 6 in, and his mother, Sylvia Hall, was 6 ft 2 in. At 7 ft 2 in (218 cm) tall, he was the tallest of seven brothers, all over 6 ft 5 in. During his high school years at Penn Hills High School, he excelled at basketball and earned a scholarship to George Washington University in Washington, D.C. In college, Hall continued to play basketball and majored in Theatrical Arts. After graduation, Hall moved to Venezuela to play basketball. His nephew, Jamie Hall, is a stunt performer, best known as the polar bear performer in the 2015 horror / thriller film Unnatural.
Hall made his acting debut in the 1979 horror film Prophecy. Due to his height, he was often cast in monster roles. He appeared as the alien in the 1980 horror film Without Warning and as Gorvil in the 1982 television movie Mazes and Monsters. In 1985, he co-starred in the short - lived series Misfits of Science. He guest - starred on the sitcom Night Court as a huge but gentle mental patient who humorously towered over bailiff Bull Shannon, played by Richard Moll, who is 6 ft 8 in (203 cm), and a fellow mental patient, played by James Cromwell, who is 6 ft 7 in (201 cm). The next year, Hall portrayed yet another monster in the horror film Monster in the Closet, followed by the role of Harry in Harry and the Hendersons.
In 1986, Hall was cast as the main antagonist in Predator, starring Arnold Schwarzenegger. During its developmental stages, the Predator was going to be played by Jean - Claude Van Damme, who played the Predator for the first few scenes, but was not billed in the end credits. The producers decided to recast the role with Hall so that the Predator could more convincingly dominate the film 's human characters with its greater size. Hall would go on to reprise the role in the 1990 sequel.
Following his role in Predator, Hall appeared in the film Big Top Pee - wee (1988) and had a guest spot on Star Trek: The Next Generation; Hall had been one of the actors considered for the role of Geordi La Forge on the latter, before the role went to LeVar Burton. From 1989 to 1990, he had a recurring role on the NBC sitcom 227. In 1990, Hall reprised his role as Harry in the television series Harry and the Hendersons, based on the 1987 film of the same name. He died during the series ' first season.
Hall met actress Alaina Reed while taping a guest role on the television show 227. The couple would marry both on the show and in real life.
While working on the TV series Harry and the Hendersons, Hall announced that he had contracted HIV from a blood transfusion. He died from AIDS - related pneumonia on April 10, 1991, a month short of his 36th birthday.
Hall was posthumously inducted into the Penn Hills Hall of Fame as part of the inaugural class on May 8, 2009.
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the man who invented the rubik's cube | Rubik 's Cube - Wikipedia
Rubik 's Cube is a 3 - D combination puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. Originally called the Magic Cube, the puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Ideal Toy Corp. in 1980 via businessman Tibor Laczi and Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer, and won the German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle that year. As of January 2009, 350 million cubes had been sold worldwide making it the world 's top - selling puzzle game. It is widely considered to be the world 's best - selling toy.
On a classic Rubik 's Cube, each of the six faces is covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow. In currently sold models, white is opposite yellow, blue is opposite green, and orange is opposite red, and the red, white and blue are arranged in that order in a clockwise arrangement. On early cubes, the position of the colours varied from cube to cube. An internal pivot mechanism enables each face to turn independently, thus mixing up the colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be returned to have only one colour. Similar puzzles have now been produced with various numbers of sides, dimensions, and stickers, not all of them by Rubik.
Although the Rubik 's Cube reached its height of mainstream popularity in the 1980s, it is still widely known and used. Many speedcubers continue to practice it and other twisty puzzles and compete for the fastest times in various categories. Since 2003, The World Cube Association, the Rubik 's Cube 's international governing body, has organised competitions worldwide and kept the official world records.
In March 1970, Larry D. Nichols invented a 2 × 2 × 2 "Puzzle with Pieces Rotatable in Groups '' and filed a Canadian patent application for it. Nichols 's cube was held together with magnets. Nichols was granted U.S. Patent 3,655,201 on April 11, 1972, two years before Rubik invented his Cube.
On April 9, 1970, Frank Fox applied to patent his "Spherical 3 × 3 × 3 ''. He received his UK patent (1344259) on January 16, 1974.
In the mid-1970s, Ernő Rubik worked at the Department of Interior Design at the Academy of Applied Arts and Crafts in Budapest. Although it is widely reported that the Cube was built as a teaching tool to help his students understand 3D objects, his actual purpose was solving the structural problem of moving the parts independently without the entire mechanism falling apart. He did not realise that he had created a puzzle until the first time he scrambled his new Cube and then tried to restore it. Rubik obtained Hungarian patent HU170062 for his "Magic Cube '' in 1975. Rubik 's Cube was first called the Magic Cube (Bűvös kocka) in Hungary. Ideal wanted at least a recognisable name to trademark; of course, that arrangement put Rubik in the spotlight because the Magic Cube was renamed after its inventor in 1980.
The first test batches of the Magic Cube were produced in late 1977 and released in Budapest toy shops. Magic Cube was held together with interlocking plastic pieces that prevented the puzzle being easily pulled apart, unlike the magnets in Nichols 's design. With Ernő Rubik 's permission, businessman Tibor Laczi took a Cube to Germany 's Nuremberg Toy Fair in February 1979 in an attempt to popularise it. It was noticed by Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer and they signed a deal with Ideal Toys in September 1979 to release the Magic Cube worldwide. The puzzle made its international debut at the toy fairs of London, Paris, Nuremberg and New York in January and February 1980.
After its international debut, the progress of the Cube towards the toy shop shelves of the West was briefly halted so that it could be manufactured to Western safety and packaging specifications. A lighter Cube was produced, and Ideal decided to rename it. "The Gordian Knot '' and "Inca Gold '' were considered, but the company finally decided on "Rubik 's Cube '', and the first batch was exported from Hungary in May 1980.
After the first batches of Rubik 's Cubes were released in May 1980, initial sales were modest, but Ideal began a television advertising campaign in the middle of the year which it supplemented with newspaper adverts. At the end of 1980 Rubik 's Cube won a German Game of the Year special award, and won similar awards for best toy in the UK, France, and the US. By 1981 Rubik 's Cube had become a craze, and it is estimated that in the period from 1980 to 1983 around 200 million Rubik 's Cubes were sold worldwide. In March 1981 the first speedcubing championship organised by the Guinness Book of World Records was held in Munich, and a Rubik 's Cube was depicted on the front cover of Scientific American that same month. In June 1981 The Washington Post reported that the Rubik 's Cube is "a puzzle that 's moving like fast food right now... this year 's Hoola Hoop or Bongo Board '', and by September 1981 New Scientist noted that the cube had "captivated the attention of children of ages from 7 to 70 all over the world this summer. ''
As most people could only solve one or two sides, numerous books were published including David Singmaster 's Notes on Rubik 's "Magic Cube '' (1980) and Patrick Bossert 's You Can Do the Cube (1981). At one stage in 1981 three of the top ten best selling books in the US were books on solving the Rubik 's Cube, and the best - selling book of 1981 was James G. Nourse 's The Simple Solution to Rubik 's Cube which sold over 6 million copies. In 1981 the Museum of Modern Art in New York exhibited a Rubik 's Cube, and at the 1982 World 's Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee a six - foot Cube was put on display. ABC Television even developed a cartoon show called Rubik, the Amazing Cube. In June 1982 the First Rubik 's Cube World Championship took place in Budapest, and would become the only competition recognized as official until the championship was revived in 2003.
In October 1982 The New York Times reported that sales had fallen and that "the craze has died '', and by 1983 it was clear that sales had plummeted. However, in some Communist countries, such as China and USSR, the craze had started later and demand was still high because of a shortage of Cubes.
Rubik 's Cubes continued to be marketed and sold throughout the 1980s and 90s, but it was not until the early 2000s that interest in the Cube began increasing again. In the US sales doubled between 2001 and 2003, and The Boston Globe remarked that it was "becoming cool to own a Cube again ''. The 2003 World Rubik 's Games Championship was the first speedcubing tournament since 1982. It was held in Toronto and was attended by 83 participants. The tournament led to the formation of the World Cube Association in 2004. Annual sales of Rubik branded cubes were said to have reached 15 million worldwide in 2008. Part of the new appeal was ascribed to the advent of Internet video sites, such as YouTube, which allowed fans to share their solving strategies. Following the expiration of Rubik 's patent in 2000, other brands of cubes appeared, especially from Chinese companies. Many of these Chinese branded cubes have been engineered for speed and are favoured by speedcubers.
Taking advantage of an initial shortage of Cubes, many imitations and variations appeared, many of which may have violated one or more patents. Today, the patents have expired and many Chinese companies produce copies of, and in some cases improvements upon, the Rubik and V - Cube designs.
Nichols assigned his patent to his employer Moleculon Research Corp., which sued Ideal in 1982. In 1984, Ideal lost the patent infringement suit and appealed. In 1986, the appeals court affirmed the judgment that Rubik 's 2 × 2 × 2 Pocket Cube infringed Nichols 's patent, but overturned the judgment on Rubik 's 3 × 3 × 3 Cube.
Even while Rubik 's patent application was being processed, Terutoshi Ishigi, a self - taught engineer and ironworks owner near Tokyo, filed for a Japanese patent for a nearly identical mechanism, which was granted in 1976 (Japanese patent publication JP55 - 008192). Until 1999, when an amended Japanese patent law was enforced, Japan 's patent office granted Japanese patents for non-disclosed technology within Japan without requiring worldwide novelty. Hence, Ishigi 's patent is generally accepted as an independent reinvention at that time. Rubik applied for more patents in 1980, including another Hungarian patent on October 28. In the United States, Rubik was granted U.S. Patent 4,378,116 on March 29, 1983, for the Cube. This patent expired in 2000.
Greek inventor Panagiotis Verdes patented a method of creating cubes beyond the 5 × 5 × 5, up to 11 × 11 × 11, in 2003. As of 2017, the 5 × 5 × 5, 6 × 6 × 6, 7 × 7 × 7, 8 × 8 × 8 and 9 × 9 × 9 models are in production in his "V - Cube '' line. V - Cube also produces a 2 × 2 × 2, 3 × 3 × 3 and a 4 × 4 × 4.
Rubik 's Brand Ltd. also holds the registered trademarks for the word Rubik and Rubik 's and for the 2D and 3D visualisations of the puzzle. The trademarks have been upheld by a ruling of the General Court of the European Union on 25 November 2014 in a successful defence against a German toy manufacturer seeking to invalidate them. However, European toy manufacturers are allowed to create differently shaped puzzles that have a similar rotating or twisting functionality of component parts such as for example Skewb, Pyraminx or Impossiball.
On 10 November 2016, Rubik 's Cube lost a ten - year battle over a key trademark issue. The European Union 's highest court, the Court of Justice ruled that the puzzle 's shape was not sufficient to grant it trademark protection.
A standard Rubik 's Cube measures 5.7 centimetres (2 ⁄ in) on each side. The puzzle consists of twenty - six unique miniature cubes, also called "cubies '' or "cubelets ''. Each of these includes a concealed inward extension that interlocks with the other cubes, while permitting them to move to different locations. However, the centre cube of each of the six faces is merely a single square façade; all six are affixed to the core mechanism. These provide structure for the other pieces to fit into and rotate around. So there are twenty - one pieces: a single core piece consisting of three intersecting axes holding the six centre squares in place but letting them rotate, and twenty smaller plastic pieces which fit into it to form the assembled puzzle.
Each of the six centre pieces pivots on a screw (fastener) held by the centre piece, a "3D cross ''. A spring between each screw head and its corresponding piece tensions the piece inward, so that collectively, the whole assembly remains compact, but can still be easily manipulated. The screw can be tightened or loosened to change the "feel '' of the Cube. Newer official Rubik 's brand cubes have rivets instead of screws and can not be adjusted.
The Cube can be taken apart without much difficulty, typically by rotating the top layer by 45 ° and then prying one of its edge cubes away from the other two layers. Consequently, it is a simple process to "solve '' a Cube by taking it apart and reassembling it in a solved state.
There are six central pieces which show one coloured face, twelve edge pieces which show two coloured faces, and eight corner pieces which show three coloured faces. Each piece shows a unique colour combination, but not all combinations are present (for example, if red and orange are on opposite sides of the solved Cube, there is no edge piece with both red and orange sides). The location of these cubes relative to one another can be altered by twisting an outer third of the Cube 90 °, 180 ° or 270 °, but the location of the coloured sides relative to one another in the completed state of the puzzle can not be altered: it is fixed by the relative positions of the centre squares. However, Cubes with alternative colour arrangements also exist; for example, with the yellow face opposite the green, the blue face opposite the white, and red and orange remaining opposite each other.
Douglas Hofstadter, in the July 1982 issue of Scientific American, pointed out that Cubes could be coloured in such a way as to emphasise the corners or edges, rather than the faces as the standard colouring does; but neither of these alternative colourings has ever become popular.
The original (3 × 3 × 3) Rubik 's Cube has eight corners and twelve edges. There are 8! (40,320) ways to arrange the corner cubes. Each corner has three possible orientations, although only seven (of eight) can be oriented independently; the orientation of the eighth (final) corner depends on the preceding seven, giving 3 (2,187) possibilities. There are 12! / 2 (239,500,800) ways to arrange the edges, restricted from 12! because edges must be in an even permutation exactly when the corners are. (When arrangements of centres are also permitted, as described below, the rule is that the combined arrangement of corners, edges, and centres must be an even permutation.) Eleven edges can be flipped independently, with the flip of the twelfth depending on the preceding ones, giving 2 (2,048) possibilities.
which is approximately 43 quintillion.
The puzzle was originally advertised as having "over 3,000,000,000 (three billion) combinations but only one solution ''. To put this into perspective, if one had as many standard sized Rubik 's Cubes as there are permutations, one could cover the Earth 's surface 275 times.
The preceding figure is limited to permutations that can be reached solely by turning the sides of the cube. If one considers permutations reached through disassembly of the cube, the number becomes twelve times as large:
which is approximately 519 quintillion possible arrangements of the pieces that make up the Cube, but only one in twelve of these are actually solvable. This is because there is no sequence of moves that will swap a single pair of pieces or rotate a single corner or edge cube. Thus there are twelve possible sets of reachable configurations, sometimes called "universes '' or "orbits '', into which the Cube can be placed by dismantling and reassembling it.
The original Rubik 's Cube had no orientation markings on the centre faces (although some carried the words "Rubik 's Cube '' on the centre square of the white face), and therefore solving it does not require any attention to orienting those faces correctly. However, with marker pens, one could, for example, mark the central squares of an unscrambled Cube with four coloured marks on each edge, each corresponding to the colour of the adjacent face; a cube marked in this way is referred to as a "supercube ''. Some Cubes have also been produced commercially with markings on all of the squares, such as the Lo Shu magic square or playing card suits. Cubes have also been produced where the nine stickers on a face are used to make a single larger picture, and centre orientation matters on these as well. Thus one can nominally solve a Cube yet have the markings on the centres rotated; it then becomes an additional test to solve the centres as well.
Marking the Rubik 's Cube 's centres increases its difficulty because this expands the set of distinguishable possible configurations. There are 4 / 2 (2,048) ways to orient the centres, since an even permutation of the corners implies an even number of quarter turns of centres as well. In particular, when the Cube is unscrambled apart from the orientations of the central squares, there will always be an even number of centre squares requiring a quarter turn. Thus orientations of centres increases the total number of possible Cube permutations from 43,252,003,274,489,856,000 (4.3 × 10) to 88,580,102,706,155,225,088,000 (8.9 × 10).
When turning a cube over is considered to be a change in permutation then we must also count arrangements of the centre faces. Nominally there are 6! ways to arrange the six centre faces of the cube, but only 24 of these are achievable without disassembly of the cube. When the orientations of centres are also counted, as above, this increases the total number of possible Cube permutations from 88,580,102,706,155,225,088,000 (8.9 × 10) to 2,125,922,464,947,725,402,112,000 (2.1 × 10).
In Rubik 's cubers ' parlance, a memorised sequence of moves that has a desired effect on the cube is called an algorithm. This terminology is derived from the mathematical use of algorithm, meaning a list of well - defined instructions for performing a task from a given initial state, through well - defined successive states, to a desired end - state. Each method of solving the Rubik 's Cube employs its own set of algorithms, together with descriptions of what effect the algorithm has, and when it can be used to bring the cube closer to being solved.
Many algorithms are designed to transform only a small part of the cube without interfering with other parts that have already been solved, so that they can be applied repeatedly to different parts of the cube until the whole is solved. For example, there are well - known algorithms for cycling three corners without changing the rest of the puzzle, or flipping the orientation of a pair of edges while leaving the others intact.
Some algorithms do have a certain desired effect on the cube (for example, swapping two corners) but may also have the side - effect of changing other parts of the cube (such as permuting some edges). Such algorithms are often simpler than the ones without side - effects, and are employed early on in the solution when most of the puzzle has not yet been solved and the side - effects are not important. Most are long and difficult to memorise. Towards the end of the solution, the more specific (and usually more complicated) algorithms are used instead.
Rubik 's Cube lends itself to the application of mathematical group theory, which has been helpful for deducing certain algorithms - in particular, those which have a commutator structure, namely XYX Y (where X and Y are specific moves or move - sequences and X and Y are their respective inverses), or a conjugate structure, namely XYX, often referred to by speedcubers colloquially as a "setup move ''. In addition, the fact that there are well - defined subgroups within the Rubik 's Cube group enables the puzzle to be learned and mastered by moving up through various self - contained "levels of difficulty ''. For example, one such "level '' could involve solving cubes which have been scrambled using only 180 - degree turns. These subgroups are the principle underlying the computer cubing methods by Thistlethwaite and Kociemba, which solve the cube by further reducing it to another subgroup.
Many 3 × 3 × 3 Rubik 's Cube enthusiasts use a notation developed by David Singmaster to denote a sequence of moves, referred to as "Singmaster notation ''. Its relative nature allows algorithms to be written in such a way that they can be applied regardless of which side is designated the top or how the colours are organised on a particular cube.
When a prime symbol (′) follows a letter, it denotes a face turn counter-clockwise, while a letter without a prime symbol denotes a clockwise turn. A letter followed by a 2 (occasionally a superscript) denotes two turns, or a 180 - degree turn. R is right side clockwise, but R ' is right side counter-clockwise. The letters x, y, and z are used to indicate that the entire Cube should be turned about one of its axes, corresponding to R, U, and F turns respectively. When x, y or z are primed, it is an indication that the cube must be rotated in the opposite direction. When they are squared, the cube must be rotated 180 degrees.
The most common deviation from Singmaster notation, and in fact the current official standard, is to use "w '', for "wide '', instead of lowercase letters to represent moves of two layers; thus, a move of Rw is equivalent to one of r.
For methods using middle - layer turns (particularly corners - first methods) there is a generally accepted "MES '' extension to the notation where letters M, E, and S denote middle layer turns. It was used e.g. in Marc Waterman 's Algorithm.
The 4 × 4 × 4 and larger cubes use an extended notation to refer to the additional middle layers. Generally speaking, uppercase letters (FBUDLR) refer to the outermost portions of the cube (called faces). Lowercase letters (fbudlr) refer to the inner portions of the cube (called slices). An asterisk (L *), a number in front of it (2L), or two layers in parentheses (Ll), means to turn the two layers at the same time (both the inner and the outer left faces) For example: (Rr) ' l2 f ' means to turn the two rightmost layers anticlockwise, then the left inner layer twice, and then the inner front layer anticlockwise. By extension, for cubes of 6x6 and larger, moves of three layers are notated by the number 3, for example 3L.
An alternative notation, Wolstenholme notation, is designed to make memorising sequences of moves easier for novices. This notation uses the same letters for faces except it replaces U with T (top), so that all are consonants. The key difference is the use of the vowels O, A and I for clockwise, anticlockwise and 180 - degree turns, which results in word - like sequences such as LOTA RATO LATA ROTI (equivalent to LU ′ R ′ UL ′ U ′ RU2 in Singmaster notation). Addition of a C implies rotation of the entire cube, so ROC is the clockwise rotation of the cube around its right face. Middle layer moves are denoted by adding an M to corresponding face move, so RIM means a 180 - degree turn of the middle layer adjacent to the R face.
Yet another notation appeared in the 1981 book The Simple Solution to Rubik 's Cube. Singmaster notation was not widely known at the time of publication. The faces were named Top (T), Bottom (B), Left (L), Right (R), Front (F) and Posterior (P), with + for clockwise, - for anticlockwise and 2 for 180 - degree turns.
Although there are a significant number of possible permutations for the Rubik 's Cube, a number of solutions have been developed which allow solving the cube in well under 100 moves.
Many general solutions for the Rubik 's Cube have been discovered independently. David Singmaster first published his solution in the book Notes on Rubik 's "Magic Cube '' in 1981. This solution involves solving the Cube layer by layer, in which one layer (designated the top) is solved first, followed by the middle layer, and then the final and bottom layer. After sufficient practice, solving the Cube layer by layer can be done in under one minute. Other general solutions include "corners first '' methods or combinations of several other methods. In 1982, David Singmaster and Alexander Frey hypothesised that the number of moves needed to solve the Rubik 's Cube, given an ideal algorithm, might be in "the low twenties ''. In 2007, Daniel Kunkle and Gene Cooperman used computer search methods to demonstrate that any 3 × 3 × 3 Rubik 's Cube configuration can be solved in 26 moves or fewer. In 2008, Tomas Rokicki lowered that number to 22 moves, and in July 2010, a team of researchers including Rokicki, working with Google, proved the so - called "God 's number '' to be 20. This is optimal, since there exist some starting positions which require a minimum of 20 moves to solve. More generally, it has been shown that an n × n × n Rubik 's Cube can be solved optimally in Θ (n / log (n)) moves.
In 1981, thirteen - year - old Patrick Bossert developed a solution for solving the cube, along with a graphical notation, designed to be easily understood by novices. It was subsequently published as You Can Do The Cube and became a best - seller.
A solution commonly used by speed cubers was developed by Jessica Fridrich. It is similar to the layer - by - layer method but employs the use of a large number of algorithms, especially for orienting and permuting the last layer. The cross is done first, followed by first layer corners and second layer edges simultaneously, with each corner paired up with a second - layer edge piece, thus completing the first two layers (F2L). This is then followed by orienting the last layer, then permuting the last layer (OLL and PLL respectively). Fridrich 's solution requires learning roughly 120 algorithms but allows the Cube to be solved in only 55 moves on average.
Philip Marshall 's The Ultimate Solution to Rubik 's Cube takes a different approach, averaging only 65 twists yet requiring the memorisation of only two algorithms. The cross is solved first, followed by the remaining edges, then five corners, and finally the last three corners.
A now well - known method was developed by Lars Petrus. In this method, a 2 × 2 × 2 section is solved first, followed by a 2 × 2 × 3, and then the incorrect edges are solved using a three - move algorithm, which eliminates the need for a possible 32 - move algorithm later. The principle behind this is that in layer - by - layer you must constantly break and fix the first layer; the 2 × 2 × 2 and 2 × 2 × 3 sections allow three or two layers to be turned without ruining progress. One of the advantages of this method is that it tends to give solutions in fewer moves.
The Roux Method, developed by Gilles Roux, is similar to the Petrus method in that it relies on block building rather than layers, but derives from corners - first methods. In Roux, a 3 × 2 × 1 block is solved, followed by another 3 × 2 × 1 on the opposite side. Next the corners of the top layer are solved. The cube can then be solved using only moves of the U layer and M slice.
In 1997, Denny Dedmore published a solution described using diagrammatic icons representing the moves to be made, instead of the usual notation.
Most beginner solution methods involve solving the cube one layer at a time, using algorithms that preserve what has already been solved. The easiest layer by layer methods require only 3 - 8 algorithms.
The most move optimal online Rubik 's Cube solver programs use Herbert Kociemba 's Two - Phase Algorithm which can typically determine a solution of 20 moves or less. The user has to set the color configuration of the scrambled cube and the program returns the steps required to solve it.
Speedcubing (or speedsolving) is the practice of trying to solve a Rubik 's Cube in the shortest time possible. There are a number of speedcubing competitions that take place around the world.
The first world championship organised by the Guinness Book of World Records was held in Munich on March 13, 1981. All Cubes were moved 40 times and lubricated with petroleum jelly. The official winner, with a record of 38 seconds, was Jury Froeschl, born in Munich. The first international world championship was held in Budapest on June 5, 1982, and was won by Minh Thai, a Vietnamese student from Los Angeles, with a time of 22.95 seconds.
Since 2003, the winner of a competition is determined by taking the average time of the middle three of five attempts. However, the single best time of all tries is also recorded. The World Cube Association maintains a history of world records. In 2004, the WCA made it mandatory to use a special timing device called a Stackmat timer.
In addition to the main 3x3x3 event, the WCA also holds events where the cube is solved in different ways:
In blindfolded solving, the contestant first studies the scrambled cube (i.e., looking at it normally with no blindfold), and is then blindfolded before beginning to turn the cube 's faces. Their recorded time for this event includes both the time spent examining the cube and the time spent manipulating it.
In multiple blindfolded, all of the cubes are memorised, and then all of the cubes are solved once blindfolded; thus, the main challenge is memorising many - often ten or more - separate cubes. The event is scored not by time but by the number of solved cubes minus the number of unsolved cubes after one hour has elapsed.
In fewest moves solving, the contestant is given one hour to find his or her solution, and must write it down.
There are different variations of Rubik 's Cubes with up to seventeen layers: the 2 × 2 × 2 (Pocket / Mini Cube), the standard 3 × 3 × 3 cube, the 4 × 4 × 4 (Rubik 's Revenge / Master Cube), and the 5 × 5 × 5 (Professor 's Cube) being the most well known. The 17 × 17 × 17 "Over The Top '' cube (available late 2011) is currently the largest (and most expensive, costing more than a thousand dollars) commercially sold cube. A working design for a 22 × 22 × 22 cube exists and was demonstrated in January 2016. Chinese manufacturer ShengShou has been producing cubes in all sizes from 2 × 2 × 2 to 10 × 10 × 10 (as of late 2013).
Non-licensed physical cubes as large as 13 × 13 × 13 based on the V - Cube patents are commercially available to the mass - market circa 2015 in China; these represent about the limit of practicality for the purpose of "speed - solving '' competitively (as the cubes become increasingly ungainly and solve - times increase quadratically).
There are many variations of the original cube, some of which are made by Rubik. The mechanical products include the Rubik 's Magic, 360, and Twist. Also, electronics like the Rubik 's Revolution and Slide were also inspired by the original. One of the newest 3 × 3 × 3 Cube variants is the Rubik 's TouchCube. Sliding a finger across its faces causes its patterns of coloured lights to rotate the same way they would on a mechanical cube. The TouchCube also has buttons for hints and self - solving, and it includes a charging stand. The TouchCube was introduced at the American International Toy Fair in New York on February 15, 2009.
The Cube has inspired an entire category of similar puzzles, commonly referred to as twisty puzzles, which includes the cubes of different sizes mentioned above as well as various other geometric shapes. Some such shapes include the tetrahedron (Pyraminx), the octahedron (Skewb Diamond), the dodecahedron (Megaminx), the icosahedron (Dogic). There are also puzzles that change shape such as Rubik 's Snake and the Square One.
In 2011, Guinness World Records awarded the "largest order Rubiks magic cube '' to a 17 × 17 × 17 cube, made by Oskar van Deventer.
Since 2015, with the mass production of the Icosaix, all five platonic solids analogous to Rubik 's cube (face - turning with cuts one - third from each face, except the Pyraminx, which also has turnable tips) became available. Besides Rubik 's cube, the tetrahedron is available as the Pyraminx, the octahedron as the Face Turning Octahedron, the dodecahedron as the Megaminx, and the icosahedron as the Icosaix.
Some puzzles have also been created in the shape of the Kepler - Poinsot polyhedra, such as Alexander 's Star (a great dodecahedron).
Puzzles have been built resembling the Rubik 's Cube or based on its inner workings. For example, a cuboid is a puzzle based on the Rubik 's Cube, but with different functional dimensions, such as 2 × 2 × 4, 2 × 3 × 4, and 3 × 3 × 5. Many cuboids are based on 4 × 4 × 4 or 5 × 5 × 5 mechanisms, via building plastic extensions or by directly modifying the mechanism itself.
Some custom puzzles are not derived from any existing mechanism, such as the Gigaminx v1. 5 - v2, Bevel Cube, SuperX, Toru, Rua, and 1 × 2 × 3. These puzzles usually have a set of masters 3D printed, which then are copied using moulding and casting techniques to create the final puzzle.
Other Rubik 's Cube modifications include cubes that have been extended or truncated to form a new shape. An example of this is the Trabjer 's Octahedron, which can be built by truncating and extending portions of a regular 3 × 3. Most shape mods can be adapted to higher - order cubes. In the case of Tony Fisher 's Rhombic Dodecahedron, there are 3 × 3, 4 × 4, 5 × 5, and 6 × 6 versions of the puzzle.
Puzzles like the Rubik 's Cube can be simulated by computer software, which provide functions such as recording of player metrics, storing scrambled Cube positions, conducting online competitions, analysing of move sequences, and converting between different move notations. Software can also simulate very large puzzles that are impractical to build, such as 100 × 100 × 100 and 1,000 × 1,000 × 1,000 cubes, as well as virtual puzzles that can not be physically built, such as 4 - and 5 - dimensional analogues of the cube.
Magic Cube 4D, a 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 virtual puzzle
Magic Cube 5D, a 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 virtual puzzle
Google has released the Chrome Cube Lab in association with Ernő Rubik. The site has various interactive objects based on Rubik 's Cube. Customised versions of Rubik 's Cube can be created and uploaded.
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what is the name of the hindu liberator god | Shiva - Wikipedia
Shiva (/ ˈʃiːvə, ˈʃɪ - /; Sanskrit: शिव, IAST: Śiva, lit. the auspicious one) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being within Shaivism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Shiva is the "destroyer of evil and the transformer '' within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with Parvati the equal complementary partner of Shiva. He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.
According to the Shaivism sect, the highest form of Shiva is formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, and the primal Atman (soul, self) of the universe. Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the patron god of yoga, meditation and arts.
The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru. He is usually worshipped in the aniconic form of Lingam. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
The Sanskrit word "Śiva '' (Devanagari: शिव, transliterated as Shiva or Siva) means, states Monier Monier - Williams, "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly ''. The roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness '' and va which means "embodiment of grace ''.
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (approximately 1700 - 1100 BC), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra. The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation '' and "the auspicious one '', this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra - Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver ''.
Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv -, which means "to injure '' or "to kill '', interprets the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness ''.
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva '', and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.
Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red '', noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (śivan, "the Red one '', in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda. The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One '', and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas) ''.
Shiva is known by many names such Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god ''; mahā "Great '' and deva "god ''), Maheśvara ("Great Lord ''; mahā "great '' and īśvara "lord ''), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord '').
Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata provides one such list. Shiva also has Dasha - Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.
The Shiva - related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bali (Indonesia). Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period, as Shiva dancing, Shiva 's trident, and his mount Nandi. Rock paintings from Bhimbetka, depicting a figure with a trishul, have been described as Nataraja by Erwin Neumayer, who dates them to the mesolithic.
Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic, seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo - daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati), an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra.
Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "yoga posture '' with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood, John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion.
Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative '', but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half - moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull. John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu - pati '', but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo - man.
The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley, for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account ''. Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000 - 2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull '' and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto - Shiva would "go too far ''.
The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet that means "kind, auspicious '', one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm - related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life - enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra - Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the pacific, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.
The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo - European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus, as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysus '', or alternatively call Dionysus as "god of the Orient ''. Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo - Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras '', a group of storm gods.
The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (shiva). The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (vahana) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra 's gradual development into the later character as Rudra - Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra. '' The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire myth of Rudra - Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.
In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame '') and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright ''), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.
According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra. Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20. 3, 6.45. 17, and 8.93. 3.) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto - Indo - European religion, and the pre-Islamic Indo - Iranian religion. The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha - related artwork, but the presence of Shiva 's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.
The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical but generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.
Rudra 's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400 -- 200 BC), according to Gavin Flood. Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is monistic, and the Shvetashvatara text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra - Shiva. Here Rudra - Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth - rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya (2nd - century BC) and in the Mahabharata. Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism, or henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.
He who sees himself in all beings, And all beings in him, attains the highest Brahman, not by any other means.
-- Kaivalya Upanishad 10
The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (soul, self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.
A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen -- a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy, describes the self - realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all '', who feels identity of his and everyone 's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.
The Shaiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (Tirtha) associated with him. The Shiva - related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti. Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider soul within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita), are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta. Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita), and that Shiva is the soul, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism - cum - dualism Agama texts and sixty four monism Agama texts.
Shiva - related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva - related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva - related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.
The figure of Shiva as we know him today may be an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not understood, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath, for example:
Vishnu and Siva (...) began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. (...) Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara. ''
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba 's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.
Shiva - Shakti
Saiddhantika
Non - Saiddhantika
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas '', revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, he is the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal soul, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions.
The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva - Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti - related Tantra texts. The Vedic - Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (advaita) and devotional traditions (dvaita) such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva - Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.
The Tantric Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a spectrum of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the "skull - men '') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, used meat, alcohol and sexuality as a part of ritual. In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions. The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva - Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self liberation.
The Vaishnava (Vishnu - oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form and equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:
Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity. The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu, that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.
The goddess - oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi), but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner. This partner is Shiva.
The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra - Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, in a hymn called the Devi Sukta:
I am the Queen, the gatherer - up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship. Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in. Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, -- each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken. They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it. I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome. I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman. I bend the bow for Rudra (Shiva), that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller. (...)
The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19. Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmya, a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.
In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja. This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent, set in a quincunx pattern. Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee 's preference (Ishta Devata).
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons, on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one 's Atman (soul, self) and the Brahman. Popularized by Adi Shankara, many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE). The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.
Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself -- the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages. As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one 's innermost self (atman) with the ultimate reality (brahman). ''
The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts. These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita (literally, "Shiva 's song ''), which Andrew Nicholson -- a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History -- states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism ''.
Other famed Shiva - related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic (Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance. These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th - century scholar Abhinavagupta. Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others '', and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer. These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad '' or the "Great Trinity ''. However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.
According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox, '' whose attributes include opposing themes. The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra - Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here ''. In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror '', as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.
The duality of Shiva 's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva 's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud -, which means "to cry, howl ''. Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature '', and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one '' or "the fierce god ''. R.K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible ''. Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates '', "one who consolidates '', and "one who destroys ''. Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher ''. Another of Shiva 's fearsome forms is as Kāla "time '' and Mahākāla "great time '', which ultimately destroys all things. The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time ''. Bhairava "terrible '' or "frightful '' is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name Śaṇkara, "beneficent '' or "conferring happiness '' reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788 -- 820), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam - on its own; bhu - burn / shine) "self - shining / shining on its own '', also reflects this benign aspect.
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder (grihasta), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society. When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: Mahā = "great '', Yogi = "one who practices Yoga '') refers to his association with yoga. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.
As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā '') refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama. Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī. She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe. His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva 's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu 's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta -- identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar -- is born. In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese '' style rituals, states Saletore. In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent - goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari. According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons Andhaka and Jalandhara as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance '') is popular. The names Nartaka ("dancer '') and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer '') appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well - defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala - Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava, and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati. Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava. The Tandava - Lasya dances are associated with the destruction - creation of the world.
Dakshinamurthy (Dakṣiṇāmūrti) literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras. This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer - throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman '', not as "half - man, half - woman ''.
Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras. Shiva 's name Tripurantaka (Tripurāntaka), "ender of Tripura '', refers to this important story.
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam. These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk - shaped object, the yoni, symbolism for the goddess Shakti. In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice. According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, linga literally means "mark, sign or emblem '', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred ''. It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva. Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view linga merely as an erotic phallic symbol, although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Swami Vivekananda, Sivananda Saraswati, and S.N. Balagangadhara. According to Moriz Winternitz, the linga in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva '', and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva - Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa - Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva 's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa - Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva - Linga. In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.
The oldest known archaeological linga as an anicon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd - century BCE. In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga, which means "linga of light '', and these are located across India.
Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).
Shiva 's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans. As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)
Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh '' -- literally portion, or avatars of Shiva, but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Saivism. The Linga Purana mentions twenty - eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars, however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism. Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies. For example, in the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva. The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva. Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an incarnation of Shiva.
There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night / 14th day, but once a year in late winter (February / March) and before the arrival of spring, marks Maha Shivaratri which means "the Great Night of Shiva ''.
Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance '' in life and the world, and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind. It is observed by reciting Shiva - related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self - restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self - repentance and the discovery of Shiva. The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam. Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances. According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th - century.
Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima, commemorating Shiva 's victory on the demons Tripurasura. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.
Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in Madurai around April / May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.
Some Shaktism - related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga. In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati - Shiva temples.
The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India, celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival. This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva - linked ascetic warriors (Nagas) get the honor of starting the event by entering the sangam first for bathing and prayers.
In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means "noble lord ''. He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru 's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms. The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).
In the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions. The medieval era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu). This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire, and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan. In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita ''). He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress. A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh. Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls. It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu - Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.
Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune. The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva. Shiva is also mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna. In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart.
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi. '' In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen. '' In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.
In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in films, books, tattoos and art. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things '' and a "bonafide rock hero ''.
Popular films include the Gujarati language movie Har Har Mahadev and well - known books include Amish Tripathi 's Shiva Trilogy, which has sold over a million copies. On television, Devon Ke Dev... Mahadev, a mythological drama about Shiva on the Life OK channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.
In the Final Fantasy videogame series, Shiva is often depicted as a benevolent ancient being of Ice Element who frequently aids the heroes against mighty foes (via summoning). Shiva is also a character in the video game Dark Souls, with the name Shiva of the East.
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where does transcription occur in a eukaryotic cell | Eukaryotic transcription - wikipedia
Eukaryotic transcription is the elaborate process that eukaryotic cells use to copy genetic information stored in DNA into units of RNA replica. Gene transcription occurs in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Unlike prokaryotic RNA polymerase that initiates the transcription of all different types of RNA, RNA polymerase in eukaryotes (including humans) comes in three variations, each encoding a different type of gene. A eukaryotic cell has a nucleus that separates the processes of transcription and translation. Eukaryotic transcription occurs within the nucleus where DNA is packaged into nucleosomes and higher order chromatin structures. The complexity of the eukaryotic genome necessitates a great variety and complexity of gene expression control.
Transcription is the process of copying genetic information stored in a DNA strand into a transportable complementary strand of RNA. Eukaryotic transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. The transcriptional machinery that catalyzes this complex reaction has at its core three multi-subunit RNA polymerases. RNA polymerase I is responsible for transcribing RNA that codes for genes that become structural components of the ribosome.
Protein coding genes are transcribed into messenger RNAs (mRNAs) that carry the information from DNA to the site of protein synthesis. Although mRNAs possess great diversity, they are not the most abundant RNA species made in the cell. The so - called non-coding RNAs account for the large majority of the transcriptional output of a cell. These non-coding RNAs perform a variety of important cellular functions.
Eukaryotes have three nuclear RNA polymerases, each with distinct roles and properties
RNA polymerase I (Pol I) catalyses the transcription of all rRNA genes except 5S. These rRNA genes are organised into a single transcriptional unit and are transcribed into a continuous transcript. This precursor is then processed into three rRNAs: 18S, 5.8 S, and 28S. The transcription of rRNA genes takes place in a specialised structure of the nucleus called the nucleolus, where the transcribed rRNAs are combined with proteins to form ribosomes.
RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is responsible for the transcription of all mRNAs, some snRNAs, siRNAs, and all miRNAs. Many Pol II transcripts exist transiently as single strand precursor RNAs (pre-RNAs) that are further processed to generate mature RNAs. For example, precursor mRNAs (pre-mRNAs) are extensively processed before exiting into the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore for protein translation.
RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribes small non-coding RNAs, including tRNAs, 5S rRNA, U6 snRNA, SRP RNA, and other stable short RNAs such as ribonuclease P RNA.
RNA Polymerases I, II, and III contain 14, 12, and 17 subunits, respectively. All three eukaryotic polymerases have five core subunits that exhibit homology with the β, β ', α, α, and ω subunits of E. coli RNA polymerase. An identical ω - like subunit (RBP6) is used by all three eukaryotic polymerases, while the same α - like subunits are used by Pol I and III. The three eukaryotic polymerases share four other common subunits among themselves. The remaining subunits are unique to each RNA polymerase. The additional subunits found in Pol I and Pol III relative to Pol II, are homologous to Pol II transcription factors.
Crystal structures of RNA polymerases I and II provide an opportunity to understand the interactions among the subunits and the molecular mechanism of eukaryotic transcription in atomic detail.
The carboxyl terminal domain (CTD) of RPB1, the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II, plays an important role in bringing together the machinery necessary for the synthesis and processing of Pol II transcripts. Long and structurally disordered, the CTD contains multiple repeats of heptapeptide sequence YSPTSPS that are subject to phosphorylation and other posttranslational modifications during the transcription cycle. These modifications and their regulation constitute the operational code for the CTD to control transcription initiation, elongation and termination and to couple transcription and RNA processing.
The initiation of gene transcription in eukaryotes occurs in specific steps. First, an RNA polymerase along with general transcription factors binds to the promoter region of the gene to form a closed complex called the preinitiation complex. The subsequent transition of the complex from the closed state to the open state results in the melting or separation of the two DNA strands and the positioning of the template strand to the active site of the RNA polymerase. Without the need of a primer, RNA polymerase can initiate the synthesis of a new RNA chain using the template DNA strand to guide ribonucleotide selection and polymerization chemistry. However, many of the initiated syntheses are aborted before the transcripts reach a significant length (~ 10 nucleotides). During these abortive cycles, the polymerase keeps making and releasing short transcripts until it is able to produce a transcript that surpasses ten nucleotides in length. Once this threshold is attained, RNA polymerase passes the promoter and transcription proceeds to the elongation phase.
Pol II - transcribed genes contain a region in the immediate vicinity of the transcription start site (TSS) that binds and positions the preinitiation complex. This region is called the core promoter because of its essential role in transcription initiation. Different classes of sequence elements are found in the promoters. For example, the TATA box is the highly conserved DNA recognition sequence for the TATA box binding protein, TBP, whose binding initiates transcription complex assembly at many genes.
Eukaryotic genes also contain regulatory sequences beyond the core promoter. These cis - acting control elements bind transcriptional activators or repressors to increase or decrease transcription from the core promoter. Well - characterized regulatory elements include enhancers, silencers, and insulators. These regulatory sequences can be spread over a large genomic distance, sometimes located hundreds of kilobases from the core promoters.
General transcription factors are a group of proteins involved in transcription initiation and regulation. These factors typically have DNA - binding domains that bind specific sequence elements of the core promoter and help recruit RNA polymerase to the transcriptional start site. General transcription factors for RNA polymerase II include TFIID, TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIIF, TFIIE, and TFIIH.
To prepare for transcription, a complete set of general transcription factors and RNA polymerase need to be assembled at the core promoter to form the ~ 2 million dalton preinitiation complex. For example, for promoters that contain a TATA box near the TSS, the recognition of TATA box by the TBP subunit of TFIID initiates the assembly of a transcription complex. The next proteins to enter are TFIIA and TFIIB, which stabilize the DNA - TFIID complex and recruit Pol II in association with TFIIF and additional transcription factors. TFIIF serves as the bridge between the TATA - bound TBP and polymerase. One of the last transcription factors to be recruited to the preinitiation complex is TFIIH, which plays an important role in promoter melting and escape.
For pol II - transcribed genes, and unlike bacterial RNA polymerase, promoter melting requires hydrolysis of ATP and is mediated by TFIIH. TFIIH is a ten - subunit protein, including both ATPase and protein kinase activities. While the upstream promoter DNA is held in a fixed position by TFIID, TFIIH pulls downstream double - stranded DNA into the cleft of the polymerase, driving the separation of DNA strands and the transition of the preinitiation complex from the closed to open state. TFIIB aids in open complex formation by binding the melted DNA and stabilizing the transcription bubble.
Once the initiation complex is open, the first ribonucleotide is brought into the active site to initiate the polymerization reaction in the absence of a primer. This generates a nascent RNA chain that forms a hetero - duplex with the template DNA strand. However, before entering the elongation phase, polymerase may terminate prematurely and release a short, truncated transcript. This process is called abortive initiation. Many cycles of abortive initiation may occur before the transcript grows to sufficient length to promote polymerase escape from the promoter. Throughout abortive initiation cycles, RNA polymerase remains bound to the promoter and pulls downstream DNA into its catalytic cleft in a scrunching - kind of motion.
When a transcript attains the threshold length of ten nucleotides, it enters the RNA exit channel. The polymerase breaks its interactions with the promoter elements and any regulatory proteins associated with the initiation complex that it no longer needs. Promoter escape in eukaryotes requires ATP hydrolysis and, in the case of Pol II - phosphorylation of the CTD. Meanwhile, the transcription bubble collapses down to 12 - 14 nucleotides, providing kinetic energy required for the escape.
After escaping the promoter and shedding most of the transcription factors for initiation, the polymerase acquires new factors for the next phase of transcription: elongation. Transcription elongation is a processive process. Double stranded DNA that enters from the front of the enzyme is unzipped to avail the template strand for RNA synthesis. For every DNA base pair separated by the advancing polymerase, one hybrid RNA: DNA base pair is immediately formed. DNA strands and nascent RNA chain exit from separate channels; the two DNA strands reunite at the trailing end of the transcription bubble while the single strand RNA emerges alone.
Among the proteins recruited to polymerase are elongation factors, thus called because they stimulate transcription elongation. There are different classes of elongation factors. Some factors can increase the overall rate of transcribing, some can help the polymerase through transient pausing sites, and some can assist the polymerase to transcribe through chromatin. One of the elongation factors, P - TEFb, is particularly important. P - TEFb phosphorylates the second residue (Ser - 2) of the CTD repeats (YSPTSPS) of the bound Pol II. P - TEFb also phosphorylates and activates SPT5 and TAT - SF1. SPT5 is a universal transcription factor that helps recruit 5 ' - capping enzyme to Pol II with a CTD phosphorylated at Ser - 5. TAF - SF1 recruits components of the RNA splicing machinery to the Ser - 2 phosphorylated CTD. P - TEFb also helps suppress transient pausing of polymerase when it encounters certain sequences immediately following initiation.
Transcription fidelity is achieved through multiple mechanisms. RNA polymerases select correct nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) substrate to prevent transcription errors. Only the NTP which correctly base pairs with the coding base in the DNA is admitted to the active center. RNA polymerase performs two known proof reading functions to detect and remove misincorporated nucleotides: pyrophosphorylytic editing and hydrolytic editing. The former removes the incorrectly inserted ribonucleotide by a simple reversal of the polymerization reaction, while the latter involves backtracking of the polymerase and cleaving of a segment of error - containing RNA product. Elongation factor TFIIS stimulates an inherent ribonuclease activity in the polymerase, allowing the removal of misincorporated bases through limited local RNA degradation. Note that all reactions (phosphodiester bond synthesis, pyrophosphorolysis, phosphodiester bond hydrolysis) are performed by RNA polymerase by using a single active center.
Transcription elongation is not a smooth ride along the DNA railway. For proofreading, the polymerase is made to back - up, erase some of the RNA it has already made and have another go at transcription. In general, RNA polymerase does not transcribe through a gene at a constant pace. Rather it pauses periodically at certain sequences, sometimes for long periods of time before resuming transcription. In extreme cases, for example, when the polymerase encounters a damaged nucleotide, it comes to a complete halt. More often, an elongating polymerase is stalled near the promoter. Promoter - proximal pausing during early elongation is a commonly used mechanism for regulating genes poised to be expressed rapidly or in a coordinated fashion. Pausing is mediated by a complex called NELF (negative elongation factor) in collaboration with DSIF (DRB - sensitivity - inducing factor containing SPT4 / SPT5). The blockage is released once the polymerase receives an activation signal, such as the phosphorylation of Ser - 2 of CTD tail by P - TEFb. Other elongation factors such as ELL and TFIIS stimulate the rate of elongation by limiting the length of time that polymerase pauses.
Elongating polymerase is associated with a set of protein factors required for various types of RNA processing. mRNA is capped as soon as it emerges from the RNA - exit channel of the polymerase. After capping, dephosphorylation of Ser - 5 within the CTD repeats may be responsible for dissociation of the capping machinery. Further phosphorylation of Ser - 2 causes recruitment of the RNA splicing machinery that catalyzes the removal of non-coding introns to generate mature mRNA. Alternative splicing expands the protein complements in eukaryotes. Just as with 5 ' - capping and splicing, the CTD tail is involved in recruiting enzymes responsible for 3 ' - polyadenylation, the final RNA processing event that is coupled with the termination of transcription.
The last stage of transcription is termination, which leads to the dissociation of the complete transcript and the release of RNA polymerase from the template DNA. The process differs for each of the three RNA polymerases. The mechanism of termination is the least understood of the three transcription stages.
The termination of transcription of pre-rRNA genes by polymerase Pol I is performed by a system that needs a specific transcription termination factor. The mechanism used bears some resemblance to the rho - dependent termination in prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells contain hundreds of ribosomal DNA repeats, sometimes distributed over multiple chromosomes. Termination of transcription occurs in the ribosomal intergenic spacer region that contains several transcription termination sites upstream of a Pol I pausing site. Through a yet unknown mechanism, the 3 ' - end of the transcript is cleaved, generating a large primary rRNA molecule that is further processed into the mature 18S, 5.8 S and 28S rRNAs.
As Pol II reaches the end of a gene, two protein complexes carried by the CTD, CPSF (cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor) and CSTF (cleavage stimulation factor), recognize the poly - A signal in the transcribed RNA. Poly - A-bound CPSF and CSTF recruit other proteins to carry out RNA cleavage and then polyadenylation. Poly - A polymerase adds approximately 200 adenines to the cleaved 3 ' end of the RNA without a template. The long poly - A tail is unique to transcripts made by Pol II.
In the process of terminating transcription by Pol I and Pol II, the elongation complex does not dissolve immediately after the RNA is cleaved. The polymerase continues to move along the template, generating a second RNA molecule associated with the elongation complex. Two models have been proposed to explain how termination is achieved at last. The allosteric model states that when transcription proceeds through the termination sequence, it causes disassembly of elongation factors and / or an assembly of termination factors that cause conformational changes of the elongation complex. The torpedo model suggests that a 5 ' to 3 ' exonuclease degrades the second RNA as it emerges from the elongation complex. Polymerase is released as the highly processive exonuclease overtakes it. It is proposed that an emerging view will express a merge of these two models.
RNA polymerase III can terminate transcription efficiently without the involvement of additional factors. The Pol III termination signal consists of a stretch of thymines (on the nontemplate strand) located within 40bp downstream from the 3 ' end of mature RNAs. The poly - T termination signal pauses Pol III and causes it to backtrack to the nearest RNA hairpin to become a "dead - end '' complex. Consistent with the allosteric mechanism of termination, the RNA hairpin allosterically opens Pol III and causes the elongation complex to disintegrate. The extensive structure embedded in the Pol III - transcript thus is responsible for the factor - independent release of Pol III at the end of a gene. RNA - duplex - dependent termination is an ancient mechanism that dates back to the last universal common ancestor.
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes is achieved through the interaction of several levels of control that acts both locally to turn on or off individual genes in response to a specific cellular need and globally to maintain a chromatin - wide gene expression pattern that shapes cell identity. Because eukaryotic genome is wrapped around histones to form nucelosomes and higher - order chromatin structures, the substrates for transcriptional machinery are in general partially concealed. Without regulatory proteins, many genes are expressed at low level or not expressed at all. Transcription requires displacement of the positioned nucleosomes to enable the transcriptional machinery to gain access of the DNA.
All steps in the transcription are subject to some degree of regulation. Transcription initiation in particular is the primary level at which gene expression is regulated. Targeting the rate - limiting initial step is the most efficient in terms of energy costs for the cell. Transcription initiation is regulated by cis - acting elements (enhancers, silencers, isolators) within the regulatory regions of the DNA, and sequence - specific trans - acting factors that act as activators or repressors. Gene transcription can also be regulated post-initiation by targeting the movement of the elongating polymerase.
The eukaryotic genome is organized into a compact chromatin structure that allows only regulated access to DNA. The chromatin structure can be globally "open '' and more transcriptionally permissive, or globally "condensed '' and transcriptionally inactive. The former (euchromatin) is lightly packed and rich in genes under active transcription. The latter (heterochromatin) includes gene - poor regions such as telomeres and centromeres but also regions with normal gene density but transcriptionally silenced. Transcription can be silenced by histone modification (deaceltylation and methylation), RNA interference, and / or DNA methylation.
The gene expression patterns that define cell identity are inherited through cell division. This process is called epigenetic regulation. DNA methylation is reliably inherited through the action of maintenance methylases that modify the nascent DNA strand generated by replication. In mammalian cells, DNA methylation is the primary marker of transcriptionally silenced regions. Specialized proteins can recognize the marker and recruit histone deacetylases and methylases to re-establish the silencing. Nucleosome histone modifications could also be inherited during cell division, however, it is not clear whether it can work independently without the direction by DNA methylation.
The two main tasks of transcription initiation are to provide RNA polymerase with an access to the promoter and to assemble general transcription factors with polymerase into a transcription initiation complex. Diverse mechanisms of initiating transcription by overriding inhibitory signals at the gene promoter have been identified. Eukaryotic genes have acquired extensive regulatory sequences that encompass a large number of regulator - binding sites and spread overall kilobases (sometimes hundreds of kilobases) from the promoter -- - both upstream and downstream. The regulator binding sites are often clustered together into units called enhancers. Enhancers can facilitate highly cooperative action of several transcription factors (which constitute enhanceosomes). Remote enhancers allow transcription regulation at a distance. Insulators situated between enhancers and promoters help define the genes that an enhancer can or can not influence.
Eukaryotic transcriptional activators have separate DNA - binding and activating functions. Upon binding to its cis - element, an activator can recruit polymerase directly or recruit other factors needed by the transcriptional machinery. An activator can also recruit nucleosome modifiers that alter chromatin in the vicinity of the promoter and thereby help initiation. Multiple activators can work together, either by recruiting a common or two mutually dependent components of the transcriptional machinery, or by helping each other bind to their DNA sites. These interactions can synergize multiple signaling inputs and produce intricate transcriptional responses to address cellular needs.
Eukaryotic transcription repressors share some of the mechanisms used by their prokaryotic counterparts. For example, by binding to a site on DNA that overlaps with the binding site of an activator, a repressor can inhibit binding of the activator. But more frequently, eukaryotic repressors inhibit the function of an activator by masking its activating domain, preventing its nuclear localization, promoting its degradation, or inactivating it through chemical modifications. Repressors can directly inhibit transcription initiation by binding to a site upstream of a promoter and interacting with the transcriptional machinery. Repressors can indirectly repress transcription by recruiting histone modifiers (deacetylases and methylases) or nucelosome remodeling enzymes that affect the accessibility of the DNA. Repressing histone and DNA modifications are also the basis of transcriptional silencing that can spread along the chromatin and switch off multiple genes.
The elongation phase starts once assembly of the elongation complex has been completed, and progresses until a termination sequence is encountered. The post-initiation movement of RNA polymerase is the target of another class of important regulatory mechanisms. For example, the transcriptional activator Tat affects elongation rather than initiation during its regulation of HIV transcription. In fact, many eukaryotic genes are regulated by releasing a block to transcription elongation called promoter - proximal pausing. Pausing can influence chromatin structure at promoters to facilitate gene activity and lead to rapid or synchronous transcriptional responses when cells are exposed to an activation signal. Pausing is associated with the binding of two negative elongation factors, DSIF (SPT4 / SPT5) and NELF, to the elongation complex. Other factors can also influence the stability and duration of the paused polymerase. Pause release is triggered by the recruitment of the P - TEFb kinase.
Transcription termination has also emerged as an important area of transcriptional regulation. Termination is coupled with the efficient recycling of polymerase. The factors associated with transcription termination can also mediate gene looping and thereby determine the efficiency of re-initiation.
When transcription is arrested by the presence of a lesion in the transcribed strand of a gene, DNA repair proteins are recruited to the stalled RNA polymerase to initiate a process called transcription - coupled repair. Central to this process is the general transcription factor TFIIH that has ATPase activity. TFIIH causes a conformational change in the polymerase, to expose the transcription bubble trapped inside, in order for the DNA repair enzymes to gain access to the lesion. Thus, RNA polymerase serves as damage - sensing protein in the cell to target repair enzymes to genes that are being actively transcribed.
Eukaryotic transcription is more complex than prokaryotic transcription. For instance, in eukaryotes the genetic material (DNA), and therefore transcription, is primarily localized to the nucleus, where it is separated from the cytoplasm (in which translation occurs) by the nuclear membrane. This allows for the temporal regulation of gene expression through the sequestration of the RNA in the nucleus, and allows for selective transport of mature RNAs to the cytoplasm. Bacteria do not have a distinct nucleus that separates DNA from ribosome and mRNA is translated into protein as soon as it is transcribed. The coupling between the two processes provides an important mechanism for prokaryotic gene regulation.
At the level of initiation, RNA polymerase in prokaryotes (bacteria in particular) binds strongly to the promoter region and initiates a high basal rate of transcription. No ATP hydrolysis is needed for the close - to - open transition, promoter melting is driven by binding reactions that favor the melted conformation. Chromatin greatly impedes transcription in eukaryotes. Assembly of large multi-protein preinitiation complex is required for promoter - specific initiation. Promoter melting in eukaryotes requires hydrolysis of ATP. As a result, eukaryotic RNA polymerases exhibit a low basal rate of transcription initiation.
In vertebrates, the majority of gene promoters contain a CpG island with numerous CpG sites. When many of a gene 's promoter CpG sites are methylated the gene becomes silenced. Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6 driver mutations and 33 to 66 hitchhiker or passenger mutations. However, transcriptional silencing may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally silenced by CpG island methylation (see regulation of transcription in cancer). Transcriptional repression in cancer can also occur by other epigenetic mechanisms, such as altered expression of microRNAs. In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of BRCA1 may occur more frequently by over-expressed microRNA - 182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter (see Low expression of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers).
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who led the reign of terror and who was prosecuted in the revolutionary courts | Reign of Terror - Wikipedia
The Reign of Terror, or The Terror (French: la Terreur), is the label given by most historians to a period during the French Revolution after the First French Republic was established.
Several historians consider the "reign of terror '' to have begun in 1793, placing the starting date at either 5 September, June or March (birth of the Revolutionary Tribunal), while some consider it to have begun in September 1792 (September Massacres), or even July 1789 (when the first beheadings by guillotine took place), but there is a consensus that it ended with the fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794.
Between June 1793 and the end of July 1794, there were 16,594 official death sentences in France, of which 2,639 were in Paris.
There was a sense of emergency among leading politicians in France in the summer of 1793 between the widespread civil war and counter-revolution. Bertrand Barère exclaimed on 5 September 1793 in the Convention: "Let 's make terror the order of the day! '' They were determined to avoid street violence such as the September Massacres of 1792 by taking violence into their own hands as an instrument of government.
Robespierre in February 1794 in a speech explained the necessity of terror:
If the basis of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the basis of popular government during a revolution is both virtue and terror; virtue, without which terror is baneful; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice; it is thus an emanation of virtue; it is less a principle in itself, than a consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing needs of the patrie (homeland, fatherland).
Some historians argue that such terror was a necessary reaction to the circumstances. Others suggest there were additional causes, including ideological and emotional.
Enlightenment thought emphasized the importance of rational thinking and began challenging legal and moral foundations of society, providing the leaders of the Terror with new ideas about the role and structure of government. Rousseau 's Social Contract argued that each person was born with rights, and they would come together to form a government that would then protect those rights. Under the social contract, the government was required to act for the general will, which represented the interests of everyone rather than a few factions. Drawing from the idea of a general will, Robespierre felt that the French Revolution could result in a Republic built for the general will but only once those who fought this ideal were expelled. Those who resisted the government were deemed "tyrants '' fighting against the virtue and honor of the general will. The leaders felt their ideal version of government was threatened from the inside and outside of France, and terror was the only way to preserve the dignity of the Republic created from French Revolution.
During the Reign of Terror, the sans - culottes and the Hébertists put pressure on the National Convention delegates and contributed to the overall instability of France. The National Convention was bitterly split between the Montagnards and the Girondins. The Girondins were more conservative leaders of the National Convention, while the Montagnards supported radical violence and pressures of the lower classes. Once the Montagnards gained control of the National Convention, they began demanding radical measures. Moreover, the sans - culottes, the scrappy, urban workers of France, agitated leaders to inflict punishments on those who opposed the interests of the poor. The sans - culottes ' violent demonstrations pushing their demands, created constant pressure for the Montagnards to enact reform. The sans - culottes fed the frenzy of instability and chaos by utilizing popular pressure during the Revolution. For example, the sans - culottes sent letters and petitions to the Committee of Public Safety urging them to protect their interests and rights with measures such as taxation of foodstuffs that favored workers over the rich. They advocated for arrests of those deemed to oppose reforms against those with privilege, and the more militant members would advocate pillage in order to achieve the desired equality. The resulting instability caused problems that made forming the new Republic and achieving full political support even more critical.
The Reign of Terror was characterized by a dramatic rejection of long - held religious authority, its hierarchical structure, and the corrupt and intolerant influence of the aristocracy and clergy. Religious elements that long stood as symbols of stability for the French people, were replaced by reason and scientific thought. The radical revolutionaries and their supporters desired a cultural revolution that would rid the French state of all Christian influence. This process began with the fall of the monarchy, an event that effectively defrocked the State of its sanctification by the clergy via the doctrine of Divine Right and ushered in an era of reason.
Many long - held rights and powers were stripped from the Church and given to the State. In 1789, church lands were expropriated and priests killed and forced to leave France. A Festival of Reason was held in the Notre Dame Cathedral, which was renamed "The Temple of Reason '', and the old traditional calendar was replaced with a new revolutionary one. The leaders of the Terror tried to address the call for these radical, revolutionary aspirations, while at the same time trying to maintain tight control on the de-Christianization movement that was threatening to the clear majority of the still devoted Catholic population of France. The tension sparked by these conflicting objectives laid a foundation for the "justified '' use of terror to achieve revolutionary ideals and rid France of the religiosity that revolutionaries believed was standing in the way.
On 10 March 1793 the National Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal. Among those charged by the tribunal, about a half were acquitted (though the number dropped to about a quarter after the enactment of the Law of 22 Prairial). In March rebellion broke out in the Vendée in response to mass conscription, which developed into a civil war that lasted until after the Terror.
On 6 April the Committee of Public Safety was created, which gradually became the de facto war - time government.
On 2 June, the Parisian sans - culottes surrounded the National Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to sans - culottes alone. With the backing of the national guard, they persuaded the convention to arrest 29 Girondist leaders. In reaction to the imprisonment of the Girondin deputies, some thirteen departments started the Federalist revolts against the National Convention in Paris, which were ultimately crushed. On 24 June, the convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, the French Constitution of 1793. It was ratified by public referendum, but never put into force.
On 13 July the assassination of Jean - Paul Marat -- a Jacobin leader and journalist -- resulted in a further increase in Jacobin political influence. Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the king, was removed from the committee. On July 27, 1793, Robespierre became part of the Committee of Public Safety.
On 23 August, the National Convention decreed the levée en masse, "The young men shall fight; the married man shall forge arms and transport provisions; the women shall make tents and clothes and shall serve in the hospitals; the children shall turn all lint into linen; the old men shall betake themselves to the public square in order to arouse the courage of the warriors and preach hatred of kings and the unity of the Republic. ''
On 9 September, the convention established paramilitary forces, the "revolutionary armies '', to force farmers to surrender grain demanded by the government. On 17 September, the Law of Suspects was passed, which authorized the imprisonment of vaguely defined "suspects ''. This created a mass overflow in the prison systems. On 29 September, the convention extended price fixing from grain and bread to other essential goods, and also fixed wages.
On 10 October, the Convention decreed that "the provisional government shall be revolutionary until peace. '' On 24 October, the French Republican Calendar was enacted. The trial of the Girondins started on the same day and they were executed on 31 October.
Anti-clerical sentiments increased during 1793 and a campaign of dechristianization occurred. On 10 November (20 Brumaire Year II of the French Republican Calendar), the Hébertists organized a Festival of Reason.
On 14 Frimaire (5 December 1793) was passed the Law of Frimaire, which gave the central government more control over the actions of the representatives on mission.
On 16 Pluviôse (4 February 1794), the National Convention decreed that slavery be abolished in all of France and French colonies.
On 8 and 13 Ventôse (26 February and 3 March), Saint - Just proposed decrees to confiscate the property of exiles and opponents of the revolution, known as the Ventôse Decrees.
By the end of 1793, two major factions had emerged, both threatening the Revolutionary Government: the Hébertists, who called for an intensification of the Terror and threatened insurrection, and the Dantonists, led by Georges Danton, who demanded moderation and clemency. The Committee of Public Safety took actions against both. The major Hébertists were tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal and executed on 24 March. The Dantonists were arrested on 30 March, tried on 3 to 5 April and executed on 5 April.
On 20 Prairial (8 June) was celebrated across the country the Festival of the Supreme Being, which was part of the Cult of the Supreme Being, a deist national religion. On 22 Prairial (10 June), the National Convention passed a law proposed by Georges Couthon, known as the Law of 22 Prairial, which simplified the judicial process and greatly accelerated the work of the Revolutionary Tribunal. With the enactment of the law, the number of executions greatly increased, and the period from this time to the Thermidorian Reaction became known as "The Grand Terror ''.
On 8 Messidor (26 June), the French army won the Battle of Fleurus, which marked a turning point in France 's military campaign and undermined the necessity of wartime measures and the legitimacy of the Revolutionary Government.
The fall of Robespierre was brought about by a combination of those who wanted more power for the Committee of Public Safety (and a more radical policy than he was willing to allow) and the moderates who completely opposed the revolutionary government. They had, between them, made the Law of 22 Prairial one of the charges against him, so that, after his fall, to advocate terror would be seen as adopting the policy of a convicted enemy of the republic, putting the advocate 's own head at risk. Between his arrest and his execution, Robespierre may have tried to commit suicide by shooting himself, although the bullet wound he sustained, whatever its origin, only shattered his jaw. Alternatively, he may have been shot by the gendarme Merda. The great confusion that arose during the storming of the municipal Hall of Paris, where Robespierre and his friends had found refuge, makes it impossible to be sure of the wound 's origin. In any case, Robespierre was guillotined the next day.
The reign of the standing Committee of Public Safety was ended. New members were appointed the day after Robespierre 's execution, and limits on terms of office were fixed (a quarter of the committee retired every three months). The Committee 's powers were gradually eroded.
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when does a lie of the mind take place | A Lie of the Mind - wikipedia
A Lie of the Mind is a play written by Sam Shepard, first staged at the off - Broadway Promenade Theater on 5 December 1985. The play was directed by Shepard himself with stars Harvey Keitel as Jake, Amanda Plummer as Beth, Aidan Quinn as Frankie, Geraldine Page as Lorraine, and Will Patton as Mike. The music was composed and played by the North Carolina bluegrass group the Red Clay Ramblers.
Some critics consider the play the conclusion of a quintet which includes Shepard 's Family Trilogy: Curse of the Starving Class (1976), Buried Child (1979), and True West (1980), plus Fool for Love (1983).
Told in three acts set in Montana and California, the story alternates between two families after a severe incident of spousal abuse leaves all their lives altered until the final collision at an isolated cabin. The two families are linked by the marriage of Jake (son of Lorraine and brother of Sally and Frankie) and Beth (daughter of Baylor and Meg and brother of Mike). The play begins with Beth recuperating in her parents ' home after a hospitalization resulting from Jake 's abuse. Exploring family dysfunction and the nature of love, the play follows Jake as he searches for meaning after Beth, and her family, as they struggle with Beth 's brain damage.
A Lie of the Mind was first produced Off - Broadway at the Promenade Theatre on December 5, 1985, closing on June 1, 1986 after 186 performances.
The cast was as follows:
The first major Off - Broadway revival of A Lie of the Mind was staged by the New Group at the Acorn Theatre. Ethan Hawke directed the production with an ensemble cast featuring Keith Carradine (Baylor), Josh Hamilton (Frankie), Marin Ireland (Beth), Laurie Metcalf (Meg), Alessandro Nivola (Jake), Maggie Siff (Sally), Frank Whaley (Mike), and Karen Young (Lorraine; Sally in the 1985 production). The show began previews on January 29, 2010, with a limited engagement from February 18 to March 20, 2010. It was nominated for five Lucille Lortel Awards including Outstanding Revival, and two Drama Desk Awards including Outstanding Director of a Play. The cast was featured on The New Yorker 's list of the Best Performers of 2010.
A revival in the UK was staged at the Southwark Playhouse in 2017, receiving excellent notices including 5 Stars from The Times of London.
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how to run as an independent candidate for president | Independent politician - wikipedia
An independent or nonpartisan politician is an individual politician not affiliated with any political party. There are numerous reasons why someone may stand for office as an independent.
Some independent politicians may be associated with a political party, perhaps as former members of it, or else have views that align with it, but choose not to stand in its name, or are unable to do so because the party in question has selected another candidate. Others may belong to or support a political party at the national level but believe they should not formally represent it (and thus be subject to its policies) at another level.
In running for public office, independents sometimes choose to form a party or alliance with other independents, and may formally register their party or alliance. Even where the word "independent '' is used, such alliances have much in common with a political party, especially if there is an organization which needs to approve the "independent '' candidates.
Independents are a recurrent feature of the federal Parliament of Australia, and they are more commonly elected to state parliaments. There have been up time five independents in every federal parliament since 1990, and independents have won twenty - eight times during national elections in that time. A large number of independents are former members of one of Australia 's four main parties, the Australian Labor Party, the Liberal Party of Australia, the Australian Greens, or the National Party of Australia. In 2013 a political party named the Australian Independents was registered with the Australian Electoral Commission.
As at 2017, two independents sit in the Australian House of Representatives, Andrew Wilkie from Denison in Tasmania (former Greens candidate) and Cathy McGowan from Indi in Victoria.
Independent Senators are quite rare. In modern politics, independent Brian Harradine served from 1975 to 2005 with considerable influence at times. Nick Xenophon has been the only elected independent Senator since his election to the Senate at the 2007 federal election. Xenophon was re-elected for another six - year term at the 2013 federal election. DLP Senator John Madigan became an independent Senator in September 2014, while PUP Senators Jacqui Lambie and Glenn Lazarus became independent Senators in November 2014 and March 2015.
The independent politicians are not allowed to run for offices in Brazil. The Constitution of 1988, in its Article 14, § 3rd, item V, says that "Are conditions for elegibility: V - party affiliation. '' However, the Proposal Amendment to the Constitution (PEC) no. 6 / 2015, authored by senator José Reguffe, would allow the independent candidacy of individuals who have the support of at least 1 % of the electors able to vote in the region (city, state or country, depending on the election) in which the candidate is running. Currently, members of the legislative and executive can leave their respective parties after elected, as is the case of senator Reguffe, who left the Democratic Labour Party (PDT) in 2016.
The President of Bulgaria Rumen Radev is an independent with support from the Bulgarian Socialist Party. Radev was elected in the Bulgarian presidential election of 2016.
Independent Members of Parliament were numerous in the last decades of the 19th century but diminished as the party system solidified. It remained common, however, to have a small number of Independent Liberal or Independent Conservative MPs into the 1950s.
Independent politicians have held considerable sway in the House of Commons of Canada in recent years as Canada has been governed by successive minority governments with independent Members of Parliament (MPs) sometimes sharing in the balance of power.
In the 2004 federal election, Chuck Cadman was elected to federal parliament as an independent MP representing the British Columbia riding of Surrey North. Cadman had previously represented that riding on behalf of the Reform Party of Canada and Canadian Alliance, but after the Canadian Alliance merged with the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada to form the new Conservative Party of Canada in 2003, Cadman lost the nomination to represent the Conservative Party in that riding to Jasbir Singh Cheema. Cadman then stood in the subsequent election as an independent and defeated Cheema, as well as the candidates of other Canadian parties, by a significant margin.
In the spring of 2005, Cadman cast the tying vote in favour of a budget supported by the Liberal Party government of Paul Martin as well as the New Democratic Party (NDP), but opposed by the opposition Conservatives and Bloc Québécois. Two other independents also voted on that budget. Carolyn Parrish, independent MP for Mississauga -- Erindale, had recently been kicked out of the Liberal Party for criticizing US president George W Bush, but nonetheless sided with the Liberals on the budget vote. David Kilgour independent MP for Edmonton -- Mill Woods -- Beaumont, had previously quit the Liberal caucus and voted with the opposition parties against the budget. The tie vote required the Speaker of the House Peter Milliken to cast the deciding vote, and he did so in favor of the budget, allowing the government to survive.
Cadman was terminally ill with cancer at the time he cast his crucial vote, and he died later in 2005. In the 2006 federal election, his riding was won by NDP candidate Penny Priddy. Neither Parrish nor Kilgour (nor Pat O'Brien, MP for London -- Fanshawe, who quit the Liberal Party to sit as an independent after the 2005 budget vote) stood for re-election in 2006.
Another independent candidate, André Arthur, was elected in the Quebec riding of Portneuf -- Jacques - Cartier in 2006, and was the only independent to win a seat in that election. He was re-elected in the October 14, 2008 federal election. Former Progressive Conservative and Conservative MP Bill Casey, who was expelled from the Conservative Party for voting against the 2007 Federal Budget, also ran as an independent in the 2008 election, easily retaining his seat.
Candidates in federal elections who are not affiliated with a party have two options: independent or no affiliation. In the former case, they appear on the ballot with "Independent '' following their name; in the second case, they appear with their name only. The two options are otherwise equivalent.
The territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are consensus governments with no political parties, so that all members sit as independents. There are a few independent members of the other subnational legislatures, which are similar in principle to the federal House of Commons; for example, in the 2009 election in British Columbia, independent candidate Vicki Huntington narrowly defeated incumbent Attorney General Wally Oppal as MLA for Delta South.
True independents should not be confused with members of parties without official party status in a legislature. Most legislatures provide that a party must hold a certain number of seats to enjoy certain advantages in staffing, budget, ability to ask questions in Question Period, and the like. Although members whose parties do not hold this status may have no more privileges than independent members, they remain representatives of political parties.
Also, members who are expelled from or choose to leave their party caucus may sit as "Independent '' with some designation, e.g., "Independent Liberal '' or "Independent Conservative '', to indicate their affiliation to that party even if it is not officially recognized.
Election as an independent is far more common at the municipal level. Many municipalities have no tradition of political parties.
After an inconclusive election in 2015 Tihomir Orešković was named the first non-partisan Prime Minister of Croatia.
In France, independent politicians are frequently categorised as sans étiquette ("without label '') in municipal or district elections. However, it is rare to have independent politicians at national level, e.g. José Bové in the 2007 presidential election. Emmanuel Macron was an independent politician as Minister, but formed his own party to stand in the 2017 presidential election.
In 1920, Alexandre Millerand was elected president of the Republic under the banner "without label ''.
From 2001 to 2008 "without label '' was no longer used in the nomenclature of the Ministry of the Interior. Candidates and lists presenting themselves as "without label '' are classified in DVG (various left), DVD (various right), DVC (various center) or AUT (other) according to their political sensitivity. Therefore, from 2008 onwards, the DIV (miscellaneous) or the LDIV code for the "miscellaneous '' list has been created to group unclassifiable or categorical interests and, by default, mayors without a declared label claiming No political sensitivity, be it left, center or right. The AUT (other) grade replaces the DIV grade without changing its definition.
Joachim Gauck, President of Germany from March 2012 to March 2017 and the first Federal President without party affiliation, was to date the most prominent Independent politician. In the German presidential election of 2010 he was the candidate of the Social Democrats and Greens, in 2012 the candidate of all major parties except The Left. His presidency -- though his powers are limited -- constitutes an exception, as Independent politicians have rarely held high office in German history, at least not since World War II. It has nevertheless happened that a presidential candidate without any chances of election by the Federal Convention was not a party member: for example, when in 1984 the Greens came up with the writer Luise Rinser.
In the Bundestag parliament nearly all deputies belong to a political party. The voting system of personalized proportional representation (since 1949) allows any individual holding the passive right to vote to stand for a direct mandate in the electoral districts -- half of the seats in parliament are distributed by districts according to a plurality voting system. Such a candidate has to present 200 signatures in favor of his candidacy, the same as a candidate of a party that had no parliamentary presentation previously. The first Bundestag election in 1949 saw three independents elected; since then, no party - independent candidate has won a seat. At state level, the situation is more or less the same: only party members have a real chance to be elected to a Landtag legislature, and state ministers without party membership are just as rare as at the federal level. However, in local elections it may occur that an independent politician is elected deputy to districts ', cities ' and municipalities ' assemblies, as well as member of a city council or even mayor, especially in Northern Germany. In recent years, independents have formed Free Voters associations to enter Landtag parliaments, so far only successful in Bavaria.
An independent MP, who also is not a member of a voters ' association, holds the status of a non-inscrit (German: fraktionsloser Abgeordneter) not affiliated to any parliamentary group. A representative who leaves his party (and his parliamentary group) and does not join another becomes an independent and non-inscrit. In 1989 the Bundestag MP Thomas Wüppesahl, who had left the Green Party in 1987 and was excluded from the Green parliamentary group the next year, obtained more rights as a non-inscrit, for example more talking time and representation in a subcommittee, when the Federal Constitutional Court decided partially in his favor.
After the German unification of 1871, the first Reich Chancellors (heads of government) de jure served as executive officers of the German Imperial states as non-partisans, usually recruited from the traditional bureaucratic, aristocratic and / or military elites. In the fierce political conflicts during the Weimar period after World War I, several chancellors and Reich Ministers also had no party affiliation: these chancellors were Wilhelm Cuno (1922 -- 1923), Hans Luther (1925 -- 1926), the former Centre politician Franz von Papen (1932), and Kurt von Schleicher (1932 -- 1933). The last two cabinets appointed by Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, a non-partisan (though strongly Conservative) himself, were regarded as apolitical cabinets of experts with regard to the rise of the Nazi Party; many of the ministers were not party members.
Since World War II, only two ministers of (West) German cabinets have not been party members, though "on the ticket '' of the major party in the coalition, the Social Democrats: Education Minister Hans Leussink (1969 -- 1972), and Minister of Economy Werner Müller (1998 -- 2002). Minister of Justice Klaus Kinkel only shortly after his appointment joined the Free Democrats in 1991. A special case is the former Federal Minister and Chancellor Ludwig Erhard, whose affiliation with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) has not been conclusively established: although he served as Minister of Economics from 1949 to 1963 and as Federal Chancellor from 1963 to 1966, and was even elected CDU party chairman in 1966, it seems that he never signed a membership form or paid contributions. Researches by Der Stern magazine have revealed a record at the CDU party archives created only in 1968, with the faked date of entry of early March 1949.
More than half of Hong Kong 's Legislative Council is made up of independents, or members whose political groups are represented by one sole member in the legislature. They are common in functional constituencies, and are not rare among geographical constituencies.
The President of Iceland (currently Guðni Th. Jóhannesson) is independent.
Independent candidate contest elections on the basis of their personal appeal or to promote an ideology different from any party. Some are also run as independent candidates after being sidelined by political rivals within their own party, or to ensure that a rival candidate is not elected. While some are genuine candidates, others have been criticised as dummy candidates put forward by political parties to get around the spending ceiling imposed by the Election Commission, or to confuse voters by using party names similar to those of another candidate.
After the Irish general election in 2016, there were 19 independent TDs (Members of Parliament) in the Dáil (the lower house of the Irish parliament), representing 12 % of the total. 4 TDs also sit for a registered party called Independents4Change. A grouping of independents, the Independent Alliance has agreed to support the minority Government with a number of other individual independents similarly agreeing and receiving cabinet positions.
There are fourteen independent senators in the 25th Seanad (the upper house of the Irish parliament), representing 23 % of the total. Three of these are elected by the graduates of the National University of Ireland and two from Dublin University. There are also five independent senators who were nominated by the Taoiseach and four elected by the technical panels.
Both of these are record highs for independents
The Prime Ministers Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1993 - 1994), Lamberto Dini (1995 - 1996), Giuliano Amato (2000 - 2001), and Mario Monti (2011 - 2013) were independent when they were in office. Ciampi was also the President of the Italian Republic between 1999 and 2006.
In Kosovo, Atifete Jahjaga was elected the first female and Independent President of Kosovo. She was also the first female and independent elected leader in the whole of the Balkans.
Independents have rarely been elected to the Dewan Rakyat and state legislative assemblies. In Malaysian elections, many independent candidates lose their election deposit because they had failed to secure at least 12.5 % or one - eighth of the total votes cast. Independent Senators are quite rare.
In 2010, a group of independent MPs who were sacked from the People 's Justice Party formed a political block called Konsensus Bebas. The members were Zahrain Mohamed Hashim (Bayan Baru), Wee Choo Keong (Wangsa Maju), Zulkifli Noordin (Kulim - Bandar Bharu), Tan Tee Beng (Nibong Tebal) dan Mohsin Fadzli Samsuri (Bagan Serai). It did not last beyond the 12th General Elections.
As of 2017, one independent politician sits in the Dewan Rakyat, Abdul Khalid Ibrahim from Bandar Tun Razak, the constituency with the highest registered voters in Kuala Lumpur (former PKR candidate).
Jaime Heliodoro Rodríguez Calderón (born in 1957), sometimes referred to by his nickname "El Bronco '', is a Mexican politician who is the current governor for the northern state of Nuevo León and holds no political party affiliation. As of June 7, 2015 elected Governor for Nuevo León, making history as the first independent candidate to win in the country.
Originally, there were no recognised parties in the New Zealand parliament, although loose groupings did exist informally (initially between supporters of central government versus provincial governments, and later between liberals and conservatives). The foundation of formal political parties, starting at the end of the 19th century, considerably diminished the number of unaffiliated politicians, although a smaller number of independent candidates continued to be elected up until the 1940s. Since then, however, there have been relatively few independent politicians in Parliament. No independent candidate has won or held a seat in a general election since 1943, although two independent candidates have been successful in by - elections (in all cases after having held the seats in question as partisan candidates up until that point). Other politicians have become independents in the course of a parliamentary term, but not been voted into office as such.
The last person to be directly elected to Parliament as an independent in New Zealand was Winston Peters, who won the 1993 by - election in Tauranga electorate as an independent after having previously held it a member of the National Party. By the time of the next general election, he had formed his own party (New Zealand First), and thus was no longer standing as an independent. Since that time, the only independents in Parliament have been people who quit or were expelled from their original party but retained their seats without going through a by - election. Some have gone on to found or co-found their own parties, with varying levels of success -- examples include Peter Dunne, Taito Phillip Field, Gordon Copeland, Tau Henare, and Alamein Kopu. Others have joined parties which were then outside Parliament, such as Frank Grover and Tuariki Delamere.
There were two independent MPs in the last Parliament; Chris Carter and Hone Harawira. Carter became an independent after his criticisms of the Labour Party 's leadership resulted in his being expelled from the Labour caucus, while Harawira resigned from the Māori Party and, after a short period as an independent, also resigned as an MP in order to force the 2011 by - election when he was re-elected as representative of his new political party, Mana and retained the seat in the 2011 General Election. There are also two parties other which have only a single MP United Future with Peter Dunne and ACT with David Seymour. Neither Dunne nor Seymour are classed as independents -- Dunne 's presence in Parliament is due to personal votes in his home electorate, and Seymour 's presence is as the sole elected MP of ACT because of a collapse in their support in the 2011 election. In the 50th New Zealand Parliament there was one independent MP: Brendan Horan, a former New Zealand First MP who was expelled from his party because of allegations of misappropriation of family assets.
Peter Dunne effectively became an Independent MP for a short period after his United Future political party was deregistered on 25 June 2013 by the Electoral Commission, as the party no longer had the required minimum of 500 members. The party was subsequently re-registered.
In Niue, there have been no political parties since 2003, when the Niue People 's Party disbanded, and all politicians are de facto independents. The government depends on an informal coalition.
Pakistan is a Democratic country and also has Independent politician standing in elections. Pakistan 's Parliament has General Elections, 2008 Elected 30 Members. In Election 2011 has won the 4 candidates in National Assembly.In General Election 2013, 9 seats won by independents.
Noli de Castro, the Philippines ' former vice president, ran as senator in 2001 with no political party affiliation. He was a guest candidate of the opposition Pwersa ng Masa coalition but he never joined their campaign rallies. He won in the senate race with the highest votes (then) in Philippine history. In 2004, he ran as vice president as a guest candidate of the administration K - 4 coalition and won with just under majority of the vote.
Starting in 2001, several senators had also resigned from their respective parties to become independents; at the start of the 15th Congress, there were more independent senators than any other single political party. However, in contesting elections, all elected independents had been members of either the administration or the opposition coalition, until in the 2007 Senate election when Gregorio Honasan (a former senator) was elected as an independent while not a being member of any coalition. Honasan was earlier elected in 1995 as an independent candidate and being adopted by the Nationalist People 's Coalition - led coalition to become the first elected independent senator since Magnolia Antonino in 1967, although Antonino was a guest candidate of the Liberal Party then.
In the local level, former priest Eddie Panlilio was elected as governor of Pampanga in 2007, defeating two administration candidates. When Panlilio eventually transferred to the Liberal Party in time for the 2010 election, it was ruled that he was beaten in the 2007 election; in 2010, he was defeated.
In the 2010 House of Representatives elections, seven independents were elected, although all but two joined a political party after the elections.
In contesting elections, independent candidates are required by law to spend less than candidates nominated by a party.
The Polish Sejm is elected by party - list ordination, which does not allow lone candidates to run, although since 2001 there has been a possibility to create non-partisan Voters ' Electoral Committee (pol. KWW, komitet wyborczy wyborców); they are by almost any means party lists, but no officially registered party is behind them. They can be unregistered parties, e.g. Kukiz'15, or non-partisan movements, although the latter never reached the 5 % threshold. National minorities candidates also form Voters ' Electoral Committees (like German Minority Electoral Committee, represented in Sejm since 1991), but they do not have to reach the nationwide threshold. However, during a Sejm term many members switch parties or become independents.
Tickets like Civic Platform during the 2001 election were formally non-partisan, Civic Platform was widely viewed as a de facto political party, as it is now.
The situation in the Senate is different, as the voting system allows independents to run as single candidates and some are elected in their own right. In the last parliamentary election (2015) four independents won seats in the Senate.
Three Presidents since 1990 have technically been independents. Lech Wałęsa was not an endorsed candidate of any party, but the chairman of the Solidarity and he was elected without full support of this union (Solidarity votes split between him and Prime Minister Tadeusz Mazowiecki). Aleksander Kwaśniewski was a leader of the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland, but formally resigned from the party after he was elected, as did Lech Kaczyński, who was the first leader of Law and Justice, Bronisław Komorowski (PO) and Andrzej Duda (PiS). The resignation is required because the Constitution says that the president shall hold no other offices nor discharge any public functions. The aforementioned presidents often participated in their party 's campaigns (e.g. Andrzej Duda in the Law and Justice campaign three months after his resignation from the party).
All of Russia 's Presidents have been independents. Former president Dmitry Medvedev declined an offer to join United Russia, saying that he believes the President should be an independent so that he serves the interests of the country rather than his political party.
Vladimir Putin, the current president of Russia, was the head of the United Russia party until 26 May 2012, but even then was not its member, thus formally was and still is independent.
After the last local election in Taiwan on 29 November 2014, there are three independent local heads, which are:
The Registration of Political Parties Act 1998 laid down the first specific rules in the United Kingdom relating to the use of the term ' independent ' by election candidates. That Act was repealed with most of its contents covered by Part II of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000. Candidates standing for United Kingdom local elections and United Kingdom parliamentary elections, including the devolved assemblies, can use the name of a registered political party, or the term ' Independent ' (or its Welsh language equivalent annibynol) or no ballot paper description at all (this latter choice was used, for example, by David Icke at the Haltemprice and Howden by - election, 2008).
Some groups in the United Kingdom who are not affiliated to any national or regional party have registered locality - based political parties. Some English examples are the Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern, the Epsom and Ewell Residents Association, the Devizes Guardians, the Derwentside Independents, and the East Yorkshire Independents.
Before the twentieth century it was fairly common for independents to be elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, but there have been very few since 1945.
S.O. Davies, the veteran Labour MP held his Merthyr Tydfil seat in the General Election of 1970, standing as an independent, after he had been deselected by the Labour Party.
The journalist Martin Bell was elected at Tatton in the General Election of 1997, having stood on an anti-corruption platform. He was the first independent to be newly elected to the Commons since 1951. He stood unsuccessfully in a different constituency in 2001.
At the 2001 General Election, Dr Richard Taylor of the Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern party was elected for the constituency of Wyre Forest.
Two independent (or local party) members of parliament were elected in the 2005 election, although both were defeated five years later.
At the same General Election, Peter Law was elected as an independent at Blaenau Gwent. Law died on 25 April 2006: the resulting by - election elected Dai Davies of the local party Blaenau Gwent People 's Voice. The by - election was unusual as it was the first time in over eighty years that an independent had held a seat previously occupied by another independent.
Also at the 2005 General Election Richard Taylor was re-elected for Wyre Forest. This was notable for the fact that he was the only independent in recent times to have been elected for a second term.
Only one independent was elected to the Commons in the 2010, 2015 and 2017 elections, Sylvia Hermon, the Member for North Down, a Unionist who left the Ulster Unionist Party because of its links with the Conservatives.
There have also been several instances of politicians being elected to the Commons as representatives of a political party, then resigning the party 's whip, or having it withdrawn. Examples in this in the 2010 - 2015 parliament included Mike Hancock (formerly a Liberal Democrat), Eric Joyce (formerly Labour) and Nadine Dorries, a Conservative who had the whip withdrawn for part of the parliament and thus sat as an independent during that time.
Independent candidates often stand in British parliamentary elections, often with platforms about specific local issues, but usually without success. An example from the 2001 general election was Aston Villa supporter Ian Robinson, who stood as an independent in the Sutton Coldfield constituency in protest at the way chairman Doug Ellis ran the football club. Another example an independent candidate, in the Salisbury constituency, is Arthur Uther Pendragon, a local activist and self - declared reincarnation of King Arthur.
Other independent candidates are associated with a political party and may be former members of it, but can not stand under its label. For instance, after being expelled from the Labour Party but before the Respect Coalition was founded, British Member of Parliament (MP) George Galloway described himself as "Independent Labour ''.
On 23 March 2005 the Independent Network was set up to support independent candidates in the General Election. The Independent Network still supports Independent candidates in local, regional, national and European elections. It has an organic set of principles which are known as the Bell Principles and are very closely related to Lord Nolan 's Standards of Public Life. The Independent Network does not impose any ideology or political influence on their candidates.
In March 2009, the multi-millionaire Sir Paul Judge established the Jury Team, an umbrella organisation dedicated to increasing the number of independent candidates standing in Britain, in both national and European elections.
The House of Lords includes a large number of peers independent from political parties. Some are simply not affiliated with any grouping, whilst another, larger, grouping is given the official designation of crossbenchers. Additionally the Lords Spiritual (bishops of the Church of England) do not have party affiliations.
In the 2003 Scottish Parliamentary elections, three MSPs were elected as Independents: Dennis Canavan (Falkirk West), Dr Jean Turner (Strathkelvin and Bearsden) and Margo MacDonald (Lothians). In 2004 Campbell Martin (West of Scotland region) left the Scottish National Party to become an independent and in 2005 Brian Monteith (Mid Scotland and Fife) left the Conservative Party to become an independent. At the 2007 Scottish Parliamentary elections Margo MacDonald was again returned as an independent MSP and was elected as an independent for the third time four years later. She died in 2014 while still serving as member of the Parliament. As she was elected as an independent regional MSP, there could be no by - election and her seat remained vacant until the 2016 election.
Peter Law was expelled from the Labour Party after standing against an official Labour candidate in Blaenau Gwent at the 2005 UK general election and became an independent in the National Assembly and UK Parliament. In 2006 Peter Law died from a brain tumour and his wife, Trish Law campaigned and took the seat as an independent candidate at the sequent by - election and held onto the seat again in the 2007 Welsh Assembly elections.
In 2016, Nathan Gill as the then leader of UKIP Wales defected from the group to sit as an independent after a falling out with Neil Hamiliton who was elected UKIP Assembly group leader. Lord Dafydd Elis - Thomas left the Plaid Cymru group later in 2016 after multiple fallings out with Plaid Cymru leader Leanne Wood. Dafydd Elis - Thomas said his reason for leaving Plaid Cymru was that it not serious about working with the Welsh Labour Government. Neil McEvoy Was expelled from Plaid Cymru on 16 January 2018 and is now sitting as an independent AM. Nathan Gill stood down on the 27 December 2017 and was replaced by Mandy Jones. Mandy Jones left the UKIP group on the 9 January 2018 over a fallout over her staff.
The introduction of directly elected mayors in several parts of England has witnessed the election of independents to run councils in Stoke - on - Trent, Middlesbrough, Bedford, Hartlepool and Mansfield. The first Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, was first elected as an independent, having run against the official Labour candidate Frank Dobson. He was subsequently re-admitted to the Labour Party in December 2003 before his first re-election campaign.
Independent candidates frequently stand and are elected to local councils. There is a special Independent group of the Local Government Association to cater for them. A number of local authorities have been entirely or almost entirely composed of independent members, such as the City of London Corporation, the Isles of Scilly Council, Orkney Islands Council, Shetland Islands Council and Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Western Isles Council) in the Outer Hebrides.
Roughly a quarter of the police and crime commissioners elected in England and Wales in the 2012 election were independents.
George Washington was the only president elected as an independent, as he was not formally affiliated with any party during his term in office.
John Tyler was expelled from the Whig Party in September 1841, and remained effectively an independent for the remainder of his presidency, later returning to the Democrats. He briefly sought re-election in 1844 as a National Democrat, but withdrew over fear he would split the Democratic vote.
Since 1900, notable candidates running as independents for U.S. president have included Republican Congressman John Anderson in 1980, Ross Perot in 1992, and former Green Party candidate Ralph Nader in the 2004 and 2008 elections. Independent Senator Bernie Sanders ran for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately did not appear on the ballot, in the 2016 election.
In 2008, Nader formed Independent Parties in New Mexico, Delaware, and elsewhere to gain ballot access in several states. This strategy has been pursued by several other candidates for Federal races, including Joe Lieberman (Connecticut for Lieberman).
Illinois, Maine, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Alaska and Minnesota have elected formally independent candidates as governor: Illinois 's first two governors, Shadrach Bond and Edward Coles; James B. Longley in 1974 as well as Angus King in 1994 and 1998 from Maine; Lincoln Chafee in 2010 from Rhode Island; Julius Meier in 1930 from Oregon; Sam Houston in 1859 from Texas; and Bill Walker in 2014 from Alaska. Lowell P. Weicker, Jr. is sometimes mentioned as an independent governor, though this is not technically correct; he ran as A Connecticut Party candidate (which gave him better ballot placement than an unaffiliated candidate would receive), defeating the Democratic and Republican party nominees. Another former governor who is sometimes mentioned as an independent is Jesse Ventura, who actually ran as a member of the Reform Party 's Minnesota affiliate, which later disaffiliated from the party and reverted to their original name the Independence Party of Minnesota.
In 1971, State Senator Henry Howell of Virginia, a former Democrat, was elected lieutenant governor as an independent. Two years later, he campaigned for governor as an independent, but lost by 15,000 votes.
There were several unsuccessful independent gubernatorial candidates in 2006 who impacted their electoral races. In Maine, state legislator Barbara Merrill (formerly a Democrat) received 21 % of the vote. In Texas, country music singer and mystery novelist Kinky Friedman received 12.43 % of the vote, and State Comptroller Carole Keeton Strayhorn received 18.13 %. Strayhorn and Friedman 's presence in the race resulted in a splitting of the ballot four ways between themselves and the two major parties.
In 2010, Florida governor Charlie Crist left the Republican party and became Independent (he later became a Democrat) rather than face former state house Speaker Marco Rubio in the Republican primary (Rubio won, though Crist came in ahead of Democratic nominee Kendrick Meek).
In 2014, former Honolulu mayor Mufi Hannemann ran as an independent candidate for the governorship of the State of Hawaii after previously campaigning in the state 's Democratic primary. As a result, Democratic candidate David Ige was elected as governor with a plurality of 49 %.
There have been several independents elected to the United States Senate throughout history. Notable examples include David Davis of Illinois (a former Republican) in the 19th century, and Harry F. Byrd, Jr. of Virginia (who had been elected to his first term as a Democrat) in the 20th century. Some officials have been elected as members of a party but became independent while in office (without being elected as such), such as Wayne Morse of Oregon. Nebraska senator George W. Norris was elected for four terms as a Republican before changing to an independent after the Republicans lost their majority in Congress in 1930. Norris won re-election as an independent in 1936, but later lost his final re-election attempt to Republican Kenneth S. Wherry in 1942. Vermont senator Jim Jeffords left the Republican Party to become an independent in 2001. Jeffords 's change of party status was especially significant because it shifted the Senate composition from 50 - 50 between the Republicans and Democrats (with a Republican Vice President, Dick Cheney, who would presumably break all ties in favor of the Republicans), to 49 Republicans, 50 Democrats, and one Independent. Jeffords agreed to vote for Democratic control of the Senate in exchange for being appointed chairman of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, and the Democrats held control of the Senate until the Congressional elections in 2002, when the Republicans regained their majority. Jeffords retired at the end of his term in 2007. Wayne Morse after two years as an independent became a Democrat. Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota was appointed a day before the 2002 elections to fill the senate seat of Paul Wellstone who, while running for re-election, died weeks prior. Barkley refused to caucus with either party.
Senator Bernie Sanders is the longest serving independent member of Congress in American history. He was an independent member of the United States House of Representatives for Vermont - at - large from 1991 to 2007. Sanders later won the open Senate seat of Jim Jeffords as an independent. Joe Lieberman is a former Democrat who, like Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., ran under a third party (Connecticut for Lieberman Party) in the 2006 election. Though both representatives are technically independent politicians, they often caucus with the Democrats. In 2006, Sanders and Lieberman were the only two victorious independent candidates for Congress. In 2012 Angus King was elected to the US Senate as an Independent from Maine. As of 2016, he has typically caucused with the Democrats.
The United States House of Representatives has also seen a handful of independent members. Examples include Bernie Sanders of Vermont, Virgil Goode of Virginia, Frazier Reams of Ohio, and Victor Berger of Wisconsin.
In August 2008, there were 12 independents who held offices in state legislatures. There were four state senators, one from Kentucky, one from Oregon, one from Tennessee, and one from New Mexico. The representatives came from the states of Louisiana (two), Maine (two), Vermont (two), and Virginia (two). In the 2008 general elections, Wisconsin State Assemblyman Jeffrey Wood left the Republican Party and won reelection as an independent. After the 2008 primary election, New Mexico State Senator Joseph Carraro left the Republican Party and registered as an Independent. He did not run for reelection.
In November 2005, Manny Diaz was elected Mayor of Miami, Florida as an independent. On June 19, 2007, New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg switched his party affiliation from Republican to independent. Oscar Goodman, Mayor of Las Vegas, Nevada switched his affiliation to Independent from Democrat in December 2009. Dan Hollingsworth has won four consecutive elections as an Independent since 1998 for mayor of the small city of Ruston, Louisiana, the home of Louisiana Tech University.
The Nebraska Legislature is unique in that it is the only nonpartisan state legislature. In the Legislature (which is additionally unique in that it is also the only state legislature that is unicameral), there are no formal party alignments or groups and the members are nominated in nonpartisan primary elections. Members are allowed to register with political parties but choose not to reveal their affiliation while seated, as a professional courtesy. However, the political affiliation of party - affiliated members are considered open secrets and the parties exist in the legislature on an unofficial basis. Some members, such as Ernie Chambers of Omaha, are independent of party officially, while others have not publicly disclosed their affiliation.
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which restaurant chain has the most locations in the world | List of the largest fast food restaurant chains - wikipedia
This is the list of the largest fast food restaurant chains by their number of locations in the world.
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what does the flag don't tread on me | Gadsden flag - Wikipedia
The Gadsden flag is a historical American flag with a yellow field depicting a rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. Positioned below the rattlesnake are the words "DONT TREAD ON ME. '' The flag is named after American general and politician Christopher Gadsden (1724 -- 1805), who designed it in 1775 during the American Revolution. It was used by the Continental Marines as an early motto flag, along with the Moultrie flag.
The timber rattlesnake can be found in the area of the original Thirteen Colonies. Its use as a symbol of the American colonies can be traced back to the publications of Benjamin Franklin. In 1751, he made the first reference to the rattlesnake in a satirical commentary published in his Pennsylvania Gazette. It had been the policy of Great Britain to send convicted criminals to the Americas, so Franklin suggested that they thank the British by sending rattlesnakes to England.
In 1754, during the French and Indian War, Franklin published his famous woodcut of a snake cut into eight sections. It represented the colonies, with New England joined together as the head and South Carolina as the tail, following their order along the coast. Under the snake was the message "Join, or Die ''. This was the first political cartoon published in an American newspaper.
As the American colonies came to identify more with their own communities and the concept of liberty, rather than as vassals of the British empire, icons that were unique to the Americas became increasingly popular. The rattlesnake, like the bald eagle and American Indian, came to symbolize American ideals and society.
As the American Revolution grew, the snake began to see more use as a symbol of the colonies. In 1774, Paul Revere added Franklin 's iconic cartoon to the nameplate of his paper, the Massachusetts Spy, depicted there as fighting a British dragon. In December 1775, Benjamin Franklin published an essay in the Pennsylvania Journal under the pseudonym American Guesser in which he suggested that the rattlesnake was a good symbol for the American spirit:
The rattlesnake symbol was first officially adopted by the Continental Congress in 1778 when it approved the design for the official Seal of the War Office (at that time and for many years thereafter, the War Office was a term associated with the Headquarters of the Army). At the top center of the Seal is a rattlesnake holding a banner which says: "This We 'll Defend ''. According to the US Army 's Institute of Heraldry, "' This We 'll Defend, ' on a scroll held by the rattlesnake is a symbol depicted on some American colonial flags and signifies the Army 's constant readiness to defend and preserve the United States. ' This design of the War Office Seal was carried forward -- with some minor modifications -- into the subsequent designs for the War Department 's Seal, and the Department of the Army 's Seal, Emblem and Flag. As such, the rattlesnake symbol has been in continuous official use by the US Army for over 236 years.
In fall 1775, the Continental Navy was established by General George Washington in his role as Commander in Chief of all Continental Forces, before Esek Hopkins was named Commodore of the Navy. The Navy began with seven ships, often called "Washington Cruisers '', that flew the "Liberty Tree Flag '', depicting a green pine tree with the motto "Appeal to Heaven ''. This is according to the October 20, 1775 letter of Washington 's aide Colonel Joseph Reed, which is stored in the Library of Congress.
Those first ships were used to intercept incoming British ships carrying war supplies to the British troops in the colonies to both deprive the supplies to the British and to supply to the Continental Army. One ship captured by Captain John Manley had 30,000 pairs of shoes on it. However, the admiralty agent demanded his 2 ⁄ per cent commission before he would release the cargo for Washington 's army, so many soldiers marched barefoot in the snow. To aid in this, the Second Continental Congress authorized the mustering of five companies of Marines to accompany the Navy on their first mission. The first Marines enlisted in the city of Philadelphia, and they carried drums painted yellow, depicting a coiled rattlesnake with thirteen rattles, and the motto "Do n't Tread on Me. '' This is the first recorded mention of the future Gadsden flag 's symbolism.
At the Congress, Continental Colonel Christopher Gadsden represented his home state of South Carolina. He was one of seven members of the Marine Committee who were outfitting the first naval mission.
Before the departure of that first mission in December 1775, the newly appointed commander - in - chief of the Navy, Commodore Esek Hopkins, received the yellow rattlesnake flag from Gadsden to serve as the distinctive personal standard of his flagship. It was displayed at the mainmast. Hopkins had previously led The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence, before being appointed to lead the Navy. The 1775 flag of the Providence Train of Artillery 's featured a coiled timber rattlesnake and the motto "Do Not Tread on Me '' along with an anchor, cannons and the motto "In God We Hope '' on a gold background. The flag presented to Hopkins as Commander of the Continental Navy is a simplified version of that design.
Gadsden also presented a copy of this flag to the Congress of South Carolina in Charleston, South Carolina. This was recorded in the South Carolina congressional journals on February 9, 1776:
Many variations of the Gadsden flag exist:
The Culpeper Minutemen flag has a coiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag. It has a white field, rather than yellow, and the additional motto "Liberty or Death '' and the name "The Culpeper Minute Men ''. It is the flag of Virginia volunteers from the Culpeper area.
The John Proctor 's Regiment flag of 1st Battalion Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, had a coiled rattlesnake shown on its flag.
The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence already used a coiled rattlesnake on a field of gold with the motto "Do Not Tread On Me '' on its flag. Before Esek Hopkins was named the first Commodore of the American Navy by the Continental Congress he served as a Brigadier General of the Rhode Island Militia Artillery, and would have been familiar with the design of the flag.
All four of the American - designed "Rattlesnake Flags '' show a coiled rattlesnake. The only other rattlesnake flag, the First Navy Jack, was "designed by '' the English artist Thomas Hart as background art.
The traditional version of the First Navy Jack has an uncoiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag, on a field of 13 horizontal red and white stripes. Flag experts (vexillologists) speculate that the English artist Thomas Hart either did not know about the practice of rattlesnakes to coil in defense, or did, and intended to insult the fledgling American Navy as a weak and vulnerable creature as a rattlesnake is when not coiled and ready to strike, slithering on the ground, trying to escape, with its motto "(Please) Do n't Tread on Me! '' However, others suggest the snake pictured on the flag was being provoked, and is striking. Hence the warning, "Do n't tread on me (or I will strike) ''.
Considered one of the first flags of the United States, the flag was later replaced by the current Stars and Stripes (or Old Glory) flag. Since the Revolution, the flag has seen resurgences as a symbol of American patriotism, disagreement with government, or support for civil liberties.
The First Navy Jack, which was not directly related to the Gadsden flag, has been in use by the United States Navy since its beginnings. Unlike the Liberty Tree Flag with the letter by Colonel Joseph Reed that describes it, there is no document that describes the Snake on Stripes flag, only an image by English artist Thomas Hart in the background of a portrait of Commodore Esek Hopkins. In that same painting is a round "tree flag ''. The triangular Liberty Tree flag is derived from the only surviving tree flag from the Revolution, found in an old trunk in 1993 on Long Island, the 5th Regt. Connecticut Militia. The Snake on Stripes flag was included in a book of flags by Admiral Preble, but later Preble determined the flag not valid, so he removed it from his text. However, the book publisher used the old color plates, so the image was continued in the new edition and subsequently picked up by other publications and Webster 's Dictionary.
In preparation for the 1976 bicentennial year, staff officers in the Secretary of the Navy 's office sought a powerful image for the Navy 's Bicentennial. One Navy officer saw the Snake on Stripes Flag in Webster 's Dictionary, so the staff officers ordered a large number to give away as Navy promotional items and then turned to the Naval Historical Center to "get the history ''. They were told that the flag had probably never flown during the Revolution, based on Admiral Preble 's later discoveries, but a decision was made to use the Snake on Stripes Flag, or the "Fake Snake Flag '', anyway. Beginning in 1975, commissioned Navy ships flew this Jack in place of the Naval Jack (officially known as the Union Jack, not to be confused with the United Kingdom 's flag) at the bow. In 1977, the Secretary of the Navy directed that the ship in active status with the longest total period of active service shall display the First Navy Jack until decommissioned or transferred to inactive service, at which time the flag shall be passed to the next ship in line with appropriate honors. The display of this jack by the oldest ship in the fleet is intended as a form of recognition to promote pride of service, enhance morale, and contribute to the tradition of naval service. USS Enterprise (CVN 65) became the oldest active ship in the United States Navy upon the decommissioning of USS Kitty Hawk (CV 63) on May 12, 2009. Enterprise is only the third aircraft carrier ever to hold the honor of flying the First Navy Jack.
Since the first Patriot Day on September 11, 2002, which commemorates the lives lost in the September 11 attacks, the rattlesnake from the flag is also shown on the US Army 's Drill Sergeant Identification Badge. After the Snake on Stripes Flag became the Navy 's symbol for the Global War on Terrorism, flag history professionals (vexillologists) have done extensive research papers that further question the claim that the flag ever flew during the American Revolution, yet it continues to fly at the bow of American warships today.
The flag has also seen use by protesters in the United Kingdom on April 23, 2018 for the "# FreeDankula '' march, and May 6, 2018 at the "# DayForFreedom '' rally.
For historical reasons, the Gadsden flag is still popularly flown in Charleston, South Carolina, the city where Christopher Gadsden first presented the flag and where it was commonly used during the revolution, along with the blue and white crescent flag of pre-Civil War South Carolina.
The Gadsden flag has become a popular specialty license plate in several states.
As of 2018, the following states offer the option of obtaining a Gadsden flag specialty license plate: Alabama, Arizona, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
Beginning in 2009 at Tea Party rallies, the Gadsden Flag has been adopted as a symbol of the American Tea Party movement. It was also displayed by members of Congress at Tea Party movement rallies. Some lawmakers have called it a "political symbol '' because of this association.
In March 2013, a resident of New Rochelle, New York, put up a Gadsden flag at the city 's vacant armory building. The city ordered its removal, fearing that the flag would be seen as political. The next month, a veterans group, the United Veterans Memorial & Patriotic Association, filed suit against the city.
Athletic apparel company Nike uses the image of a rattlesnake coiled around a soccer ball for an ongoing, patriotic "Do n't Tread on Me '' campaign in support of the United States men 's national soccer team. The phrase has become a rallying cry for American soccer fans and the Gadsden flag can occasionally be seen at national team games. A representation of the rattlesnake is contained on the inside of their uniforms, over the heart, with the initials "D.T.O.M. '', which were used in the 2010 World Cup.
In Hideo Kojima 's video game Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty a variation of the flag can be seen on one of the connecting bridges of the "Big Shell '' facility, in a reference to both the original meaning and usage of the flag.
In the apocalyptic 2006 CBS TV drama Jericho, the flag makes several appearances, most notably in the series finale as Jericho 's acting mayor takes down the flag of the "Allied States of America '', which had been flying at the town hall following a federal coup. He replaces the red, white, and blue flag of the central government with a Gadsden Flag which the previous mayor had kept framed in his office. The scene depicts a once - collaborationist character as finally having summoned the courage to be in open defiance against a supreme government.
The heavy metal band Metallica recorded a song called "Do n't Tread on Me '' on their self - titled fifth studio album, released in 1991. The album cover features a dark grey picture of a coiled rattlesnake like the one found on the Gadsden Flag. The song 's lyrics refer to political phrases from the American Revolutionary War.
In addition, in the hit series The West Wing, Sam Seaborn 's office displays the flag hanging above his cabinet.
NASCAR driver Carl Edwards displayed the Gadsden Flag next to his facsimile signature on his race car.
In WWE, the tag team Real Americans, composed by Jack Swagger, Cesaro and the manager Zeb Colter, used the Gadsden Flag and the preamble "We the People ''.
In the 1979 novel Alongside Night, an organization called the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre, seeking a Second American Revolution, welcomes visitors to one of its undergrounds: "The room 's only decoration was a modified Gadsden flag draped on the wall adjoining the bar and medical areas (opposite the door), a golden field with ' LAISSEZ - FAIRE! ' in an upper left corner, a coiled rattlesnake facing left with its tongue out, and in the lower right, ' DONT TREAD ON ME! ' '' The Gadsden flag without the addition of "LAISSEZ - FAIRE! '' is carried over into the 2014 Alongside Night movie adaptation in which the Gadsden flag is used by the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre as well as the traditional anarchist black flag.
In 1970, on a verse from song Uncle John 's Band by Grateful Dead contains "Their wall are built of cannonballs, their motto is ' Do n't tread on me ' ''.
Media related to Gadsden flag at Wikimedia Commons
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what does it mean to take a first at oxford | British undergraduate degree classification - wikipedia
The British undergraduate degree classification system is a grading structure for undergraduate degrees (bachelor 's degrees and integrated master 's degrees) in the United Kingdom. The system has been applied (sometimes with significant variations) in other countries and regions, including Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Kenya, Ghana, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, and Zimbabwe.
In the 16th century, the Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Cambridge implemented norm referencing to distinguish the top 25 % of candidates, the next 50 %, and the bottom 25 %.
The classification system as currently used in the United Kingdom was developed in 1918. Honours were then a means to recognise individuals who demonstrated depth of knowledge or originality, as opposed to relative achievement in examination conditions.
Recently, there has been concern over possible grade inflation due to increasing numbers of higher - class honours degrees awarded per annum. The number of first - class honours degrees has reportedly tripled since the 1990s. As with claimed grade inflation of A-levels, prospective employers or educational institutions have observed increased difficulty in selecting candidates. It is, however, unknown whether the rise in the number of first - class degrees is due to grade inflation of whether students are achieving higher levels than in the past, and university leaders have also pointed at the higher A-levels attained by students as evidence that higher degree grades should be expected. On the other hand, the practice of degree classification has been criticised for unduly stigmatising students and being unreflective of a graduate 's success or potential for success, particularly in the workplace.
A bachelor 's degree can be an honours degree (bachelor 's with honours) or an ordinary degree (bachelor 's without honours). Honours degrees are classified, usually based on a weighted average (with higher weight given to marks in the later years of the course, and often zero weight to those in the first year) of the marks gained in exams and other assessments. Grade boundaries can vary by institution, but typical values are given below.
Students who do not achieve honours may be awarded an ordinary degree, sometimes known as a "pass ''. Ordinary degrees, and other exit awards such as the Diploma of Higher Education (DipHE; for completing the first two years of a degree course) and Certificate of Higher Education (CertHE; for completing the first year of a degree course), may be unclassified (pass / fail) or, particularly in Scotland where the ordinary degree is offered as a qualification in its own right, classified into pass, merit and distinction. Foundation degrees are normally classified into pass, merit and distinction.
Integrated master 's degrees are usually classified with honours in the same way as a bachelor 's honours degree, although some integrated master 's degrees are classified like postgraduate taught master 's degrees into pass (usually 50 %), merit (60 %) and distinction (70 %).
At most institutions, the system allows a small amount of discretion. A candidate may be elevated to the next degree class if his or her average marks are close to (or the median of their weighted marks achieves) the higher class, and if they have submitted several pieces of work worthy of the higher class. However, even students with a high average mark may be unable to take honours if they have failed part of the course and so have insufficient credits.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, a bachelor 's degree with honours normally takes three years of full - time study and usually requires 360 credits, of which at least 90 are at level 6 (final year of a bachelor 's degree) level, while an ordinary bachelor 's degree normally requires 300 credits, of which 60 are at level 6. In Scotland, the honours bachelor 's degree takes four years and requires 480 credits with a minimum of 90 at level 10 of the Scottish framework (last year of the honours degree) and 90 at level 9 (penultimate year), while the ordinary degree takes three years and requires 360 credits with a minimum of 60 at level 9 (last year of the ordinary degree).
In Scotland, it is possible to start university a year younger than in the rest of the United Kingdom, as the Scottish Higher exams are often taken at age 16 or 17 (as opposed to 18), so Scottish students often end a four - year course at the same age as a student from elsewhere in the UK taking a three - year course, assuming no gap years.
When a candidate is awarded a degree with honours, "(Hons) '' may be suffixed to their designatory letters -- for example, BA (Hons), BSc (Hons), BMus (Hons), MA (Hons). An MA (Hons) would generally indicate a degree award from certain Scottish universities (c.f. Scottish MA) and is at the same level as a bachelor 's degree.
The Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) has published the number of degrees awarded with different classifications since 1994 / 5. The relative proportions of different classes have changed over this period, with increasing numbers of students being awarded higher honours. The table below shows the percentage of classified degrees (i.e. not including fails or unclassified degrees such as MBBS) in each class at five year intervals; note that HESA stopped giving statistics separately for third class honours and pass degree after 2003 and that a small number of undivided second class honours degrees (shown under "other '' along with "unknown '', which makes up the bulk of this category) were awarded up to 1996.
First - class honours, referred to as a "first '', is the highest honours classification and indicates high academic achievement.
In 2010 and 2011, the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) reported that approximately 15 % of all degree candidates graduated with first - class honours. The percentages of graduates achieving a first vary greatly by university and course studied. For example, students of law are least likely to gain a first, whereas students of mathematical sciences are most likely to gain a first. In 2006 -- 2007 and 2010 -- 2011, 5.8 % and 8.1 % of law students gained a first, respectively; however, in those years, 28.9 % and 30.0 % of mathematics students gained a first, respectively.
A first class honours degree is sometimes known as a ' Geoff ' or ' Damien ' after Geoff Hurst or Damien Hirst.
The upper division is commonly abbreviated to "2: 1 '' or "II. i '' (pronounced two - one). The 2: 1 is a minimum requirement for entry to many postgraduate courses in the UK. It is also required for the award of a research council postgraduate studentship in the UK, although possession of a master 's degree can render a candidate eligible for an award if their initial degree was below the 2: 1 standard. The percentage of candidates who achieve upper second - class honours can vary widely by degree subject, as well as by university.
An upper second class honours degree might be referred to as ' Attila ' or ' Don ' after ' Attila the Hun ' and ' Don Juan '.
This is the second division of second - class degrees and is abbreviated as "2: 2 '' or "II. ii '' (pronounced two - two).
It has been colloquially referred to in rhyming slang as a ' ' Desmond '' - after South African social rights activist and retired Anglican archbishop Desmond Tutu (although Tutu himself graduated with an upper second - class honours degree).
Third - class honours, referred to as a "third '', is the lowest honours classification in most modern universities. Historically, the University of Oxford awarded fourth - class honours degrees and, until the late 1970s, did not distinguish between upper and lower second - class honours degrees.
Informally, the third - class honours degree is referred to as a "gentleman 's degree '' (cf. the "gentleman 's C '' in the U.S.).
It has been colloquially known in rhyming slang as a ' Douglas ' -- after Douglas Hurd, the former Conservative MP (who in reality took first class honours), or a ' Richard ' - after King Richard III.
Approximately 7.2 % of students graduating in 2006 with an honours degree received a third - class honours.
While most university bachelor 's degree courses lead to honours degrees, some universities offer courses leading to ordinary degrees. Some honours courses permit students who do not gain sufficient credits in a year by a small margin to transfer to a parallel ordinary degree course. Ordinary degrees may also sometimes be awarded to honours degree students who do not pass sufficient credits in their final year to gain an honours degree, but pass enough to earn an ordinary degree.
Some Scottish universities offer three - year ordinary degrees as a qualification in their own right, as well as an honours degree over four years. This is in contrast to English universities that have honours degrees with three years of study. An ordinary degree in Scotland is not a failed honours degree, as in certain English universities. Students can decide, usually at the end of their second or third year, whether or not they wish to complete a fourth honours year. Scottish universities may also award their ordinary degrees with distinction if a student achieves a particularly good grade average, usually 70 % or above. A common example of a Scottish ordinary degree is the Bachelor of Laws course taken by graduates of other subjects, as this is sufficient (without honours) for entry into the legal profession.
An aegrotat (/ ˈiːɡroʊtæt /; from Latin aegrotat, meaning ' he is ill ') degree is an honours or ordinary degree without classification, awarded under the presumption that, had a candidate who was unable to undertake their exams due to illness or even death completed those exams, they would have satisfied the standard required for that degree. Aegrotat degrees are often qualified with an appended "(aegrotat) ''.
Following the introduction of current regulations regarding mitigating circumstances, aegrotat degrees are less commonly awarded than they previously were.
At the University of Cambridge, undergraduate Tripos examinations are split into three parts (e.g. Part IA, IB, and II), or two parts (Part I and II). Part II is taken at the end of final year. Each student receives a formal classification for each part (i.e. Class I, II. I, II. II, or III). Typically, the Part II grade that corresponds with final examinations is quoted, however officially a grade simply exists for every Part of the degree, not for the overall degree.
At the University of Oxford, a formal degree Class is given, and this is typically based on the final examinations. In Oxford, examinations for Prelims or Honour Moderations are also undertaken in first / second year, however these results do not typically affect the final degree classification. Until the 1970s, the four honours divisions in Oxford 's moderations and final examinations were named first, second, third and fourth class, but eventually Oxford gave in and adopted the numbering used by other English universities.
At the University of Cambridge, Triposes were previously split into two parts: Part I and Part II. Attaining First Class Honours in both parts would culminate in graduating with a "Double First ''. Most Triposes were later split into three parts: "Part IA, '' "Part IB '' and "Part II '', or "Part I '', "Part IIA '' and "Part IIB ''. Attaining a First Class in all three parts culminates in graduating with a "Triple First ''. The frequency of this honour varies with subject, however typically fewer than 3 % of students will achieve this distinction. It is possible in some of the humanities Triposes to be awarded a "Starred First ''. The science Triposes do not award Starred Firsts.
Oxford sometimes grants a congratulatory first, which The New York Times described as "a highly unusual honor in which the examining professors ask no questions about the candidate 's written work but simply stand and applaud '', and Martin Amis described as "the sort where you are called in for a viva and the examiners tell you how much they enjoyed reading your papers ''. A "double first '' at Oxford usually informally refers to first - class honours in both components of an undergraduate degree, i.e. Moderations / Prelims and the Final Honour School, or in both the bachelor 's and master 's components of an integrated master 's degree.
At University College London, candidates who perform well beyond the requirements of a standard First Class Honours may be nominated to the Dean 's List. This is generated once per year and recognizes outstanding academic achievement in final examinations. There are no set criteria for nomination to the list, but typically only a nominal number of students from each faculty are nominated per year.
The University of St Andrews gives equivalences between French and British grades for its study - abroad programme. Equivalencies for the purposes of initial teacher training have also been derived by the UK NARIC for 1st, 2: 1 and 2: 2 degrees, which do not align with St Andrews ' table.
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) compares international degrees with local degrees before any international student continues their studies in that country. While the British degree accreditation and classification system allows students to go straight from a three - year bachelor 's degree onto a master 's degree (normally requiring a 1st or a 2: 1 -- those with a 2: 2 or a 3rd usually require appropriate professional experience), South Africa does not do so unless the student has proven research capabilities. South African Honours degrees prepare the students to undertake a research - specific degree (in terms of master 's), by spending an in - depth year (up to 5 modules) creating research proposals and undertaking a research project of limited scope. This prepares students for the research degrees later in their academic career.
The UK NARIC has derived equivalencies for the grades of the Spanish grado and licenciatura degrees for purposes of initial teacher training bursaries.
The Netherlands organisation for international cooperation in higher education (NUFFIC) has compared UK degree classification to Dutch degree grades. Dutch equivalencies have also been calculated by the UK NARIC.
Nuffic also noted that the grading culture is different in the Netherlands, so that it is very rare for even the smartest students in the Netherlands to be awarded a 9 or a 10, which represent near perfection and absolute perfection.
British honours degrees are sometimes considered equivalent (by British sources) to a US master 's degree, with the US bachelor 's degree being equivalent to a British pass degree, due to the much higher degree of specialisation in the UK. However, many British institutions accept US bachelor 's degrees for admission to postgraduate study (see below) and US comparison services treat British and American degrees as equivalent. When US bachelor 's degrees are compared to British honours degrees, equivalencies can be expressed in terms of either US Grade Point Averages (GPAs) or letter grades.
British institutions normally state equivalence in terms of GPAs. Approximate mappings between British classifications and GPAs can be inferred from the graduate admissions criteria used by British universities, which often give international equivalents. For example, University College London (UCL) equates the minimum classification for entrance to GPAs using 1st = 3.6, 2: 1 = 3.3 and 2: 2 = 3.0. However, different universities convert grades differently: the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) considers a GPA (U.S.) of 3.5 or better as equivalent to gaining a 2: 1, while the department of English Language and Literature at Oxford considers a GPA of "about 3.8 '' equivalent to a first class degree. Similarly, the UK NARIC gives equivalent GPAs for determining eligibility for teacher training bursaries. In contrast, Durham University 's North American Undergraduate Guide 2017 gives a conversion table as a guide to understanding British classifications (rather than for admission to postgraduate study) of 1st = 3.8 -- 4.0, 2: 1 = 3.3 -- 3.7, 2: 2 = 2.8 -- 3.2 and 3rd = 2.3 -- 2.7. The GPA conversions are summarised in the following table:
Letter grade equivalents are more commonly used by American institutions. World Education Services (WES), a nonprofit organisation which provides qualification conversion services to many universities and employers, gives 1st = A, 2: 1 = A - / B+, 2: 2 = B, 3rd = B -, Pass = C, which would convert British degrees to higher GPAs than the conversion used by UCL if the guidelines for converting grades to GPA given by Duke University are used. The Fulbright Commission has also created "an unofficial chart with approximate grade conversions between UK results and US GPA. ''
Canadian academic grades may be given as letters, percentages, 12 - point GPAs or 4 - point GPAs. The 4 - point GPAs are sometimes seen to differ from the US but other sources treat them as equivalent. The Durham conversion specifies GPAs for the US and letter grades / percentages for Canada while the UK NARIC has separate GPA conversions for the four - year bachelor 's honours, baccalauréat and professional bachelor 's degrees (which differ from their US GPA equivalents by at most 0.1) and the three - year bachelor 's degree (which is seen as a lower standard). The British Graduate Admissions Fact Sheet from McGill University uses the conversion 1st = 4.0; 2: 1 = 3.0; 2: 2 = 2.7; 3rd = 2.0; Pass = 1.0; Fail = 0.0.
Degrees in the UK are mapped to levels of the Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree - Awarding Bodies (FHEQ), which includes the Framework for Qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland (FQHEIS), which has an alternative numbering of levels corresponding to those of the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF). Bachelor 's degrees (including the Scottish MA, but not including medical degrees, dentistry degrees or degrees in veterinary science) attained in the UK are at FHEQ level 6 / FQHEIS level 9 (ordinary) or 10 (honours); master 's degrees (including integrated master 's degrees and first degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science) are at FHEQ level 7 / FQHEIS level 11, and doctoral degrees are at FHEQ level 8 / FQHEIS level 12. Bachelor 's, master 's and doctoral degrees map to first, second and third cycle qualifications in the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area.
Regulations governing the progression of undergraduate degree graduates to postgraduate programmes vary among universities, and are often flexible. A candidate for a postgraduate master 's degree is usually required to have at least a 2: 2 bachelor honours degree, although candidates with 2: 1s are in a considerably stronger position to gain a place in a postgraduate course and to obtain funding, especially in medical and natural sciences. Some institutions specify a 2: 1 minimum for certain types of master 's program, such as for a Master of Research course.
Candidates with a Third or an Ordinary degree are sometimes accepted, provided they have acquired satisfactory professional experience subsequent to graduation. A candidate for a doctoral programme who does not hold a master 's degree is nearly always required to have a First or 2: 1 at bachelor 's level.
Some universities, such as those in Australia, offer ordinary or pass degrees, (for instance, as a three - year B.A. or a three - year BSc) by default. High - achieving students may be recognised with an honours classification without further coursework or research, as is often the case in engineering, which often contains a research and thesis component, or law. However, other courses (such as humanities, arts, social sciences, and sciences) and other universities may recognise high - achieving students with an honours classification with further coursework or research, undertaken either concurrently with, and as part of or in addition to, a bachelor 's course, or after completion of a bachelor 's course requirements and attaining adequately competitive grades.
Some graduate degrees have been or are classified; however, under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF), no graduate - level degrees (i.e., master 's by coursework, master 's by research, or higher research degrees) may be classified. To comply with this standard, some institutions have commenced, or will commence, offering high - achieving graduates with "distinction ''. Notably, this is consistent with British graduate degree classification.
In the United Kingdom, medicine is usually taught as an undergraduate course, with graduates being awarded a master 's level qualification: normally the conjoined degrees of Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, BM BCh, MB ChB, etc.) although at Queen 's University Belfast (and universities in Ireland) Bachelor in the Art of Obstetrics (BAO) is added, and at some universities only the Bachelor of Medicine is awarded - all of these have equal standing. Unlike most undergraduate degrees, the MBBS is not normally considered an honours degree, and thus is not classified into first class honours, etc. Students may be awarded "Merits '' and "Distinctions '' for parts of the course or the whole course (depending on the institution) and "Honours '' may be awarded at some institutions for exceptional performance throughout the course (as a grade above Distinction).
Medical schools split their year groups into one of 10 deciles. These deciles are the major factor in the calculation of Educational Performance Measure (EPM) points used as part of medical students ' Foundation Programme applications, with the top decile receiving 43 points, decreasing by a point for each decile (so the lowest gets 34 points); 7 points can be awarded for other educational achievements (other degrees and publications), and the EPM points are combined with up to 50 points from the Situational Judgement Test to give a total out of 100.
Following the recommendation of the Burgess report into the honours degree classification system in 2007, the Higher Education Academy ran a pilot in 2013 -- 2014 in collaboration with 21 institutions delivering higher education (ranging from Russell Group universities to Further Education colleges) to investigate how a Grade Point Average (GPA) system would work best in Britain. Two main weighting systems were tested: an American - style average of all marks, weighted only by credit value, and weighting by "exit velocity '' in the manner of the honours classification, where modules in the first year are given a low or zero weight and modules in the final year have a higher weight (a third model was only rarely used). Over two thirds of providers preferred exit - velocity weighting to the straight average.
A GPA scale, tied to percentage marks and letter grades, was recommended for use nationally following the study, to run in parallel with the honours degree classification system.
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who is known as the richest man in the world | Carlos Slim - wikipedia
Carlos Slim Helú (Spanish pronunciation: (ˈkaɾlos ezˈlim eˈlu); born January 28, 1940) is a Mexican business magnate, engineer, investor and philanthropist. From 2010 to 2013, Slim was ranked as the richest person in the world by the Forbes business magazine. He derived his fortune from his extensive holdings in a considerable number of Mexican companies through his conglomerate, Grupo Carso. As of August 2018, he is the seventh - richest person in the world according to Forbes ' listing of The World 's Billionaires with a net worth estimated at $67.4 billion. He is the richest man in Mexico.
His conglomerate includes education, health care, industrial manufacturing, transportation, real estate, media, energy, hospitality, entertainment, high - technology, retail, sports and financial services. He accounts for 40 % of the listings on the Mexican Stock Exchange, while his net worth is equivalent to about 6 percent of Mexico 's gross domestic product.
Slim was born on January 28, 1940, in Mexico City, to Julián Slim Haddad (born Khalil Salim Haddad Aglamaz) and Linda Helú Atta, both Maronite Catholics from Lebanon.
Slim always knew he wanted to be a businessman, and he began to develop his business and investment acumen at a young age. He received business lessons from his father Julián, who taught him finance, management and accounting, teaching him how to read financial statements as well as the importance of keeping accurate financial records, a practice that Slim carries on to this day.
At the age of 11, Carlos invested in a government savings bond that taught him about the concept of compound interest. He eventually saved every financial and business transaction he made into a personal ledger book which he keeps to this day. At the age of 12, he made his first stock purchase, by purchasing shares in a Mexican bank. By the age of 15, Slim had become a shareholder in Mexico 's largest bank. At the age of 17, he earned 200 pesos a week working for his father 's company. He went on to study civil engineering at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where he also concurrently taught algebra and linear programming.
Though Slim was a civil engineering major, he also displayed an interest in economics. He took economics courses in Chile once he finished his engineering degree. Graduating as a civil engineering major, Slim has stated that his mathematical ability and his background of linear programming was a key factor in helping him gain an edge in the business world, especially when reading financial statements.
After graduating from college in 1961, Slim began his career as a stock trader in Mexico, often working 14 - hour days. In 1965, profits from Slim 's private investments reached US $400,000, allowing him to start the stock brokerage Inversora Bursátil. In addition, he also began laying the financial groundwork for Grupo Carso. In 1965 he also bought Jarritos del Sur. In 1966, worth US $40 million, he founded Inmobiliaria Carso.
Companies in the construction, soft drink, printing, real estate, bottling and mining industries were the focus of Slim 's early burgeoning business career. He later expanded into numerous industries including auto parts, aluminium, airlines, chemicals, tobacco, manufacturing of cables and wires, paper and packaging, copper and mineral extraction, tires, cement, retail, hotels, beverage distributors, telecommunications and financial services where Slim 's Grupo Financiero Inbursa -- which sells insurance and invests the savings, mutual funds and pension plans of millions of ordinary Mexicans. By 1972, he had established or acquired a further seven businesses in these categories, including one which rented construction equipment. In 1976, he branched out by acquiring a 60 percent share of Galas de México, a small printer of cigarette - pack labels for US $1 million, and in 1980, he consolidated his business interests by forming Grupo Galas as the parent company of a conglomerate that had interests in industry, construction, mining, retail, food, and tobacco. In 1981, Slim acquired a majority stake in Cigarros la Tabacelera Mexicana (Cigatam), Mexico 's second largest producer and marketer of cigarettes, at a reduced price.
In 1982, the Mexican economy contracted rapidly. As many banks were struggling and foreign investors were cutting back on investing and scurrying, Slim began investing heavily and bought many flagship companies at depressed valuations. Buying troubled assets at depressed prices to resell them later at an attractive price is a business strategy that Slim has executed throughout his career.
Having a keen investment eye for value, Slim adhered to his value investment practices with a long history of buying stakes in companies he sees as undervalued. Much of Slim 's business dealings involved a simple strategy, which is to buy a business and hang on to it for its cash flow or eventually sell the stake at a greater profit in future, thereby netting the capital gains as well as reinvesting the initial principal into a new business. In addition, his conglomerate structure allows Slim to purchase numerous stakes that it is made nearly recession proof if one or more sectors of the economy do not do well. Slim also does n't address the finer details of the business but instead focuses on business fundamentals where his strategy is buy an asset at an undervalued price for its underlying cash flow and eventually sell his stake for greater profit when the asset gains value, or simply hang to the business for its cash flow.
From the mid 1960s to the early 1980s, Slim and his growing family lived a modest life, while earnings from Slim 's many businesses were re-invested in expansion and more acquisitions. Slim acquired companies with strong returns on capital he believed were undervalued and overhauled their management. He diversified methodically in numerous industry sectors across the Mexican economy, investing in real estate, then a construction equipment company, and mining companies. The portfolio of Slim companies grew to include a printing company, a tobacco company and retail stores.
During the Mexican economic downturn before its recovery in 1985, Slim invested heavily. He bought all or a large percentage of numerous Mexican businesses, including Empresas Frisco, a mining and chemicals company producing silver, gold, copper, lead, and zinc from extracted ores, and also chemical products such as hydrofluoric acid and molybdenum for only $50 million, Industrias Nacobre, a manufacturer of copper products, Reynolds Aluminio, Compania Hulera Euzkadi, Mexico 's largest tire maker, Bimex hotels, and majority share of Sanborn Hermanos food retailer, gift shop and restaurant chain. Slim spent US $13 million to buy insurance company Seguros de México in 1984, and later absorbed the company into the firm, Seguros Inbursa. The value of his stake in Seguros eventually became worth US $1.5 billion by 2007, after four spinoffs. He also acquired a 40 % and 50 % interest in the Mexican arms of British American Tobacco and The Hershey Company, respectively as well as acquiring large blocks of Denny 's and Firestone Tires. He moved into financial services as well, buying Seguros de México and creating from it, along with other purchases such as Fianzas La Guardiana and Casa de Bolsa Inbursa, the Grupo Financiero Inbursa. Many of these acquisitions were financed by the revenues and cash flows from Cigatam, a tobacco business which he bought early in the economic downturn.
In 1988 Slim bought the Nacobre group of companies, which trades in copper and aluminum products, along with a chemicals business, Química Fluor, and others.
Slim made a large fortune in the early 1990s when Mexico privatized its telecom industry and Grupo Carso acquired Telmex from the Mexican government. In 1990 the Grupo Carso was floated as a public company initially in Mexico and then worldwide. Grupo Carso also acquired majority ownership of Porcelanite, a tile making company in 1990. This investment was assigned to an associated company, but in 1995 Grupo Carso began growing its equity stake to 83 percent and subsequently made it a subsidiary.
Later in 1990, Slim acted in concert with France Télécom and Southwestern Bell Corporation in order to buy the landline telephone company Telmex from the Mexican government, when Mexico began privatizing its national industries. Slim was one of the initial investors of Telmex, the revenues of the company eventually formed the bulk of Slim 's wealth. By 2006, 90 percent of the telephone lines in Mexico were operated by Telmex, and his mobile telephone company, Telcel, which was created out of the Radiomóvil Dipsa company, operated almost 80 percent of all the country 's cellphones. By 2012, América Movil, Slim 's mobile telephone company, had taken over Telmex and made it into a privately held subsidiary.
In 1991, he acquired Hoteles Calinda (now OSTAR Grupo Hotelero), and in 1993, he increased his stakes in General Tire and Grupo Aluminio to the point where he had a majority interest.
In 1996, Grupo Carso was split into three companies: Carso Global Telecom, Grupo Carso, and Invercorporación. In the following year, Slim bought the Mexican arm of Sears Roebuck. In July 1997 Grupo Carso agreed in principle to sell Procter & Gamble de México, a subsidiary of The Procter & Gamble Co., a manufacturing plant in Apizaco and the company 's Lypps, Pampys, and other toilet - tissue brands for about US $170 million but kept its tissue - products company Fábricas de Papel Loreto y Peña Pobre.
In 1999, Slim began expanding his business interests beyond Latin America. Though the bulk of his holdings still remained in Mexico, he began setting his sights towards the United States for overseas investments.
Slim became a prominent figure within the American business scene by 2003 when he began purchasing large stakes in a number of major US retailers such as Barnes & Noble, OfficeMax, Office Depot, Circuit City, Borders, and CompUSA. Much of reason behind Slim 's overseas expansion was due to a running joke in the Mexican business scene where "there was nothing left to acquire in Mexico ''. He eyed towards investing the United States where he set up Telmex USA and also acquired a stake in Tracfone, a US cellular telephone company. At the same time, he established Carso Infraestructura y Construcción, S.A. (CICSA) as a construction and engineering company within Grupo Carso. During the same year, Slim had heart surgery and subsequently passed on much of the day - to - day involvement in the businesses to his children and their spouses.
América Telecom, the holding company for América Móvil, was incorporated in 2000. It took stakes in cellular telephone companies outside of Mexico, including the Brazilian ATL and Telecom Americas concerns, Techtel in Argentina, and others in Guatemala and Ecuador. In subsequent years, there were investment in Latin America, with companies in Colombia, Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, Honduras, and El Salvador, as well as a venture with Microsoft.
In 2005 Slim invested in Volaris, a Mexican airline and established Impulsora del Desarrollo y el Empleo en América Latina SAB de CV (using the acronym "IDEAL '' -- roughly translated as "Promoter of Development and Employment in Latin America ''), a Mexican construction and civil engineering company primarily engaged in not - for - profit infrastructure development. Since 2006, IDEAL won three infrastructure contracts yet it faces stiff competition from a number of other Mexican and Spanish construction companies. The number of contracts is fewer than its biggest local competitor, Empresas ICA. During the same period, Empresas obtained 18 Mexican projects valued at US $1.09 billion, including airports, toll roads, hospitals and oil platforms. Some of the projects IDEAL has been awarded include the Nezahualcoyotl development, which is a landfill that was acquired for US $150 million by Slim to develop a shopping mall, two schools, a hospital and a park on the site. Other contracts IDEAL has been awarded include a water - treatment plant contract, and a real estate partnership with the Mexican hospital chain Star Médica. IDEAL is also betting on one of the poorest landfills surrounding Mexico City. Slim has also planned to purchase several toll roads offered by the Mexican government that it took over from private companies following the December 1994 currency devaluation. Though speculation that the landfill will take about 12 years to yield a return, the development of a such poor area is revealed to promise handsome business profits over the years as Grupo Elektra, Mexico 's largest consumer electronics retailer, sells 2,000 flat screen televisions a year at its store in the area, making it the third - best - selling outlet. Included in the development, IDEAL will also collect rent from a university, a hospital and a school that will be built around a mall, will have 178 stores, including Inditex 's Zara fashion chain and Slim 's Grupo Sanborns and the Mexican unit of Sears Holdings. A park in Nezahualcoyotl, the first of its kind will also be constructed. The park will comprise 34 soccer fields, 12 tennis, basketball and volleyball courts, a baseball field and a gym with a swimming pool.
In 2007, after having amassed a 50.1 % stake in the Cigatam tobacco company, Slim reduced his holdings by selling a large portion of his equity to Philip Morris for US $1.1 billion, while in the same year also selling his entire interest in a tile company, Porcelanite, for US $800 million. He licensed the Saks name and opened the Mexican arm of Saks Fifth Avenue in Santa Fe, Mexico. During the same year, the estimated value of all of Slim 's companies was at US $150 billion. On December 8, 2007, Grupo Carso announced that the remaining 103 CompUSA stores would be either liquidated or sold, bringing an end to the struggling company, although the IT tech part of CompUSA continued under the name Telvista with U.S. locations in Dallas, Texas (U.S. Corporate Office) and Danville, Virginia. Telvista has five centers in Mexico (three in Tijuana, one center in Mexicali, and one in México City). After 28 years, Slim became the Honorary Lifetime Chairman of the business.
In 2008 Slim took a 6.4 % stake valued at $27 million in the troubled New York Times Company, as the global recession and declining advertising revenues took a particularly heavy toll on print - based "old media '' companies across the United States. Slim increased his stake to 8 % by 2012. Slim 's stake in the Times increased again to 16.8 % of the company 's Class A shares on January 20, 2015 when he exercised stock options to purchase 15.9 million shares, making him the largest shareholder in the company. The New York Times Company 's Class A shares are available for purchase by the public and offer less control over the company than Class B shares, which are privately held. According to the company 's 2016 annual filings, Slim owned 17.4 % of the company 's Class A shares, and none of the company 's Class B shares.
Slim built Plaza Carso in Mexico City, where most of his ventures share a common headquarters address.
In 2012 Slim sold the broadcast rights for the Leon games to Telemundo in the United States, and the cable channel Fox Sports in Mexico and the rest of Latin America and to the website mediotiempo.com. The games are also broadcast on the Internet through UNO TV, offered by Telmex. Slim has been involved with broadcasting sports outside Mexico to larger markets such as the United States. In March 2012, America Movil acquired the broadcast rights for the Olympic Games in Sochi 2014 and the Brazil 2016 for Latin America.
In March 2012 Slim, along with American television host Larry King, established Ora TV, an on - demand digital television network that produces and distributes television shows including Larry King Now, Politicking with Larry King, Recessionista, and Jesse Ventura Uncensored.
In September 2012 Slim bought 30 % stakes in Pachuca and León, two Mexican soccer teams through his telecommunications company America Movil. In December 2012, he bought all the shares of the second division team Estudiantes Tecos. Slim has also completed business deals for the television rights to games of the Leon soccer team. His company America Movil purchased 30 percent of the team along with transmission rights as Slim does n't have the rights to transmit content by broadcast television or cable TV as well as putting him in competition with Televisa and TV Azteca, two television companies with rights to the rest of Mexican soccer 's first division.
In 2013 Slim 's company, Grupo Carso opened Mexico City 's Telcel Theater, which operates in conjunction with his entertainment company, Grupo CIE (Corporación Interamericana de Entretenimiento), Mexico 's equivalent of Live Nation.
In April 2013 Slim entered the business of managing Mexican prisons to expand the investments of his construction - finance company. Ideal acquired stakes in two federal prisons from Desarrolladora Homex SAB, a Mexican homebuilder where Slim 's companies are to receive 4 billion pesos (US $326 million) within the agreement. The company run by his son, Marco Antonio Slim, added the prisons to its portfolio of infrastructure assets among which include toll roads, hydroelectric dams, and water - treatment plants.
In July 2013 Slim 's company America Movill invested US $40 million in Shazam, a British commercial mobile phone - based music identification service for an undisclosed share of ownership. America Movil partnered with the company to aid its growth into advertising and television and help the audio recognition service expand in Latin America.
In November 2013 Slim invested US $60 million in the Israeli startup Mobli, a company that deals with connections between people and communities corralled according to different interests.
In December 2013 Slim 's private equity fund, Sinca Inbursa, sold its stake in Mexican pharmaceutical company Landsteiner Scientific. Slim had acquired a 27.51 stake in the company in June 2008, which represented 6.6 percent of Sinca 's investment portfolio. The private equity fund 's investments are mainly in transportation and infrastructure and the fund had a total market cap of 5.152 billion pesos at the end of 2012.
Slim has also set his sights within the energy industry as well. In 2011, Slim began buying a 70 percent stake in Geoprocesados SA 's Tabasco Oil Co., gaining access to the Colombian oil market as the country seeks to boost crude and natural - gas output. Slim began seeking to boost his oil investments in Colombia because of the country 's open policies on exploration as well as furthering its commitment to double output by 2020. Investors have also been drawn to Colombia because of improved security as well as a clear government regulatory framework for oil drilling. In 2013, Mexico 's national oil and gas company Pemex hired an offshore drilling rig from the Carso Group. Under the agreement, Pemex will operate the rig on a seven - year contract and will pay US $415 million. The rig is owned by Operadora Cicsa, a subsidiary of Carso Group. The relationship between Pemex and Slim rans back as early as in 2006, where NOC hired CICSA for the drilling and completion of over 60 wells in the southern region -- covering the Cinco Presidentes, Macuspana - Muspac, Samaria - Luna and Bellota - Jujo assets -- and for the expansion of a petrochemical plant in Veracruz. Carso 's infrastructure and construction subsidiary has been awarded with several oil well development contracts in Pemex 's main assets -- including Chicontepec -- as well as tenders for the construction of natural gas pipelines and marine platforms. With the 2008 Pemex Law reform, the creation of integrated service contracts and the perspectives for a future energy reform, Slim has begun seizing business and investment opportunities in Mexico 's oil and gas industry. CICSA 's pipe manufacturing division Swepomex into a marine platform provider. CICSA has also acquired majority shares in Oklahoma contractor Bronco Drilling, along with minority participations in Houston drilling company Allis Chalmers Energy. Slim controls a 15 percent stake in Bronco, with warrants that could boost the stake to 20 percent. He also has a 2.9 percent stake in Allis - Chalmers. 15 % of the country 's main gas operator, Gas Natural Mexico now belong to Sinca Inbursa, a private equity fund controlled by Slim. Slim Helú has also maintained an important business presence in Spanish oil company Repsol and its Argentinian subsidiary YPF, Argentina 's largest oil company, where Slim has an 8.4 percent stake.
On April 23, 2014, Slim took control of Telekom Austria, Austria 's biggest phone carrier, which has telcos in countries such as Bulgaria, Croatia and Belarus, under a 10 - year agreement, was Slim 's first successful business acquisition in Europe. In a syndicate holding structure the Austrian state holding company OIAG 's 28 percent are combined with Slim 's 27 percent ownership. America Movil will spend as much as US $2 billion to buy out minority shareholders in a mandatory public offer and invest up to 1 billion euros (US $1.38 billion) into the company, which it sees as "platform for expansion into central and eastern Europe ''. Labor representatives boycotted attending the OIAG supervisory board meeting for 12 hours criticizing lack of explicit job guarantees.
In July 2014 Slim invested in WellAware, a Texas - based oil and gas software developer, this investment was also made with former Republican vice president Dick Cheney. External funding was provided by Activant Capital Group and Slim, along with participation from strategic investors and WellAware board members Ed Whitacre. When Mexico eventually prepared to open its oil and gas sectors to domestic and foreign private capital for the first time in 75 years, it has been widely speculated that Slim will play a major role toward contributing to Mexico 's new energy landscape. Slim 's investment in WellAware, whose software allows oil and gas companies to track wells and pipelines remotely and collates data for making forecasts, adds to a number of oil - related investments that he has been making in the past years in Mexico, Latin America and the United States.
In January 2015 Grupo Carso publicly launched Claro Musica, an online music service that is a Latin American equivalent of iTunes and Spotify. Slim and his son increased their presence in Mexico 's music industry, particularly in the retail music industry since 2013. Sanborn 's, the Mexican retail department store chain owned by Slim contains an extensive music section and 170 locations in Mexico as well as controlling a majority stake in Mixup, Mexico 's most successful retail music store that comprises a chain 117 - store Mexican retailers along with an online iShop through a selling partnership with Apple. Mixup also generated more than US $320 million in revenue in 2014.
In March 2015 Slim began to set his sights on Spain, purchasing Spanish real estate at rock - bottom prices within the ailing Spanish economy. Slim has also been buying up stakes in various troubled Spanish corporations while eyeing various investments across Europe. Slim 's investment company, Inmobiliaria Carso, announced it will buy a stake in the Spanish banking conglomerate Bankia, which couples with Slim 's other purchase of Realia, a Spanish real estate company, where Slim is the second largest shareholder holding a 25 % equity stake, behind Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas, a construction company where Slim is also a minor shareholder.
On April 15, 2015, Slim formed his own oil company called Carso Oil & Gas. The company was established after shareholders of the subsidiaries of Slim 's business conglomerate, Grupo Carso, voted in February 2015 to merge Carso Infraestructura, Construccion y Perforacion and Condumex Perforaciones into Carso Oil & Gas. A report that was released by the new company listed its assets at 3.5 billion pesos (approximately US $230 million), placed within 17.7 million shares. Upon formation of the company, Slim remained sanguine about the company and Mexico 's burgeoning energy sector where the state monopoly ceased to exist once held by state - owned oil company Pemex and opening the sector for private investors.
On July 25, 2015, Slim 's investment group Control Empresarial de Capitales invested in IMatchative, a technology startup that ranks the world 's hedge funds creating in - depth behavioral profiles and business analytics. The company creates proprietary behavioral profiles of the top hedge fund managers using everything from divorce records to political donations incorporated in their profiles and fund analysis. Limited partners pay US $30,000 per subscription while hedge fund managers pay half the price and also sign up for a free version of the products the company offers.
On September 8, 2015, one of Slim 's companies announced that Philosophy Jr. Studio, a fashion line for young women, will expand into a standalone retailer chain that will compete with elite fashion retailers across the globe. Although the style of the new fashion line and the number of yearly collections has not been made public, Philosophy Jr. Studio is expected to compete with a myriad of well - known multinational fast fashion retailers such as H&M, Forever 21, Zara and C&A. The fashion line will be offered at individual brick and mortar boutiques at two shopping malls in Mexico City. With a US $20 million seed investment, Slim 's plan is to have 100 standalone stores by 2017. The brand was established in 2011 and has been sold at Sears Mexico, a unit of Grupo Sanborns, the restaurant, retail, and pharmacy chain owned by Slim.
Slim 's father Khalil Salim Haddad Aglamaz emigrated to Mexico from Lebanon (then part of the Ottoman Empire) in 1902 (he was 14), and later changed his name to Julián Slim Haddad. It was not uncommon for Lebanese children to be sent abroad before they reached the age of 15 to avoid being conscripted into the Ottoman Army, and four of Haddad 's older brothers were already living in Mexico at the time of his arrival.
In 1911 Julián established a dry goods store, La Estrella de Oriente (The Star of the Orient). La Estrella de Oriente was an important dry goods store located on Venustiano Carranza where it had merchandise worth more than $100,000 by January 21, 1921, only ten years after the business was founded. By 1921, he had begun investing in real estate in the flourishing commercial district of Mexico City where Julián would acquire prime real estate at fire sale prices and in Zocalo District during the 1910 -- 17 Mexican Revolution. By 1922, Julián 's net worth reached $1,012,258 pesos and was diversified within various assets including real estate, businesses and various stocks.
In August 1926, Julián Slim married Linda Helú Atta. Linda was born in Parral, Chihuahua, of Lebanese parents who had immigrated to Mexico in the late 19th century. Upon immigrating to Mexico, her parents had founded one of the first Arabic - language magazines for the Lebanese - Mexican community, using a printing press they had brought with them. Julian and Linda had six children: Nour, Alma, Julián, José, Carlos and Linda. Julián senior died in 1953, when Carlos was just 13 years old.
Julian 's business ventures became the source of considerable wealth for himself and his family. As a result of financial prosperity of these ventures, Julian soon became a prominent and wealthy businessman, where he was able to make investments during bad economic cycles due to Mexico 's frequent economic downturns. Julián was known for his business savvy, strong work ethic, and commitment to traditional Lebanese moral values. Having a deep understanding of business that was considered ahead of his time, one of Julián 's many pioneering business concepts was an efficient business as one that sold large volumes at smaller margins, and with payment facilities, factors that are prevalent in many large discount stores today.
Carlos Slim was married to Soumaya Domit from 1967 until her death in 1999. Among her interests were various philanthropic projects, including the creation of a legal framework for organ donation. Slim has six children: Carlos, Marco Antonio, Patrick, Soumaya, Vanessa, and Johanna. Slim 's fortune has given rise to a family business empire and he often acquires shares on behalf of himself and his children. His three older sons serve in key positions in the companies controlled by Slim where most are involved in the day - to - day running of Slim 's business empire. Slim underwent heart surgery in 1999. In high school, Slim 's favorite subjects were history, cosmography, and mathematics. Slim and his wife had a very happy marriage, and he indicated that he does n't intent to remarry.
In his office, Slim does not keep a computer and instead prefers to keep all his financial data in thoroughly kept notebooks. Slim is well versed in technology but prefers to write by hand instead of on a computer. Due to the vast size of his business empire, Slim often jokes that he ca n't keep track of all the companies he manages. Carlos Slim is a Maronite Catholic, and he is one of the prominent backers of Legion of Christ, a Roman Catholic religious institute.
On March 29, 2007, Slim surpassed American investor Warren Buffett as the world 's second richest person with an estimated net worth of US $53.1 billion compared with Buffet 's US $52.4 billion.
On August 4, 2007, The Wall Street Journal ran a cover story profiling Slim. The article said, "While the market value of his stake in publicly traded companies could decline at any time, at the moment he is probably wealthier than Bill Gates ''. According to The Wall Street Journal, Slim credits part of his ability to "discover investment opportunities '' early to the writings of his friend, futurist author Alvin Toffler.
On August 8, 2007, Fortune magazine reported that Slim had overtaken Gates as the world 's richest person. Slim 's estimated fortune soared to US $59 billion, based on the value of his public holdings at the end of July. Gates ' net worth was estimated to be at least US $58 billion.
On March 5, 2008, Forbes ranked Slim as the world 's second - richest person, behind Warren Buffett and ahead of Bill Gates. On March 11, 2009, Forbes ranked Slim as the world 's third - richest person, behind Gates and Buffett and ahead of Larry Ellison.
On March 10, 2010, Forbes once again reported that Slim had overtaken Gates as the world 's richest person, with a net worth of US $53.5 billion. At the time, Gates and Buffett had a net worth of US $53 billion and US $47 billion respectively. He was the first Mexican to top the list. It was the first time in 16 years that the person on top of the list was not from the United States. It was also the first time the person at the top of the list was from an "emerging economy ''. Between 2008 and 2010, Slim more than doubled his net worth from $35 to $75 billion.
In March 2011 Forbes stated that Slim had maintained his position as the wealthiest person in the world, with his fortune estimated at US $74 billion.
In December 2012, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Carlos Slim Helú remained the world 's richest person with an estimated net worth of US $75.5 billion.
On March 5, 2013, Forbes stated that Slim was still maintaining his first - place position as the wealthiest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of US $73 billion. On May 16, 2013, Bloomberg L.P. ranked Slim the second - richest person in the world, after Bill Gates.
On July 15, 2014, Forbes announced that Slim had reclaimed the position of the wealthiest person in the world, with a fortune of US $79.6 billion.
In September 2014, Forbes listed Slim as number 1 on its list of billionaires with a net worth of US $81.6 billion.
As of December 2016 his net worth was US $48.1 billion.
In 2017, his net worth was reported to be $54.5 billion.
Slim lives in a 6 - bedroom home in the Lomas de Chapultepec district of Mexico City, close to where he grew up, that has been his residence for over 40 years. Slim 's real estate holding company Inmobiliaria Carso develops, invests, owns and operates many residential and commercial properties across Mexico. The company owns over 20 shopping centers, including ten in Mexico City, and operates stores in the country under U.S. brands including the Mexican arms of Saks Fifth Avenue, Sears and the Coffee Factory. Slim has been making private real estate investments around the world, particularly in the United States. He has been reported to have acquired 417 Fifth Avenue, an 11 - story office tower for US $140 million and also a piece of the former New York Times building on West 43rd street. He controls approximately 8 acres of prime Beverly Hills real estate at the corner of Wilshire and Santa Monica Boulevards. In May 2014 Slim opened Inbursa Aquarium, Latin America 's largest aquarium. Slim owns the Duke Seamans mansion, a 1901 beaux arts house on 5th Avenue in New York City, which he bought for $44 million in 2010. The mansion is 20,000 square feet and has 12 bedrooms, 14 bathrooms, and a doctor 's office in the basement. In May 2015, he listed the property for sale at $80 million, nearly twice what he had paid. In April 2015, Slim bought the Marquette Building in Detroit and purchased PepsiCo Americas Beverages headquarters in Somers, New York for US $87 million. Slim owns a second mansion in New York City at 10 W. 56th St, which he leased early in 2015 to the John Barrett Salon for US $1.5 million annually. The property was bought in 2011 for US $15.5 million.
Slim has been publicly skeptical of The Giving Pledge by Bill Gates and Warren Buffett giving away at least half of their fortunes. But -- according to his spokesman -- he devoted US $4 billion, or roughly 5 %, to his Carlos Slim foundation as of 2011. Though Slim has not gone as far as Gates and Buffett in pledging more than half of his fortune, Slim has expressed firm support for philanthropy and has advised budding entrepreneurs that businessmen must do more than give -- they "should participate in solving problems ''. Slim has channeled his philanthropic endeavors into many initiatives such as funding a genomic medicine research project, subsidizing numerous arts and education projects in Mexico City, including the Museo Soumaya (named after his late wife), which displays his art collection for no admission fee.
Slim founded three nonprofit foundations concentrating on Mexico City: one for the arts, education, and health care; one for sports; and one for downtown restoration.
Established in 1986 Fundación Carlos Slim Helú sponsors the Museo Soumaya in Mexico City, named after Slim 's late wife, Soumaya Domit, opened 2011. It holds 66,000 pieces, including religious relics, contains the world 's second - largest collection of Rodin sculptures, including The Kiss, the largest Salvador Dalí collection in Latin America, works by Leonardo da Vinci, Pablo Picasso, Pierre - Auguste Renoir, and coins from the viceroys of Spain. The inauguration in 2011 was attended by the President of Mexico, Nobel Prize laureates, writers and other celebrities.
After stating that he had donated US $4 billion of dividends to Fundación Carlos Slim Helú, US $2 billion in 2006, and another US $2 billion in 2010, Slim was ranked fifth in Forbes ' World 's Biggest Givers in May 2011. Education and health care projects have included $100 million to perform 50,000 cataract surgeries in Peru through the Clinton Initiative, a US $20 million fund to strengthen small and medium - size businesses in Colombia, and a digital education program for youth in Mexico, US $150 million for programs in nutrition and disease prevention in Central America with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the government of Spain, US $50 million to work with the World Wildlife Fund on restoration of six areas for species in Mexico, including the monarch butterfly and US $100 million on education programs for young people through Colombian singer Shakira 's Alas Foundation.
In 1995 Slim established Fundación Telmex, a broad - ranging philanthropic foundation, which as he announced in 2007 had been provided with an asset base of US $4 billion to establish Carso Institutes for Health, Sports and Education. Furthermore, it was to work in support of an initiative of Bill Clinton to aid the people of Latin America. Because Mexican foundations are not required to publish their financial information, it is not possible to confirm Slim 's claims of charitable giving through a public source. The foundation has organized Copa Telmex, an amateur sports tournament, recognized in 2007 and 2008 by Guinness World Records as having the most participants of any such tournament in the world. Together with Fundación Carlos Slim Helú, Telmex announced in 2008 that it was to invest more than US $250 million in Mexican sports programs, from grass - roots level to Olympic standard. Telmex sponsored the Sauber F1 team for the 2011 season. Telmex donated at least $1 million to the Clinton Foundation.
In 2000, Slim and ex-broadcaster Jacobo Zabludowsky organized the Fundación del Centro Histórico de la Ciudad de México A.C. (Mexico City Historic Center Foundation) to revitalize and rescue Mexico City 's historic downtown area to enable more people to live, work and find entertainment there. He has been Chair of the Council for the Restoration of the Historic Downtown of Mexico City since 2001.
In 2011, he, along with the president of Mexico, Mexico City mayor, and Mexico City archbishop, inaugurated the first phase of Plaza Mariana close to Basilica de Guadalupe. The complex, whose construction was funded by Slim, includes an evangelization center, museum, columbarium, health center, and market.
Slim 's growing fortune has been a subject of controversy, because it has been amassed in a developing country where average per capita income does not surpass US $14,500 a year, and nearly 17 % of the population lives in poverty. Critics claim that Slim is a monopolist, pointing to Telmex 's control of 90 % of the Mexican landline telephone market. Slim 's wealth is the equivalent of roughly 5 % of Mexico 's annual economic output. Telmex, of which 49.1 % is owned by Slim and his family, charges among the highest usage fees in the world, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The average Mexican spends 1.50 pesos per day on Slim 's goods and services for a total of roughly US $140 million a day and the Federal Telecommunications Institute, a new Mexican government anti-monopoly watchdog said in April 2014 that Slim 's telecom businesses are monopolies. Slim 's business presence in Mexico alone is so broad that many Mexicans find it appropriate to call the country "Slimlandia '' as it is almost impossible to go a day in Mexico without contributing to Slim 's wealth.
According to Celso Garrido, economist at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Slim 's domination of Mexico 's conglomerates prevents the growth of smaller companies, resulting in a shortage of paying jobs, forcing many Mexicans to seek better lives in the U.S.
In response to the criticism, Slim has stated, "When you live for others ' opinions, you are dead. I do n't want to live thinking about how I 'll be remembered '' by Mexican people claiming indifference about his position on Forbes list of the world 's richest people. He has said he has no interest in becoming the world 's richest person. When asked to explain his sudden increase in wealth at a press conference soon after Forbes annual rankings were published, he said, "The stock market goes up... and down '', and noted that his fortune could quickly drop.
Slim was criticized by the Dutch minister of economic affairs, Henk Kamp, in 2013 for attempting to expand his telecom empire beyond the Americas by América Móvil 's buy - out offer to KPN, a Dutch landline and mobile telecommunications company privatized in the 1990s, by stating "an acquisition of KPN by a ' foreign company ' could have consequences for the Netherlands ' national security ''. Two years after Slim 's failed bid to take over the company mainly due to political intervention and Slim 's paucity of interest in purchasing the company, Slim 's America Movil SAB began offering 2.25 billion euros of bonds that can be converted into shares of Royal KPN NV. America Movil now controls a 21.1 percent stake of KPN with a market value of 3.1 billion euros as of May 20, 2015. Slim has been slowly decreasing his holdings since he was forced to withdraw a 7.2 billion euro bid for the Dutch phone line carrier in 2013 after negotiations broke down and KPN 's preference share foundation blocked the takeover attempt.
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when was the last time that the eagles went to the superbowl | Super Bowl XXXIX - wikipedia
Super Bowl XXXIX was an American football game played between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2004 season. The Patriots defeated the Eagles by the score of 24 -- 21. The game was played on February 6, 2005, at Alltel Stadium (now known as EverBank Field) in Jacksonville, Florida, the first time the Super Bowl was played in that city.
The Patriots, who entered the Super Bowl after compiling a 14 -- 2 regular season record, became the first team since the 1997 -- 1998 Denver Broncos to win consecutive Super Bowls; they are also the last back - to - back Super Bowl winners as of the end of the 2017 NFL season. New England also became the second team after the Dallas Cowboys to win three Super Bowls in four years. The Eagles were making their second Super Bowl appearance after posting a 13 -- 3 regular season record.
The game was close throughout, with the teams battling to a 14 -- 14 tie by the end of the third quarter. The Patriots then scored 10 points in the 4th quarter with Corey Dillon 's 2 - yard touchdown run and Adam Vinatieri 's 22 - yard field goal. The Eagles then cut their deficit to 24 -- 21, with quarterback Donovan McNabb 's 30 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Greg Lewis, with 1: 48 remaining in the game but could not sustain the comeback. Overall, New England forced four turnovers, while Patriots wide receiver Deion Branch was named Super Bowl MVP for recording 133 receiving yards and tied the Super Bowl record with 11 catches. Because he recorded 10 catches during the previous year 's Super Bowl, he also set the record for the most combined receptions in 2 consecutive Super Bowls (21). Branch was the third offensive player ever to win Super Bowl MVP honors without scoring a touchdown or throwing a touchdown pass. The other two players were Joe Namath in Super Bowl III and Fred Biletnikoff in Super Bowl XI.
To avoid the possibility of an incident similar to the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show during the previous year, the league selected Paul McCartney as a "safe '' choice to perform during Super Bowl XXXIX 's halftime. The broadcast of the game on Fox was watched by an estimated 86 million viewers.
The Patriots and Eagles faced each other 13 years later in Super Bowl LII. The Eagles went on to avenge their loss when they defeated the Patriots 41 -- 33.
NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXXIX to Jacksonville during their November 1, 2000 meeting held in Atlanta.
New England finished the regular season with a record of 14 -- 2, bested only by the Steelers ' 15 -- 1 mark, and ranking 7th in yards gained (5,773) and fourth in points scored (437).
The Patriots ' major acquisition prior to the season was veteran running back Corey Dillon, who joined the team after playing 7 seasons with the Cincinnati Bengals. In his first 6 seasons in the league, Dillon averaged over 1,250 rushing yards per year, including setting a single - game rushing record (278 yards, but has since been broken) against the Denver Broncos on October 22, 2000. In 2003, however, injuries, conflicts with the Bengals ' management and coaching staff, and other off - field problems limited him to just 541 yards during the season. By the end of the 2003 season, Dillon had lost his starting job to running back Rudi Johnson, and thus demanded to be traded. Although many observers questioned how effective the 30 - year - old Dillon would be after recovering from his injuries as well as his ability to function in a team environment, the Patriots decided to sign the running back in exchange for a second - round draft pick.
Dillon became a significant offensive weapon for the 2004 Patriots, recording 1,635 rushing yards (franchise record) and 12 touchdowns, both career highs, and was named to the Pro Bowl for the fourth time in his career. He also caught 15 passes for 103 yards and another touchdown. His contributions helped lead the team to break the NFL record for the most consecutive regular season victories (18), the record for the most consecutive overall victories (21) and earned the second best regular season record during the year at 14 -- 2. The team 's only losses during the year were to the Pittsburgh Steelers, who ended up with the league 's best regular season record at 15 -- 1, and a 29 -- 28 loss to the Miami Dolphins on ABC 's Monday Night Football.
Another weapon in the Patriots ' offensive backfield was running back Kevin Faulk, who rushed for 255 yards, recorded 26 receptions for 248 yards, returned 20 punts for 113 yards, returned 4 kickoffs for 73 yards, and scored 3 total touchdowns. Fullback Patrick Pass also emerged as a big contributor, rushing for 141 yards, catching 28 passes for 215 yards, and gaining another 115 yards on kickoff returns.
Pro Bowl quarterback Tom Brady remained at the helm of the Patriots offense, completing 288 out of 474 (60.8 percent) of his passes for 3,692 yards, 28 touchdowns, and 14 interceptions. Although wide receiver Deion Branch, New England 's major deep threat, missed most of the season because of injuries, he did record 35 receptions for 454 yards and 4 touchdowns. Wide receiver David Givens ended up being the team 's leading receiver with 56 catches for 874 yards and 3 touchdowns. Wide receiver David Patten also contributed with 44 receptions for 800 yards and 7 touchdowns, and tight end Daniel Graham had 30 receptions for 364 yards and 7 touchdowns. On special teams, pro bowl kicker Adam Vinatieri had the best season of his career, leading the NFL in field goals made (31), field goal percentage (93.9) and scoring (141 points)
On defense, the Patriots were plagued by injuries, especially in their secondary. Defensive backs Tyrone Poole and Ty Law suffered season - ending injuries, while safety Eugene Wilson, who led the team with 4 interceptions, missed several games. In order to compensate for the losses, the following players were promoted to starters:
With their patchwork secondary, the Patriots ranked just 17th in passing yards allowed (3,400) and 22nd in completions allowed (315). However, they did rank 7th in interceptions (20) and 10th in fewest passing touchdowns allowed (18). Most importantly, New England continued to win despite the injuries. Brown actually turned out to be very effective playing as a defensive back, ranking second on the team with 3 interceptions. Safety Rodney Harrison was also an impact player, leading the team with 138 tackles while also recording 3 sacks and 2 interceptions.
Up front, the Patriots ' defensive line was anchored by Pro Bowler Richard Seymour, who recorded 5 sacks and 1 fumble recovery. New England also still had their trio of impact veteran linebackers: Pro Bowler Tedy Bruschi (122 tackles, 3.5 sacks, 3 interceptions, and 70 return yards), Willie McGinest (9.5 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, and 1 interception), and Mike Vrabel (71 tackles and 5.5 sacks), along with Ted Johnson. Vrabel also frequently played at the tight end position during offensive plays near the opponent 's goal line, recording 2 touchdown receptions.
The Eagles gained the 2004 NFC Super Bowl berth after 3 consecutive defeats in the NFC Championship Game to the St. Louis Rams, Tampa Bay Buccaneers (who won Super Bowl XXXVII that year), and Carolina Panthers, respectively. The Eagles hired Andy Reid as their head coach in 1999 following two straight losing seasons. That same year, they used their first - round pick in the NFL draft (the second overall) to select quarterback Donovan McNabb. Although they finished the 1999 regular season with a 5 -- 11 record, they became a playoff team in 2000, with McNabb throwing for 3,365 yards and 21 touchdowns while also rushing for 629 yards and another 6 touchdowns.
The Eagles achieved the best regular season record in the conference during the combined 2001, 2002, and 2003 seasons with a total of 35 wins out of 48 games, but lost the NFC Championship Game in each of those 3 years. Prior to the 2004 season, the Eagles traded for wide receiver Terrell Owens to be the impact player to help get them to the Super Bowl.
Owens joined the team after 8 seasons with the San Francisco 49ers. He was considered one of the top receivers in the league, but he was also widely considered a troublemaker because of controversial touchdown celebrations and his tendency to berate his teammates during media interviews. Nevertheless, Owens became the Eagles ' deep - ball threat, finishing the season with 77 receptions for 1,200 yards and 14 touchdowns.
McNabb had the best season of his career in 2004, completing 300 out of 469 (64 percent) passes for 3,875 yards, 31 touchdowns, and 8 interceptions, making him the first quarterback to ever throw for more than 30 touchdowns and fewer than 10 interceptions in a season. He also rushed for 220 yards and 3 touchdowns. Wide receiver Todd Pinkston was also a reliable target, recording 36 catches for 676 yards.
Philadelphia 's running game was not as strong as their passing attack, ranking just 24th in the league in rushing yards (1,639). Running back Brian Westbrook led the team with 812 rushing yards and 3 touchdowns, however he also led all NFL running backs in receiving with 73 receptions for 706 yards and 6 touchdowns. Veteran running back Dorsey Levens was also a big contributor with 410 rushing yards. The Eagles ' offensive line was led by Pro Bowl tackles Tra Thomas and Jon Runyan and center Hank Fraley.
Three of their four starters in the defensive secondary were named to the Pro Bowl: Cornerback Lito Sheppard (1 sack, 5 interceptions, 172 return yards and 2 touchdowns), safety Michael Lewis (88 tackles, 2 forced fumbles, 1 sack, and 1 interception) and safety Brian Dawkins (3 sacks, 2 forced fumbles, 1 fumble recovery, and 4 interceptions for 40 return yards), while their fourth starter, cornerback Sheldon Brown, also enjoyed a solid year (89 tackles, 3 sacks, 1 forced fumble, and 2 interceptions). Their defensive line was anchored by Pro Bowl defensive tackle Corey Simon (5.5 sacks) and defensive ends Jevon Kearse (7.5 sacks, Pro Bowl) and Derrick Burgess. Pro Bowl middle linebacker Jeremiah Trotter, who only started 9 games, recorded 69 tackles and 1 sack.
The Eagles started the 2004 regular season with seven straight wins before suffering a loss to the 15 - 1 Steelers. After that, they finished the season with a 13 -- 3 record. Their only other 2 losses were in their last 2 games of the season, when they decided to rest all of their starters because they had already clinched the NFC # 1 seed, and thus home - field advantage in the playoffs. However, during a December 19, 12 -- 7 win over the Dallas Cowboys, Owens was seriously injured on a "horse - collar tackle '' by Cowboys defensive back Roy Williams and had to miss the rest of the regular season and the playoffs.
Despite the loss of Owens, the Eagles beat the Minnesota Vikings, 27 -- 14, and the Atlanta Falcons, 27 -- 10, in the playoffs with relative ease. McNabb recorded 21 out of 33 completions for 286 yards and two touchdowns, while receiver Freddie Mitchell scored two touchdowns in the victory over the Vikings. Although Minnesota quarterback Daunte Culpepper threw for 316 yards, the Eagles defense recorded 2 interceptions, 2 sacks, and a forced fumble. McNabb then completed 17 out of 26 passes for 180 yards and two touchdowns in the win over the Falcons. The Eagles defense held dual - threat quarterback Michael Vick to only 136 passing yards, 26 rushing yards, and no touchdowns, while also recording an interception, 4 sacks, and a forced fumble on Vick. McNabb had an average passer rating of 111.3 in the two games, with 466 passing yards, 35 rushing yards, 4 touchdowns, and no turnovers. Safety Brian Dawkins was also an important player, recording a sack and a forced fumble against the Vikings, followed by an interception and a forced fumble against the Falcons.
Meanwhile, the Patriots defeated the Indianapolis Colts, 20 -- 3, holding the league 's highest scoring team with 522 total points to just one field goal, Indianapolis ' lowest point total since their opening game of the 2003 season. Colts quarterback Peyton Manning threw for 4,557 yards during the regular season, and set NFL records for most touchdown passes in a regular season (49) and highest quarterback rating (121.4). Running back Edgerrin James gained 2,031 combined rushing and receiving yards and scored 9 touchdowns. Wide receivers Marvin Harrison, Reggie Wayne, and Brandon Stokley each recorded over 1,000 receiving yards and 10 touchdowns. However, the Patriots limited Manning to 238 passing yards with 1 interception and no touchdowns, and James to just 39 rushing yards. The Patriots also held possession of the ball for 37: 43, including 21: 26 in the second half, and recorded three long scoring drives that each took over 7 minutes off the clock. One reason New England was able to hold the ball so long was because of Dillon 's rushing. He finished the game with 23 carries for 144 yards and 5 receptions for 17 yards.
The Patriots then defeated the first seeded Steelers in the AFC Championship Game, 41 -- 27. Although Pittsburgh had beaten New England, 34 -- 20, during the regular season and led the league in fewest total yards allowed, they could not stop the Patriots. Brady threw for 207 yards and 2 touchdowns; Dillon rushed for 73 yards and a touchdown; and Branch, who was coming off of his injuries, recorded 4 receptions for 116 yards and a touchdown, along with 37 rushing yards and another touchdown on 2 carries. Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger (who had struggled the previous week against the New York Jets) was intercepted 3 times, and running back Jerome Bettis, Pittsburgh 's leading rusher, was held to just 64 yards.
Owens was cleared to play in Super Bowl XXXIX, defying doctors orders by playing on his injured ankle containing 2 screws and a metal plate.
The other major story was the Patriots ' potential loss of both their offensive coordinator and defensive coordinator at the end of the season, and how it might affect the team in 2005. On December 12, 2004, about a month and a half before the game, New England offensive coordinator Charlie Weis signed a contract to become the head coach of Notre Dame starting in the 2005 season. Rumors were also circulating that defensive coordinator Romeo Crennel would also leave the team to become the head coach of the Cleveland Browns (which ended up being true as Crennel and the Browns agreed to a contract a couple of weeks after the Super Bowl).
Due to injuries at the tight end spot, the Eagles were forced to sign Jeff Thomason, a former tight end who was working construction at the time, to a one - game contract for the Super Bowl. Thomason saw time during several plays, although never had a ball thrown his way. This was his third Super Bowl, playing in two with the Green Bay Packers during Andy Reid 's days as a Packer assistant.
With this appearance the Patriots became the 8th team to make it to the Super Bowl for the 5th time. They joined the Dallas Cowboys, Denver Broncos, Pittsburgh Steelers, San Francisco 49ers, Miami Dolphins, Washington Redskins, and Oakland / Los Angeles Raiders. They would be joined by the Green Bay Packers in 2011 and the New York Giants in 2012.
The Eagles were trying to win their first NFL title since 1960 and the first championship for the city of Philadelphia since Moses Malone 's "fo ', fi ', fo ' '' during the 76ers run to the 1983 NBA Championship. With President George W. Bush being inaugurated for a second time in January, the Eagles were also trying to end a losing streak -- teams in the city of Philadelphia had lost six straight championships during presidential inauguration years, beginning with the 76ers loss in 1977. The streak included the Eagles in Super Bowl XV in 1981. 1989 was not included in that streak, but 1977, 1981, 1985 (Flyers), 1993 (Phillies), 1997 (Flyers), and 2001 (76ers) were.
The game was televised in the United States by Fox, with play - by - play announcer Joe Buck and color commentators Cris Collinsworth and Troy Aikman. Pam Oliver (Patriots sideline) and Chris Myers (Eagles sideline) served as sideline reporters. This marked the first time since Super Bowl I that none of the network commentators had ever called a Super Bowl game before (although Collinsworth had worked three prior Super Bowl telecasts as a pregame analyst). This was the last game that Cris Collinsworth broadcast as a member of the Fox NFL team, as he chose to sign with NBC in the following off - season.
James Brown hosted all the events with help from his fellow Fox NFL Sunday cast members Terry Bradshaw, Howie Long, and Jimmy Johnson. Jillian Barberie served as weather and entertainment reporter.
Following the game, Fox aired a special episode of The Simpsons ("Homer and Ned 's Hail Mary Pass '') and the series premiere of American Dad! ("Pilot ''), except in Philadelphia and Boston, where local newscasts delayed the premieres by an hour.
Before the game, performances came from the Black Eyed Peas, Earth Wind & Fire, Charlie Daniels, John Fogerty, and Gretchen Wilson. Shortly before kickoff, Alicia Keys sang "America the Beautiful, '' paying tribute to Ray Charles, who died in June 2004. The combined choirs of the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and the U.S. Coast Guard Academy (including members of The Idlers) sang the national anthem accompanied by the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets. This was the first time in more than 30 years that all four service academies sang together -- the last time was at the second inauguration of President Richard Nixon in 1973.
The traditional military missing man formation flyby was this year performed by a pair of F / A-18 Super Hornets from VFA - 106 at NAS Oceana and a pair of the Air Force 's newest fighters, the F - 22 Raptor, flying from Tyndall AFB, the training base for the Raptor. The earlier military flyby during the veterans ' salute was conducted by 2 T - 6 Texan trainers and a B - 25 Mitchell bomber.
The coin toss ceremony featured youth football players from Jacksonville: Tyler Callahan, Tyler Deal, Lawrence McCauley, and Jacob Santana; and New Orleans NFL Junior Player Development coach Tamaris Jackson. They were billed as the first non-celebrities to participate in the coin toss.
For the third straight year, each team took the field en masse, following a tradition the Patriots had started in Super Bowl XXXVI. In prerecorded video segments, Andover, Massachusetts native Michael Chiklis introduced the Patriots, and Philadelphia - born Will Smith introduced the Eagles.
Paul McCartney performed during the halftime show; his selection by the NFL, the show 's producers, Don Mischer Productions, and the show 's sponsor, Ameriquest Mortgage, was considered to be a "safe '' choice, as it avoided the possibility for an incident similar to that which sparked the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy the previous year. McCartney 's set consisted of these songs:
Taking the concept a step further, for the first time, a theme was tied to the event: Building Bridges, as symbolized by the theme logo, represented by the Main Street Bridge, one of the seven bridges that crosses over the St. Johns River in the host city, and according to the League, symbolized the bridging of a nation under the NFL football umbrella. The theme was also used by Jacksonville - area nonprofit Fresh Ministries in a major event entitled "Bridges of Peace, '' featuring city officials asking the people to unite for the Super Bowl and heal the wounds of segregation.
Former Presidents George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton appeared in support of their bipartisan effort to raise money for relief of the December 26, 2004 tsunami in southeast Asia through the USA Freedom Corps, an action which former President Bush described as "transcending politics. ''
On the first drive of the game, Eagles quarterback Donovan McNabb fumbled while being sacked by New England linebacker Willie McGinest, and the Patriots recovered the ball at Philadelphia 's 34 - yard line. Fortunately for the Eagles, coach Andy Reid 's instant replay challenge overruled the fumble; officials ruled that McNabb had been down by contact before the ball came out of his hands. Later in the quarter after each team had punted twice, McNabb completed a 30 - yard pass to Terrell Owens, with a roughing the passer penalty adding 9 yards, moving the ball inside the Patriots 20 - yard line. However, linebacker Mike Vrabel sacked McNabb for a 16 - yard loss on the next play. On the following play, the Eagles once again appeared to turn the ball over: McNabb 's pass was intercepted in the end zone by Patriots defensive back Asante Samuel, but it was nullified by an illegal contact penalty on linebacker Roman Phifer, moving the ball back inside the 20 and giving the Eagles a first down. However, McNabb 's second chance was wasted as he threw an interception to safety Rodney Harrison on the next play. This was Donovan McNabb 's first red zone interception of the season.
The Eagles defense then forced New England to a three - and - out on their ensuing possession, and Philadelphia got great field position by receiving the punt at the Patriots 45 - yard line. But once again, they gave up another turnover: tight end L.J. Smith lost a fumble while being tackled by defensive back Randall Gay, and Eugene Wilson recovered the ball at the 38.
The Eagles defense once again forced New England to punt, and got the ball back at their own 19 - yard line. Aided by a pair of completions from McNabb to wide receiver Todd Pinkston for gains of 17 and 40 yards, the Eagles drove 81 yards in nine plays and scored on McNabb 's six - yard touchdown pass to Tight End LJ Smith, taking a 7 -- 0 lead with 9: 55 left in the second quarter. It was the first time New England trailed during the entire postseason. On their ensuing drive, the Patriots moved the ball to the Eagles four - yard line, mainly on plays by running back Corey Dillon, who caught two screen passes for 29 yards and rushed for 25. But quarterback Tom Brady fumbled the ball on a fake handoff Play - action pass and Philadelphia defender Darwin Walker recovered it. However, the Eagles could not take advantage of the turnover and had to punt after 3 plays. Eagles punter Dirk Johnson 's punt went just 29 yards, giving the Patriots the ball at Philadelphia 's 37 - yard line. The Patriots then drove 37 yards to score on Brady 's 4 - yard pass to receiver David Givens with 1: 10 remaining in the period, tying the game 7 -- 7 by halftime. It was only the second halftime tie in Super Bowl history and the first time both of the game 's first two quarters ended tied.
On the opening drive of the second half, Patriots wide receiver Deion Branch caught 4 passes for 71 yards on a drive that ended with Brady 's 2 - yard touchdown pass to Vrabel, who lined up at the tight end spot on the play. The Eagles later tied the game with 3: 39 left in the third period with a 74 - yard, 10 - play drive that was capped by McNabb 's 10 - yard touchdown pass to running back Brian Westbrook. For the first time in Super Bowl history, the game was tied going into the fourth quarter.
Early in the final period, the Patriots put together a 9 - play, 66 - yard scoring drive that was keyed by 3 plays from running back Kevin Faulk, who caught 2 passes for 27 combined yards and rushed once for 12. Dillon capped off the drive with a 2 - yard touchdown run to give the Patriots a 21 -- 14 lead. Then after forcing another Eagles punt, Branch made a spectacular catch, taking the ball out of the hands of cornerback Sheldon Brown. The 19 yard gain, and a roughing - the - passer penalty on Philadelphia defensive lineman Corey Simon on the same play, set up kicker Adam Vinatieri 's 22 - yard field goal with 8: 43 left in the game to increase the score 24 -- 14 in favor of New England. In all three Patriots ' Super Bowl wins in the decade, they held a double digit lead in the 4th quarter.
The Eagles responded with a long McNabb completion to Owens. However, after reaching the New England 36 - yard line, McNabb fired a pass over the head of Dorsey Levens, where Tedy Bruschi was waiting to intercept it at the Patriots 24 - yard line. At this point, there was only 7: 20 to play in the game, with the Patriots still up by 10 points.
The Eagles did force New England to punt, and got the ball back at their own 21 - yard line, but with 5: 40 left in the game. The Eagles then drove 79 yards in 13 plays, however they used a full huddle for the entire drive. McNabb 's 30 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Greg Lewis cut the deficit to 24 - 21. Because the Eagles used a full huddle, the drive consumed 3: 52 of the clock, and only 1: 48 remained in the game by the time Lewis scored. Because of this, many sportswriters later criticized the Eagles for not immediately going to a no - huddle offense at the start of the possession. Anecdotal reports later came out alleging that McNabb was suffering from dry - heaves, and teammates Jon Ritchie and Lito Sheppard have gone on record years later that McNabb was suffering from dry - heaves or vomiting, though no video evidence exists and the stories have not been confirmed. Hank Fraley said in an interview the day after the game that McNabb was "almost puking '' due to two large hits from Tedy Bruschi and Jarvis Green on back - to - back plays. McNabb himself denies that he was vomiting or dry - heaving during the final drive, and Brian Westbrook later claimed that McNabb was merely "coughing. ''
The Eagles failed to recover their ensuing onside kick attempt, with Christian Fauria catching the ball cleanly and sliding down to seal possession for New England. The Patriots then played it safe by running the ball 3 times and forcing Philadelphia to use all of its timeouts. New England punter Josh Miller then pinned the Eagles back at their own 4 - yard line with just 46 seconds left in the game. Philadelphia then tried one last desperate drive to win or tie the game. But on first down, McNabb was pressured into making a rushed pass to Westbrook at the line of scrimmage. Instead of dropping the pass to stop the clock, Westbrook made the mistake of catching the ball and was immediately tackled for no gain, keeping the clock running and forcing the Eagles to run back to the line of scrimmage for their next play with no huddle. On second down, McNabb threw an incomplete pass intended for Owens. Finally on third down, McNabb threw a pass that deflected off of the outstretched fingertips of Smith and into the arms of Harrison for an interception with nine seconds left. Tom Brady took a knee to run out the clock, clinching the 3rd Super Bowl title in 4 years for the Patriots, and in the eyes of many establishing themselves as a dynasty.
Adam Vinatieri warms up before the game
An Eagles offensive play
Philadelphia kicks off after scoring a touchdown
Brian Westbrook 's touchdown catch (photo 1 of 2)
Brian Westbrook 's touchdown catch (photo 2 of 2)
at Alltel Stadium, Jacksonville, Florida
McNabb completed 30 out of 51 passes for 357 yards and 3 touchdowns, but threw 3 interceptions and was sacked four times. McNabb 's 357 yards are tied with Joe Montana for the fifth most in Super Bowl history and third most of any quarterback, as Tom Brady holds the top spot with 505 yards in Super Bowl LII and Kurt Warner holds the following 3 spots. Westbrook was the Eagles leading rusher with 44 yards, while also catching 6 passes for 70 yards and a touchdown and returning 3 punts for 19 yards. Pinkston caught 4 passes for 82 yards, while Owens was the Eagles ' top receiver with 9 catches for 122 yards, however neither of them scored a touchdown.
Brady completed 23 out of 33 passes for 236 yards and 2 touchdowns. Dillon was the top rusher of the game with 75 yards and a touchdown, and had 3 catches for 31 yards. Branch 's Super Bowl record 11 catches tied Cincinnati Bengals ' Dan Ross in Super Bowl XVI and San Francisco 49ers ' Jerry Rice in Super Bowl XXIII. Coincidentally, all three would later be traded to the Seattle Seahawks: Ross in 1985, Rice in 2004 and Branch in 2006. Branch 's 21 catches in Super Bowls XXXVIII and XXXIX are the most in back - to - back Super Bowls. Running back Kevin Faulk contributed 38 rushing yards and 27 receiving yards.
Branch and Terrell Owens each had 100 yards receiving, marking the third time in Super Bowl history, one player from each team had over 100 yards in a Super Bowl. Michael Irvin and Andre Reed were the first in Super Bowl XXVII, and Branch and Muhsin Muhammad the second a year earlier in Super Bowl XXXVIII. Branch also became the fourth player to have at least 100 yards receiving in back - to - back Super Bowls, joining John Stallworth, Jerry Rice and Antonio Freeman. Also, Mike Vrabel and David Givens became just the 14th and 15th players to score a touchdown in consecutive Super Bowls. Vrabel is the most surprising person on this list because he is a linebacker and he scored his on offense. They also became just the 7th and 8th players to catch a touchdown in back - to - back Super Bowls.
With the victory, Tom Brady became just the fourth quarterback to win at least three Super Bowls, along with Terry Bradshaw, Joe Montana and Troy Aikman. Brady also became the fourth quarterback to throw a touchdown pass in three different Super Bowls. Other quarterbacks to do it were Terry Bradshaw, Joe Montana and John Elway, with Kurt Warner later accomplishing the feat during Super Bowl XLIII.
The Patriots joined the Dallas Cowboys as the only teams in NFL history to win three Super Bowls in a span of four years.
The Patriots ' Super Bowl win was the third championship for Boston - area sports teams in 12 months, following the Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXVIII the year before and the Red Sox winning the World Series -- first in 86 years -- three months earlier. This marked the first time since 1989 -- 1990 in the San Francisco Bay Area that the same market has had 2 Super Bowl and World Series winners in 12 months. The Patriots would later appear in Super Bowl XLII and Super Bowl XLVI, losing both to Eli Manning 's New York Giants, before winning Super Bowl XLIX against the Seattle Seahawks, 28 -- 24, ten years later and Super Bowl LI against the Atlanta Falcons, 34 - 28, two years later. The latest Super Bowl win for the Patriots makes it ten titles among the four Boston teams (5 by the Patriots, 3 by the Red Sox, and one each by the Celtics and Bruins) since 2002.
For the Eagles, with the loss, the city of Philadelphia would not see its first championship since the 76ers swept the 1983 NBA Finals until the next time their city 's teams played for a championship, when the Phillies won the 2008 World Series. The Eagles did not return to the Super Bowl until 2017, also with a 13 - 3 record, and defeating the Falcons and Vikings in the playoffs.
The Eagles and the Patriots met again in Super Bowl LII with the Eagles taking their revenge 41 - 33.
As of 2018, this is the last time that a team has won back - to - back Super Bowls, with the Patriots losing their second playoff game a year later and then, for the next eight years, every team either losing their first playoff game or missing them altogether. The streak was broken in 2014 when the Seahawks defeated the Panthers and ultimately advanced to the Super Bowl, only to lose to a Patriots goal line stand. The next year, the Patriots, having faltered down the stretch, entered those playoffs as the second seed behind the Broncos, who then defeated New England in the AFC Title Game that year en route to a title of their own in Super Bowl 50. Two years later, the Patriots, defending champions themselves from Super Bowl LI, returned to repeat their title only to lose the aforementioned Super Bowl LII.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXIX, Super Bowl XXXIX Play Finder NE, Super Bowl XXXIX Play Finder Phi
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Source:
Hall of Fame ‡
As usual, the television coverage of this year 's Super Bowl was the showcase for the most expensive commercials in television -- both to produce and to buy airtime (at the rate of $2.4 million US for 30 seconds).
One ad that drew the ire of many -- including the NFL -- was for the internet domain provider Go Daddy, which tweaked the controversial halftime of the previous year 's game with a mock censorship hearing featuring a comely woman, Nikki Cappelli (played by WWE Wrestler Candice Michelle), having a "wardrobe malfunction ''. Fox pulled the second airing of the ad, scheduled for the two - minute warning of the fourth quarter, along with a five - second plug, and it was replaced with a promo for The Simpsons. The Scottsdale, Arizona - based World Wide Web domain registration company got a refund on the second ad.
Another popular ad was made by the NFL. It featured players who were not in the Super Bowl, headlined by Pittsburgh Steelers rookie quarterback Ben Roethlisberger being at a beach resort, depressed he did not make it in. Joe Montana comforted Roethlisberger, and soon both Montana and Roethlisberger joined many other players in different locations in an off - key yet rousing edition of "Tomorrow '' from the musical Annie. The commercial ended with the tagline: "Tomorrow, we 're all undefeated again. '' Roethlisberger went on to lead the Steelers to victory in Super Bowl XL the very next season.
The top ad, as chosen by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter was for Anheuser - Busch 's Bud Light featuring a timid skydiver making his first jump getting enticed with a six - pack of the product. This ad was ranked second on ADBOWL. The highest ranked commercial by ADBOWL was Anheuser - Busch 's "Applause. ''
For the first time since the campaign started in Super Bowl XXI, no "I 'm going to Disney World! '' ad aired following Super Bowl XXXIX.
Each member of the Patriots received a payment of $68,000 for winning the game. The Eagles each received $36,500. When adjusted for inflation, the Patriots salary was actually less than the $15,000 paid to members of the Green Bay Packers for winning Super Bowl I in 1967. That amount of money in 1967 equated to approximately $85,000 in 2005.
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where does the gelatin in gummy bears come from | Gummy bear - wikipedia
Gummy bears (German: Gummibär) are small, fruit gum candies, similar to a jelly baby in some English - speaking countries. The candy is roughly 2 cm (0.8 in) long and shaped in the form of a bear. The gummy bear is one of many gummies, popular gelatin - based candies sold in a variety of shapes and colors.
The gummy bear originated in Germany, where it is popular under the name Gummibär (help info) (gum or gummy bear) or in the endearing form Gummibärchen (help info) ((little) gum or gummy bear), gum arabic was the original base ingredient used to produce the gummy bears, hence the name gum or gummy. Hans Riegel, Sr., a confectioner from Bonn, started the Haribo company in 1920. In 1922, inspired by the trained bears seen at street festivities and markets in Europe through to the 19th century, he invented the Dancing Bear (Tanzbär), a small, affordable, fruit - flavored gum candy treat for children and adults alike, which was much larger in form than its later successor, the Gold - Bear (Goldbär). Even during Weimar Germany 's hyperinflation period that wreaked havoc on the country, Haribo 's fruit - gum Dancing Bear treats remained affordably priced for a mere 1 Pfennig, in pairs, at kiosks. The success of the Dancing Bear 's successor would later become Haribo 's world - famous Gold - Bears candy product in 1967.
The success of gummi bears has spawned the production of many other gummy candies that look like animals and other objects: rings, worms, frogs, snakes, hamburgers, cherries, sharks, penguins, hippos, lobsters, octopuses, apples, peaches, oranges, and even Ampelmännchen, Smurfs, and spiders. Manufacturers offer sizes from the standard candy size, and smaller, to bears that weigh several kilograms.
In the United States, Haribo gummy bears are sold in five flavors: raspberry (red); orange (orange); strawberry (green); pineapple (colorless); and lemon (yellow). Trolli 's bears are similarly most often sold in five flavors in the United States, and in the same colors; however, Trolli 's red bear is strawberry - flavored, while the green is lime and the colorless is grape. Many companies emulate either Haribo or Trolli flavor - color combinations. Health - oriented brands, which often use all - natural flavors, sometimes opt for more and different flavors. For example, the boxed bulk gummis sold by Sunflower / Newflower Markets include grape, pineapple - coconut, and peach, among others.
The traditional gummy bear is made from a mixture of sugar, glucose syrup, starch, flavoring, food coloring, citric acid, and gelatin. However, recipes vary, such as organic candy, those suitable for vegetarians, or those following religious dietary laws.
Production uses a specialized machine called a starch mogul. The image of the gummy bear is stamped into a tray filled with powdered starch. The hot, liquid mixture is poured into the indentations in the starch and allowed to cool overnight. Once the mixture has set, the candies can be removed from the mold and packaged. The molds are open on top, so only the bear 's front is formed while the back remains flat. The original design for each type of candy is carved into plaster by an artist, then duplicated by a machine and used to create the starch molds for the production line.
Gummy bears made with bovine, porcine or piscine gelatin are not suitable for vegetarians and vegans. Those with porcine gelatin or from animals not slaughtered in either of the two contradictory ritualistic fashions do not conform to kashrut or halal dietary laws. In its factory in Turkey, Haribo produces halal bears and other sweets which are made with bovine gelatin. Also, some gummy bears are made with pectin or starch instead of gelatin, making them suitable for vegetarians.
Large sour gummy bears are larger and flatter than regular ones, have a softer texture, and include fumaric acid or other acid ingredients to produce a sour flavor. Some manufacturers produce sour bears with a different texture, based on starch instead of gelatin. Typically, starch produces a shorter (cleaner bite, less chewy) texture than gelatin.
Gummy bears ordinarily contain mostly empty calories, but recently gummy bears containing vitamin C, produced by manufacturers such as Sconza or Bear Essentials, are being marketed to parents of young children. Multivitamins have also been produced in the form of gummi bears to motivate consumption by young, picky eaters.
Gummy bears, and other gummi candy, stick to teeth and may cause tooth decay. However, gummi bears containing the cavity - fighting additive xylitol (wood sugar) are now being tested. Trolli has developed a line of gummi candy which is claimed to help the immune system and teeth: the acti - line.
There has been concern that gelatin in most gummy bears may harbor prions, particularly those that cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and new - variant Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease in humans. Based on studies, the United States FDA and other national organizations and countries consider the risk of BSE transmission through gelatin to be minuscule as long as precautions are followed during manufacturing.
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essay on an overnight trip during the wet monsoon season | Wet season - wikipedia
The rainy season, or monsoon season, is the time of year when most of a region 's average annual rainfall occurs. It usually lasts one or more months. The term "green season '' is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.
Under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres (2.4 in) or more. In contrast to areas with savanna climates and monsoon regimes, Mediterranean climates have wet winters and dry summers. Dry and rainy months are characteristic of tropical seasonal forests: in contrast to tropical rainforests, which do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed throughout the year. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season, when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough moves to higher latitudes in the middle of the warm season.
When the wet season occurs during a warm season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening. In the wet season, air quality improves, fresh water quality improves, and vegetation grows substantially, leading to crop yields late in the season. Rivers overflow their banks, and some animals retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. The incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures, particularly in tropical areas. Some animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wet season. Often, the previous dry season leads to food shortages in the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.
In areas where the heavy rainfall is associated with a wind shift, the wet season is known as the monsoon. Rainfall in the wet season is mainly due to daytime heating which leads to diurnal thunderstorm activity within a pre-existing moist airmass, so the rain mainly falls in late afternoon and early evening in savannah and monsoon regions. Further, much of the total rainfall each day occurs in the first minutes of the downpour, before the storms mature into their stratiform stage. Most places have only one wet season, but areas of the tropics can have two wet seasons, because the monsoon trough, or Intertropical Convergence Zone, can pass over locations in the tropics twice per year. However, since rain forests have rainfall spread evenly through the year, they do not have a wet season.
It is different for places with a Mediterranean climate. In the western United States, during the cold season from September -- May, extratropical cyclones from the Pacific Ocean move inland into the region due to a southward migration of the jet stream during the cold season. This shift in the jet stream brings much of the annual precipitation to the region, and sometimes also brings heavy rain and strong low pressure systems. The peninsula of Italy has weather very similar to the western United States in this regard.
Areas with a savanna climate in Sub-Saharan Africa, such as Ghana, Burkina Faso, Darfur, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Botswana have a distinct rainy season. Also within the savanna climate regime, Florida and South Texas have a rainy season. Monsoon regions include the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and Philippines), northern sections of Australia 's North, Polynesia, Central America, western and southern Mexico, the Desert Southwest of the United States, southern Guyana, portions of northeast Brazil.
Northern Guyana has two wet seasons: one in early spring and the other in early winter. In western Africa, there are two rainy seasons across southern sections, but only one across the north. Within the Mediterranean climate regime, the west coast of the United States and the Mediterranean coastline of Italy, Greece, and Turkey experience a wet season in the winter months. Similarly, the wet season in the Negev desert of Israel extends from October through May. At the boundary between the Mediterranean and monsoon climates lies the Sonoran desert, which receives the two rainy seasons associated with each climate regime.
The wet season is known by many different local names throughout the world. For example, in Mexico it is known as "storm season ''. Different names are given to the various short "seasons '' of the year by the Aboriginal tribes of Northern Australia: the wet season typically experienced there from December to March is called Gudjewg. The precise meaning of the word is disputed, although it is widely accepted to relate to the severe thunderstorms, flooding, and abundant vegetation growth commonly experienced at this time.
In tropical areas, when the monsoon arrives, high daytime high temperatures drop and overnight low temperatures increase, thus reducing diurnal temperature variation. During the wet season, a combination of heavy rainfall and, in some places such as Hong Kong, an onshore wind, improve air quality. In Brazil, the wet season is correlated with weaker trade winds off the ocean. The pH level of water becomes more balanced due to the charging of local aquifers during the wet season. Water also softens, as the concentration of dissolved materials reduces during the rainy season. Erosion is also increased during rainy periods. Arroyos that are dry at other times of the year fill with runoff, in some cases with water as deep as 10 feet (3.0 m). Leaching of soils during periods of heavy rainfall depletes nutrients. The higher runoff from land masses affects nearby ocean areas, which are more stratified, or less mixed, due to stronger surface currents forced by the heavy rainfall runoff.
High rainfall can cause widespread flooding, which can lead to landslides and mudflows in mountainous areas. Such floods cause rivers to burst their banks and submerge homes. The Ghaggar - Hakra River, which only flows during India 's monsoon season, can flood and severely damage local crops. Floods can be exacerbated by fires that occurred during the previous dry season, which cause soils which are sandy or composed of loam to become hydrophobic, or water repellent. In various ways governments may help people deal with wet season floods. Flood plain mapping identifies which areas are more prone to flooding. Instructions on controlling erosion through outreach are also provided by telephone or the internet.
The wet season is the main period of vegetation growth within the Savanna climate regime. However, this also means that wet season is a time for food shortages before crops reach their full maturity. This causes seasonal weight changes for people in developing countries, with a drop occurring during the wet season until the time of the first harvest, when weights rebound. Malaria incidence increases during periods of high temperature and heavy rainfall.
Cows calve, or give birth, at the beginning of the wet season. The onset of the rainy season signals the departure of the monarch butterfly from Mexico. Tropical species of butterflies show larger dot markings on their wings to fend off possible predators and are more active during the wet season than the dry season. Within the tropics and warmer areas of the subtropics, decreased salinity of near shore wetlands due to the rains causes an increase in crocodile nesting. Other species, such as the arroyo toad, spawn within the couple of months after the seasonal rains. Armadillos and rattlesnakes seek higher ground.
Template: Watershed
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role of nhrc in safeguarding the rights of the underprivileged | National human rights Commission of India - Wikipedia
The Rights Commission'u (NHRC) of India ' is an autonomous public body constituted on 12 October 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Ordinance of 28 September 1993. It was given a statutory basis by the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 (TPHRA). The NHRC is the National Human Rights Commission of India, responsible for the protection and promotion of human rights, defined by the Act as "rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants ''.
"Human Rights '' means the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the constitution or embodied in the International covenants and enforceable by courts in India. "Commission '' means the National Human Rights Commission constituted under section of All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights known as Human rights, as commonly understood, are the rights that every human being is entitled to enjoy freely irrespective of his religion, race, caste, sex and nationality, etc. (Jagdish chand, 2007) In Declaration of Independence acknowledged the fundamental human rights. Human right means different thing to different people. Human Rights are not static, but are rather dynamic in nature. New rights are recognized and enforced from time to time. Only persons fully conversant with the latest development about the expanding horizons of Human Rights can promote their awareness better other.
TPHRA mandates the NHRC to perform the following functions:
The NHRC consists of:
The sitting Judge of the Supreme Court or sitting Chief Justice of any High Court can be appointed only after the consultation with the Chief Justice of Supreme Court.
Justice JS Kehar is going to be next chairman after H.L. Dattu The chairman of the NHRC is Justice H.L. Dattu and the other members are:
Ex-officio members:
A State Government may constitute a body known as the Human Rights Commission of that State to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned to, a State Commission. In accordance to the amendment brought in TPHRA, 1993 point No. 10 below is the list of State Human Rights Commissions formed to perform the functions of the commission as stated under chapter V of TPHRA, 1993 (with amendment act 2006). At present, 25 states have constituted SHRC
Section 2 Sections 3 and 4 of TPHRA lay down the rules for appointment to the NHRC. The Chairperson and members of the NHRC are appointed by the President of India, on the recommendation of a committee consisting of:
.
A report concerning the manner of which the Shivani Bhatnagar murder controversy case was rejected, a case which involved high - ranking officials being implicated in the murder of a journalist, opened the organisation up to questioning over the usefulness of human rights commissions set up by the government at the national and state levels.
In mid-2011, the chairman of the NHRC, ex-Chief Justice K.G. Balakrishnan came under a cloud for allegedly owning assets disproportionate to his income. His son - in - law P.V. Srinijan, an Indian National Congress politician, had to resign for suddenly coming into possession of land worth Rs. 25 lakhs. Many prominent jurists, including former CJ J.S. Verma, SC ex-Judge V.R. Krishna Iyer, noted jurist Fali S. Nariman, former NHRC member Sudarshan Agrawal and prominent activist lawyer Prashant Bhushan, have called on Balakrishnan 's resignation pending from the HRC pending inquiry. In February 2012, the Supreme Court inquired of the government regarding the status of the inquiry.
NHRC held that 16 out of 19 police encounters with suspected maoists in Guntur and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh, prior to 2002 were fake and recommended to Government payment of compensation of Rs 5 lakh each to the kin of the families.
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what is the cl(ax)–p–cl(eq) bond angle (in degrees) in phosphorus pentachloride | Phosphorus pentachloride - wikipedia
Phosphorus pentachloride is the chemical compound with the formula PCl. It is one of the most important phosphorus chlorides, others being PCl and POCl. PCl finds use as a chlorinating reagent. It is a colourless, water - sensitive and moisture - sensitive solid, although commercial samples can be yellowish and contaminated with hydrogen chloride.
The structures for the phosphorus chlorides are invariably consistent with VSEPR theory. The structure of PCl depends on its environment. Gaseous and molten PCl is a neutral molecule with trigonal bipyramidal (D) symmetry. The hypervalent nature of this species (as well as for PCl, see below) can be explained with the inclusion of non-bonding molecular orbitals (molecular orbital theory) or resonance (valence bond theory). This trigonal bipyramidal structure persists in nonpolar solvents, such as CS and CCl. In the solid state PCl is an ionic compound, formulated PCl PCl.
In solutions of polar solvents, PCl undergoes self - ionization. Dilute solutions dissociate according to the following equilibrium:
At higher concentrations, a second equilibrium becomes more prevalent:
The cation PCl and the anion PCl are tetrahedral and octahedral, respectively. At one time, PCl in solution was thought to form a dimeric structure, P Cl, but this suggestion is not supported by Raman spectroscopic measurements.
AsCl and SbCl also adopt trigonal bipyramidal structures. The relevant bond distances are 211 pm (As − Cl), 221 pm (As − Cl), 227 pm (Sb − Cl), and 233.3 pm (Sb − Cl). At low temperatures, SbCl converts to the dimer, dioctahedral Sb Cl, structurally related to niobium pentachloride.
PCl is prepared by the chlorination of PCl. This reaction is used to produce around 10,000 tonnes of PCl per year (as of 2000).
PCl exists in equilibrium with PCl and chlorine, and at 180 ° C the degree of dissociation is about 40 %. Because of this equilibrium, samples of PCl often contain chlorine, which imparts a greenish coloration.
In its most characteristic reaction, PCl reacts upon contact with water to release hydrogen chloride and give phosphorus oxides. The first hydrolysis product is phosphorus oxychloride:
In hot water, hydrolysis proceeds completely to orthophosphoric acid:
In synthetic chemistry, two classes of chlorination are usually of interest: oxidative chlorinations and substitutive chlorinations. Oxidative chlorinations entail the transfer of Cl from the reagent to the substrate. Substitutive chlorinations entail replacement of O or OH groups with chloride. PCl can be used for both processes.
Upon treatment with PCl, carboxylic acids convert to the corresponding acyl chloride. The following mechanism has been proposed:
It also converts alcohols to alkyl chlorides. Thionyl chloride is more commonly used in the laboratory because the resultant sulfur dioxide is more easily separated from the organic products than is POCl.
PCl reacts with a tertiary amides, such as dimethylformamide (DMF), to give dimethylchloromethyleneammonium chloride, which is called the Vilsmeier reagent, ((CH) N = CClH) Cl. More typically, a related salt is generated from the reaction of DMF and POCl. Such reagents are useful in the preparation of derivatives of benzaldehyde by formylation and for the conversion of C − OH groups into C − Cl groups.
It is especially renowned for the conversion of C =O groups to CCl groups. For example, benzophenone and phosphorus pentachloride react to give the diphenyldichloromethane:
The electrophilic character of PCl is highlighted by its reaction with styrene to give, after hydrolysis, phosphonic acid derivatives.
Both PCl and PCl convert R COH groups to the chloride R CCl. The pentachloride is however a source of chlorine in many reactions. It chlorinates allylic and benzylic CH bonds. PCl5 bears a greater resemblance to SO Cl, also a source of Cl. For oxidative chlorinations on the laboratory scale, sulfuryl chloride is often preferred over PCl since the gaseous SO by - product is readily separated.
As for the reactions with organic compounds, the use of PCl has been superseded by SO Cl. The reaction of phosphorus pentoxide and PCl produces POCl:
PCl chlorinates nitrogen dioxide to form nitronium chloride:
PCl is a precursor for lithium hexafluorophosphate, LiPF, an electrolyte in lithium ion batteries. LiPF is produced by the reaction of PCl with lithium fluoride, with lithium chloride as a side product:
PCl is a dangerous substance as it reacts violently with water.
Phosphorus pentachloride was first prepared in 1808 by the English chemist Humphry Davy. Davy 's analysis of phosphorus pentachloride was inaccurate; the first accurate analysis was provided in 1816 by the French chemist Pierre Louis Dulong.
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what does it say on thor's hammer | Mjolnir (Comics) - wikipedia
Mjolnir (/ ˈmoʊlnɪr / MOHL - n (ee) r) is a fictional weapon appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It is depicted as the principal weapon of the superhero Thor. Mjolnir, which first appears in Journey into Mystery # 83 (August 1962), was created by writer Stan Lee and designed by artists Jack Kirby and Joe Sinnott.
Mjolnir was typically depicted as a large, square - headed gray lump hammer. It has a short, round handle wrapped in brown leather, culminating in a looped lanyard. The object is based on Mjölnir, the weapon of the mythological Thor.
Mjolnir debuted in Journey into Mystery # 83 (Aug. 1962) for Marvel Comics. Prior to this time, "Mjolnar, '' invented by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, appeared in "(Adventure Comics) '' # 75 (Jun. 1942), in the Sandman story, "The Villain from Valhalla. '' For Marvel, the hammer was immediately established as the main weapon of the Thunder god Thor. The weapon 's origin is revealed in Thor Annual # 11 (1983), although another version is presented in Thor vol. 2, # 80 (Aug. 2004).
In a 2002 documentary with Kevin Smith, Lee says his brother Larry Lieber made up the name of Thor 's hammer referring to the hammer 's original name, the "Uru Hammer ''. Later, writer Roy Thomas changed the name of the hammer to the mythologically correct name of "Mjolnir '' and used the name "Uru '' created by Larry Lieber as the name of the fictional metal that the hammer is made from.
Other significant moments in Marvel continuity include the altering of Mjolnir 's enchantments in Thor # 282 (April 1979) and Thor # 340 (Feb. 1984); the temporary possession of Mjolnir by a member of the Enchanters Three in Thor vol. 3, # 14 -- 15 (Aug. -- Sep. 1999); and when the hammer has been damaged, occurring in Journey Into Mystery # 119 (Aug. 1965); Avengers # 215 (Jan. 1982); Thor # 388 (Feb. 1988); Thor vol. 2, # 11 (May 1999); Thor vol. 2, # 80 (Aug. 2004) and Thor vol. 3, # 600 (Feb. 2009).
In Marvel continuity, Mjolnir is forged by Dwarven blacksmiths, and is composed of the fictional Asgardian metal uru. The side of the hammer carries the inscription "Whosoever holds this hammer, if he be worthy, shall possess the power of Thor. ''
The hammer is created when Thor 's adopted brother Loki cuts off the hair of the goddess Sif as part of a cruel jest, and, when threatened with violence by Thor, promises to fetch replacement hair from the dwarf smiths. Loki commissions the hair from the Sons of Ivaldi and the obliging dwarves also make a magic ship and spear as gifts for the gods. Loki is convinced that no one can match their workmanship, and challenges a dwarf named Eitri to make finer treasures. Eitri creates a golden ring and golden boar spear with magical properties, and finally begins work on a hammer. Loki panics at the sight of the treasures, and, afraid he will lose the wager, transforms himself into a mayfly and stings Eitri 's assistant on the brow as he is working the bellows for the forge. The assistant stops for a moment to wipe away the blood, and the bellows fall flat. As a result, the hammer 's handle is shorter in length than Eitri had originally intended, meaning that the hammer could only be wielded one - handed.
Despite the error, the Norse gods consider Eitri to have forged the greater treasures, and in retaliation Loki loses the bet and the Sons of Ivaldi sew Loki 's lips shut. The ruler of the Norse gods, Odin, uses the hammer -- called Mjolnir ("Grinder '') by Eitri -- and eventually passes it to his son Thor, who must first prove he is worthy to wield the weapon.
Another version of the hammer 's origin is presented in the second volume of the title Thor, in which Odin orders the dwarven blacksmiths Eitri, Brok and Buri to forge Mjolnir using the core of a star (the movie uses this origin as well, and Odin says that Mjolnir was "forged in the heart of a dying star '') and an enchanted forge. The forging of the hammer is apparently so intense it destroys the star and nearly the Earth itself.
An additional alternate take on Mjolnir 's origin is presented in Jason Aaron 's The Mighty Thor series. It is explained that the Mother Storm, a sentient storm the size of a galaxy, had once threatened all of Asgard. After a fierce battle, Odin managed to trap it within a nugget of uru that had earlier been given to him by dwarven blacksmiths. He ordered the dwarves to forge the nugget into a weapon that would be able to harness the Mother Storm 's power, but found it too difficult to control. The hammer was forgotten until eons later, when Thor was finally able to lift it and make it his personal weapon.
Mjolnir itself has several enchantments: no living being may lift the hammer unless they are worthy; it returns to the exact spot from which it is thrown and returns to Thor when summoned; it may summon the elements of storm (lightning, wind, and rain) by stamping its handle twice on the ground; manipulate the weather on an almost global scale; open interdimensional portals, allowing its wielder to travel to other dimensions (such as from Earth to Asgard); and transform Thor into the guise of a mortal, the physician Donald Blake, by stamping the hammer 's head on the ground once and willing the change. When Thor transforms into Blake, his hammer takes the appearance of a wooden walking stick. When disguised, the hammer 's enchantments limiting those who may lift it are not in effect. The hammer itself has also shown to be unaffected by external enchantments. Thor has several times used Mjolnir to pin down opponents, since they can not lift the hammer.
A previous provision of this enchantment required that the hammer could not be "gone from Thor 's grasp, '' or out of physical contact with Thor for more than "sixty seconds full '' without his spontaneous reversion to his mortal self; fortunately, Mjolnir is small enough for the god to tuck it into his belt for times when he prefers to have both his hands free. There are times when Thor had both hands free but produced Mjolnir by reaching behind his shoulder; the suggestion was that he placed Mjolnir in some kind of sheath or sling on his back, with handle pointing up so he could grasp it quickly.
In some stories this limitation did not apply in Asgard, although this stipulation was removed in a storyline in which this enchantment is transferred to Stormbreaker, the hammer of Beta Ray Bill. After this, the Donald Blake persona disappeared for a time, and Thor assumed a civilian identity simply by changing into modern clothing, carrying Mjolnir concealed within a duffel bag. Thor eventually adopts the mortal persona of Jake Olson as penance for accidentally causing the original Olson 's death during a fight, and simply pounds a fist to effect a change; during this time, Mjolnir would disappear when Thor became Olson, and reappear in Thor 's fist when returning to his true form.
Mjolnir was originally capable of creating chronal displacement and therefore allowing time travel, although this enchantment was removed by the entity Immortus with the Thunder god 's consent to help the planet Phantus which was trapped in Limbo. However, Thor is still able to manipulate time with Mjolnir.
When Ragnarok took place, Mjolnir was separated from Thor and fell through the dimensions, creating a tear in Hell that allowed Doctor Doom to escape (Doom having been imprisoned there after his last encounter with the Fantastic Four). Although Doom and the FF attempt to claim the hammer, none of them are able to lift it, resulting in Donald Blake -- who had been returned to life when the spell negating his existence wore off with Asgard 's destruction -- claiming it himself. With Blake and Thor once again co-existing, the hammer resumes its original ' disguise ' of a walking - stick (although Blake 's original limp healed, he sustained minor spine damage during a later confrontation). The hammer is later damaged in a fight with Bor, Thor 's grandfather. Doctor Strange is able to repair the hammer using the Odinforce possessed by Thor, but warns Thor that, should the hammer be damaged in such a manner again, the new link between them could result in Thor being killed himself. The hammer was also sliced in two by the Destroyer. Thor visits the forges in Pittsburgh to mend it.
After Thor 's death in the fight against the Serpent, Loki is able to take Blake 's walking stick -- the only remaining trace of Thor after he was ' replaced ' by Tanarus -- and turn it back into Mjolnir in front of the Silver Surfer, the Surfer 's energy and Loki 's belief in his brother allowing the hammer to return to Thor and restore his memory in time to face the God - Devourer that was about to consume his soul in the afterlife.
During the Original Sin storyline as Thor and the Avengers investigate Uatu The Watcher 's murder, Nick Fury whispers an undisclosed secret to Thor that causes him to lose the ability to pick up Mjolnir. The nature of Mjolnir 's enchantment also changes so that even Odin can not lift it. The hammer is subsequently picked up by an unknown female who inherits the power of Thor, as the inscription changes to "if she be worthy ''.
After the destruction and reconstruction of the multiverse, the Mjolnir of the Ultimate Thor falls to land on Asgard, but the entire area where it landed is subsequently taken into the possession of the Collector, who vows to kill his various prisoners unless Thor will tell him a means of bypassing the worthiness enchantment so that he can wield the hammer himself. Although he fights his way to claim the hammer, Odinson decides to leave it, instead working with Beta Ray Bill to channel the power of the hammer to return Asgard to its rightful place. When they have returned to Asgard, Odinson tells Bill that the secret Fury told him was ' Gorr was right ', a reference to the God - Butcher who believed that gods were not needed as they only brought pain and suffering. The issue concludes with another individual, later to be revealed as Volstagg, going to claim the hammer of Ultimate Thor, identified by publicity as ' the War Thor '.
When Captain America is ' reprogrammed ' into an agent of Hydra by a sentient cosmic cube, he sets up a complex chain of events that allow him to take control of America, banishing Jane Foster and claiming Mjolnir for himself, his ability to wield the hammer ensuring that Odinson follows him despite Rogers 's actions, believing that his ability to wield the hammer shows that Rogers is right. However, in the final stand, after Odinson sides with the heroes over Hydra, Sam Wilson, Bucky, and Eric Lang are able to use a fragment of the Cosmic Cube to restore the original Steve Rogers to existence. This attack also reveals that Hydra had used their cosmic cube to change the nature of the worthiness enchantment to "If he be strong, shall possess the power of Hydra '', with the ' reset ' triggered by the cube 's restoration of Rogers also restoring the original enchantment so that the original Rogers can lift the hammer where his Hydra self can not.
The hammer has been lifted by Earth itself when animated by magical means.
Several imitations of Mjolnir have also existed. These include Stormbreaker and the mace Thunderstrike, created for Beta Ray Bill and Eric Masterson respectively. Loki has been responsible for the creation of several imitations -- a version of Mjolnir, called Stormcaster, is presented to the mutant X-Men member Storm in an attempt to control her, which she later destroyed using Mjolnir. To spite Thor, another version is given to the mercenary Deadpool. Loki also allows Surtur to use the forge Mjolnir was created from to craft copies during Ragnarok. HYDRA created evil versions of Iron Man, Captain America, Hawkeye and Thor, the Thor imitator had a technological imitation of Mjolnir. Tony Stark and Reed Richards also create a technological imitation Mjolnir for use by Ragnarok, the clone of Thor, during the Civil War storyline. A tiny version was created from a sliver of Mjolnir for the use of Throg, leader of the Pet Avengers.
Mjolnir can be used both offensively and defensively.
As one of the most formidable weapons known to man or god, it is described as impacting with sufficient force to "level mountains, '' with primarily adamantium and vibranium proving too impervious. Other offensive capabilities include creating vortices and forcefields (capable of containing an explosion that could potentially destroy a galaxy); emitting mystical blasts of energy; controlling electromagnetism; molecular manipulation; and generating the Geo - Blast (an energy wave that taps a planet 's gravitational force), Anti-Force (energy created to counter-act another force), the thermo - blast which can even challenge such beings as Ego the living planet, and God Blast (a blast that taps into Thor 's life force). The hammer can travel through planets to return to Thor. It can even create antimatter particles and whirling it round can create winds powerful enough to lift the Taj Mahal. The hammer can also move extremely heavy objects, including the Washington Monument.
There are also other several rarely used abilities. Mjolnir can track a person and mystical items; absorb energy, such as draining the Asgardian powers of the Wrecking Crew into the Wrecker; or detect illusions, as Thor once commanded the hammer to strike the demonic Mephisto, who was hiding amongst false images of himself. As a former religious relic, Mjolnir is lethal to the undead, causing creatures such as vampires to burst into flame and crumble to dust. Mjolnir also can project images, as Thor shows a glimpse of Asgard to fellow Avenger Iron Man. It is near - indestructible, surviving bullets, Anti-matter, and the Melter 's melting beam.
The hammer has two properties relating to movement. When it is deliberately thrown by Thor, it will return to his hand despite any intervening obstacles or distance, even traveling through planets to return to Thor. When it has been dropped or set aside, it takes a fixed position, from which it can not be moved except by a ' worthy ' individual.
The hammer has also drained energy from the radioactive supervillain called the Presence, who is forced to surrender before being killed. Mjolnir was able to absorb, contain, and direct the energy of a Null Bomb, which was powerful enough to destroy an entire galaxy. Mjolnir also causes a side effect when used against the hero Union Jack: when Thor erroneously attacks the hero with a blast of lightning and then cancels the offensive, Union Jack is accidentally endowed with the ability to generate electricity. The hammer has been used to both power an Atlantean warship and temporarily drain the forcefield of the villain Juggernaut. If someone swears on the hammer their spirit can be summoned up after death. As well as absorbing radiation, the hammer can repel it back.
The hammer 's ability to transform its user also purges the user of any toxins or radiations in their systems; however, this works against its current wielder, Jane Foster, as she is currently suffering from cancer, with the result that her transformations purge her of the radiation used in her chemotherapy while leaving the cancerous cells alone.
But Mjolnir is also not indestructible, having been damaged several times: a force beam from the Asgardian Destroyer slices it in two; the Molecule Man dispels the atomic bonds between the hammer 's molecules, vaporizing Mjolnir; the hammer shatters after channeling an unmeasurable amount of energy at the Celestial Exitar; Dark god Perrikus slices Mjolnir in half with a magical scythe; and the hammer is shattered when it collides with the uru weapons of Loki 's Storm Giant followers, resulting in an atomic - scale explosion.
During the Celestial Saga storyline, an earlier version of Mjolnir is revealed to exist and was apparently thrown to Midgard (Earth) by Thor 's sons, Modi and Magni, landing in the Rhine river where it transformed into the magical Rhinegold.
A version of Mjolnir in the What If? series was wielded by Rogue after she accidentally absorbed Thor 's powers, the remnants of Thor in her psyche helping her assume his role.
In a future visited by the Hulk where Earth had been decimated by nuclear wars, Thor 's hammer was one of the many mementos of the age of heroes kept by the now - elderly Rick Jones; the Maestro -- the Hulk 's twisted future self -- attempted to use the hammer against the Hulk during their second confrontation in Rick 's museum of hero memorabilia, but failed to lift it even with Thor 's death as he was naturally unworthy to do so. A later storyline set before the Hulk 's fight with the Maestro featured the elder Rick working with his younger self to defeat Thanatos - another alternate Rick - by using his own ability to summon and lift the hammer, explaining that he had been judged worthy to use it for things that young Rick had yet to do and Thanatos would never achieve. In a similar but alternate dystopian future, Mjolnir also rests in a super-hero artifact vault overseen by Rick Jones.
Mjolnir can be seen as one of the many treasures in the one - shot ' The Last Heist ' that takes place in the "Tellos '' universe.
In the Ultimate Marvel imprint title The Ultimates and its sequel The Ultimates 2, the Ultimate version of Thor wields a Mjolnir styled after a classical war hammer. Loki claims that Thor is not really a god, and that Mjolnir is not magical in origin, instead an advanced technological marvel designed by the European Union Super Soldier Program to mimic Thor 's powers, but this proves to be false. At the end of The Ultimates 2 Thor proves his divinity and reclaims his Asgardian powers to defeat Loki. In The Ultimates 3: Who Killed The Scarlet Witch, Thor wields a hammer more closely resembling the mainstream Marvel Universe Mjolnir. In one scene where he is entering a secured building, the computer controlling access identifies first Thor, then Mjolnir; this leads another character to question why the computer identified Mjolnir as a separate, sentient organism, but Thor does not give an explanation for this. He later displays a wall of weapons, including both hammers, which he states were gifts from his father forged by Ulik the Troll. However, in the prequel miniseries Ultimate Comics: Thor it is revealed that the original hammer is not the "real '' Mjolnir but instead Dr. Braddock gives Thor tech - armor, and Thor suggests to turn the power supply into a hammer. Neither version of the hammer seems to be such that its use is restricted by the worthiness test. In Ultimate Comics: The Ultimates Thor puts his hammer inside the Room With No Doors with his son Modi, so that he may escape the destruction and genocide of the Asgardians. With Thor being the last Asgardian alive and his hammer is gone, he loses his divine powers and becomes mortal. Tony Stark kept Thor 's tech armor and hammer since Thor no longer felt he had use for it, and gives it to Thor to "restore '' his powers because he feels the world "needs a god of thunder ''.
Mjolnir is briefly seen by itself during a post-credits scene in Iron Man 2 (2010) at the bottom of a giant crater in New Mexico; S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson informs Nick Fury, "We 've found it. '' It has since appeared in every Marvel Cinematic Universe film that features Thor including Thor (2011), The Avengers (2012), Thor: The Dark World (2013), and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). In the trailer for Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Hela is seen destroying Mjolnir during a battle with Thor.
In the ABC series Once Upon a Time, during the Season 3 episode "Quite a Common Fairy '', Thor 's hammer from the Marvel Cinematic Universe can be seen as a relic in Mr. Gold 's Pawn Shop.
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who owns all the casinos in las vegas | MGM Resorts International - wikipedia
MGM Resorts International is a global hospitality and entertainment company operating destination resorts in Las Vegas, Mississippi, New Jersey and Detroit, including Bellagio, MGM Grand, Mandalay Bay and The Mirage. The company most recently opened MGM National Harbor in Maryland and is developing MGM Springfield in Massachusetts. It has a majority interest in MGM China Holdings Limited, which owns the MGM Macau resort and casino and is developing a gaming resort in Cotai. MGM Resorts owns 50 percent of CityCenter in Las Vegas, which features ARIA Resort & Casino. It has a majority controlling interest in MGM Growth Properties, a real estate investment trust.
The company began operations in 1987 as MGM Grand, Inc., and became MGM Mirage in 2000, after acquiring Mirage Resorts. In the mid-2000s, growth of its non-gaming (lodging, food, retail) revenue began to outpace gaming receipts and demand for high - rise condominiums was surging, with median property prices in Las Vegas twice the national average. The company shifted its focus from owning and operating resorts and casinos, to developing and building real estate in the leisure and gaming industry -- launching the massive CityCenter mixed - use project, which was at the time of its construction the world 's largest construction site and ranks as one of the most expensive real estate projects in history. City Center 's development coincided with the global financial crisis, causing writedowns in its valuation.
In June 2010, the company changed to its present name, to reflect its latest strategy of expanding worldwide, including licensing its brand and expertise to develop non-gaming hotels and residences.
Billionaire investor Kirk Kerkorian and his Tracinda Corporation were, until 2009, the majority shareholders of MGM Mirage; Kerkorian was the former owner of the Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer movie studio, from which MGM Grand derived its name. Following a one - billion - dollar stock offering by MGM Mirage amidst the global credit crunch, Tracinda 's shares were diluted from 53.8 percent to 39 percent. On June 15, 2010, shareholders voted for MGM Mirage to change its name to "MGM Resorts International '', which emphasizes the brand 's global scope and increased non-gaming strategy.
In 2013, MGM won state licenses to build a $1 - billion resort in National Harbor, Maryland and a $950 - million resort in downtown Springfield, Massachusetts. In May 2014, MGM broke ground on a $375 - million arena on the Las Vegas Strip with sports and entertainment company AEG. MGM Resorts is the majority owner of MGM Growth Properties LLC (NYSE: MGP), a real estate investment trust that owns ten casino properties and leases them to MGM Resorts. It became a separate, publicly traded company in April 2016.
Among the company 's management ranks, more than 38 percent are minorities and nearly 43 percent are women. The company continues to receive wide recognition for its diversity and inclusion initiatives, such as: 40 Best Companies for Diversity (Black Enterprise Magazine), Top 10 Companies for Latinos (DiversityInc Magazine), Best Places to Work for LGBT Equality (Human Rights Campaign Foundation), Top 10 Regional Companies (DiversityInc) Top 100 Companies for MBA Students (Universum Global) and Top Corporation for Women 's Business Enterprises (Women 's Business Enterprise National Council). FORTUNE magazine has named MGM Resorts one of the World 's Most Admired Companies.
The company 's background can be traced to 1969, when airline and casino tycoon Kirk Kerkorian bought a controlling stake in the Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer film studio. In 1970 and 1971, Kerkorian struggled with debt from his acquisitions of MGM and Western Airlines, and was forced to sell a majority of his casino company, International Leisure, to Hilton Hotels at a steep discount. When the Las Vegas Hilton, the casino he had built, subsequently became the most successful hotel in Las Vegas, Kerkorian was inspired to lead the studio into the gambling industry. It opened the original MGM Grand Hotel and Casino (now Bally 's Las Vegas) in 1973. The MGM Grand Reno followed in 1978.
By 1979, the two hotel - casinos accounted for most of MGM 's income, and the company announced a plan to split itself in two. The next year, the film studio was spun off as a new company, while the original company, renamed as MGM Grand Hotels Inc., retained the two hotel - casinos. Kerkorian held a 47 percent stake in both companies.
In 1985, Kerkorian began seeking a buyer for MGM Grand Hotels, to allow him to concentrate on running United Artists and on developing new properties under the MGM Grand name. A deal was reached for Bally Manufacturing to buy the company; the deal closed in April 1986, and the two casinos were renamed under the Bally 's brand. The terms of the sale allowed Kerkorian to retain rights to the MGM Grand name, and plans were announced to offer the stockholders of MGM Grand Hotels shares in a new company that would hold the naming rights.
The company now known as MGM Resorts International was formed in 1986 as Grand Name Co. as a subsidiary of Kerkorian 's Tracinda Corporation. It was renamed the following year as MGM Grand, Inc.
The company 's first venture was MGM Grand Air, a luxury airline offering service between New York and Los Angeles, which launched in September 1987. The company also made an offer to take over financially struggling Pan American World Airways, but it was rejected by Pan Am 's board in November 1987 for being too conditional.
In August 1987, MGM Grand bid $152 million for the bankrupt Dunes Hotel in Las Vegas, but was beat out by Japanese billionaire Masao Nangaku. Instead, the company acquired the Desert Inn and Sands casinos in February 1988 from Summa Corporation for $167 million. The Sands was promptly sold to Sheldon Adelson 's Interface Group for $110 million in April 1989.
In September 1989, the company announced plans for a $700 - million Hollywood - themed complex, including a 4,000 - room hotel and a theme park. The Desert Inn site was initially considered as a location for the project, but within weeks the location was finalized as the Marina Hotel and Casino and the Tropicana Country Club, which MGM Grand acquired for $93 million plus $30 million in stock. The company put the Desert Inn up for sale to focus efforts on the new project, but found no outside bidders, and agreed to sell it to Tracinda for $130 million. Construction on the MGM Grand Las Vegas and the MGM Grand Adventures theme park began in October 1991, and the property opened in December 1993 at a final cost of $1 billion. The park permanently closed in 2002 due to a lack of interest.
The company moved its headquarters from Beverly Hills to Las Vegas in July 1992.
During construction of the MGM Grand, the company acquired an option to buy an 18 - acre site across the street from the project. Gary Primm of Primadonna Resorts approached MGM president Bob Maxey in 1994 with an idea for the site: a casino recreating the New York skyline. A joint venture was formed between the two companies, and construction began in March 1995. Completed at a cost of $460 million, the New York - New York Hotel and Casino opened in January 1997.
With New York - New York under development, MGM Grand made moves to expand in several other markets. An exploratory agreement to develop two casinos on the Chinese island of Hainan was announced in August 1994, but came to nothing. In Darwin, Australia, a lucrative market attracting high rollers from Pacific Rim countries, the company considered building a hotel, but instead bought the Diamond Beach Hotel and Casino, renaming it as the MGM Grand Darwin. MGM announced plans for an Atlantic City casino in July 1996. In Michigan, where voters approved casinos in November 1996, MGM made plans for a bid on one of the three available gaming licenses, which would eventually be approved and open in July 1999 as the MGM Grand Detroit.
In South Africa, with casino gambling newly authorized, MGM announced plans in August 1996 to develop 15 properties in conjunction with Tsogo Sun. The first, a temporary casino in Johannesburg 's Sundome, opened in October 1998. Three more casinos followed before MGM agreed to sell out its interest in the properties to Tsogo Sun in November 2001.
Since the initiation of New York - New York, analysts had speculated that MGM Grand or Primadonna would buy out the other 's interest in the project. Instead of making such a cash - intensive purchase, however, MGM agreed to buy Primadonna outright for $276 million in stock plus $336 million in assumed debt. The merger closed in March 1999, giving MGM ownership of three casinos and two golf courses at the Nevada -- California state line, in addition to full control of New York - New York.
In February 2000, MGM Grand made an unsolicited offer of $17 a share to buy Mirage Resorts, which had foundered due to disappointing results at its new Beau Rivage and Bellagio resorts. Analysts expected a protracted battle, with Mirage founder Steve Wynn seen as unwilling to give up control but under pressure from institutional investors. Mirage rejected the offer, but Wynn met with Kerkorian the next day and named a price of $21 a share. The companies agreed on the higher price, for a total of $4.4 billion plus $2 billion in assumed debt. The merger closed in May 2000, giving MGM ownership of the Mirage, Treasure Island, Bellagio, Boardwalk, and Golden Nugget casinos in Las Vegas, the Golden Nugget in Laughlin, and the Beau Rivage in Mississippi, and a half share of the Monte Carlo. The company changed its name to MGM Mirage in August 2000. Mirage had also owned a half stake in the Borgata, a planned casino in Atlantic City, in a joint venture managed by Boyd Gaming. Work on the Borgata continued apace, and it would open in July 2003.
In 2001 and 2002, following the merger with Mirage, the company explored options for its next major development project, including opportunities in the Las Vegas, Atlantic City, Chicago, and Macau markets. The 55 - acre site of the Boardwalk casino on the Las Vegas Strip was earmarked for a technologically advanced megaresort targeting a Generation X demographic. In Atlantic City, MGM shifted focus from its previously announced boardwalk site to a proposed billion - dollar hotel and casino on a 55 - acre tract adjacent to the Borgata, where Wynn had planned to build the Le Jardin casino. In the Chicago market, MGM agreed to pay $600 million to buy the unfinished Emerald Casino in Rosemont, Illinois, whose investors had been accused of ties to organized crime. The deal was rejected, however, by state gaming regulators, and MGM then backed off its effort, saying that Illinois 's casino tax was too high. In Macau, where Stanley Ho 's 40 - year government - granted monopoly on gambling was coming to an end, MGM submitted a bid for one of three available gaming concessions, but it was not selected, losing out to Ho, Las Vegas Sands, and Wynn Resorts.
MGM made moves into the United Kingdom market after a 2001 government report called for loosening of the country 's gambling regulations. It opened an online casino, playmgmmirage.com, licensed in the Isle of Man, a British dependency, and it applied for a license to run an online sports betting site in the U.K. It acquired a twenty - five percent stake in a company developing the small Triangle Casino in Bristol, which went on to open its doors in February 2004. It inked deals to build casinos at the Olympia Exhibition Centre in London, St James ' Park in Newcastle, Meadowhall Shopping Centre in Sheffield, the National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham, Sportcity in Manchester, Glasgow Harbour, King 's Waterfront in Liverpool, and at a proposed stadium in Salford. The company also signed a $490 - million deal to acquire Wembley plc, owner of seven greyhound tracks in Britain and four in the United States.
The British expansion plans ultimately amounted to nothing. MGM closed its online casino after less than two years, citing uncertainty in American regulations and competition from established British brands. The Wembley acquisition turned into a bidding war, with MGM finally losing out to an investors group including Kerzner International. The Triangle Casino was sold off to Stanley Leisure in 2006. The company 's other development plans were scuttled as the government scaled down, and eventually abandoned, the plan to allow large "super-casinos ''.
On December 20, 2003, MGM and Turnberry Associates announced the formation of a partnership to build the luxury condo hotel, stating that they would build up to six towers each rising up to 40 stories. On May 12, 2006, the first tower opened for occupancy. The successful opening of The Signature at MGM Grand appears to be aided by its connection to the resources and amenities of The MGM Grand Hotel & Casino.
In 2004, the company disposed of some of its smaller properties, selling the two Golden Nugget casinos (Golden Nugget Las Vegas and Golden Nugget Laughlin) to Poster Financial Group for $215 million, and the MGM Grand Darwin to Skycity Entertainment for $140 million.
MGM entered into quiet merger talks with Mandalay Resort Group in early 2004. The potential acquisition, which would give MGM control of more than half the hotel rooms on the Las Vegas Strip, was seen as a "vote '' for Las Vegas as the strongest gambling market in the world. Mandalay assets attractive to MGM included low - end casinos like Excalibur and Circus Circus to broaden MGM 's "high roller '' appeal; the Mandalay Bay Convention Center, which would allow MGM to compete directly with the Sands Expo center in the convention market; and at least two prime developable sites on the Strip. The talks went public in June, when MGM announced an offer worth $7.65 billion. Mandalay rejected that offer because of a clause allowing MGM to back out if antitrust regulators demanded the sale of any properties. Analysts speculated that another bidder such as Harrah 's or Boyd might enter, but none did, and MGM and Mandalay soon agreed on a $7.9 billion deal.
MGM executives were confident that antitrust regulators would not require the sale of any of the two companies ' properties. Michigan law, however, forbade one company from owning multiple casinos, requiring the sale of either the MGM Grand Detroit or Mandalay 's 54 percent stake in the MotorCity Casino. After some vacillation about which property to sell, Mandalay accepted a $525 - million offer for its interest in MotorCity from Marian Ilitch, the casino 's second largest shareholder. Meanwhile, in Illinois, where MGM needed regulatory approval to take over Mandalay 's 50 percent interest in the Grand Victoria Casino, a lack of quorum on the state Gaming Board threatened to delay the merger. MGM considered a sale to the casino 's other owner, the Pritzker family, but ultimately gained approval for a plan to place the property under control of a trustee until completion of the licensing process. The FTC approved the merger as predicted, and MGM obtained a $7 billion line of credit to finance it. The sale closed on April 25, 2005 for a total of $7.9 billion, including $3 billion in assumed debt.
The Mandalay acquisition made MGM Mirage the largest gaming company in the world, but it was surpassed just two months later when Harrah 's Entertainment acquired Caesars Entertainment in a deal that had been spurred on by news of the MGM - Mandalay merger.
Despite MGM 's initial failure to win a gaming concession in Macau, the company had remained interested in the burgeoning gaming market. Rumors of a possible partnership with Stanley Ho were reported in 2003, but Nevada gaming regulators informally vetoed the idea because of the alleged involvement of organized crime triads in his casinos. Another possibility emerged when the government allowed the three gaming concessionaires to each sell a sub-concession. In June 2004, MGM formed a joint venture with Pansy Ho, Stanley 's daughter, to develop a casino - hotel under a sub-concession from Stanley. Despite initial concerns about whether Pansy Ho was subject to her father 's influence, the Nevada Gaming Commission eventually approved the partnership. Construction of the MGM Grand Macau began in June 2005. The property opened in December 2007, completed at a cost of $1.25 billion.
In 2004, MGM solidified its plans for the Boardwalk site on the Strip, announcing Project CityCenter, an $8 - billion high - density project including hotels, condominiums, a casino, and a shopping mall. The Boardwalk was closed in January 2006 to make way for the redevelopment, and CityCenter construction began the following June.
Singapore emerged in 2004 as the next major new Asian gaming market, calling for proposals to build two "integrated resort '' casinos at Marina Bay and the island of Sentosa. MGM partnered with CapitaLand in an estimated $3 billion bid for the Marina Bay site. Their bid advanced to the final stage against three competitors, and was seen as the favorite to win. The government awarded the license, however, to Las Vegas Sands, citing its strength in the meetings and conventions sector.
On April 25, 2006, MGM Mirage announced with Foxwoods Resort and Casino a joint partnership in developing an expansion plan at Foxwoods that will include a casino using the MGM Grand brand. On October 16, 2006, MGM Mirage announced that it planned to sell its properties in Laughlin (Colorado Belle Hotel & Casino and Edgewater Hotel and Casino) to a partnership of Anthony Marnell III and Sher Gaming. The sale price was $200 million. The sale closed on June 1, 2007. On October 31, 2006, MGM Mirage announced plans to sell Primm Valley Resorts to Herbst Gaming for $400 million. The proposed sale would not include the Primm Valley Golf Club. The sale closed on April 10, 2007.
The Nevada Landing Hotel and Casino closed a month earlier than planned on March 20, 2007.
On April 19, 2007 the company announced that it planned to purchase a 7.6 - acre (31,000 m) site from Concord Wilshire Partners for $130 million and a 25.8 - acre (104,000 m) site from Gordon Gaming for $444 million. The two parcels give the company complete control of the southwest corner of the Sahara and Las Vegas Boulevard intersection. When combined with underused parts of the Circus Circus site, the company will have a 68 - acre (280,000 m) site for future development. The Concord site had been the proposed location for the Maxim Casino.
On August 22, 2007, Dubai World said it would buy a 9.5 percent stake in MGM for about $2.4 billion. It would also invest about $2.7 billion to acquire a 50 percent stake in MGM 's CityCenter project. Dubai World would pay MGM Mirage an additional $100 million if the project opened on time and on budget. The investment firm would buy 14.2 million shares from MGM Mirage. The firm would also issue a public tender for an additional 14.2 million shares at the same price.
On October 29, 2008, MGM Mirage halted a $5 billion Atlantic City project on land next to the Borgata.
At about the same time, New Jersey gambling regulators were evaluating MGM Mirage 's suitability to operate casinos in New Jersey, and were unconvinced that MGM Mirage 's Macau partner, Pansy Ho, could operate independently from influence of her father, Stanley Ho. The latter was often accused of ties with Chinese organized crime and letting the gangs operate in his casinos ' VIP rooms. Faced with not complying with New Jersey gaming regulations, MGM Mirage decided to divest the highly profitable Borgata in order to continue pursuing the even more lucrative Chinese market. MGM Mirage subsequently transferred its 50 % share in the Borgata to a divestiture trust through which it received all benefit of the ownership. The trust was responsible for selling MGM 's interest within 30 months, although MGM had the right to direct the trustee during the first 18 months.
On December 16, 2008, MGM Mirage announced the sale of its Las Vegas Treasure Island resort and casino to billionaire Phil Ruffin. The sale was completed on March 20, 2009 for $600 million in cash plus a $175 million promissory note.
On March 23, 2009 Dubai World and Infinity World announced that they had filed a lawsuit in the Delaware Chancery Court seeking to be released from their CityCenter joint venture agreement with MGM Mirage after the company filed its annual report stating that "there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern, '' and "it can not provide assurance that its business would generate sufficient cash flow from operation. ''
Starting on April 6, 2009 news reports surfaced that MGM Mirage had hired investment firm Morgan Stanley to assist the company in finding possible buyers for the MGM Grand Detroit and the Beau Rivage.
On June 15, 2010, shareholders approved a name change from MGM Mirage to "MGM Resorts International '', to emphasize the brand 's global scope and increased non-gaming strategy.
In April 2011 an initial public offering was announced for the MGM Macau property. Under the agreement, Pansy Ho would receive a 29 percent stake in the company, MGM China Holdings Ltd, which was created as a listing vehicle for the IPO. MGM Resorts would hold 51 percent and the public would receive 20 percent. MGM China raised $1.5 billion from its IPO on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange.
In January 2013, MGM China received government approval to build its second resort in Macau. The venture would pay a land premium of MOP $ 1.29 billion (US $162 million) and annual rent of MOP $2.15 million to develop a five - star hotel and a casino resort. The new project would be MGM 's first resort in Macau 's Cotai area. The casino resort, with 1,600 hotel rooms, 500 gaming tables, and 2,500 slots, would take 36 months and US $2.5 billion to build.
In December 2013, a state commission awarded a casino license to MGM Resorts to build a $1 - billion resort at National Harbor in Prince George 's County, Maryland. Throughout 2013, MGM Resorts conducted a significant refinancing of company debt, and by March 2014 the debt load was reduced to $13.4 billion.
In late 2013, Foxwoods and MGM ended their relationship, and the MGM Grand at Foxwoods was renamed the Fox Tower.
In mid-2013, the Company also embarked on a remodeling and rebranding of THEhotel at Mandalay Bay into Delano Las Vegas. Delano opened in September 2014.
On May 1, 2014, the company broke ground on the $375 - million T - Mobile Arena located behind New - New York Hotel and Casino, in partnership with AEG Live. T - Mobile Arena celebrated its grand opening on April 6, 2016, with a concert featuring local favorites The Killers, Wayne Newton and Shamir. Two days earlier on April 4, MGM unveiled The Park, an outdoor dining and entertainment district that serves a gateway to the arena.
In September 2014, MGM Resorts International agreed to sell the Railroad Pass Casino to Joseph DeSimone, a Henderson - based real estate broker and developer. The sale was completed in April 2015, with Marcus Suan assuming operation of the casino while Joseph DeSimone pursued a gaming license. On October 16, 2014, MGM agreed to sell the Gold Strike for $12 million to Jett Gaming, owned by the Herbst family. On April 23, 2015, the Nevada Gaming Commission approved the sale of Gold Strike from MGM to Jett Gaming. On May 4, 2015, the sale of Gold Strike from MGM to Jett Gaming was completed.
In November 2014, the Massachusetts Gaming Commission approved a license for MGM Springfield, an $800 - million project.
The Las Vegas Festival Grounds was developed by MGM Resorts International, Cirque du Soleil, and Ron Burkle 's Yucaipa Companies, primarily to serve as the site of the biannual music festival Rock in Rio USA, which held its inaugural edition in 2015.
In July 2015, MGM agreed to sell its properties in Reno (Circus Circus Reno and a 50 percent stake in the Silver Legacy) to Eldorado Resorts for $72.5 million.
In April 2016, MGM held an initial public offering for MGM Growth Properties LLC, a new real estate investment trust (REIT) with ownership of ten of the company 's casinos; the parent company would continue to operate the casinos under a lease agreement. The offering raised $1.05 billion, and left MGM Resorts with 76 percent ownership of the REIT. In May 2016. MGM Resorts International and MGM Growth Properties LLC acquired the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in exchange for $900 million.
In June 2016, MGM announced a joint venture with Sydell Group that the Monte Carlo would be renovated and rebranded as the Park MGM, named after the adjacent dining and entertainment district, The Park, that opened in April 2016, and the NoMad Hotel would occupy the top floors. It will feature the new Eataly restaurant. Both hotels will begin construction at the end of 2016 and will open in 2018.
In May 2017, MGM launched playMGM, a Nevada - facing online sportsbook. In August 2017, MGM launched its first full - featured real - money online casino in New Jersey. Also under the brand name playMGM, the online gambling site went live with over 200 slot games and over 20 table games, including 11 new games not found at other online casinos.
In 2007, MGM Hospitality was established to operate hotels, resorts and residences in key destinations around the globe using the brands of Bellagio, MGM Grand and SKYLOFTS.
In 2009, the Company formed Diaoyutai MGM Hospitality, a joint venture between Diaoyutai State Guesthouse of China, the Chinese Foreign Ministry 's venue for VIPs, and MGM Resorts International. This joint venture is developing and operating 5 - star hotels and resorts in China.
On April 15, 2014, MGM Resorts International and Hakkasan Group announced the formation of a joint venture hotel management company, to be named MGM HAKKASAN Hospitality. The strategic alliance focuses on the design, development and management of luxury and upper upscale non-gaming hotels, resorts and residential offerings under the Bellagio, Hakkasan, MGM Grand and SKYLOFTS brands in key international gateway cities and prime resort destinations across the globe. All of the hotel and resort projects currently under development by each group will be contributed to the joint venture, including MGM projects in the Americas, Middle East, and Asia, and Hakkasan projects in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Projects in China will continue to be developed and operated by Diaoyutai MGM Hospitality.
All properties are wholly owned by MGM Resorts International except where indicated.
The MGM Resorts International Aviation fleet comprises five aircraft (as of August 2017): a Gulfstream G550, two Embraer Legacy 500, and two Embraer Lineage 1000.
The Company 's top executives include; James Murren, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer; Bill Hornbuckle, President and Chief Marketing Officer; Corey I. Sanders, Chief Operating Officer and John McManus, Executive Vice President and General Counsel.
Among the company 's management ranks, more than 38 percent are minorities and nearly 43 percent are women.
The company continues to receive wide recognition for its diversity and inclusion initiatives, such as: 40 Best Companies for Diversity (Black Enterprise Magazine) in 2012, Best Places to Work for LGBT Equality (Human Rights Campaign Foundation) in 2013, Top 10 Regional Companies (DiversityInc) in 2014, Top 10 Companies for Latinos (DiversityInc Magazine), and top 100 Companies for MBA Students (Universum Global) in 2014. Fortune has named MGM Resorts one of the World 's Most Admired Companies.
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in star wars knights of the old republic what is the name of the spaceship you travel in | Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic - wikipedia
Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic is a role - playing video game set in the Star Wars universe. Developed by BioWare and published by LucasArts, the game was released for the Xbox on July 15, 2003, and for Microsoft Windows on November 19, 2003. The game was later ported to Mac OS X, iOS, and Android by Aspyr, and it is playable on the Xbox 360 and Xbox One via their respective backwards - compatibility features.
The story of Knights of the Old Republic takes place almost 4000 years before the formation of the Galactic Empire, where Darth Malak, a Dark Lord of the Sith, has unleashed a Sith armada against the Republic. The player character, as a Jedi, must venture to different planets in the galaxy in order to defeat Malak. Players choose from three character classes and customize their characters at the beginning of the game, and engage in round - based combat against enemies. Through interacting with other characters and making plot decisions, the alignment system will determine whether the player 's character aligns with the light or dark side of the Force.
The game was directed by Casey Hudson, designed by James Ohlen, and written by Drew Karpyshyn. LucasArts proposed developing a game tied to Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, or a game set thousands of years before the prequels. The team chose the latter as they thought that they would have more creative freedom. Ed Asner, Ethan Phillips, and Jennifer Hale were hired to perform voices for the game 's characters, while the soundtrack was composed by Jeremy Soule. Announced in 2000, the game was delayed several times before its release in July 2003.
The game received critical acclaim upon release, with critics applauding the game 's characters, story, and sound. It was nominated for numerous awards, and is considered one of the best games ever made. A sequel, Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II -- The Sith Lords, developed by Obsidian Entertainment at BioWare 's suggestion, was released in 2004. The series ' story continued with the 2011 release of Star Wars: The Old Republic, an MMORPG developed by BioWare.
Players choose from three basic character classes at the beginning of the game, and later choose from three Jedi subclasses. Beyond class, a character has "skills '' stats, tiered "feats '', and later on, tiered Force powers, similar to magic spells in fantasy games. Feats and Force powers are unlocked every level - up, while the player is given skill points to distribute among their skills every level.
Combat is round - based; time is divided into discrete rounds, and combatants attack and react simultaneously, although these actions are presented sequentially on - screen. The number of actions a combatant may perform each round is limited. While each round 's duration is a fixed short interval of real time, the player can configure the combat system to pause at specific events or at the end of each round, or set the combat system to never automatically pause, giving the illusion of real - time combat. Combat actions are calculated using DnD rules. While these are not displayed directly on the screen, the full breakdown for each action (including die rolls and modifiers) is accessible from a menu.
For much of the game, the player can have up to two companions in their party. These companions will participate in combat. They can be manually controlled by the player, or act autonomously if the player does not give them any input. Outside of combat, the companions will randomly engage the player or each other in dialogue, sometimes unlocking additional quests. They will also participate in conversations the player has with other non-player characters.
Non-combat interaction with other characters in the game world is based upon a dialogue menu system. Following each statement, the player can select from a list of menu responses. The dialogue varies based on the gender and skills of the main character.
The alignment system tracks actions and speech -- from simple word choices to major plot decisions -- to determine whether the player 's character aligns with the light or dark side of the Force. Generosity and altruism lead to the light side, while selfish or violent actions will lead the player 's character to the dark side, which will alter the character 's appearance, turning their eyes yellow and their skin pale.
In addition to the standard role - playing gameplay, there are several minigame events that come up over the course of the game. The player can engage in swoop racing to gain money, and sometimes interplanetary travel will be interrupted by enemy starfighters, which begins a minigame where the player controls a turret to shoot down the opposing starcraft. The player can also engage in a card game known as pazaak, which is similar to the game of blackjack, to gamble money.
The story takes place approximately 4,000 years before the rise of the Galactic Empire. Darth Malak, a former Jedi, Dark Lord of the Sith and Darth Revan 's former apprentice, has unleashed a Sith armada against the Republic. Malak 's aggression has left the Jedi scattered and vulnerable; many Jedi Knights have fallen in battle and others have sworn allegiance to Malak.
The game opens with the player 's character -- the player can choose a face and be male or female (canonically a male) -- awakening aboard a Republic ship, the Endar Spire, which is under attack by Malak 's forces over the city world of Taris. Republic soldier Trask Ulgo soon arrives and informs the player character that they are under attack. Fighting their way to the escape pods, Trask and the player character are soon confronted by Sith Lord Darth Bandon. With no other options, Trask sacrifices himself while the player continues to make their way to the escape pods. The player character soon meets up with Carth Onasi, a skilled pilot and Republic war hero, and they escape the doomed warship.
Crashing on the surface of Taris, the player character is knocked unconscious and Carth pulls them away from the wreckage. After suffering a strange vision, the player character awakens in an abandoned apartment with Carth, who explains that Taris is currently under martial law by Malak 's forces who are currently searching for the Jedi Knight Bastila Shan, known for her mastery of battle meditation, a Force technique which strengthens one 's allies and weakens one 's enemies during battle. Carth and the player character go in search of her and manage to meet new companions along the way, such as the Twi'lek street urchin Mission Vao and her Wookiee companion Zaalbar. The group eventually finds and rescues Bastila from the Black Vulkar gang. With the help of utility droid T3 - M4 and Mandalorian mercenary Canderous Ordo, the group escapes Taris aboard the Ebon Hawk, moments before the planet surface is decimated by Malak 's fleet in a vain effort to kill Bastila.
While taking refuge at the Jedi Academy on Dantooine, the player 's character trains to be a Jedi, discovers a "Star Map '', and learns of the "Star Forge '', the probable source of Malak 's military resources. The player 's character and their companions search planets across the galaxy -- Dantooine, Manaan, Tatooine, Kashyyyk, and Korriban -- for more information about the Star Forge, gaining new companions along the way such as the Cathar Jedi Juhani, assassin droid HK - 47, and ' Grey ' Jedi Jolee Bindo. Through the course of their travels, the player will eventually discover their character 's true identity -- the brainwashed Darth Revan, whom the Jedi Council on Dantooine took in and subjected to memory modification so that he would no longer be a threat to the galaxy, the various visions they had been experiencing being Revan 's memories. Darth Revan had been injured when attacking a Republic planet because Darth Malak turned his ship 's guns on his former master, intent on usurping him. Because Bastila was aboard Revan 's ship with a Jedi strike force, she was able to heal him and bring him to the Jedi Council on Dantooine. Her actions lead to the force bond between her and Revan, which plays a role later in the game.
Depending on the character 's alignment, upon ultimately reaching the Star Forge they either defeat the Sith (the light - side path) or usurp control from Malak (the dark - side path). A light - aligned character is hailed as a savior and hero; a dark - side character stands before the remaining Sith forces as the new Dark Lord of the Sith.
Eventually joining the main character 's quest are veteran Republic pilot Carth Onasi, the Twi'lek teenager Mission Vao and her Wookiee companion Zaalbar, the Jedi Bastila Shan, ' Grey ' Jedi Jolee Bindo, utility droid T3 - M4, Mandalorian mercenary Canderous Ordo, and assassin droid HK - 47 if he is bought. Juhani, another Jedi, may also join the party if she is not killed fighting the main character. Several of these characters, including Canderous Ordo, HK - 47 and T3 - M4, also appear in the sequel, Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II -- The Sith Lords. Republic soldier Trask Ulgo is also playable briefly on the Endar Spire. Antagonists include Black Vulkar gang leader Brejik, crime boss Davik Kang, bounty hunter Calo Nord, Zaalbar 's twisted brother Chuundar, Malak 's Sith apprentice Darth Bandon, Sith Admiral Saul Karath, Sith Overseer Uthar Wynn, Rakatan tribe leader The One, and Darth Malak, the Dark Lord of the Sith. On several planets the main character deals with Czerka Corporation, a company operating on several planets that allied itself with the Sith, engaged in slave trade and other nefarious practices. Major allies that help the player 's party along the way are Hidden Bek gang leader Gadon Thek, Jedi Masters Vandar Tokare and Zhar Lestin, game hunter Komad Fortuna, Zaalbar and Chuundar 's father Freyyr, Uthar 's Sith apprentice Yuthura Ban, Republic representative Roland Wann, the Rakatan tribe "The Elders '', and Republic Admiral Forn Dodonna.
Action takes place on the planets Tatooine, Dantooine, Kashyyyk, Korriban, Manaan, Rakata Prime, and Taris; aboard the Republic cruiser Endar Spire and Saul Karath 's ship Leviathan; and on the Star Forge space station. A space station near Yavin is a playable location in the PC, Mac OS X, and mobile versions of the game and is available to Xbox players via download from Xbox Live. Travel between these locations happens aboard the freighter Ebon Hawk, which is also a playable location.
In July 2000, BioWare announced that they were working with LucasArts to create a Star Wars role - playing video game for the PC and next - generation consoles. Joint BioWare CEO Greg Zeschuk commented that "The opportunity to create a richly detailed new chapter in the Star Wars universe is incredibly exciting for us. We are honored to be working with the extremely talented folks at Lucas Arts, developing a role - playing game based upon one of the most high - profile licenses in the world. '' The game was officially unveiled as Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic at E3 2001. At this point, the game had been in development for around six months. "Preproduction started in 2000, but the discussions started back in 1999, '' LucasArts ' Mike Gallo said, "The first actual e-mails were in October or November of ' 99. That 's when we first started talking to BioWare. But some really serious work finally started at the beginning of 2000. ''
The decision to set the game four thousand years before Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace was one of the first details about the game made known. LucasArts gave BioWare a choice of settings for the game. "LucasArts came to us and said that we could do an Episode II game, '' BioWare CEO Raymond Muzyka said. "Or LucasArts said we could go 4,000 years back, which is a period that 's hardly been covered before. '' BioWare chose to set the game four thousand years before the films as it gave them greater creative freedom. They aimed to create content similar to that from the films but different enough to be a definite precursor. Concept work had to be sent to "the ranch '' to be approved for use. Muzyka noted that very little of their content was rejected: "It was more like, ' Can you just make his head like this rather than like that. ' So it was all very feasible. There were good suggestions made and they made the game better, so we were happy to do them. It was a good process really and I think we were pleasantly surprised how easy LucasArts was to work with. '' Zeschuk said that "Overall, we were really happy with the results. We felt like we had enough freedom to truly create something wonderful. ''
Gallo said that BioWare and LucasArts were aiming for a gameplay time of around sixty hours: "Baldur 's Gate was 100 hours of gameplay or more. Baldur 's Gate 2 was 200 hours, and the critical - path play through Baldur 's Gate 2 was 75 hours... We 're talking smaller than that (for Knights of the Old Republic), dramatically, but even if it 's 60 percent smaller, then it 's still 100 hours. So our goal for gameplay time is 60 hours. We have so many areas that we 're building -- worlds, spaceships, things like that to explore -- so we have a ton of gameplay. ''
Project director Casey Hudson said that one of the greatest achievements and one of the greatest risks was the combat system. "We wanted to create something that combined the strategic aspects of our Baldur 's Gate series and Neverwinter Nights but which presented it through fast, cinematic 3D action, '' Hudson said. "That required us to make something that had n't really been done before. '' The developers intended to make the game have more open - ended gameplay. Gallo compared some situations to Deus Ex: "You have several ways to get through an area and you might need a character who has a specific skill to do that. ''
LucasArts and BioWare settled on developing Knights of the Old Republic for the PC and Xbox. The Xbox was chosen over other consoles because of BioWare 's background of developing PC games and greater familiarity with the Xbox than other consoles: "We could do the things we wanted to do on the Xbox without as much effort as we 'd need to do it on the PS2 or GameCube, '' Gallo said. Other factors included the console 's recent success and the opportunity to release one of the Xbox 's first RPGs. BioWare had previously developed MDK2 for the Dreamcast and PlayStation 2. Hudson said that "Having experience in developing for other consoles gave us the proper mindset for implementing this game on the Xbox, and, by comparison, the Xbox was relatively easy to develop for. ''
Hudson did, however, note that there were some challenges during development. One of the difficulties was in deciding how much graphical detail to provide. "Since our games generally have a lot of AI and scripting, numerous character models, and huge environments, we stress the hardware in a very different way than most games, '' Hudson said. This made it difficult to predict how well the game would run. The game uses the Odyssey Engine, based on the Aurora Engine (previously developed by BioWare for use in Neverwinter Nights) but completely rewritten for Knights of the Old Republic. It was highly detailed for its time: grass waves in the wind, dust blows across Tatooine and puffs of sand rise as the player walks across the seabed.
Hudson noted that the differences between consoles and PCs mean that the graphics would have to be modified. "You typically play console games on a TV across the room while PC games are played on a monitor only inches away. '' Console games put effort into close - up action and overall render quality; PC games emphasize what can be done with high resolutions and super-sharp textures. Hudson also noted that the difference between a game controller and mouse - and - keyboard setup influenced some design decisions. The PC version features an extra location the player can visit and more NPCs, items and weapons; these additions were later made available on the Xbox version through Xbox Live. The PC version supports higher display resolutions (up to 1600x1200) and has higher - resolution textures.
While the main game, graphics engine and story were developed by BioWare, LucasArts worked on the game 's audio. Knights of the Old Republic contains three hundred different characters and fifteen thousand lines of speech. "One complete copy of the Knights of the Old Republic script fills up 10 5 - inch binders, '' voice department manager Darragh O'Farrell noted. A cast of around a hundred voice actors, including Ed Asner, Raphael Sbarge, Ethan Phillips, Jennifer Hale, and Phil LaMarr was assembled. "Fortunately, with a game this size, it 's easy to have an actor play a few different characters and scatter those parts throughout the game so you 'll never notice it 's the same actor you heard earlier, '' O'Farrell said.
Voice production started six months before the game 's beta release. The voice production team were given the script 90 % complete to work with. "There were a few changes made during recording, but most of the remaining 10 percent will be dealt with in our pickup session, '' O'Farrell said, "The pickup session is right at the end of the project, where we catch performance issues, tutorial lines, verbal hints, and anything else that we might have overlooked. '' A game the size of Knights of the Old Republic would typically take seven weeks to record; two weeks of recording all - day and all - night meant LucasArts were able to record all voices in five weeks. Actors were recorded one at a time, as the non-linear nature of the game meant it was too complicated and expensive to record more than one actor at a time.
Most of the dialogue recorded was spoken in Galactic Basic (represented by English); however, around a tenth of the script was written in Huttese. Mike Gallo used Ben Burtt 's Star Wars: Galactic Phrase Book & Travel Guide to translate English into Huttese. "The key to recording alien dialogue is casting the right actor for the part, '' O'Farrell said, "Over the years I 've had actors take to Huttese like a fish to water, but the opposite is also true. In the past I 've had to line - read (when an actor copies my performance) 150 - plus Huttese lines to an actor in order to make it work. ''
Award - winning composer Jeremy Soule was signed to compose the game 's score. "It will be a Star Wars score, but it will all be original, and probably the things that will remain will be the Force themes and things like that, '' Gallo said. Soule was unable to write a full orchestral score for Knights of the Old Republic due to technical limitations: "At the time we only had an 8 megabit per second MIDI system. That was state of the art... I had to fool people into thinking they were hearing a full orchestra. I 'd write woodwinds and drums, or woodwinds, horns and drums, or strings and drums and brass. I could n't run the whole orchestra at once, it was impossible. ''
When announced at E3 2001, Knights of the Old Republic was originally scheduled for a late 2002 release. In August 2002 it was announced on the game 's forums that its release had been delayed: the Xbox version was to be released in spring 2003 and the PC version in summer 2003. A further delay was announced in January 2003, with both versions of the game expected to be released in fall 2003. Zeschuk attributed the delay to BioWare 's focus on quality: "Our goal is to always deliver a top - notch gameplay experience, and sometimes it can be very difficult to excel in all areas. We keep working on tackling each individual issue until we feel we 've accomplished something special. ''
The Xbox version of Knights of the Old Republic went gold on July 9, 2003 with a release date of July 15. It sold 250,000 copies in the first four days of its release, making Knights of the Old Republic the fastest - selling Xbox title at the time of its release. Following the game 's release, it was announced that free downloadable content would be available through Xbox Live at the end of the year. The PC version of the game went gold on November 11, 2003 and was released on November 18. It was re-released as part of the Star Wars: The Best of PC collection in 2006.
The game was released on Steam on May 14, 2012 for Mac OS X. The game was released for the iPad on May 30, 2013. The iPad version includes the Yavin Station DLC that was previously released for Xbox and PC. The game was released as DRM - free download on GoG.com in October 2014.
The game was also launched on Android 's Google Play Store on December 22, 2014.
In October 2017, Microsoft made the Xbox One console backward compatible with the Xbox version of the game, as part of a 13 game curated catalog.
In the United States, Knights of the Old Republic 's computer version sold 470,000 copies and earned $14.7 million by August 2006, after its release in November 2003. It was the country 's 32nd best - selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. The game 's Xbox release received a "Silver '' sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. By July 2006, the Xbox release had sold 1.3 million copies and earned $44 million in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the 38th highest - selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined sales of Knights of the Old Republic console releases reached 2 million units in the United States by July 2006.
Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic received "universal acclaim '' according to review aggregator Metacritic, and won numerous awards, including Game Developers Choice Awards ' 2004 game of the year, BAFTA Games Awards ' best Xbox game of the year, and Interactive Achievement Awards for best console RPG and best computer RPG.
Knights of the Old Republic has seen success as the game of the year from many sources including IGN, Computer Gaming World, PC Gamer, GMR, The Game Developers Choice Awards, Xbox Magazine, and G4. Computer Games Magazine named it the best computer game of 2003, and presented it with awards for "Best Original Music '' and "Best Writing ''. The editors wrote, "The elegance and accessibility that BioWare made part - and - parcel of this game should be the future standard for this genre. '' According to the review aggregator Metacritic the PC version received an average score of 93 based on 33 reviews. In total, the game has won over 40 game of the year awards from various publications. Interactive Achievement Awards awarded it for Best Story and Best Character Development. IGN gave KotOR additional awards in Best Sound (Xbox category), Best Story (PC category), Xbox RPG of the Year 2003, PC RPG of the Year 2003, Xbox Game of the Year 2003, PC Game of the Year 2003, and Overall Game of the Year 2003 across all platforms. In 2007, IGN listed it at # 27 on its list of the Top 100 Games of All - Time. In 2010, IGN placed the game at # 3 on its Best games of the Decade (2000 -- 2009), beaten by Shadow of the Colossus and Half - Life 2.
At the 2004 Game Developers Choice Awards, HK - 47 won the category of "Original Game Character of the Year ''. In 2007, the plot twist in KotOR was ranked number two in Game Informer 's list of the top ten video game plot twists of all time and number 10 on ScrewAttack 's "Top 10 OMGWTF Moments ''. The game is also part of The Xbox Platinum Series / Classics for sales in excess of 1 million units.
The Los Angeles Times listed Knights of the Old Republic as one of the most influential works of the Star Wars Expanded Universe. In 2010, Game Informer named the game the 54th best game on their Top 200 Games of All Time list. In November 2012, Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time.
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who plays dewey finn in school of rock broadway | School of Rock (musical) - wikipedia
School of Rock is a rock musical with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, lyrics by Glenn Slater and a book by Julian Fellowes. Based on the 2003 film of the same name, with a screenplay by Mike White, the musical follows Dewey Finn, an out - of - work rock singer and guitarist who pretends to be a substitute teacher at a prestigious prep school. After identifying the musical talent in his students, Dewey forms a band of fifth - graders, in an attempt to win the upcoming Battle of the Bands contest.
The musical was announced in December 2014 and opened just under a year later on December 6, 2015. Prior to School of Rock 's debut, staged concerts were held at the Gramercy Theatre in Manhattan in June 2015. It made its Broadway debut and world premiere at the Winter Garden Theatre on December 6, 2015 following previews that began on November 9, 2015, with direction by Laurence Connor and choreography by JoAnn M. Hunter, and starring Alex Brightman and Sierra Boggess as Dewey Finn and Rosalie Mullins, respectively. The musical made its West End debut at the Gillian Lynne Theatre on November 14, 2016.
The musical is based on the 2003 film School of Rock. That film was produced on a budget of $35 million, earning over $131 million in global box office receipts. The plot followed struggling rock singer and guitarist Dewey Finn, who is kicked out of the band No Vacancy and subsequently disguises himself as a substitute teacher at a prestigious prep school. After witnessing the musical talent in his students, Dewey forms a band of fifth - graders to attempt to win the upcoming Battle of the Bands.
In an April 2013 interview, Andrew Lloyd Webber first revealed that he had purchased the stage rights to Richard Linklater 's film, and planned to make its adaptation into a musical his next project after completing the West End show Stephen Ward, centering on the 1963 Profumo affair. The composer stated, "There may be songs for me in it, but it 's obviously got songs in it as it stands, '' and that he would be going from Stephen Ward, "sort of a chamber musical, to a musical about kids playing the guitar. '' In May 2014, it was revealed that the show was likely to receive its world premiere on Broadway rather than in London 's West End due to more relaxed child labour laws in the United States and the fact that the American subject matter fitted Broadway. Webber also credits various locations of the original School of Rock that "... produce the sort of kids required who can actually perform in the show '' and that Britain would need similar schools for the show to move to London. Despite this, Lloyd Webber later revealed that he was able to open the subsequent London production several months earlier than anticipated due to finding the child musician actors easily.
On 18 December 2014, an official announcement was made of the musical, with a world premiere on Broadway to be in autumn 2015. This would be the first time since 1971 and Jesus Christ Superstar that a Lloyd Webber musical would premiere on Broadway rather than in the West End. It would also mark a return for the composer to the Winter Garden Theatre, where his Cats ran for 18 years.
Speaking of his vision for the musical, Lloyd Webber suggested that it would focus more on the stories of Dewey 's young students than the film did, stating "It has to be a bit more rounded. I 'd quite like to know more about the children and their parents. '' Speaking about the music he explained the need for additional music rather than simply using the film 's full soundtrack: "you ca n't do heavy metal for hours and hours in the theatre -- everyone would be screaming. So they have to be theatrical songs too. And we 've obviously got to use the iconic songs from the original show. It would be a shame not to do a Stevie Nicks song. ''
The script of School of Rock was written by Downton Abbey creator Julian Fellowes. and Laurence Connor was engaged as the initial director. JoAnn M. Hunter provided choreography, set and costume design was by Anna Louizos and lighting by Natasha Katz.
Act One
The musical begins with a performance by the band No Vacancy. The band 's guitarist, Dewey Finn, repeatedly attempts to upstage the lead singer ("I 'm Too Hot for You '') which leads to the band agreeing to kick him out for his antics after Dewey leaves the stage. The next morning, Dewey is awoken in his bedroom by his longtime friend, Ned Schneebly, and Ned 's domineering girlfriend, Patty Di Marco. Patty demands rent from Dewey while Ned cowers behind her. After they leave, Dewey goes about his day, getting kicked out of his band and fired from his job at a record store, all while dreaming about getting his break and becoming a superstar ("When I Climb to the Top of Mount Rock. '') Afterwards, Dewey receives a call from Rosalie Mullins, principal of the prestigious Horace Green School. She asks to speak to Ned, saying that the school has an open substitute teacher position that will pay over nine hundred dollars a week -- enough to meet the rent. Dewey, pretending to be Ned, accepts.
At Horace Green, Rosalie does her best to keep everything running smoothly while greeting parents who come to drop off their children ("Horace Green Alma Mater. '') Dewey arrives late both hung over and unprepared for the day, and the principal warns that "Ned '' will be expected to meet the school 's high standards. ("Here at Horace Green. '') Dewey enters his classroom and introduces himself as Mr. Schneebly. His thirteen students are immediately wary of him, and one of them, uptight Summer Hathaway, attempts to explain to him how the classes run, and Dewey is disgusted by the rigid system. With no food to treat his hangover, Dewey spends most of the day sleeping, leaving the students to run wild.
At the apartment, Patty asks Ned to go on a jog with her, but he declines, claiming he has a lot of papers to grade. Understanding, Patty goes. As soon as she 's gone, however, Ned pulls out his Guitar Hero console and begins playing. When Dewey comes home, he joins Ned and they discuss various topics such as teaching and their old band ("Variation 7 ''). After their game, Dewey attempts to convince Ned to rejoin him in their music career, by reminding him of all the perks of being a rockstar ("Children of Rock ''). However, Patty arrives and breaks the men 's reminiscing session up. Angry at Dewey, Patty reminds him that he 's nothing more than a dreamer who will never succeed in the rock business, and gives him an ultimatum: pay the rent in thirty days, or they 'll kick him out ("When I Climb to the Top Of Mount Rock (Reprise) '').
The next day at school, Dewey argues with another teacher and hears music coming from one of the classrooms. Upon learning that his students are in music class with Rosalie ("Queen of the Night ''), he inquires in amazement about what instruments they play. Dewey then tells his students that they 're now a part of his new band set to compete in the Battle of the Bands. First, he puts together the instrumentals of his band: Zack on electric guitar, Katie on bass, Lawrence on keyboard, and Freddy on drums. He also makes two of the girls -- Shonelle and Marcy -- backup singers, and two other girls -- Madison and Sophie -- roadies. Then he moves onto technical jobs. Mason is put in charge of lights, James is made the security officer, and an ecstatic Billy is made the band 's stylist. Summer is angry that she has n't been given a job and says "groupies are sluts '' in response to Dewey 's first suggestion. Dewey then makes her the band 's manager. The only student left without a job is Tomika, the shy new girl ("You 're in the Band ''). Confident about their prospects, Dewey hands out famous CDs to the students to listen to as homework ("You 're in the Band (Reprise) '').
The children go home, and a glimpse is seen into some of their home lives. Freddy tells his father about the music he was assigned to listen to, but his father belittles him, saying that he 's not smart like the other children at Horace Green. In another part of town, Billy is reading a Vogue magazine disguised as Sports Illustrated due to pressure from his father to take up football. Elsewhere, Tomika tells her fathers that she 's not making friends or doing well in her new school, but her parents dismiss her since they love Horace Green. Finally, Zack attempts to talk to his father about his day, but his father is on a business call and shouts at Zack for trying to speak to him, telling him to go away. Frustrated, Zack, Tomika, Billy, Freddy, and the other students lament that they have so much to tell and offer their parents and the world, but they just wo n't listen to them yet ("If Only You Would Listen. '') Later, Shonelle and Marcy say that they should call the band School of Rock. Dewey loves it, and makes up a song to create the impression that he is prepared ("In the End of Time (A Cappella Version.) '')
In the Faculty Lounge, the other teachers complain that the children have become undisciplined under Dewey even though some of this methods are effective ("Faculty Quadrille. '') In the classroom, the band continues practicing Dewey 's new song ("In the End of Time (Practice Version.) '') After playing, Dewey tells everyone they 're doing great. However, Zack is playing in an uptight and rigid manner, and Dewey says that Zack needs to get angry at "the man '' in order to really rock. He explains that the man is responsible for everything wrong with the world, and Dewey and the kids get angry and shout about how they 're going to stick it to the man ("Stick it to the Man. '') Due to being stuck in school, Dewey and the kids end up sneaking out of the building in order to make it to the Battle Of The Bands auditions on time. The children and Dewey sadly arrive late at the auditions, With the manager about to leave, Summer convinces him to stay with a lie about a terminal illness and the class is able to compete ("In the End of Time (The Audition.) '') They qualify and celebrate their success ("Stick it to the Man (Reprise.) '')
Act Two
Thirty - six hours before the Battle of the Bands, the students are hard at work preparing for the event while Dewey attends a faculty conference. The students conclude that the one outstanding issue is the costumes, which Billy has yet to show anybody. He argues that they are n't finished yet, but Summer makes him show them anyway. Billy, using Lawrence as an unwilling model, shows everyone, and they hate them. Billy, annoyed but not disheartened, goes back to the drawing board ("Time to Play. '') At the faculty meeting which Rosalie uses to stress the importance of parents ' night, Dewey discovers that she is secretly a rocker, and loves Stevie Nicks. Dewey panics when he gets back to the classroom and begins to think of a cover. Tomika summons the courage to speak to him saying that she wants to sing. When Dewey asks why she did n't respond to the call for backup singers, she states that she 's a lead singer. Although initially too nervous, Tomika begins to sing when others are not looking and captivates her audience ("Amazing Grace. '')
Upon hearing that Rosalie is coming, students quickly cover their instruments with Thanksgiving themed items and Dewey breaks into a fake lesson. When she challenges this, Dewey accuses other teachers of being on crack before admitting that he uses music to teach "boring '' subjects. After arguing that there are no boring subjects, Rosalie announces that she 'll be sitting in for the rest of Dewey 's lesson. Nervous, Dewey pulls out his guitar and improvises a song about math ("Math Is a Wonderful Thing. '') Rosalie is unimpressed, but Dewey decides to ask her out to a bar regardless. Later that night, Rosalie and Dewey meet at the bar, and, after having a few drinks, Dewey plays a Stevie Nicks ' song on the jukebox, causing Rosalie to let loose and laments about how she feels she 's lost her inner music. Stating that Dewey has reminded her about it, she promises that if the parents ' meeting goes well the next day, she 'll help Dewey and School of Rock go to The Battle of the Bands ("Where Did the Rock Go? '') Dewey impulsively kisses Rosalie, and they part ways.
Dewey arrives home just as Patty and Ned are going through the mail. Prompted by the discovery of Dewey 's paycheck made out to Ned, Dewey explains his impersonation idea. Ned goes into a panic attack, but Dewey manages to calm him down and make him promise not to tell Patty. The next day, the students go to rehearse their song, but then Zack reveals that he wrote his own song for the band in his free time. Dewey is floored by Zack 's talent, and has Zack teach the song to the rest of the band ("School of Rock (Band Practice.) '') However, in the middle of the practice, Rosalie unwittingly brings the students ' parents into the classroom, and they are appalled by what is going on. Focusing on the talent of each child, Dewey slowly convinces the parents to see the band in a positive light until Patty and Ned burst in. Having extracted the information from Ned, Patty reveals that Dewey is not Ned Schneebly and sends the parents into a rage. In the commotion, Dewey and the children escape to go to The Battle ("Dewey 's Confession. '')
As Rosalie paces nervously in the halls, she finds Mason and reminds him that Dewey is n't who the students think he is. Mason counters that he is a role - model regardless of his name. Touched by this, Rosalie misleads the parents to buy the children more time. The children use this time to reinvigorate Dewey who has given up on his dream and returned to his room. Led by Tomika, they all explain how much they need him ("If Only You Would Listen (Reprise.) '') Patty makes one last attempt to stop them but Ned finally stands up to her and accompanies them to the battle. The band arrives just as No Vacancy is finishing up their performance ("I 'm Too Hot For You (Reprise.) '') Dewey decides that they should play Zack 's song and accepts new costumes from Billy. The parents arrive, but are not allowed backstage by the security guards. As the students go to perform, Zack 's father begins shouting at his son, telling him that School of Rock is ridiculous and stupid. Zack, finally having enough, stands up to his father and tells him that the band means more to him than he does, and then Zack goes to play.
They perform Zack 's song and the crowd goes wild. Their parents watch on from an empty box seat, and each of them slowly fall in love with the band and how amazing their children are. Each of the instrumental students get a solo, and Tomika sings lead with Dewey as well. By the end, Zack 's father is frozen with pride, and has to be pulled away by Summer 's mother ("School of Rock (Teacher 's Pet.) '') After the performance, Rosalie and the band 's parents congratulate the group, as well as Ned who has decked out in full heavy metal gear for The Battle. Dewey watches the parents and their kids, and finally feels as though he has accomplished something worthwhile. The winner of the competition is announced as No Vacancy, but Dewey assures everyone that winning did n't really matter, because they did something even more special. Patty then enters with a police officer and tries to get Dewey arrested for fraud, but Rosalie convinces the officer that Mr. Finn is Horace Green 's official Band Coach. To please an enthralled crowd, the band plays an encore ("Stick It to the Man (Encore.) '') After their song, Dewey and Rosalie kiss again, and Rosalie mixes her classical singing with the heavy rock music of School of Rock, implying that a change is coming to Horace Green and its curriculum because of the band and Dewey ("Finale. '')
The Adults
The Students
Auditions began on January 19, 2015 for children ages nine through fifteen. Some recruiting was done through the School of Rock after - school educational program (which predated the film by several years) and open calls were held in New York at the Winter Garden, in Chicago and in Los Angeles.
On 29 May 2015, it was announced that Alex Brightman would play the role of Dewey Finn, a role performed in the film by Jack Black. and that staged concerts of the musical would be held before a select audience at the Gramercy Theatre in Manhattan, in June 2015. Also cast in the musical was Sierra Boggess as Rosalie.
The opening production began previews at the Winter Garden on 9 November 2015; with its official opening night coming on 6 December, tickets had been sold beginning on 11 June. The production had originally been slated to begin previews on 2 November.
On August 8, 2016, Sierra Boggess played her final performance as Rosalie Mullins. She was replaced by Jennifer Gambatese.
On April 13, 2017, it was announced that Alex Brightman would return to the cast as Dewey Finn from April 14 to April 30, while Eric Petersen was on vacation leave.
The Broadway production is expected to close on January 20, 2019, after 31 previews and 1,307 regular performances. There will be an Australian sit - down production starting October 31, 2018 at Her Majesty 's Theatre, Melbourne, before starting an Asian tour.
On 7 December 2015, following the show 's Broadway opening, it was announced by Andrew Lloyd Webber that the show will transfer to London 's West End in autumn 2016, with the intention to open at the London Palladium.
On 20 May 2016 the musical was confirmed at the Gillian Lynne Theatre instead of the Palladium with previews starting on 24 October 2016, opening night on 14 November 2016, and public booking opening on 25 May 2016. Lloyd Webber revealed that the production was able to open several months earlier than anticipated due to finding the child musician actors easily.
Anna Louizos ' scenery has been modified to fit the architecture of the Gillian Lynne Theatre from the traditional proscenium arch stage at Winter Garden Theatre. Changes include the removal of the pre-show curtain, the use of a revolving stage and action taking place in the aisles of the stalls. While the show remains to be set in America, the script has been adapted to include some minor references for a British audience.
The original London cast includes David Fynn as Dewey Finn, Florence Andrews as Rosalie Mullins, Oliver Jackson as Ned Schneebly, Preeya Kalidas as Patty Di Marco and Gary Trainor as alternate Dewey. It was announced in May 2017 that David Fynn would be leaving the role of Dewey, his last performance on May 15. Fynn 's regular Alternate, Gary Trainor will take over the role full - time performing 5 shows a week with newcomer Stephen Leask taking 3 shows as Alternate Dewey and Joel Montague remaining as Dewey 's understudy. The original adult cast had their final performance on November 13, 2017, with the majority of original cast members leaving the show. The new adult cast performed their first show on November 15, 2017. The new cast includes Alan Pearson as Ned Schneebly with Stephen Leask and Michelle Francis taking over as lead Dewey and Patty having previously been alternate and understudy. Florence Andrews continued her role as Rosalie Mullins and Craig Gallivan was given the role of alternate Dewey. Along with the new cast came adjustments to script and alterations to several songs. ' Children of Rock ' was deleted as a musical number from the show entirely in Act I and replaced with additional dialogue as well as an extension of the song ' Here at Horace Green '.
The US tour started performances at the Auditorium Theatre in Rochester, New York on September 30, 2017.
Rob Colletti plays the role of Dewey Finn with Lexie Dorsett Sharp as Rosalie. Other casting includes Matt Bittner as Ned Schneebly, Emily Borromeo as Patty Di Marco and Merrit David Janes as alternate Dewey. The child cast has Phoenix Schuman as Zack, Ava Briglia as Summer, Gilberto Moretti Hamilton as Freddy, Gianna Harris as Tomika, Theodora Silverman as Katie, Theo Mitchell Penner as Lawrence, John Michael Pitera as Billy, Chloe Anne Garcia as Marcy and Olivia Bucknor as Shonelle
Youth production rights were opened for applications prior to the show opening on Broadway. They have begun to pilot in select schools.
The musical features an original score composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber, with lyrics by Glenn Slater, sound design by Mick Potter and musical supervision by Ethan Popp, in addition to music from the 2003 film. It features around twelve original songs, with three taken from the original film.
"I 'm Too Hot for You '' reuses the melody of "I 've Been in Love Too Long '', a track originally written by Lloyd Webber, with lyricist Don Black, for Marti Webb 's 1981 album, Wo n't Change Places.
On September 14, 2015, it was announced that a cast album would be recorded, prior to the show 's Broadway opening. The album consists of 20 tracks, including three bonus tracks and the song "Give Up Your Dreams '' which was cut from the production during previews. Distributed by Warner Bros. Records, the original cast recording was released on December 4, 2015, prior to the show 's Broadway opening on December 6, 2015.
* The character Madison was changed to Matthew in the West End production, but as of Spring 2018, the role of Matthew is being removed from the West End Production
Most reviews of School of Rock were positive. Many focused on the child performers. David Rooney, for The Hollywood Reporter, praised the young rockers, "the show knows full well that its prime asset is the cast of ridiculously talented kids, ranging in age from nine to 13. They supply a joyous blast of defiant analog vitality in a manufactured digital world. '' David Cote wrote for Time Out: New York, "We expect cute kids in uniform, a spastic Dewey and face - melting riffs -- along with heart - tugging family stuff. It worked for the movie, and wow, does it work on Broadway... For those about to love School of Rock: We salute you. '' Robert Kahn of WNBC television station in New York concurred, "The story does n't particularly resonate for me, but I wo n't soon forget the feel - good vibe radiating off the talented young performers ''
According to Rooney, "Boggess is lovely in the show 's closest thing to a female lead ''. Brightman 's performance was praised as well, with Cote writing, "the secret weapon and glue holding it all together is an insanely winning, supernova turn by Alex Brightman as Dewey ''. Matt Windman of AM: New York wrote, "Brightman comes off as a gentler version of Jack Black, though still loud and rambunctious and a genuine class clown ''. Chris Jones of the Chicago Tribune noted, "What matters most -- and what makes this show work -- is that Brightman clearly has developed, and can show us he has developed, an emotional bond with his band. ''
Cote noted, "You 'd have to have zero sense of humor about pop to not enjoy Webber 's jaunty pastiche score, which sneaks elegant melodies in among the boilerplate stadium stompers. '' But Jones suggested, "the ever - savvy Andrew Lloyd Webber has kept himself and his ditties more in the background ''. Marilyn Stasio of Variety noted, "Having written songs for alley cats and toy trains, Webber has the ideal sensibility to relate to children whose freakish talents might make them seem a little bit... peculiar, in a world of average Joes. '' Kahn stated, though: "I do n't imagine most of the big numbers here will enjoy an afterlife; they 're inferior to his earlier confections. ''
School of Rock evoked comparisons with other musicals, with Michael Dale of Broadway World deeming it "The Sound of Music without the Nazis ''. Rooney suggested that Lloyd Webber was "revisiting his Jesus Christ Superstar rock roots ''. According to Cote, "School of Rock has absorbed the diverse lessons of Rent, Spring Awakening and Matilda and passes them on to a new generation. ''
Jack Black himself attended a Sunday performance, and afterwards told the cast backstage, "There were so many times I went, ' I could not have done it that well. ' You made me laugh. You made me cry. You made me rock. ' ''
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what is the equation for autoionization of water | Self - ionization of water - wikipedia
The self - ionization of water (also autoionization of water, and autodissociation of water) is an ionization reaction in pure water or in an aqueous solution, in which a water molecule, H O, deprotonates (loses the nucleus of one of its hydrogen atoms) to become a hydroxide ion, OH. The hydrogen nucleus, H, immediately protonates another water molecule to form hydronium, H O. It is an example of autoprotolysis, and exemplifies the amphoteric nature of water.
Chemically pure water has an electrical conductivity of 0.055 μ S / cm. According to the theories of Svante Arrhenius, this must be due to the presence of ions. The ions are produced by the self - ionization reaction
This equilibrium applies to pure water and any aqueous solution.
Expressed with chemical activities a, instead of concentrations, the thermodynamic equilibrium constant for the water ionization reaction is:
which is numerically equal to the more traditional thermodynamic equilibrium constant written as:
under the assumption that the sum of the chemical potentials of H and H O is formally equal to twice the chemical potential of H O at the same temperature and pressure.
Because most acid -- base solutions are typically very dilute, the activity of water is generally approximated as being equal to unity, which allows the ionic product of water to be expressed as:
In dilute aqueous solutions, the activities of the solute particles are approximately equal to their concentrations. Thus, the ionization constant, dissociation constant, self - ionization constant, or ionic product of water, symbolized by K, may be given by:
where (H O) is the molality (≈ molar concentration) of hydrogen or hydronium ion, and (OH) is the concentration of hydroxide ion. When the equilibrium constant is written as a product of concentrations (as opposed to activities) it is necessary to make corrections to the value of K w (\ displaystyle K_ (\ rm (w))) depending on ionic strength and other factors (see below).
At 25 ° C and zero ionic strength, K is equal to 6986100000000000000 ♠ 1.0 × 10. Note that as with all equilibrium constants, the result is dimensionless because the concentration is in fact a concentration relative to the standard state, which for H and OH are both defined to be 1 molal (or molar). For most practical purposes, the molal and molar concentrations are equal near the ambient temperature and pressure. The molal concentration scale results in concentration values which account for density changes with temperature or pressure changes; therefore, it is the scale used in precise or nonambient applications, e.g., for seawater, or at elevated temperatures, like those in thermal power plants.
We can also define pK = − log K = 14 at 25 ° C. This is analogous to the notations pH and pK for an acid dissociation constant, where the symbol p denotes a cologarithm. The logarithmic form of the equilibrium constant equation is pK = pH + pOH.
The dependence of the water ionization on temperature and pressure has been investigated thoroughly. The value of pK decreases as temperature increases from the melting point of ice to a minimum at c. 250 ° C, after which it increases up to the critical point of water c. 374 ° C. It decreases with increasing pressure.
With electrolyte solutions, the value of pK is dependent on ionic strength of the electrolyte. Values for sodium chloride are typical for a 1: 1 electrolyte. With 1: 2 electrolytes, MX, pK decreases with increasing ionic strength.
The value of K is usually of interest in the liquid phase. Example values for superheated steam (gas) and supercritical water fluid are given in the table.
Heavy water, D O, self - ionizes less than normal water, H O;
This is attributed to oxygen forming a slightly stronger bond to deuterium because the larger mass of deuterium results in a lower zero - point energy, a quantum mechanical effect analogous to the kinetic isotope effect.
Expressed with activities a, instead of concentrations, the thermodynamic equilibrium constant for the heavy water ionization reaction is:
Assuming the activity of the D O to be 1, and assuming that the activities of the D O and OD are closely approximated by their concentrations
The following table compares the values of pK for H O and D O.
In water -- heavy water mixtures equilibria several species are involved: H O, HDO, D O, H O, D O, H DO, HD O, HO, DO.
The rate of reaction for the ionization reaction
depends on the activation energy, ΔE. According to the Boltzmann distribution the proportion of water molecules that have sufficient energy, due to thermal population, is given by
where k is the Boltzmann constant. Thus some dissociation can occur because sufficient thermal energy is available. The following sequence of events has been proposed on the basis of electric field fluctuations in liquid water. Random fluctuations in molecular motions occasionally (about once every 10 hours per water molecule) produce an electric field strong enough to break an oxygen -- hydrogen bond, resulting in a hydroxide (OH) and hydronium ion (H O); the hydrogen nucleus of the hydronium ion travels along water molecules by the Grotthuss mechanism and a change in the hydrogen bond network in the solvent isolates the two ions, which are stabilized by solvation. Within 1 picosecond, however, a second reorganization of the hydrogen bond network allows rapid proton transfer down the electric potential difference and subsequent recombination of the ions. This timescale is consistent with the time it takes for hydrogen bonds to reorientate themselves in water.
The inverse recombination reaction
is among the fastest chemical reactions known, with a reaction rate constant of 7011130000000000000 ♠ 1.3 × 10 M s at room temperature. Such a rapid rate is characteristic of a diffusion - controlled reaction, in which the rate is limited by the speed of molecular diffusion.
Water molecules dissociate into equal amounts of H O and OH, so their concentrations are equal to 6993100000000000000 ♠ 1.00 × 10 mol dm at 25 ° C. A solution in which the H O and OH concentrations equal each other is considered a neutral solution. In general, the pH of the neutral point is numerically equal to 1 / 2pK.
Pure water is neutral, but most water samples contain impurities. If an impurity is an acid or base, this will affect the concentrations of hydronium ion and hydroxide ion. Water samples that are exposed to air will absorb some acidic carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid (H CO) and the concentration of H O will increase due to the reaction H CO + H O = HCO + H O. The concentration of OH will decrease in such a way that the product (H O) (OH) remains constant for fixed temperature and pressure. Thus these water samples will be slightly acidic. If a pH of exactly 7.0 is required, it must be maintained with an appropriate buffer solution.
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which of the following is a way that an individual can experience upward mobility | Social mobility - wikipedia
Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to one 's current social location within a given society.
Social mobility is defined as the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between layers or tiers in an open system of social stratification. Open stratification systems are those in which at least some value is given to achieved status characteristics in a society. The movement can be in a downward or upward direction. Absolute social mobility refers to the overall numbers of people who end up in a different layer of stratification from that of their parents. Relative social mobility refers to the differences in probability of attaining a certain outcome, regardless of overall structural changes; a society can have high absolute mobility and low relative mobility. The availability of at least some social mobility can be important in providing pathways to greater equality in societies with high social inequality.
Mobility is most often quantitatively measured in terms of change in economic mobility such as changes in income or wealth. Occupation is another measure used in researching mobility, which usually involves both quantitative and qualitative analysis of data, but other studies may concentrate on social class. Mobility may be intragenerational, within the same generation, or intergenerational, between one or more generations. Intragenerational mobility is less frequent, representing "rags to riches '' cases in terms of upward mobility. Intergenerational upward mobility is more common, where children or grandchildren are in economic circumstances better than those of their parents or grandparents. In the US, this type of mobility is described as one of the fundamental features of the "American Dream '' even though there is less such mobility than almost all other OECD countries.
Social mobility is highly dependent on the overall structure of social statuses and occupations in a given society. The extent of differing social positions and the manner in which they fit together or overlap provides the overall social structure of such positions. Add to this the differing dimensions of status, such as Max Weber 's delineation of economic stature, prestige, and power and we see the potential for complexity in a given social stratification system. Such dimensions within a given society can be seen as independent variables that can explain differences in social mobility at different times and places in different stratification systems. In addition, the same variables that contribute as intervening variables to the valuation of income or wealth and that also affect social status, social class, and social inequality do affect social mobility. These include sex or gender, race or ethnicity, and age.
Education provides one of the most promising chances of upward social mobility into a better social class and attaining a higher social status, regardless of current social standing in the overall structure of society. However, the stratification of social classes and high wealth inequality directly affects the educational opportunities people are able to obtain and succeed in, and the chance for one 's upward social mobility. In other words, social class and a family 's socioeconomic status directly affect a child 's chances for obtaining a quality education and succeeding in life. By age five, there are significant developmental differences between low, middle, and upper class children 's cognitive and noncognitive skills.
Among older children, evidence suggests that the gap between high - and low - income primary - and secondary - school students has increased by almost 40 percent over the past thirty years. These differences persist and widen into young adulthood and beyond. Just as the gap in K -- 12 test scores between high - and low - income students is growing, the difference in college graduation rates between the rich and the poor is also growing. Although the college graduation rate among the poorest households increased by about 4 percentage points between those born in the early 1960s and those born in the early 1980s, over this same period, the graduation rate increased by almost 20 percentage points for the wealthiest households.
Average family income, and social status, have both seen a decrease for the bottom third of all children between 1975 - 2011. The 5th percentile of children and their families have seen up to a 60 % decrease in average family income. The wealth gap between the rich and the poor, the upper and lower class, continues to increase as more middle - class people get poorer and the lower - class get even poorer. As the socioeconomic inequality continues to increase in the United States, being on either end of the spectrum makes a child more likely to remain there, and never become socially mobile.
A child born to parents with income in the lowest quintile is more than ten times more likely to end up in the lowest quintile than the highest as an adult (43 percent versus 4 percent). And, a child born to parents in the highest quintile is five times more likely to end up in the highest quintile than the lowest (40 percent versus 8 percent).
This is due to lower - and working - class parents (where at least one has at most a high school diploma) spending less time on average with their children in their earliest years of life and not being as involved in their children 's education and time out of school. This parenting style, known as "accomplishment of natural growth '' differs from the style of middle - class and upper - class parents (with at least one parent having higher education), known as "cultural cultivation ''. More affluent social classes are able to spend more time with their children at early ages, and children receive more exposure to interactions and activities that lead to cognitive and non-cognitive development: things like verbal communication, parent - child engagement, and being read to daily. These children 's parents are much more involved in their academics and their free time; placing them in extracurricular activities which develop not only additional non-cognitive skills but also academic values, habits, and abilities to better communicate and interact with authority figures. Lower class children often attend lower quality schools, receive less attention from teachers, and ask for help much less than their higher class peers. The chances for social mobility are primarily determined by the family a child is born into. Today, the gaps seen in both access to education and educational success (graduating from a higher institution) is even larger. Today, while college applicants from every socioeconomic class are equally qualified, 75 % of all entering freshmen classes at top - tier American institutions belong to the uppermost socioeconomic quartile. A family 's class determines the amount of investment and involvement parents have in their children 's educational abilities and success from their earliest years of life, leaving low - income students with less chance for academic success and social mobility due to the effects that the (common) parenting style of the lower and working - class have on their outlook on and success in education.
These differing dimensions of social mobility can be classified in terms of differing types of capital that contribute to changes in mobility. Cultural capital, a term first coined by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu is the process of distinguishing between the economic aspects of class and powerful cultural assets. Bourdieu described three types of capital that place a person in a certain social category: economic capital; social capital; and cultural capital. Economic capital includes economic resources such as cash, credit, and other material assets.
Social capital includes resources one achieves based on group membership, networks of influence, relationships and support from other people. Cultural capital is any advantage a person has that gives them a higher status in society, such as education, skills, or any other form of knowledge. Usually, people with all three types of capital have a high status in society. Bourdieu found that the culture of the upper social class is oriented more toward formal reasoning and abstract thought. The lower social class is geared more towards matters of facts and the necessities of life. He also found that the environment in which person develops has a large effect on the cultural resources that a person will have.
The cultural resources a person has obtained can heavily influence a child 's educational success. It has been shown that students raised under the concerted cultivation approach have "an emerging sense of entitlement '' which leads to asking teachers more questions and being a more active student, causing teachers to favor students raised in this manner. This childrearing approach which creates positive interactions in the classroom environment is in contrast with the natural growth approach to childrearing. In this approach, which is more common amongst working - class families, parents do not focus on developing the special talents of their individual children, and they speak to their children in directives. Due to this, it is more rare for a child raised in this manner to question or challenge adults and conflict arises between childrearing practices at home and school. Children raised in this manner are less inclined to participate in the classroom setting and are less likely to go out of their way to positively interact with teachers and form relationships.
In the United States, links between minority underperformance in our schools have been made with a lacking in the cultural resources of cultural capital, social capital, and economic capital, yet inconsistencies persist even when these variables are accounted for. "Once admitted to institutions of higher education, African Americans and Latinos continued to underperform relative to their white and Asian counterparts, earning lower grades, progressing at a slower rate, and dropping out at higher rates. More disturbing was the fact that these differentials persisted even after controlling for obvious factors such as SAT scores and family socioeconomic status ''. The theory of capital deficiency is among the most recognized explanations for minority underperformance academically -- that for whatever reason they simply lack the resources to find academic success. One of the largest factors for this, asides from the social, economic, and cultural capital mentioned earlier, is human capital. This form of capital, identified by social scientists only in recent years, has to do with the education and life preparation of children. "Human capital refers to the skills, abilities, and knowledge possessed by specific individuals ''. This allows college - educated parents who have large amounts of human capital to invest in their children in certain ways to maximize future success -- from reading to them at night to possessing a better understanding of the school system which causes them to be less differential to teachers and school authorities. Research also shows that well - educated black parents are less able to transmit human capital to their children when compared to their white counterparts, due to a legacy of racism and discrimination.
While it is generally accepted that some level of mobility in society is desirable, there is no consensus agreement upon "how much '' social mobility is "good '' or "bad '' for a society. There is no international "benchmark '' of social mobility, though one can compare measures of mobility across regions or countries or within a given area over time. While cross-cultural studies comparing differing types of economies are possible, comparing economies of similar type usually yields more comparable data. Such comparisons typically look at intergenerational mobility, examining the extent to which children born into different families have different life chances and outcomes.
In a study for which the results were first published in 2009, Wilkinson and Pickett conduct an exhaustive analysis of social mobility in developed countries. In addition to other correlations with negative social outcomes for societies having high inequality, they found a relationship between high social inequality and low social mobility. Of the eight countries studied -- Canada, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Germany, the UK and the US, the US had both the highest economic inequality and lowest economic mobility. In this and other studies, in fact, the USA has very low mobility at the lowest rungs of the socioeconomic ladder, with mobility increasing slightly as one goes up the ladder. At the top rung of the ladder, however, mobility again decreases.
One study comparing social mobility between developed countries found that the four countries with the lowest "intergenerational income elasticity '', i.e. the highest social mobility, were Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Canada with less than 20 % of advantages of having a high income parent passed on to their children.
Studies have also found "a clear negative relationship '' between income inequality and intergenerational mobility. Countries with low levels of inequality such as Denmark, Norway and Finland had some of the greatest mobility, while the two countries with the high level of inequality -- Chile and Brazil -- had some of the lowest mobility.
In Britain, much debate on social mobility has been generated by comparisons of the 1958 National Child Development Study (NCDS) and the 1970 Birth Cohort Study BCS70, which compare intergenerational mobility in earnings between the 1958 and the 1970 UK cohorts, and claim that intergenerational mobility decreased substantially in this 12 - year period. These findings have been controversial, partly due to conflicting findings on social class mobility using the same datasets, and partly due to questions regarding the analytical sample and the treatment of missing data. UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown has famously said that trends in social mobility "are not as we would have liked ''.
Along with the aforementioned "Do Poor Children Become Poor Adults? '' study, The Economist also stated that "evidence from social scientists suggests that American society is much ' stickier ' than most Americans assume. Some researchers claim that social mobility is actually declining. '' A German study corroborates these results. In spite of this low mobility Americans have had the highest belief in meritocracy among middle - and high - income countries. A study of social mobility among the French corporate class has found that class continues to influence who reaches the top in France, with those from the upper - middle classes tending to dominate, despite a longstanding emphasis on meritocracy.
Thomas Piketty (2014) finds that wealth - income ratios, today, seem to be returning to very high levels in low economic growth countries, similar to what he calls the "classic patrimonial '' wealth - based societies of the 19th century wherein a minority lives off its wealth while the rest of the population works for subsistence living.
Social mobility can also be influenced by differences that exist within education. The contribution of education to social mobility often gets neglected in social mobility research although it really has the potential to transform the relationship between origins and destinations. Recognizing the disparities between strictly location and its educational opportunities highlights how patterns of educational mobility are influencing the capacity for individuals to experience social mobility. There is some debate regarding how important educational attainment is for social mobility. A substantial literature argues that there is a direct effect of social origins (DESO) which can not be explained by educational attainment. However, other evidence suggests that, using a sufficiently fine - grained measure of educational attainment, taking on board such factors as university status and field of study, education fully mediates the link between social origins and access to top class jobs.
The patterns of educational mobility that exist between inner city schools versus schools in the suburbs is transparent. Graduation rates supply a rich context to these patterns. In the 2013 -- 14 school year, Detroit Public Schools observed a graduation rate of 71 % whereas Grosse Pointe High School (Detroit suburb) observed an average graduation rate of 94 %. A similar phenomena was observed in Los Angeles, California as well as in New York City. Los Angeles Senior High School (inner city) observed a graduation rate of 58 % and San Marino High School (suburb) observed a graduation rate of 96 %. New York City Geographic District Number Two (inner city) observed a graduation rate of 69 % and Westchester School District (suburb) observed a graduation rate of 85 %. These patterns were observed across the country when assessing the differences between inner city graduation rates and suburban graduation rates.
Lack of education frequently leads to lack of success in the future for many individuals. They do not possess the degrees required to even apply for a plethora of jobs. Therefore, these individuals may get stuck in communities that are at a stand still. Ultimately, the social classes remain stagnant because nothing is changing within each social construct and education is at the forefront in terms of its contribution to the future issues.
Social status attainment and therefore social mobility in adulthood are of interest to psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, economists, epidemiologists and many more. The reason behind the interest is because it indicates access to material goods, educational opportunities, healthy environments, and nonetheless the economic growth.
Researchers did a study that encompassed a wide range of data of individuals in lifetime (in childhood and during mid-adulthood). Most of the Scottish children which were born in 1921 participated in the Scottish Mental Survey 1932, which was conducted under the auspices of the Scottish Council for Research in Education (SCRE) and obtained the data of psychometric intelligence of Scottish pupils. The number of children who took the mental ability test (based on the Moray House tests) was 87,498. They were between age 10 and 11. The tests covered general, spatial and numerical reasoning.
At mid-life period, a subset of the subjects participated in one of the studies, which were large health studies of adults and were carried out in Scotland in the 1960s and 1970s. The particular study they took part in was the collaborative study of 6022 men and 1006 women, conducted between 1970 and 1973 in Scotland. Participants completed a questionnaire (participant 's address, father 's occupation, the participant 's own first regular occupation, the age of finishing full - time education, number of siblings, and if the participant was a regular car driver) and attended a physical examination (measurement of height). Social class was coded according to the Registrar General 's Classification for the participant 's occupation at the time of screening, his first occupation and his father 's occupation. Researchers separated into six social classes were used.
A correlation and structural equation model analysis was conducted. In the structural equation models, social status in the 1970s was the main outcome variable. The main contributors to education (and first social class) were father 's social class and IQ at age 11, which was also found in a Scandinavian study. This effect was direct and also mediated via education and the participant 's first job.
Participants at midlife did not necessarily end up in the same social class as their fathers. There was social mobility in the sample: 45 % of men were upwardly mobile, 14 % were downward mobile and 41 % were socially stable. IQ at age 11 had a graded relationship with participant 's social class. The same effect was seen for father 's occupation. Men at midlife social class I and II (the highest, more professional) also had the highest IQ at age 11. Height at midlife, years of education and childhood IQ were significantly positively related to upward social mobility, while number of siblings had no significant effect. For each standard deviation increase in IQ score at the age 11, the chances of upward social mobility increases by 69 % (with a 95 % confidence). After controlling the effect of independent variables, only IQ at age 11 was significantly inversely related to downward movement in social mobility. More years of education increase the chance that a father 's son will surpass his social class, whereas low IQ makes a father 's son prone to falling behind his father 's social class.
Higher IQ at age 11 was also significantly related to higher social class at midlife, higher likelihood car driving at midlife, higher first social class, higher father 's social class, fewer siblings, higher age of education, being taller and living in a less deprived neighbourhood at midlife. IQ was significantly more strongly related to the social class in midlife than the social class of the first job.
Finally, height, education and IQ at age 11 were predictors of upward social mobility and only IQ at age 11 and height were significant predictors of downward social mobility. Number of siblings was not significant in neither of the models.
Another research looked into the pivotal role of education in association between ability and social class attainment through three generations (fathers, participants and offspring) using the SMS1932 (Lothian Birth Cohort 1921) educational data, childhood ability and late life intellectual function data. It was proposed that social class of origin acts as a ballast restraining otherwise meritocratic social class movement, and that education is the primary means through which social class movement is both restrained and facilitated -- therefore acting in a pivotal role.
It was found that social class of origin predicts educational attainment in both the participant 's and offspring generations. Father 's social class and participant 's social class held the same importance in predicting offspring educational attainment -- effect across two generations. Educational attainment mediated the association of social class attainments across generations (father 's and participants social class, participant 's and offspring 's social class). There was no direct link social classes across generations, but in each generation educational attainment was a predictor of social class, which is consistent with other studies. Also, participant 's childhood ability moderately predicted their educational and social class attainment (. 31 and. 38). Participant 's educational attainment was strongly linked with the odds of moving downward or upward on the social class ladder. For each SD increase in education, the odds of moving upward on the social class spectrum were 2.58 times greater (the downward ones were. 26 times greater). Offspring 's educational attainment was also strongly linked with the odds of moving upward or downward on the social class ladder. For each SD increase in education, the odds of moving upward were 3.54 times greater (the downward ones were. 40 times greater). In conclusion, education is very important, because it is the fundamental mechanism functioning both to hold individuals in their social class of origin and to make it possible for their movement upward or downward on the social class ladder.
In the Cohort 1936 it was found that regarding whole generations (not individuals) the social mobility between father 's and participant 's generation is: 50.7 % of the participant generation have moved upward in relation to their fathers, 22.1 % had moved downwards, and 27.2 % had remained stable in their social class. There was a lack of social mobility in the offspring generation as a whole. However, there was definitely individual offspring movement on the social class ladder: 31.4 % had higher social class attainment than their participant parents (grandparents), 33.7 % moved downward, and 33.9 % stayed stable. Participant 's childhood mental ability was linked to social class in all three generations. A very important pattern has also been confirmed: average years of education increased with social class and IQ.
There were some great contributors to social class attainment and social class mobility in the twentieth century: Both social class attainment and social mobility are influenced by pre-existing levels of mental ability, which was in consistence with other studies. So, the role of individual level mental ability in pursuit of educational attainment -- professional positions require specific educational credentials. Furthermore, educational attainment contributes to social class attainment through the contribution of mental ability to educational attainment. Even further, mental ability can contribute to social class attainment independent of actual educational attainment, as in when the educational attainment is prevented, individuals with higher mental ability manage to make use of the mental ability to work their way up on the social ladder. This study made clear that intergenerational transmission of educational attainment is one of the key ways in which social class was maintained within family, and there was also evidence that education attainment was increasing over time. Finally, the results suggest that social mobility (moving upward and downward) has increased in recent years in Britain. Which according to one researcher is important because an overall mobility of about 22 % is needed to keep the distribution of intelligence relatively constant from one generation to the other within each occupational category.
Researchers looked into the effects elitist and non-elitist education systems have on social mobility. Education policies are often critiqued based on their impact on a single generation, but it is important to look at education policies and the effects they have on social mobility. In the research, elitist schools are defined as schools that focus on providing its best students with the tools to succeed, whereas an egalitarian school is one that predicates itself on giving equal opportunity to all its students to achieve academic success.
When private education supplements were not considered, it was found that the greatest amount of social mobility was derived from a system with the least elitist public education system. It was also discovered that the system with the most elitist policies produced the greatest amount of utilitarian welfare. Logically, social mobility decreases with more elitist education systems and utilitarian welfare decreases with less elitist public education policies.
When private education supplements are introduced, it becomes clear that some elitist policies promote some social mobility and that an egalitarian system is the most successful at creating the maximum amount of welfare. These discoveries were justified from the reasoning that elitist education systems discourage skilled workers from supplementing their children 's educations with private expenditures.
The authors of the report showed that they can challenge conventional beliefs that elitist and regressive educational policy is the ideal system. This is explained as the researchers found that education has multiple benefits. It brings more productivity and has a value, which was a new thought for education. This shows that the arguments for the regressive model should not be without qualifications. Furthermore, in the elitist system, the effect of earnings distribution on growth is negatively impacted due to the polarizing social class structure with individuals at the top with all the capital and individuals at the bottom with nothing.
Education is very important in determining the outcome of one 's future. It is almost impossible to achieve upward mobility without education. Education is frequently seen as a strong driver of social mobility. The quality of one 's education varies depending on the social class that they are in. The higher the family income the better opportunities one is given to get a good education. The inequality in education makes it harder for low - income families to achieve social mobility. Research has indicated that inequality is connected to the deficiency of social mobility. In a period of growing inequality and low social mobility, fixing the quality of and access to education has the possibility to increase equality of opportunity for all Americans.
"One significant consequence of growing income inequality is that, by historical standards, high - income households are spending much more on their children 's education than low - income households. '' With the lack of total income, low - income families ca n't afford to spend money on their children 's education. Research has shown that over the past few years, families with high income has increased their spending on their children 's education. High income families were paying $3,500 per year and now it has increased up to nearly $9,000, which is seven times more than what low income families pay for their kids ' education. The increase in money spent on education has caused an increase in college graduation rates for the families with high income. The increase in graduation rates is causing an even bigger gap between high income children and low - income children. Given the significance of a college degree in today 's labor market, rising differences in college completion signify rising differences in outcomes in the future.
Family income is one of the most important factors in determining the mental ability (intelligence) of their children. With such bad education that urban school are offering, parents of high income are moving out of these areas to give their children a better opportunity to succeed. As urban school systems worsen, high income families move to rich suburbs because that is where they feel better education is; if they do stay in the city, they put their children to private schools. Low income families do n't have a choice but to settle for the bad education because they can not afford to relocate to rich suburbs. The more money and time parents invest in their child plays a huge role in determining their success in school. Research has showed that higher mobility levels are perceived for locations where there are better schools.
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who plays cary dad on the good wife | Matt Czuchry - wikipedia
Matthew Charles Czuchry (/ ˈzuːkri /; born May 20, 1977) is an American actor. He is known for roles such as that of Logan Huntzberger on The WB television series Gilmore Girls (2005 -- 07), Cary Agos on the CBS television drama The Good Wife (2009 -- 16), and currently as Dr. Conrad Hawkins, the title character, on the Fox medical drama series The Resident (2018 -- present).
Czuchry was born in Manchester, New Hampshire, and grew up in Johnson City, Tennessee. His father, Andrew Czuchry, is a professor at East Tennessee State University, and his mother, Sandra, is a homemaker. He is of Ukrainian descent on his father 's side. He has two brothers and a sister.
He graduated from Science Hill High School in 1995. Czuchry graduated with honors in 1999 from the College of Charleston with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History and Political Science. He won the Mr College of Charleston pageant in 1998. Czuchry attended college on a tennis scholarship, captained the men 's tennis team, and was an NCAA ranked player in the Southern Conference. On the April 29, 2016, episode of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, he said that before becoming an actor he took the Law School Admission Test and did poorly.
Czuchry took one theater class in college, and his professor encouraged him to change his major to drama. It was during his first role on The WB 's Young Americans that he met Kate Bosworth, whom he dated from 2000 to 2002. He also did guest spots on Freaks and Geeks, 7th Heaven, The Practice, Veronica Mars and Friday Night Lights. After recurring on the CBS television drama Hack and starring in the UPN pilot Jake 2.0, Czuchry received his breakthrough role as Logan Huntzberger on the television series Gilmore Girls in 2004. His role was initially recurring during the series ' fifth season before being upgraded to a series regular during the sixth season.
From 2009 - 16, Czuchry portrayed lawyer Cary Agos on the CBS drama The Good Wife. He also reprised his role as Logan Huntzberger on Netflix 's reunion miniseries, Gilmore Girls: A Year in the Life (2016).
Czuchry currently stars in Fox 's hit medical drama series The Resident, which premiered on January 21, 2018. He plays the title character, Dr. Conrad Hawkins, who is constantly butting heads with his superiors in rank - attending physicians - as well as hospital bureaucrats at Atlanta 's fictional Chastain Park Memorial Hospital in an effort to be an advocate for his patients instead of always looking out for the hospital 's plush bottom line. The series was renewed for a second season on May 7, 2018, with the spring 2017 midseason replacement now promoted to Fox 's autumn 2018 - 19 schedule, paired with its other successful spring replacement, 9 - 1 - 1.
He appeared in the movies Eight Legged Freaks and Slap Her... She 's French. Czuchry played the lead role in the film adaptation of Tucker Max 's I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell.
From September 11 to October 28, 2007, Czuchry performed in Wendy Wasserstein 's play Third opposite Christine Lahti at the Geffen Playhouse.
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who is responsible for maintaining the standards for the business process modeling notation | Business process model and Notation - Wikipedia
Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) is a graphical representation for specifying business processes in a business process model.
Business Process Management Initiative (BPMI) developed BPMN, which has been maintained by the Object Management Group since the two organizations merged in 2005. Version 2.0 of BPMN was released in January 2011, at which point the name was adapted to Business Process Model and Notation as execution semantics were also introduced alongside the notational and diagramming elements.
Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) is a standard for business process modeling that provides a graphical notation for specifying business processes in a Business Process Diagram (BPD), based on a flowcharting technique very similar to activity diagrams from Unified Modeling Language (UML). The objective of BPMN is to support business process management, for both technical users and business users, by providing a notation that is intuitive to business users, yet able to represent complex process semantics. The BPMN specification also provides a mapping between the graphics of the notation and the underlying constructs of execution languages, particularly Business Process Execution Language (BPEL).
The primary goal of BPMN is to provide a standard notation readily understandable by all business stakeholders. These include the business analysts who create and refine the processes, the technical developers responsible for implementing them, and the business managers who monitor and manage them. Consequently, BPMN serves as a common language, bridging the communication gap that frequently occurs between business process design and implementation.
Currently there are several competing standards for business process modeling languages used by modeling tools and processes. Widespread adoption of a single standard would help unify the expression of basic business process concepts (e.g., public and private processes, choreographies), as well as advanced process concepts (e.g., exception handling, transaction compensation).
Since 2014, BPMN has been complemented by a new standard for building decision models, the Decision Model and Notation standard.
BPMN is constrained to support only the concepts of modeling applicable to business processes. Other types of modeling done by organizations for non-process purposes are out of scope for BPMN. Examples of modeling excluded from BPMN are:
In addition, while BPMN shows the flow of data (messages), and the association of data artifacts to activities, it is not a data flow diagram.
BPMN models consist of simple diagrams constructed from a limited set of graphical elements. For both business users and developers, they simplify understanding of business activities ' flow and process. BPMN 's four basic element categories are:
These four categories enable creation of simple business process diagrams (BPDs). BPDs also permit making new types of flow object or artifact, to make the diagram more understandable.
Event
Activity
Gateway
Connections
Flow objects are the main describing elements within BPMN, and consist of three core elements: events, activities, and gateways.
Flow objects are connected to each other using Connecting objects, which are of three types: sequences, messages, and associations.
Swimlanes
Data objects
Groups
Annotation
Swim lanes are a visual mechanism of organising and categorising activities, based on cross functional flowcharting, and in BPMN consist of two types:
Artifacts allow developers to bring some more information into the model / diagram. In this way the model / diagram becomes more readable. There are three pre-defined Artifacts and they are:
Discussion cycle
E-mail voting process
Collect votes
The vision of BPMN 2.0 is to have one single specification for a new Business Process Model and Notation that defines the notation, metamodel and interchange format but with a modified name that still preserves the "BPMN '' brand. The features include
The final version of the specification was released in January, 2011.
normal flow uncontrolled flow conditional flow default flow exception flow
The BPMN 1.2 minor revision changes consist of editorial corrections and implementation bug fixes. Consequently, these minor changes affect modeling tool vendors more than modelers (users).
Business process modeling is used to communicate a wide variety of information to a wide variety of audiences. BPMN is designed to cover this wide range of usage and allows modeling of end - to - end business processes to allow the viewer of the Diagram to be able to easily differentiate between sections of a BPMN Diagram. There are three basic types of sub-models within an end - to - end BPMN model: Private (internal) business processes, Abstract (public) processes, and Collaboration (global) processes:
Within and between these three BPMN sub-models, many types of Diagrams can be created. The following are the types of business processes that can be modeled with BPMN (those with asterisks may not map to an executable language):
BPMN is designed to allow all the above types of Diagrams. However, it should be cautioned that if too many types of sub-models are combined, such as three or more private processes with message flow between each of them, then the Diagram may become too hard for someone to understand. Thus, we recommend that the modeler pick a focused purpose for the BPD, such as a private process, or a collaboration process.
The weaknesses of BPMN could relate to:
The BPMN specification includes an informal and partial mapping from BPMN to BPEL 1.1. A more detailed mapping of BPMN to BPEL has been implemented in a number of tools, including an open - source tool known as BPMN2BPEL. However, the development of these tools has exposed fundamental differences between BPMN and BPEL, which make it very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to generate human - readable BPEL code from BPMN models. Even more difficult is the problem of BPMN - to - BPEL round - trip engineering: generating BPEL code from BPMN diagrams and maintaining the original BPMN model and the generated BPEL code synchronized, in the sense that any modification to one is propagated to the other.
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what is the smallest bird in the united states | List of birds of the United States - Wikipedia
This list of birds of the United States is a comprehensive listing of all the bird species recorded in the United States as of July, 2017. It includes species from all 50 states.
The birds of the continental United States most closely resemble those of Eurasia, which was connected to the continent as part of the supercontinent Laurasia until around 60 million years ago. Many groups occur throughout the Northern Hemisphere and worldwide. However some groups unique to the New World have also arisen; those represented in this list are the hummingbirds, the New World vultures, the New World quail, the tyrant flycatchers, the vireos, the mimids, the New World warblers, the tanagers, the cardinals, and the icterids.
Several common birds in the United States, such as the house sparrow, the rock dove, the European starling, and the mute swan are introduced species, meaning that they are not native to this continent but were brought here by humans. Introduced species are marked on this list as (I). In addition, many non-native species which have individual escapees or small feral populations in North America are not on this list. This is especially true of birds that are commonly held as pets, such as parrots and finches.
The status of one bird on this list, the ivory - billed woodpecker is controversial. Until 2005 this bird was widely considered to be extinct. In April of that year it was reported that at least one adult male bird had been sighted in the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge in Arkansas. This report, however, has not been universally accepted and the American Birding Association still lists the ivory - billed woodpecker as extinct.
This list is derived from the Check - list of North American Birds, 7th edition through the 58th Supplement, published by the American Ornithological Society (AOS). The list 's geographic territory is the 48 contiguous states, the District of Columbia, Alaska, Hawaii, and the adjacent islands under the jurisdiction of those states. It does not include the United States ' other Pacific Ocean and Caribbean territories or possessions.
The taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) used in this list are those of the AOS, the recognized scientific authority on the taxonomy and nomenclature of North American birds. The AOS 's Committee on Classification and Nomenclature, the body responsible for maintaining and updating the Check - list, "strongly and unanimously continues to endorse the biological species concept (BSC), in which species are considered to be genetically cohesive groups of populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups ''.
Unless otherwise noted, the species listed here are considered to occur regularly in the United States as permanent residents, summer or winter residents or visitors, or annual migrants. The following tags are used to designate some species:
The (A) and (C) tags correspond to the codes 5 and 4 respectively of the American Birding Association. The (E), (Ex), and (I) tags describe species ' status according to the AOS. The (EH) tags follow the AOS list and the (EM) tags are based on the Clements taxonomy.
This list contains 1107 species. Of them, 135 are tagged as accidental, 95 as casual, and 57 as introduced. Thirty - three are known to be extinct and one, the thick - billed parrot, has been extirpated though a population remains in Mexico. Thirty - three living species are endemic to Hawaii and an additional 28 former endemics are known to be extinct. Fifteen species are endemic to the 48 contiguous states.
Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae
Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck - like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to special oils.
Order: Galliformes Family: Cracidae
The chachalacas, guans, and curassows are birds in the family Cracidae. These are large birds, similar in general appearance to turkeys. The guans and curassows live in trees, but the smaller chachalacas are found in more open scrubby habitats. They are generally dull - plumaged, but the curassows and some guans have colorful facial ornaments.
Order: Galliformes Family: Numididae
Order: Galliformes Family: Odontophoridae
The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits.
Order: Galliformes Family: Phasianidae
Phasianidae consists of the pheasants and their allies. These are terrestrial species, variable in size but generally plump with broad relatively short wings. Many species are gamebirds or have been domesticated as a food source for humans.
Order: Phoenicopteriformes Family: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually 3 to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5 m) tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter - feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside - down.
Order: Podicipediformes Family: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium - large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Order: Pteroclidiformes Family: Pteroclididae
Sandgrouse have small pigeon - like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.
Order: Columbiformes Family: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout - bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. They feed on seeds, fruit, and plants. Unlike most other birds, the doves and pigeons produce "crop milk, '' which is secreted by a sloughing of fluid - filled cells from the lining of the crop. Both sexes produce this highly nutritious substance to feed to the young.
Order: Cuculiformes Family: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs.
Order: Caprimulgiformes Family: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium - sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically colored to resemble bark or leaves.
Order: Apodiformes Family: Apodidae
The swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept - back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Order: Apodiformes Family: Trochilidae
Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards.
Order: Gruiformes Family: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium - sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Order: Gruiformes Family: Heliornithidae
Finfoots resemble rails; they have long necks, slender bodies, broad tails, and sharp, pointed bills. Their legs and feet are brightly colored. The family has three species and only the sungrebe is found in the New World.
Order: Gruiformes Family: Aramidae
The limpkin is an odd bird that looks like a large rail, but is skeletally closer to the cranes. It is found in marshes with some trees or scrub in the Caribbean, South America, and southern Florida.
Order: Gruiformes Family: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long - legged, and long - necked birds. Unlike the similar - looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances ''.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Burhinidae
The thick - knees are a group of waders found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow - black bills, large yellow eyes, and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up - curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large, obvious, and noisy plover - like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prying open molluscs.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium - sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a family of waders found worldwide within the tropical zone. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium - sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Glareolidae
The pratincoles have short legs, very long pointed wings, and long forked tails. Their most unusual feature for birds classed as waders is that they typically hunt their insect prey on the wing like swallows, although they can also feed on the ground. Their short bills are an adaptation to aerial feeding. Their flight is fast and graceful like that of a swallow or a tern, with many twists and turns to pursue their prey.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Stercorariidae
Skuas are in general medium to large birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They have longish bills with hooked tips and webbed feet with sharp claws. They look like large dark gulls, but have a fleshy cere above the upper mandible. They are strong, acrobatic fliers.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Alcidae
Alcids are superficially similar to penguins due to their black - and - white colors, their upright posture, and some of their habits. However, they are only distantly related to the penguins and are able to fly. Auks live on the open sea, only deliberately coming ashore to nest.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long - lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern - like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed by flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish.
Order: Phaethontiformes Family: Phaethontidae
Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their long wings have black markings, as does the head.
Order: Gaviiformes Family: Gaviidae
Loons are aquatic birds, the size of a large duck, to which they are unrelated. Their plumage is largely gray or black, and they have spear - shaped bills. Loons swim well and fly adequately, but are almost hopeless on land, because their legs are placed towards the rear of the body.
Order: Procellariiformes Family: Diomedeidae
The albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses of the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds.
Order: Procellariiformes Family: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium - sized "true petrels '', characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.
Order: Procellariiformes Family: Hydrobatidae
The storm - petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat - like.
Order: Ciconiiformes Family: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, heavy, long - legged, long - necked wading birds with long stout bills and wide wingspans. They lack the powder down that other wading birds such as herons, spoonbills, and ibises use to clean off fish slime. Storks lack a pharynx and are mute.
Order: Suliformes Family: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black, or black - and - white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and can not take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan - to - body - weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.
Order: Suliformes Family: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium - large coastal seabirds that plunge - dive for fish.
Order: Suliformes Family: Phalacrocoracidae
Cormorants are medium - to - large aquatic birds, usually with mainly dark plumage and areas of colored skin on the face. The bill is long, thin, and sharply hooked. Their feet are four - toed and webbed.
Order: Suliformes Family: Anhingidae
Anhingas are cormorant - like water birds with very long necks and long straight beaks. They are fish eaters which often swim with only their neck above the water.
Order: Pelecaniformes Family: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are very large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. Like other birds in the order Pelecaniformes, they have four webbed toes.
Order: Pelecaniformes Family: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the herons, egrets, and bitterns. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long - necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills.
Order: Pelecaniformes Family: Threskiornithidae
The family Threskiornithidae includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings. Their bodies tend to be elongated, the neck more so, with rather long legs. The bill is also long, decurved in the case of the ibises, straight and distinctively flattened in the spoonbills.
Order: Cathartiformes Family: Cathartidae
The New World vultures are not closely related to Old World vultures, but superficially resemble them because of convergent evolution. Like the Old World vultures, they are scavengers. However, unlike Old World vultures, which find carcasses by sight, New World vultures have a good sense of smell with which they locate carcasses.
Order: Accipitriformes Family: Pandionidae
Pandionidae is a monotypic family of fish - eating birds of prey. Its single species possesses a very large and powerful hooked beak, strong legs, strong talons, and keen eyesight.
Order: Accipitriformes Family: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
Order: Strigiformes Family: Tytonidae
Owls in the family Tytonidae are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart - shaped faces.
Order: Strigiformes Family: Strigidae
Typical or "true '' owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward - facing eyes and ears, a hawk - like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Order: Trogoniformes Family: Trogonidae
Trogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide with the greatest diversity in Central and South America. They feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons do not migrate. Trogons have soft, often colorful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumage. They nest in holes in trees or termite nests, laying white or pastel - colored eggs.
Order: Upupiformes Family: Upupidae
Hoopoes spend much time on the ground hunting insects and worms. This black, white, and pink bird is quite unmistakable, especially in its erratic flight, which is like that of a giant butterfly. The crest is erectile, but is mostly kept closed. It walks on the ground like a starling. The song is a trisyllabic oop - oop - oop, which gives rise to its English and scientific names.
Order: Coraciiformes Family: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium - sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.
Order: Piciformes Family: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium - sized birds with chisel - like beaks, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Order: Falconiformes Family: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey, notably the falcons and caracaras. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Order: Psittaciformes Family: Psittacidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from 8 cm (3.1 in) to 1 m (3.3 ft) in length. Most of the more than 150 species in this family are found in the New World.
Order: Psittaciformes Family: Psittaculidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from 8 cm (3.1 in) to 1 m (3.3 ft) in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Tyrannidae
Tyrant flycatchers are Passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers, but are more robust and have stronger bills. They do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the songbirds. Most, but not all, are rather plain. As the name implies, most are insectivorous.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Tityridae
Tityridae is family of suboscine passerine birds found in forest and woodland in the Neotropics. The approximately 30 species in this family were formerly lumped with the families Pipridae and Cotingidae (see Taxonomy). As yet, no widely accepted common name exists for the family, although Tityras and allies and Tityras, mourners, and allies have been used. They are small to medium - sized birds.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A shrike 's beak is hooked, like that of a typical bird of prey.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Vireonidae
The vireos are a group of small to medium - sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, though a few other species in the family are found in Asia. They are typically greenish in color and resemble wood - warblers apart from their heavier bills.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Monarchidae
The Monarchinae are a relatively recent grouping of a number of seemingly very different birds, mostly from the Southern Hemisphere, which are more closely related than they at first appear. Many of the approximately 140 species making up the family were previously assigned to other groups, largely on the basis of general morphology or behavior. With the new insights generated by the DNA - DNA hybridisation studies of Sibley and his co-workers toward the end of the 20th century, however, it became clear that these apparently unrelated birds were all descended from a common ancestor. The Monarchinae are small to medium - sized insectivorous passerines, many of which hunt by flycatching. These three species endemic to Hawaii represent the group.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Remizidae
The only member of this family in the New World, the verdin one of the smallest passerines in North America. It is gray overall and adults have a bright yellow head and rufous "shoulder patch '' (the lesser coverts). Verdins are insectivorous, continuously foraging among the desert trees and scrubs. They are usually solitary except when they pair up to construct their conspicuous nests.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Aegithalidae
The long - tailed tits are a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down - curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Troglodytidae
Wrens are small and inconspicuous birds, except for their loud songs. They have short wings and thin down - turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Polioptilidae
These dainty birds resemble Old World warblers in their structure and habits, moving restlessly through the foliage seeking insects. The gnatcatchers are mainly soft bluish gray in color and have the typical insectivore 's long sharp bill. Many species have distinctive black head patterns (especially males) and long, regularly cocked, black - and - white tails.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Cinclidae
Dippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. They are named for their bobbing or dipping movements. These birds have adaptations which allows them to submerge and walk on the bottom to feed on insect larvae.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Pycnonotidae
The bulbuls are a family of medium - sized passerine songbirds native to Africa and tropical Asia. These are noisy and gregarious birds with often beautiful striking songs.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Regulidae
The kinglets and "crests '' are a small family of birds which resemble some warblers. They are very small insectivorous birds in the single genus Regulus. The adults have colored crowns, giving rise to their name.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Cettiidae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Phylloscopidae
Leaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The Arctic warbler breeds east into Alaska. The species are of various sizes, often green - plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with grayish - green to grayish - brown colors.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Sylviidae
The family Sylviidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as the common name implies, in Europe, Asia, and to a lesser extent Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Zosteropidae
The white - eyes are small passerine birds native to tropical and sub-tropical Africa, southern Asia, and Australasia. The birds of this group are mostly of undistinguished appearance, their plumage above being generally some dull color like greenish - olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast, or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. But as indicated by their scientific name, derived from the Ancient Greek for girdle - eye, there is a conspicuous ring around the eyes of many species. They have rounded wings and strong legs. The size ranges up to 15 cm (6 inches) in length. All the species of white - eyes are sociable, forming large flocks which only separate on the approach of the breeding season. Though mainly insectivorous, they eat nectar and fruits of various kinds.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Timaliidae
The Old World babblers or "timaliids '' are a large family of mostly Old World passerine birds. They are rather diverse in size and coloration, but are characterized by soft fluffy plumage. These birds have strong legs and many are quite terrestrial. This group is not strongly migratory and most species have short rounded wings and a weak flight.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Acrocephalidae
The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers ''. Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Locustellidae
Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Muscicapidae
The Old World flycatchers form a large family of small passerine birds. These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly but not exclusively in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium - sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Mimidae
The mimids are a family of passerine birds which includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. These birds are notable for their vocalization, especially their remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. The species tend towards dull grays and browns in their appearance.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Sturnidae
Starlings and mynas are small to medium - sized Old World passerine birds with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and most are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. The plumage of several species is dark with a metallic sheen.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of passerine birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Mohoidae
Hawaiian honeyeaters prefer to flit quickly from perch to perch in the outer foliage, stretching up or sideways or hanging upside down at need. They have a highly developed brush - tipped tongue, which is frayed and fringed with bristles which soak up liquids readily. The tongue is flicked rapidly and repeatedly into a flower, the upper mandible then compressing any liquid out when the bill is closed. All species of honeyeaters below were endemic to Hawaii, but are now extinct. The Kauai oo was the last species to survive, and was last seen in 1987.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Ptiliogonatidae
The silky - flycatchers are a small family of passerine birds which occur mainly in Central America. They are related to waxwings and most species have small crests.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Peucedramidae
The olive warbler has a gray body with some olive - green on the wings and two white wing bars. The male 's head and breast are orange and there is a black patch through the eye. This is the only species in its family.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Prunellidae
Accentors are small, fairly drab species superficially similar, but unrelated to, sparrows. However, accentors have thin sharp bills, reflecting their diet of insects in summer, augmented with seeds and berries in winter.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Estrildidae
The members of this family are small passerine birds native to the Old World tropics. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colors and patterns.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Passeridae
Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small plump brownish or grayish birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. They are slender ground - feeding insectivores of open country.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Fringillidae
Finches are seed - eating passerine birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Calcariidae
The Calcariidae are a group of passerine birds that had been traditionally grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Emberizidae
Emberizidae is a family of passerine birds containing a single genus. Until 2017, the New World sparrows (Passerellidae) were also considered part of this family.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Passerellidae
Until 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Spindalidae
The members of this small family are native to the Greater Antilles. One species occurs fairly frequently in Florida.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Icteriidae
This species was historically placed in the wood - warblers (Parulidae) but nonetheless most authorities were unsure if it belonged there. It was placed in its own family in 2017.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Icteridae
The icterids are a group of small to medium - sized, often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World and include the grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color which is often enlivened by yellow, orange, or red.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Parulidae
The wood - warblers are a group of small often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are more terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Cardinalidae
The cardinals are a family of robust seed - eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Thraupidae
The tanagers are a large group of small to medium - sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, mainly in the tropics. Many species are brightly colored. They are seed eaters, but their preference tends towards fruit and nectar.
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lyrics future's so bright i gotta wear shades | The future 's so bright, I Gotta wear Shades - wikipedia
"The Future 's So Bright, I Gotta Wear Shades '' is a song by Timbuk3. It is the opening track from their debut album, Greetings from Timbuk3. Released as the album 's first single in 1986, it was the band 's only significant mainstream hit.
The inspiration for the song, and the title specifically, came when Barbara MacDonald said to her husband singer / songwriter Pat MacDonald, "The future is looking so bright, we 'll have to wear sunglasses! '' But, while Barbara had made the comment in earnest -- it was the early ' 80s, the two had met and married and were starting a family, their first EP was coming, their book was filling up with gigs -- Pat heard the comment as an ironic quip and wrote down instead, "The future 's so bright, I got ta wear shades. ''
From there, the lyrics to the song were born, but not the song as it ended up in the minds of popular culture. While Pat wrote a song of a young nuclear scientist and his rich future, listening audiences heard a graduation theme song.
Pat revealed on VH1 's 100 Greatest One - Hit Wonders of the 80s that the meaning of the song was widely misinterpreted as a positive perspective in regard to the near future. Pat somewhat clarified the meaning by stating that it was, contrary to popular belief, a "grim '' outlook. While not saying so directly, he hinted at the idea that the bright future was in fact due to impending nuclear holocaust. The "job waiting '' after graduation signified the demand for nuclear scientists to facilitate such events. Pat drew upon the multitude of past predictions which transcend several cultures that foreshadow the world ending in the 1980s, along with the nuclear tension at the height of the Cold War to compile the song.
Two verses were written more explicitly portraying the ironic intent of the song. One went:
The other referred to a supporter of Ronald Reagan as "a flaming fascist ''. However, they were omitted from the final recording because MacDonald felt they were too heavy - handed and obvious. When they performed the song on The Joan Rivers Show in 1989, the third verse they sang was similar to the former omitted verse.
Similarly, the group 's EP Looks Like Dark to Me contains a slower version of the song with an additional verse, making clear the dark nature of the song 's intent:
That same EP 's title track also refers back to this song:
The future 's been bright for so long now, it looks like dark to me
The song was the group 's only major hit, reaching number 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 14 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart. Additionally, the song reached number 21 on the UK Singles Chart.
The former members of Timbuk 3 have refused to license the song for commercials, including a $900,000 offer from AT&T and offers from Ford, the U.S. Army, and Bausch & Lomb for their Ray - Ban sunglasses.
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what are the various methods of language teaching | Language pedagogy - wikipedia
Language pedagogy may take place as a general school subject, in a specialized language school, or out of school with a rich selection of proprietary methods online and in books, CDs and DVDs. There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful insights.
There are three principal views:
In the late 1800s and most of the 1900s, language teaching was usually conceived in terms of method. In seeking to improve teaching practices, teachers and researchers would typically try to find out which method was the most effective. However, method is an ambiguous concept in language teaching, and has been used in many different ways. According to Bell, this variety in use "offers a challenge for anyone wishing to enter into the analysis or deconstruction of methods ''.
In 1963, University of Michigan Linguistics Professor Edward Mason Anthony Jr. formulated a framework to describe various language teaching methods, which consisted of three levels: approach, method, and technique. According to Anthony, "The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach. '' His concept of approach was of a set of principles or ideas about the nature of language learning which would be consistent over time; "an approach is axiomatic ''. His method was more procedural; "an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. '' Finally, his concept of technique referred to the actual implementation in the language classroom; "a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. '' He saw techniques as being consistent with a given method and by extension, with a given approach.
A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system must be designed considering the objectives of the teaching / learning, how the content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students and the roles of teachers. A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from the controlling method, and less - directly, with the approach.
Anthony 's framework was welcomed by the language teaching community when it was introduced, and it was seen as a useful way of classifying different teaching practices. However, it did not clearly define the difference between approach, method, and technique, and Kumaravadivelu reports that due to this ambiguity there was "widespread dissatisfaction '' with it. Anthony himself recognized the limitations of his framework, and was open to the idea of improvements being made to it.
Richards and Rogers ' 1982 approach expanded on Anthony 's three - level framework; however, instead of approach, method and technique, they chose the terms approach, design, and procedure. Their concept of approach was similar to Anthony 's, but their design and procedure were of broader scope than Anthony 's method and technique. Their design referred to all major practical implications in the classroom, such as syllabus design, types of activities to be used in the classroom, and student and teacher roles; procedure referred to different behaviors, practices and techniques observed in the classroom. These new terms were intended to address limitations in Anthony 's framework, and also gave them specific criteria by which they could evaluate different "methods ''. This evaluation process was a key way that their formulation differed from Anthony 's, as Anthony 's framework was intended as purely descriptive.
Despite Richards and Rogers ' efforts to clearly define approach, design, and procedure, their framework has been criticized by Kumaravadivelu for having "an element of artificiality in its conception and an element of subjectivity in its operation ''. Kumaravadivelu also points to similar objections raised by Pennyworth and by the Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Brown also questions the suitability of Richards and Rogers ' term design; he points out that in English teaching design is usually used to refer specifically to curriculum design, rather than the broad definition Richards and Rogers used. Most current teacher training manuals favor the terms approach, method, and technique.
The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself. It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages, however it remains the most commonly practiced method of English teaching in Japan.
At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible for all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course. That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each pupil to understand how his mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate his thought.
The audio - lingual method was developed in the United States around World War II when governments realized that they needed more people who could conduct conversations fluently in a variety of languages, work as interpreters, code - room assistants, and translators. However, since foreign language instruction in that country was heavily focused on reading instruction, no textbooks, other materials or courses existed at the time, so new methods and materials had to be devised. For example, the U.S. Army Specialized Training Program created intensive programs based on the techniques Leonard Bloomfield and other linguists devised for Native American languages, where students interacted intensively with native speakers and a linguist in guided conversations designed to decode its basic grammar and learn the vocabulary. This "informant method '' had great success with its small class sizes and motivated learners.
The U.S. Army Specialized Training Program only lasted a few years, but it gained a lot of attention from the popular press and the academic community. Charles C. Fries set up the first English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, to train English as a second or foreign language teachers. Similar programs were created later at Georgetown University, University of Texas among others based on the methods and techniques used by the military. The developing method had much in common with the British oral approach although the two developed independently. The main difference was the developing audio - lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on grammar and contrastive analysis to find differences between the student 's native language and the target language in order to prepare specific materials to address potential problems. These materials strongly emphasized drill as a way to avoid or eliminate these problems.
This first version of the method was originally called the oral method, the aural - oral method or the structural approach. The audio - lingual method truly began to take shape near the end of the 1950s, this time due government pressure resulting from the space race. Courses and techniques were redesigned to add insights from behaviorist psychology to the structural linguistics and constructive analysis already being used. Under this method, students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The idea is that by reinforcing ' correct ' behaviors, students will make them into habits.
The typical structure of a chapter employing the Audio - Lingual - Method (ALM -- and there was even a text book entitled ALM (1963)) was usually standardized as follows: 1. First item was a dialog in the foreign language (FL) to be memorized by the student. The teacher would go over it the day before. 2. There were then questions in the FL about the dialog to be answered by the student (s) in the target language. 3. Often a brief introduction to the grammar of the chapter was next, including the verb (s) and conjugations. 4. The mainstay of the chapter was "pattern practice, '' which were drills expecting "automatic '' responses from the student (s) as a noun, verb conjugation, or agreeing adjective was to be inserted in the blank in the text (or during the teacher 's pause). The teacher could have the student use the book or not use it, relative to how homework was assigned. Depending on time, the class could respond as a chorus, or the teacher could pick individuals to respond. Julian Dakin, in ' The Language Laboratory and Language Learning ' (Longman 1973), coined the phrase ' meaningless drills ' to describe this kind of pattern practice, which others have also described as "mimicry - memorization. '' 5. There was a vocabulary list, sometimes with translations to the mother tongue. 6. The chapter usually ended with a short reading exercise.
Due to weaknesses in performance, and more importantly because of Noam Chomsky 's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, audio - lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today. However, elements of the method still survive in many textbooks.
The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. They were familiar with the direct method as well as the work of 19th - century applied linguists such as Otto Jespersen and Daniel Jones but attempted to formally develop a more scientifically founded approach to teaching English than was evidenced by the direct method.
A number of large - scale investigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on reading skills in the 1920s led to the notion of "vocabulary control ''. It was discovered that languages have a core basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words that occur frequently in written texts, and it was assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension. Parallel to this was the notion of "grammar control '', emphasizing the sentence patterns most - commonly found in spoken conversation. Such patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students. The principal difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods devised under this approach would have theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of difficulty of exercises and the presentation of such material and exercises. The main proposed benefit was that such theoretically based organization of content would result in a less - confusing sequence of learning events with better contextualization of the vocabulary and grammatical patterns presented. Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in "situations ''. Emphasis on this point led to the approach 's second name. Proponents claim that this approach leads to students ' acquiring good habits to be repeated in their corresponding situations. These teaching methods stress PPP: presentation (introduction of new material in context), practice (a controlled practice phase) and production (activities designed for less - controlled practice).
Although this approach is all but unknown among language teachers today, elements of it have had long - lasting effects on language teaching, being the basis of many widely used English as a Second / Foreign Language textbooks as late as the 1980s and elements of it still appear in current texts. Many of the structural elements of this approach were called into question in the 1960s, causing modifications of this method that led to communicative language teaching. However, its emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns still finds widespread support among language teachers and remains popular in countries where foreign language syllabuses are still heavily based on grammar.
Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by U.S. diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide a phrasebook - type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student 's usage is accurate and precise. However the student 's choice of what to say is not flexible.
The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners ' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and is best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé, although neither claims originality and it has been re-invented under other names. The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language: a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching. Such methods rely on directly representing an experience into a linguistic construct rather than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary.
According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learners for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed words until he has good grasp of speech. Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner 's first language. All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.
The method relies on a step - by - step progression based on question - and - answer sessions which begin with naming common objects such as doors, pencils, floors, etc. It provides a motivating start as the learner begins using a foreign language almost immediately. Lessons progress to verb forms and other grammatical structures with the goal of learning about thirty new words per lesson.
In the 19th century, François Gouin went to Hamburg to learn German. Based on his experience as a Latin teacher, he thought the best way to do this would be memorize a German grammar book and a table of its 248 irregular verbs. However, when he went to the academy to test his new language skills, he was disappointed to find out that he could not understand anything. Trying again, he similarly memorized the 800 root words of the language as well as re-memorizing the grammar and verb forms. However, the results were the same. During this time, he had isolated himself from people around him, so he tried to learn by listening, imitating and conversing with the Germans around him, but found that his carefully constructed sentences often caused native German speakers to laugh. Again he tried a more classical approach, translation, and even memorizing the entire dictionary but had no better luck.
When he returned home, he found that his three - year - old nephew had learned to speak French. He noticed the boy was very curious and upon his first visit to a mill, he wanted to see everything and be told the name of everything. After digesting the experience silently, he then reenacted his experiences in play, talking about what he learned to whoever would listen or to himself. Gouin decided that language learning was a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, using language to represent what one experiences. Language is not an arbitrary set of conventions but a way of thinking and representing the world to oneself. It is not a conditioning process, but one in which the learner actively organizes his perceptions into linguistics concepts.
The series method is a variety of the direct method in that experiences are directly connected to the target language. Gouin felt that such direct "translation '' of experience into words, makes for a "living language ''. (p59) Gouin also noticed that children organize concepts in succession of time, relating a sequence of concepts in the same order. Gouin suggested that students learn a language more quickly and retain it better if it is presented through a chronological sequence of events. Students learn sentences based on an action such as leaving a house in the order in which such would be performed. Gouin found that if the series of sentences are shuffled, their memorization becomes nearly impossible. For this, Gouin preceded psycholinguistic theory of the 20th century. He found that people will memorize events in a logical sequence, even if they are not presented in that order. He also discovered a second insight into memory called "incubation ''. Linguistic concepts take time to settle in the memory. The learner must use the new concepts frequently after presentation, either by thinking or by speaking, in order to master them. His last crucial observation was that language was learned in sentences with the verb as the most crucial component. Gouin would write a series in two columns: one with the complete sentences and the other with only the verb. With only the verb elements visible, he would have students recite the sequence of actions in full sentences of no more than twenty - five sentences. Another exercise involved having the teacher solicit a sequence of sentences by basically ask him / her what s / he would do next. While Gouin believed that language was rule - governed, he did not believe it should be explicitly taught.
His course was organized on elements of human society and the natural world. He estimated that a language could be learned with 800 to 900 hours of instruction over a series of 4000 exercises and no homework. The idea was that each of the exercises would force the student to think about the vocabulary in terms of its relationship with the natural world. While there is evidence that the method can work extremely well, it has some serious flaws. One of which is the teaching of subjective language, where the students must make judgments about what is experienced in the world (e.g. "bad '' and "good '') as such do not relate easily to one single common experience. However, the real weakness is that the method is entirely based on one experience of a three - year - old. Gouin did not observe the child 's earlier language development such as naming (where only nouns are learned) or the role that stories have in human language development. What distinguishes the series method from the direct method is that vocabulary must be learned by translation from the native language, at least in the beginning.
Communicative language teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse. Although the ' Communicative Language Teaching ' is not so much a method on its own as it is an approach.
In recent years, task - based language learning (TBLL), also known as task - based language teaching (TBLT) or task - based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction. Dogme language teaching shares a philosophy with TBL, although differs in approach. Dogme is a communicative approach, and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher.
Language immersion in school contexts delivers academic content through the medium of a foreign language, providing support for L2 learning and first language maintenance. There are three main types of immersion education programs in the United States: foreign language immersion, dual immersion, and indigenous immersion.
Foreign language immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English. In the early immersion model, for all or part of the school day elementary school children receive their content (academic) instruction through the medium of another language: Spanish, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, etc. In early total immersion models, children receive all the regular kindergarten and first grade content through the medium of the immersion language; English reading is introduced later, often in the second grade. Most content (math, science, social studies, art, music) continues to be taught through the immersion language. In early partial immersion models, part of the school day (usually 50 %) delivers content through the immersion language, and part delivers it through English. French - language immersion programs are common in Canada in the provincial school systems, as part of the drive towards bilingualism and are increasing in number in the United States in public school systems (Curtain & Dahlbert, 2004). Branaman & Rhodes (1998) report that between 1987 and 1997 the percentage of elementary programs offering foreign language education in the U.S. through immersion grew from 2 % to 8 % and Curtain & Dahlberg (2004) report 278 foreign language immersion programs in 29 states. Research by Swain and others (Genesee 1987) demonstrate much higher levels of proficiency achieved by children in foreign language immersion programs than in traditional foreign language education elementary school models.
Dual immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English as well as for students whose home language is the immersion language (usually Spanish). The goal is bilingual students with mastery of both English and the immersion language. As in partial foreign language immersion academic content is delivered through the medium of the immersion language for part of the school day, and through English the rest of the school day.
Indigenous immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for American Indian communities desiring to maintain the use of the native language by delivering elementary school content through the medium of that language. Hawaiian Immersion programs are the largest and most successful in this category.
The Silent Way is a discovery learning approach, invented by Caleb Gattegno in the late 1950s. The teacher is largely silent, giving more space for the students to explore the language. Students are responsible for their own learning and are encouraged to express themselves; beginners talk about what they see, more advanced students talk about their lives and what they think. The role of the teacher is not to model the language but to correct mistakes by giving sensitive feedback. With respect to teaching pronunciation, the Silent Way is a good example of the Articulatory Approach.
The community language learning (CLL) is a method proposed by Charles A. Curran during the 1970s. It is based on the counseling approach in which the teacher is seen as a counselor. It emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, encourages interaction as a vital aspect of learning, and it considers as a priority the students ' feelings and the recognition of struggles in language acquisition. There is no syllabus or textbook to follow and it is the students themselves who determine the content of the lesson. Notably, it incorporates translation and recording techniques.
Suggestopedia was a method that experienced popularity especially in past years, with both staunch supporters and very strong critics, some claiming it is based on pseudoscience.
The natural approach is a language teaching method developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy D. Terrell. They emphasise the learner receiving large amounts of comprehensible input. The Natural Approach can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching.
In total physical response (TPR), the instructor gives the students commands in the target language and the students act those commands out using whole - body responses. This can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching.
Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPR Storytelling or TPRS) was developed by Blaine Ray, a language teacher in California, in the 1990s. At first it was an offshoot of Total Physical Response that also included storytelling, but it has evolved into a method in its own right and has gained a large following among teachers, particularly in the United States. TPR Storytelling can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching.
Dogme language teaching is considered to be both a methodology and a movement. Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher. It has its roots in an article by the language education author, Scott Thornbury. The Dogme approach is also referred to as "Dogme ELT '', which reflects its origins in the ELT (English language teaching) sector. Although Dogme language teaching gained its name from an analogy with the Dogme 95 film movement (initiated by Lars von Trier), the connection is not considered close.
The Growing Participator Approach (GPA) is an alternative way of thinking about second language acquisition, developed by Greg Thomson. GPA as an approach is usually implemented using Thomson 's Six Phase Program (SPP) method, which involves 1,500 hours of special growth participation activities, supported by a local native language speaker, and targeted towards the learners growth zone (Zone of proximal development). The Six Phase Program utilises a number of techniques, such as TPR, to quickly grow the leaners comprehension ability without the use of English. The goal is to help learners continually ' grow ' in their ability to meaningful ' participate ' in the host culture. GPA influences include Vygotsky, as well as "the psycholinguistics of comprehension and production, usage - based approaches to language, linguistic anthropology and discourse analysis. ''
Some methods are tied to a particular company or school, and are not used in mainstream teaching. Besides those mentioned below, there are dozens of competitors, each slightly different. Notable are the computer courses which use speech recognition to give feedback on pronunciation.
Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. It involves recorded 30 - minute lessons to be done daily, with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, revision, and new material. Students are asked to translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to lines spoken in the target language. The instruction starts in the student 's language but gradually changes to the target language. Several all - audio programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method. The syllabus is the same in all languages.
Michel Thomas Method is an audio - based teaching system developed by Michel Thomas, a language teacher in the USA. It was originally done in person, although since his death it is done via recorded lessons. The instruction is done entirely in the student 's own language, although the student 's responses are always expected to be in the target language. The method focuses on constructing long sentences with correct grammar and building student confidence. There is no listening practice, and there is no reading or writing. The syllabus is ordered around the easiest and most useful features of the language, and as such is different for each language.
Appropedia is increasingly being used to as a method to enable service learning in language education.
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a method that includes a combination of methods and techniques using the resources available on the internet, as well as a variety of language learning software.
There is a lot of language learning software using the multimedia capabilities of computers.
Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany, developed by Jean - Pol Martin. The students take the teacher 's role and teach their peers.
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game of thrones season 7 episode 8 pre | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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is andrews salts the same as epsom salts | Andrews Liver salts - wikipedia
Andrews Liver Salts is a laxative and antacid for mild stomach complaints. It is sold as a powder which is added to water and mixed, creating effervescence, before being swallowed. The powder contains sugar; two antacids, sodium bicarbonate and citric acid; and a laxative, magnesium sulphate. The product is similar to Eno 's salts and Kruschen salts, and a mild form of Epsom salts. The term "liver salts '' or "health salts '' is typically used for a laxative.
Andrews Liver Salts was first sold from 1894, by William Henry Scott and William Murdoch Turner. Their business in the north - east of England originally imported margarine in the 1870s and 1880s. Their offices were in Gallowgate, Newcastle upon Tyne, and the product was named after St Andrew 's church nearby. The trademark "Andrews Liver Salt '' was registered in 1909. From the 1930s, promotional materials recommended taking the salts for "inner cleanliness ''.
Scott and Turner 's company merged with Charles Phillips, manufacturers of milk of magnesia, to become Phillips, Scott & Turner. The merged company was acquired by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug, in 1923, and later acquired by SmithKline Beecham. Andrews and Eno 's salts are both now made by GlaxoSmithKline.
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names of 12 months according to hindu calendar | Hindu calendar - Wikipedia
Hindu calendar is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Vikrami calendar (Bikrami) found in northern, western and central regions of the Indian subcontinent, Tamil calendar found in the south, and the Bengali calendar found in the east -- all of which emphasize the lunar cycle, their new year starts in spring, with their heritage dating back to 1st millennium BCE. In contrast, in regions such as Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the Malayalam calendar, their new year starts in autumn, and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchanga (पञ्चाङ्ग).
The ancient Hindu calendar is similar in conceptual design to the Jewish calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but insert an extra full month by complex rules, every few years, to ensure that the festivals and crop related rituals fall in the appropriate season.
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, and remains in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal particularly to set the Hindu festival dates such as Holi, Maha Shivaratri, Vaisakhi, Raksha Bandhan, Pongal, Onam, Krishna Janmashtami, Durga Puja, Ramlila, Vishu and Diwali. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Indian calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient Jainism traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jaina timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira lifetimes as the reference point.
The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system, most of which it adopted from Greece, in centuries after the arrival of Alexander the Great. The Indian national calendar or "Saka calendar '' was redesigned in an effort that started in 1952 based on the traditional Hindu calendars, and it was adopted on March 22, 1957.
(The current year) minus one, multiplied by twelve, multiplied by two, added to the elapsed (half months of current year), increased by two for every sixty (in the sun), is the quantity of half - months (syzygies).
Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals. This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas -- the scriptures of Hinduism. The ancient Indian culture developed a sophisticated time keeping methodology and calendars for Vedic rituals.
David Pingree has proposed that the field of timekeeping in Jyotisha may have been "derived from Mesopotamia during the Achaemenid period '', but Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as "definitely wrong ''. Ohashi states that this Vedanga field developed from actual astronomical studies in ancient India. The texts of Vedic Jyotisha sciences were translated into the Chinese language in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, and the Rigvedic passages on astronomy are found in the works of Zhu Jiangyan and Zhi Qian.
Timekeeping as well as the nature of solar and moon movements are mentioned in Vedic texts. For example, Kaushitaki Brahmana chapter 19.3 mentions the shift in the relative location of the sun towards north for 6 months, and south for 6 months.
The Vikrami calendar is named after king Vikramaditya and starts in 57 BCE.
Hindu scholars attempted to keep time by observing and calculating the cycles of sun (Surya), moon and the planets. These calculations about the sun appears in various Sanskrit astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th century Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata, the 6th century Romaka by Latadeva and Panca Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th century Khandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th century Sisyadhivrddida by Lalla. These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies.
The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Surya - and planets - based calculation and its relative motion to earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. For example, the 1st millennium CE Hindu scholars had estimated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:
The Hindu texts used the lunar cycle for setting months and days, but the solar cycle to set the complete year. This system is similar to the Jewish and Babylonian ancient calendars, creating the same challenge of accounting for mismatch between the nearly 354 lunar days in twelve months, versus nearly 365 solar days in a year. They tracked the solar year by observing the entrance and departure of surya (sun, at sunrise and sunset) in the constellation formed by stars in the sky, which they divided into 12 intervals of 30 degrees each. Like other ancient human cultures, Hindus innovated a number of systems of which intercalary months became most used, that is adding another month every 32.5 months on average. As their calendar keeping and astronomical observations became more sophisticated, the Hindu calendar became more sophisticated with complex rules and greater accuracy.
According to Scott Montgomery, the siddhanta tradition at the foundation of Hindu calendars predate the Christian era, once had 18 texts of which only 5 have survived into the modern era. These texts provide specific information and formulae on motions of sun, moon and planets, to predict their future relative positions, equinoxes, rise and set, with corrections for prograde, retrograde motions, as well as parallax. These ancient scholars attempted to calculate their time to the accuracy of a truti (29.63 microseconds). In their pursuit of accurate tracking of relative movements of celestial bodies for their calendar, they had computed the diameter of earth, which though not accurate, was very close to the actual 7,918 miles.
Hindu calendars were refined during the Gupta era astronomy by Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira in the 5th to 6th century. These in turn were based in the astronomical tradition of Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa, which in the preceding centuries had been standardised in a number of (non-extant) works known as Sūrya Siddhānta. Regional diversification took place in the medieval period. The astronomical foundations were further developed in the medieval period, notably by Bhāskara II (12th century).
Later, the term Jyotisha evolved to include Hindu astrology. The astrological application of Hindu calendar was a field that likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, because their zodiac signs are nearly identical.
The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss time keeping, and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Technical horoscopes and astrology ideas in India came from Greece, states Nicholas Campion, and developed in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. Later medieval era texts such as the Yavana - jataka and the Siddhanta texts are more astrology - related.
Hinduism and Buddhism were the prominent religions of southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, prior to the Islamic conquest that started in the 14th century. The Hindus prevailed in Bali, Indonesia and they have two types of Hindu calendar. One is a 210 - day based Pawukon calendar which likely is a pre-Hindu system, and another is similar to lunisolar calendar system found in South India and it is called the Balinese saka calendar which uses Hindu methodology. The names of month and festivals of Balinese Hindus for the most part are different, though the significance and legends have some overlap.
Samvat refers to era of the several Hindu calendar systems in India and Nepal, in a manner the 0 AD marks the Christian era and the BC / AD system. There are several samvat found in historic Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts and epigraphy, of which three are most significant: Vikrama era, Old Shaka era and Shaka era of 78 AD.
Two traditions have been followed in the Indian subcontinent with respect to lunar months: Amanta tradition which ends the lunar month on no moon day, while Purnimanta tradition which ends it on full moon day.
Amavasyant (Amanta, Mukhyamana) tradition is followed by all Indian states that have a peninsular coastline (except Odisha), as well as Assam and Tripura. Odisha and all other states follow the Purnimanta (Gaunamana) tradition.
Purnimanta tradition was being followed in the Vedic era. It was replaced with Amanta system and in use as the Hindu calendar system prior to 1st century BCE, but the Purnimanta tradition was restarted in 57 BCE by Vikramaditya who wanted to return to the Vedic roots. The presence of this system is one of the factors considered in dating ancient manuscripts and epigraphical evidence of India that have survived into the modern era.
A month contains two fortnights called pakṣa (पक्ष, literally "side ''). One fortnight is the bright, waxing half where the moon size grows and it ends in the full moon. The other half is the darkening, waning fortnight which ends in the new moon. The Hindu festivals typically are either on or the day after the full moon night, or the darkest night (amavasya, अमावास्या), except for some associated with Krishna, Durga or Rama. The lunar months of the hot summer and the busy major cropping - related part of the monsoon season typically do not schedule major festivals.
A combination of the Paksha system, and the two traditions of Amanta and Purnimanta systems, has led to alternate ways of dating any festival or event in the historic Hindu, Buddhist or Jain literature, and contemporary regional literature or festival calendars. For example, the Hindu festival of colors called Holi falls on the first day (full moon) of Chaitra lunar month 's dark fortnight in the Purnimanta system, while the same exact day for Holi is expressed in Amanta system as the Purnima (full moon) lunar day of Phalguna. Both time measuring and dating systems are equivalent ways of meaning the same thing, they continue to be in use in different regions, though the Purnimanta system is now typically assumed as implied in modern Indology literature if not specified.
There are 12 months in Hindu lunar calendar (Sanskrit: मासाः). If the transits of the Sun through various constellations (Rāśi) are used, then we get solar months, which do not shift with reference to the Gregorian calendar. The solar months along with the corresponding Hindu seasons and Gregorian months are:
(summer)
(monsoon)
(autumn)
(Late - Autumn)
(Winter)
(spring)
The names of the Indian months vary by region. Despite the significant differences between Indo - European languages and Dravidian languages, those Hindu calendars which are based on lunar cycle are generally phonetic variants of each other, while the solar cycle are generally variants of each other too, suggesting that the time keeping knowledge travelled widely across the Indian subcontinent in ancient times.
The Tamil lunar month names are forward shifted by a month compared to Vikrami month names, in part because Tamil calendar integrates greater emphasis for the solar cycle in a manner similar to the neighboring Kerala region and it follows the Amanta system for lunar months. This is in contrast to Vikrami calendar which keeps the Purnimanta system and emphasizes the lunar cycle. A few major calendars are summarized below:
Twelve Hindu mas (māsa, lunar month) are equal to approximately 354 days, while the length of a sidereal (solar) year is about 365 days. This creates a difference of about eleven days, which is offset every (29.53 / 10.63) = 2.71 years, or approximately every 32.5 months. The twelve months are subdivided into six lunar seasons timed with the agriculture cycles, blooming of natural flowers, fall of leaves, and weather. To account for the mismatch between lunar and solar calendar, the Hindu scholars adopted intercalary months, where a particular month just repeated. The choice of this month was not random, but timed to sync back the two calendars to the cycle of agriculture and nature.
The repetition of a month created the problem of scheduling festivals, weddings and other social events without repetition and confusion. This was resolved by declaring one month as Shudha (pure, clean, regular, proper, also called Deva month) and the other Mala or Adhika (extra, unclean and inauspicious, also called Asura masa).
The Indian mathematicians who calculated the best way to adjust the two years, over long periods of a yuga (era, tables calculating 1000 of years), they determined that the best means to intercalate the months is to time the intercalary months on a 19 - year cycle. This intercalation is generally adopted in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th and 19th year of this cycle. Further, the complex rules rule out the repetition of Mārgasirsa (also called Agahana), Pausha and Maagha lunar months. The historic Hindu texts are not consistent on these rules, with competing ideas flourishing in the Hindu culture.
The Hindu calendar makes further rare adjustments, over a cycle of centuries, where a certain month is considered kshaya month (dropped). This occurs because of the complexity of the relative lunar, solar and earth movements. According to the Hindu calendar theory, states uriel Marion Underhill, "when the sun is in perigee, and a lunar month being at its longest, if the new moon immediately precedes a samkranti, then the first of the two lunar months is deleted (called nija or kshaya). This, for example, happened in the year 1 BCE, when there was no new moon between Makara samkranti and Kumbha samkranti, and the month of Pausha was dropped.
Just like months, the Hindu calendar has two measures of a day, one based on the lunar movement and the other on solar. The solar day or civil day, called divasa (दिवस), has been what most Hindus traditionally use, is easy and empirical to observe, by poor and rich, with or without a clock, and it is defined as the period from one sunrise to another. The lunar day is called tithi (तिथि), and this is based on complicated measures of lunar movement. A lunar day or tithi may, for example, begin in the middle of an afternoon and end next afternoon. Both these days do not directly correspond to a mathematical measure for a day such as equal 24 hours of a solar year, a fact that the Hindu calendar scholars knew, but the system of divasa was convenient for the general population. The tithi have been the basis for timing rituals and festivals, while divasa for everyday use. The Hindu calendars adjust the mismatch in divasa and tithi, using a methodology similar to the solar and lunar months.
A Tithi is technically defined in Indian texts, states John E. Cort, as "the time required by the combined motions of the sun and moon to increase (in a bright fortnight) or decrease (in a dark fortnight) their relative distance by twelve degrees of the zodiac. These motions are measured using a fixed map of celestial zodiac as reference, and given the elliptical orbits, a duration of a tithi varies between 21.5 and 26 hours, states Cort. However, in the Indian tradition, the general population 's practice has been to treat a tithi as a solar day between one sunrise to next.
A lunar month has 30 tithi. The technical standard makes each tithi contain different number of hours, but helps the overall integrity of the calendar. Given the variation in the length of a solar day with seasons, and moon 's relative movements, the start and end time for tithi varies over the seasons and over the years, and the tithi adjusted to sync with divasa periodically with intercalation.
Vāsara refers to the weekdays in Sanskrit. Also referred to as Vara and used as a suffix, the Indian names for the weekdays based on zodiac planets was adopted from the Greeks around the 3rd century CE, because they are not mentioned in earlier Sanskrit or Pali texts, nor are they found in any ancient inscriptions. The correspondence between the names of the week in Hindu and other Indo - European calendars are exact. The weekday of a Hindu calendar has been symmetrically divided into 60 ghatika (= 24 hours), each ghatika is divided into 60 pala (= 24 minutes), each pala is subdivided into 60 vipala (= 24 seconds), and so on.
The term - vāsara is often realised as vāra or vaar in Sanskrit - derived and influenced languages. There are many variations of the names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.
The complete Indian calendars contain five angas or parts of information: lunar day (tithi), solar day (vara), asterism (naksatra), planetary joining (yoga) and astronomical period (karanam). This structure gives the calendar the name Panchangam. The first two are discussed above.
The Sanskrit word Yoga means "union, joining, attachment '', but in astronomical context, this word means latitudinal and longitudinal information. The longitude of the sun and the longitude of the moon are added, and normalised to a value ranging between 0 ° to 360 ° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360). This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800 ' (where ' is the symbol of the arcminute which means 1 / 60 of a degree). These parts are called the yogas. They are labelled:
Again, minor variations may exist. The yoga that is active during sunrise of a day is the prevailing yoga for the day.
A karaṇa is half of a tithi. To be precise, a karaṇa is the time required for the angular distance between the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6 ° starting from 0 °. (Compare with the definition of a tithi.)
Since the tithis are 30 in number, and since 1 tithi = 2 karaṇas, therefore one would logically expect there to be 60 karaṇas. But there are only 11 such karaṇas which fill up those slots to accommodate for those 30 tithis. There are actually 4 "fixed '' (sthira) karaṇas and 7 "repeating '' (cara) karaṇas.
The 4
The 7 "repeating '' karaṇas are:
The Vedic day begins at sunrise. The karaṇa at sunrise of a particular day shall be the prevailing karaṇa for the whole day.
Nakshatras are divisions of ecliptic, each 13 ° 20 ', starting from 0 ° Aries. The purnima of each month is synchronised with a nakshatra.
Many holidays in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina traditions are based on the lunar cycles in the lunisolar timekeeping with foundations in the Hindu calendar system. A few holidays, however, are based on the solar cycle, such as the Vaisakhi, Pongal and those associated with Sankranti. The dates of the lunar cycle based festivals vary significantly on the Gregorian calendar and sometimes as much as weeks. The solar cycle based ancient Indian festivals almost always fall on the same Gregorian date every year and if they vary in an exceptional year, it is by one day.
The Indian Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952, identified more than thirty well - developed calendars, in use across different parts of India.
Variants include the lunar emphasizing Vikrama, the Shalivahana calendars, as well as the solar emphasizing Tamil calendar and Malayalam calendar. The two calendars most widely used today are the Vikrama calendar which is followed in Nepal as national calendar and also in the Indian regions like western and northern India and the Shalivahana or Saka calendar which is followed in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.
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who does scooby doo's voice in the movie | Scooby - Doo (film) - wikipedia
Scooby - Doo (also known as Scooby - Doo: The Movie) is a 2002 American live - action / computer - animated family comedy adventure film, based on the long - running Hanna - Barbera animated television series of the same name. It is the first installment in the Scooby - Doo live - action film series, directed by Raja Gosnell, written by James Gunn, and starring Freddie Prinze Jr., Sarah Michelle Gellar, Matthew Lillard, Linda Cardellini and Rowan Atkinson. The plot revolves around Mystery Incorporated, a group of four young adults and a dog who solve mysteries, who reunite after a two - year disbandment, to investigate a mystery on a popular horror resort.
Filming took place in and around Queensland on a budget of $84 million. The film was released on June 14, 2002, and grossed $275 million worldwide. Reggae artist Shaggy and rock group MxPx performed different versions of the Scooby - Doo, Where Are You! theme song. The Scooby - Doo Spooky Coaster, a ride based on the film, was built in Warner Bros. Movie World in Gold Coast, Australia in 2003. This is the final time William Hanna served as the executive producer before his death on 000000002001 - 03 - 22 - 0000 March 22, 2001.
A sequel, Scooby - Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, was released on March 26, 2004. It was then followed by two telefilm prequels: Scooby - Doo! The Mystery Begins, which first aired on Cartoon Network on September 13, 2009 and Scooby - Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster, which also aired on Cartoon Network on October 16, 2010.
The members of Mystery, Inc. solve the case of the Luna Ghost at the Wow - O - Toy Factory. However, long - time friction between Fred Jones, a glory hog, Daphne Blake, who is fed up with getting captured at every mystery, and Velma Dinkley, who is never credited for her ideas, finally boils over and the gang breaks up, leaving Shaggy Rogers and his dog Scooby - Doo heartbroken.
Two years later, Shaggy and Scooby are invited to solve a mystery on the popular resort Spooky Island, owned by Emile Mondavarious. At the airport, the pair are unexpectedly reunited with the rest of Mystery, Inc. -- Fred has become a popular celebrity, Velma works for NASA, and Daphne has undertaken martial arts to avoid being kidnapped again. However, while Shaggy and Scooby are thrilled with the reunion, the other three refuse to work with each other, still angry about their fight that split them up.
On the flight over, Shaggy falls in love with a girl named Mary Jane, who loves Scooby Snacks like him, but is allergic to dogs. Upon arriving at the island, the gang meet Mondavarious, who claims the visiting tourists have been cursed into a brainwashed state. Velma attends a ritualistic performance hosted by N'Goo Tuana and his henchman, Zarkos, a famous luchador. N'Goo claims the island was once ruled by ancient demons till Mondavarious built the resort, and they plot their revenge.
Because of a misunderstanding when talking to a local voodoo priest, Daphne, Shaggy, and Scooby venture into the resort 's ghost ride, meeting Fred and Velma inside, where they split up to look for clues. Fred and Velma come across a strange school designed to educate inhuman creatures about human culture, while Daphne discovers a pyramid - shaped artifact called the Daemon Ritus. The gang flee to the hotel, but an army of real demons attack, kidnapping Fred, Velma, Mondavarious and other tourists, while Scooby, Shaggy, Daphne and Mary Jane escape.
The next day, Daphne is captured by Zarkos, who also steals the Daemon Ritus, while Shaggy and Scooby learn the tourists are possessed by the demons. They run into Mary Jane, but Scooby realizes she is possessed too. Shaggy and Scooby argue when the latter points it out, but he falls down a hole into an underground chamber. While trying to find him, Shaggy finds a vat of protoplasmic soul of everyone captured, and frees Velma, Fred, and Daphne 's souls. Velma discovers the demons can be destroyed by sunlight, but Fred and Daphne become trapped in each other 's wrong bodies, until the Daemon Ritus corrects it after the gang 's souls swap randomly. The gang come across the voodoo priest, who explains the demons ' ritual will allow them to rule the world for the next ten - thousand years when a pure soul is offered as a sacrifice -- namely, Scooby. Mondavarious is revealed to be the leader of the demons.
The gang plot a trap to defeat the demon cult, but it fails, and Mondavarious sucks out Scooby 's soul using the Daemon Ritus. Shaggy tackles Mondavarious; Scooby 's soul goes back into him. As Fred and Velma go to confront the defeated Mondavarious; find he is a man in a mask. When they peel the mask off, Mondavarious is reveal as a robot, piloted by Scooby 's estranged nephew Scrappy - Doo, abandoned by the gang years ago due to him urinating on Daphne, and trying to take over as leader. Using the absorbed souls of the tourists, Scrappy transforms into a monster and tries to kill the gang.
On the mountain top, Daphne battles Zarkos, kicking him into the ritual chamber where the demons are exposed to sunlight and die. Shaggy rips the Daemon Ritus from Scrappy 's body, freeing the souls; the real Mondavarious emerges from a prison cell. Scrappy, N'Goo, Zarkos, and all their minions are arrested, while the reunited gang promise to forever solve mysteries.
As the end credits begin to roll, Scooby and Shaggy are enjoying the "all you can eat '' deal at the hotel. They challenge each other eating chilli peppers and scream as smoke comes out of the hotel.
Actors Freddie Prinze Jr. and Sarah Michelle Gellar, who portray Fred and Daphne and are romantically involved in the film and series, became real life husband and wife shortly after the film was released. When asked about watching several cartoons before playing Shaggy, Lillard responded, "Everything I could get my hands on. If I ever have to see another episode of "Scooby - Doo, '' it will be way too soon. '' Lillard would continue voicing Shaggy in the rest of the Scooby - Doo media. Jim Carrey was originally attached to play Shaggy. Mike Myers also expressed interest in playing Shaggy. Before Rowan Atkinson was cast as Emile Mondavarious in the film, Tim Curry was originally offered for the role, but later turned it down after learning that Scrappy - Doo was going to be in the film. Prinze said of his character, "(He) always showed more arrogance than everyone else. So in the movie, I took the opportunity to make him as narcissistic and self - loving as possible. '' Fisher grew up watching Scooby - Doo in Australia, and said that the "best part of making this movie was being part of an institution, something that has been in people 's childhoods and is something that means a lot to a lot of people. '' Cardellini was also a fan of the Scooby - Doo series.
Producer Charles Roven began developing a live - action treatment of Scooby - Doo in 1994. By the end of the decade, the combined popularity of Scooby - Doo, Where Are You!, along with the addition of the script and updated digital animation led Warner Bros. to fast track production of the film. Jim Carrey, as well as Mike Myers, expressed interest in playing Shaggy. In October 2000, the film was officially given the green light, Variety reported that Raja Gosnell had been hired to direct the film.
The movie was filmed on location in and around Queensland, Australia. Production was started on February 12, 2001 at the Warner Bros. Movie World theme park, and wrapped in June 2001. The film was originally set to have a much darker tone, essentially poking fun at the original series, much like The Brady Bunch Movie, and was set for a PG - 13 rating. Shaggy was set to be a stoner, and there were many marijuana references.
Several rumors about these aspects in the original cartoon series were passed around by fans of the original and were to be incorporated into the live action film. In March 2001, one month into filming, the first official cast picture was released.
According to actress Sarah Michelle Gellar, after the cast had signed on there was a change, and the film became more family friendly, though some of the original adult jokes are still in the film. They are also included in deleted scenes on the home media releases. In January 2001, it was reported that Rowan Atkinson was in negotiations to play Mondavarious.
Gellar also said her character and Linda Cardellini 's shared an onscreen kiss that did not make the final film. "It was n't just, like, for fun, '' she said, explaining it took place in the body - switching scene. "Initially in the soul - swapping scene Velma and Daphne could n't seem to get their souls back together in the woods. And so the way they found was to kiss and the souls went back into proper alignment. ''
In 2017, the 15th anniversary of the release of "Scooby - Doo '', James Gunn, the screenwriter for the movie revealed in a Facebook post that there was an R - rated cut of "Scooby - Doo '' and that CGI was used to remove cleavage of the female cast members.
The film 's score was composed by David Newman. A soundtrack was released on June 4, 2002, by Atlantic Records. It peaked at number 24 on the Billboard 200 and 49 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums. Shaggy performs the theme song from Scooby - Doo, Where Are You!, which was retitled "Shaggy, Where Are You? ''.
A video game based upon the film was released for Game Boy Advance shortly before the film was released. The game is played in third - person point of view and has multiple puzzle games and mini-games. The game 's structure was similar to a board game. Metacritic rated it 64 / 100 based on five reviews, which they labeled as "mixed or average reviews ''.
Scholastic Inc. released a novelization of the story in conjunction with the film. The novel was written by American fantasy and science fiction author Suzanne Weyn.
The film was released on VHS and DVD on October 11, 2002. The release included deleted scenes, among them an alternate opening animated in the style of the original television series. It was later released as a double feature with its sequel on Blu - ray on November 9, 2010.
Scooby - Doo debuted with $19.2 million on its opening day, and $54.1 million over the weekend from 3,447 theaters, averaging about $15,711 per venue and ranked # 1 at the box office. The film closed on October 31, 2002, with a final gross of $153 million in the United States and Canada. It made an additional $122 million in other territories, bringing the total worldwide gross to $275.7 million, making it the 15th most successful film worldwide of 2002. The film was released in the United Kingdom on July 12, 2002, and topped the country 's box office for the next two weekends, before being dethroned by Austin Powers in Goldmember.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 30 % based on 143 reviews with an average rating of 4.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Though Lillard is uncannily spot - on as Shaggy, Scooby Doo is a tired live - action update, filled with lame jokes. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 35 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film one out of four stars, stating that the film "exists in a closed universe, and the rest of us are aliens. The Internet was invented so that you can find someone else 's review of Scooby - Doo. Start surfing. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said, "Get out your pooper - scoopers. Doo happens June 14th, warn the ads for Scooby - Doo. And they say there 's no truth in Hollywood. ''
Robin Rauzi of the Los Angeles Times called the film "entertainment more disposable than Hanna - Barbera 's half - hour cartoons ever were. '' Although Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel said that children who liked the animated version of Scooby - Doo will "probably like '' the film, he urged parents to "know that the violence is a bit harder - edged than in the cartoon version ''. He would later go on to say that adults who remember the cartoon version "may get caught up in what Scooby would call the ' rostalgia ' '', but said that "adults who do not fondly recall the Scooby - Doo cartoons are strongly advised to steer clear. ''
Conversely, Hank Struever of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, stating that "You do n't want to love this, but you will. Although Scooby - Doo falls far short of becoming the Blazing Saddles of Generations X, Y and Z, it is hard to resist in its moronic charms. ''
Gellar won Choice Movie Actress -- Comedy at the Teen Choice Awards. Prinze was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award (Razzie) for Worst Supporting Actor, but he lost to Hayden Christensen for Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones. It was also nominated for another Razzie, Most Flatulent Teen - Targeted Movie, but lost against Jackass: The Movie.
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who sang sea of love in the 80 | Sea of Love (song) - wikipedia
"Sea of Love '' is a song written by Philip Baptiste (better known as Phil Phillips) and George Khoury. Phillips ' 1959 recording of the song peaked at No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard R&B chart and No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100. It became a gold record. It was the only top - 40 chart song for Phillips, who never recorded another hit.
Baptiste, who was working as a bellboy in Lake Charles, Louisiana, wrote "Sea of Love '' for a love interest. He was introduced to local record producer George Khoury, who brought Baptiste into his studio to record the song. At Khoury 's request, Baptiste took the stage name of Phil Phillips. The song, originally credited to Phil Phillips with The Twilights, was released on a small record label owned by Khoury, but due to its success was eventually leased to Mercury Records. Despite the song 's success, Phillips claims that he has only ever received US $ 6,800 for recording it.
The song has been covered by a number of artists since the first 1959 recording:
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who plays the long neck troll in trolls | Trolls (film) - Wikipedia
Trolls is a 2016 American 3D computer - animated musical film based on the Troll dolls created by Thomas Dam. The film was directed by Mike Mitchell and co-directed by Walt Dohrn, written by Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger and based on a story by Erica Rivinoja. The film features the voices of Anna Kendrick, Justin Timberlake, Zooey Deschanel, Russell Brand, James Corden and Gwen Stefani. The film revolves around two trolls on a quest to save their village from destruction by the Bergens, creatures who eat trolls.
The 33rd animated feature film produced by DreamWorks Animation, the film premiered on October 8, 2016, at the BFI London Film Festival and was theatrically released in the United States on November 4, 2016, by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed $344 million worldwide against its $125 million budget and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! ''.
The Trolls are small creatures who live in an almost perpetual state of happiness, singing, dancing and hugging all day. However, they are discovered by the Bergens, large miserable creatures, who can feel happy only after eating a Troll. The Bergens imprison the trolls and eat them every year on a special occasion, called Trollstice. The Trolls, led by their King Peppy, with his baby daughter, Princess Poppy, escape through underground tunnels on the day of trollstice, when young Prince Gristle was going to eat his first Troll. Enraged, Gristle 's father King Gristle Sr. banishes his Chef who was in charge of the Trollstice preparation.
20 years later, Poppy, throws a big party to celebrate the Trolls ' escape, despite the fears and warnings of the grey troll, Branch, that loud parties will attract the Bergens. A Zen troll Creek arrives, and tells Branch to start being happy, instead of being grumpy, but Branch refuses. At the party, Branch 's fears come true, when Chef sees the fireworks and captures some Trolls.
Alone inside the bunker, we see Branch looking at a bunch of homemade party invitations, indicating that he does want to go to the parties. Meanwhile, Poppy goes on a rescue mission alone, as no other troll is willing to venture to Bergen Town, including Branch. But later when Poppy gets into trouble, She is saved by Branch, who thinks she will not make it if she goes alone.
Once inside the Bergen prince 's castle, Poppy and Branch witness Creek, one of the Troll hostages, apparently get eaten by the now King Gristle, but Poppy remains hopeful that Creek survived. Poppy and Branch find the rest of the captured Trolls, being guarded by a scullery maid named Bridget. Poppy discovers that Bridget is in love with King Gristle and offers to help her get a date with the king while trying to confirm if Creek is alive.
While setting her up for the date, Branch refuses to sing and triggers a big argument with Poppy, revealing that, as a child, his grandmother was killed while trying to save him, because his singing compromised his location to Chef. His guilt caused his color to turn from blue to grey. After Poppy comforts him with a hug, Branch decides to help Bridget and the trolls. Bridget, disguised as Lady Glitter Sparkles gets her date with Gristle, at a roller rink and arcade restaurant and Gristle asks her to be his "plus one '' at Trollstice. Poppy notices Creek being held captive, in the jewel adorning the king 's mantle.
Having helped Bridget, the Trolls attempt to rescue Creek from Gristle 's room and steal his jewel, but discover that it is empty. The Trolls are then captured by Chef, and are shocked to discover that Creek sold them out to the Bergens, to spare himself from being eaten. Creek then lures out every troll from Troll village, and they are captured by Chef and the other Bergen cooks. With all the Trolls captured and soon to be eaten, Poppy loses hope as she and all the other Trolls turn grey when she starts to cry.
Branch sings "True Colors '' for Poppy to cheer her up, and also confesses his love for princess. Poppy, after regaining her colors, reciprocates his feelings, and they end up restoring all the trolls ' colors including Branch 's. Bridget liberates the trolls, willing to sacrifice herself for them. Poppy wishes to return the favor and with Branch and her friends, shows the Bergens that Bridget was Lady Glitter Sparkles and explains that they can find happiness, within themselves instead of eating the Trolls.
Chef however, refuses to accept the peace, tries to kill Poppy and Branch, but is knocked into a serving cart that is sent rolling out of Bergen Town, on fire with Creek in her pouch and (in the mid credits) are consumed by a giant monster. Both species celebrate, bringing new life to the town and renewing the life of the troll tree. Poppy is declared queen, and she and Branch share a romantic hug.
DreamWorks announced plans for a film based on the Troll toyline as early as 2010. This version was to be written by Adam Wilson and his wife Melanie By 2012, Chloë Grace Moretz had already been cast in the female lead role and Jason Schwartzman was reported to have been offered the male lead. In September 2012, 20th Century Fox and DreamWorks Animation announced that the film with the working title Trolls would be released on June 5, 2015, with Anand Tucker set to direct the film, written by Wallace Wolodarsky and Maya Forbes.
By April 2013, DreamWorks Animation had acquired the intellectual property for the Trolls franchise from the Dam Family and Dam Things. Having "big plans for the franchise, '' DreamWorks Animation became the exclusive worldwide licensor of the merchandise rights, except for Scandinavia, where Dam Things remains the licensor. In May 2013, the film was pushed back for a year to November 4, 2016. The same month, DreamWorks Animation announced that Mike Mitchell and Erica Rivinoja has been hired as a director and screenplay writer to "reimagine '' the film as a musical comedy, which will present the origin of the Trolls ' colorful hair. On June 16, 2014, Anna Kendrick joined the cast to voice Poppy, a princess. On September 15, 2015, Deadline.com reported that Justin Timberlake will voice a character named Branch. Timberlake previously worked with DreamWorks Animation as the voice of Arthur "Artie '' Pendragon in Shrek the Third in 2007. The full cast announced their respective roles via announcements on Twitter on January 6, 2016.
Justin Timberlake served as an executive producer for the film 's music and released the original song "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' on May 6, 2016. The song reached No. 1 in the official charts of 17 countries, including the United States and Canada. Timberlake along with the film cast, with guest appearances from Earth, Wind & Fire and Ariana Grande, contributed to the soundtrack. The soundtrack album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and the Australian Recording Industry Association.
The film 's world premiere took place at the BFI London Film Festival on October 8, 2016, and was theatrically released on November 4, 2016, in the United States by 20th Century Fox.
Trolls was released on Digital HD on January 24, 2017, and on DVD and Blu - ray on February 7, 2017. The film topped the home video sales chart for two consecutive weeks.
Trolls grossed $153.7 million in the US and Canada and $190.9 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $344.6 million, against a budget of $125 million.
In the United States and Canada, Trolls was released alongside Doctor Strange and Hacksaw Ridge, and was projected to gross $35 -- 40 million from 4,060 theaters in its opening weekend. On its first day, the film grossed $12.3 million (including $900,000 made from Thursday night previews). It went on to open to $46.5 million, finishing second at the box office behind Doctor Strange.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 74 % based on 132 reviews; the average rating is 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Trolls brings its instantly recognizable characters to the big screen in a colorful adventure that, while geared toward the younger set, is n't without rewards for parents. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 56 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Lindsey Bahr of Associated Press gave the film a positive review and said, "Ultimately, the ' get happy ' moral of the story, while trite compared to something like Inside Out, is sufficiently sweet enough for its audience. Did you expect more from a piece of candy? '' Bill Zwecker of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four and said, "You simply will walk out -- or perhaps dance out -- of the theater feeling very happy yourself. '' Andy Webster of The New York Times said, "Exuberant, busy and sometimes funny, DreamWorks Animation 's Trolls is determined to amuse. ''
The Hollywood Reporter called the film "an admittedly vibrant - looking but awfully recognizable animated musical comedy concoction. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap said the film "combines the barely - there characterization and irritating cutesiness of The Smurfs with the hideous character design and awful pop covers of Strange Magic. '' Betsy Bozdech of Common Sense Media gave the movie 4 stars. She said, "Make no mistake: Kids are going to love this movie. Trolls is cute, it 's colorful, it has tons of catchy songs, and the messages are positive and easy to understand (happiness is inside everyone, if you know where / how to find it, and you should n't have to change who you are to get someone to like you). ''
On February 28, 2017, Universal Pictures, the studio 's new distributor and parent company since 2016, and DreamWorks Animation announced that a sequel titled Trolls 2 would be released on April 10, 2020, with Anna Kendrick and Justin Timberlake reprising their roles of Poppy and Branch. On October 4, 2017, the release date for the sequel was moved up to February 14, 2020, as Fast & Furious 9 took its original April 10, 2020 slot. Along with the new release date, it was announced that Walt Dohrn will be returning to direct and Gina Shay will return to produce the sequel. But has now switched to an April 17, 2020 release as of December 6, 2017.
Trolls Holiday is a half - hour television special that aired on November 24, 2017 on NBC. Set after the film, Poppy realizes that the Bergens have no holidays to celebrate. She enlists Branch and their friends (the Snack Pack) to show their best friend Bridget and other Bergens the importance of holidays. Most of the original cast (including Anna Kendrick, Justin Timberlake, Zooey Deschanel, Christopher Mintz - Plasse, James Corden, Ron Funches, Kunal Nayyar and Walt Dohrn) all reprise their roles from the film. The likely - Christmas Special is also directed by Joel Crawford and written by Josh Bycel & Jonathan Fener with music by Jeff Morrow. Its soundtrack album that features seven songs was released on October 27, 2017. It is now available on Netflix and on DVDs by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment, the bonus features of the DVD contains one episode of Dawn of the Croods and two of Home: Adventures with Tip & Oh.
An animated series based on the film, entitled Trolls: The Beat Goes On! that will air on Netflix. The 26 - episode series is expected to premiere on January 19, 2018. The show will have stars Amanda Leighton as Poppy, Skylar Astin as Branch, and Ron Funches who is reprising his role as Cooper.
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who was the 3rd leader of the soviet union | List of leaders of the Soviet Union - wikipedia
Under the 1977 Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the Chairman of the Council of Ministers was the head of government and the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was the head of state. The office of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers was comparable to a prime minister in the First World whereas the office of the Chairman of the Presidium was comparable to a president in the First World. In the Soviet Union 's seventy - year history there was no official leader of the Soviet Union office, but during most of that era there was a de facto top leader who usually led the country through the office of the Premier or the office of the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). In the ideology of Vladimir Lenin, the head of the Soviet state was a collegiate body of the vanguard party (see What Is To Be Done?).
Following Joseph Stalin 's consolidation of power in the 1920s, the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party became synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union because the post controlled both the Communist Party and the Soviet Government. The post of the General Secretary was abolished in 1952 under Stalin and later re-established by Nikita Khrushchev under the name of First Secretary. In 1966, Leonid Brezhnev reverted the office title to its former name. Being the head of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the office of the General Secretary was the highest in the Soviet Union until 1990. The post of General Secretary lacked clear guidelines of succession, so after the death or removal of a Soviet leader the successor usually needed the support of the Politburo, the Central Committee, or another government or party apparatus to both take and stay in power. The President of the Soviet Union, an office created in March 1990, replaced the General Secretary as the highest Soviet political office.
Contemporaneously to establishment of the office of the President, representatives of the Congress of People 's Deputies voted to remove Article 6 from the Soviet Constitution which stated that the Soviet Union was a one - party state controlled by the Communist Party which in turn played the leading role in society. This vote weakened the party and its hegemony over the Soviet Union and its people. Upon death, resignation, or removal from office of an incumbent President, the Vice President of the Soviet Union would assume the office, though the Soviet Union collapsed before this was actually tested. After the failed August coup, the Vice President was replaced by an elected member of the State Council of the Soviet Union.
Vladimir Lenin was voted the Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars of the Soviet Union (Sovnarkom) on 30 December 1922 by the Congress of Soviets. At the age of 53, his health declined from effects of two bullet wounds, later aggravated by three strokes which culminated with his death in 1924. Irrespective of his health status in his final days, Lenin was already losing much of his power to Joseph Stalin. Alexei Rykov succeeded Lenin as Chairman of the Sovnarkom and although he was de jure the most powerful person in the country, the Politburo of the Communist Party began to overshadow the Sovnarkom in the mid-1920s. By the end of the decade, Rykov merely rubber stamped the decisions predetermined by Stalin and the Politburo.
Stalin 's early policies pushed for rapid industrialisation, nationalisation of private industry and the collectivisation of private plots created under Lenin 's New Economic Policy. As leader of the Politburo, Stalin consolidated near - absolute power by 1938 after the Great Purge, a series of campaigns of political murder, repression and persecution. Nazi German troops invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, but by December the Soviet Army managed to stop the attack just shy of Moscow. On Stalin 's orders, the Soviet Union launched a counter-attack on Nazi Germany which finally succeeded in 1945. Stalin died in March 1953 and his death triggered a power struggle in which Nikita Khrushchev after several years emerged victorious against Georgy Malenkov.
Khrushchev denounced Stalin on two occasions, first in 1956 and then in 1962. His policy of de-Stalinisation earned him many enemies within the party, especially from old Stalinist appointees. Many saw this approach as destructive and destabilising. A group known as Anti-Party Group tried to oust Khrushchev from office in 1957, but it failed. As Khrushchev grew older, his erratic behavior became worse, usually making decisions without discussing or confirming them with the Politburo. Leonid Brezhnev, a close companion of Khrushchev, was elected First Secretary the same day of Khrushchev 's removal from power. Alexei Kosygin became the new Premier and Anastas Mikoyan kept his office as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. On the orders of the Politburo, Mikoyan was forced to retire in 1965 and Nikolai Podgorny took over the office of Chairman of the Presidium. The Soviet Union in the post-Khrushchev 1960s was governed by a collective leadership. Henry A. Kissinger, the American National Security Advisor, mistakenly believed that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union and that he was at the helm of Soviet foreign policy because he represented the Soviet Union at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference. The "Era of Stagnation '', a derogatory term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev, was a period marked by low socio - economic efficiency in the country and a gerontocracy ruling the country. Yuri Andropov (aged 68 at the time) succeeded Brezhnev in his post as General Secretary in 1982. In 1983, Andropov was hospitalised and rarely met up at work to chair the politburo meetings due to his declining health. Nikolai Tikhonov usually chaired the meetings in his place. Following Andropov 's death fifteen months after his appointment, an even older leader, 72 year old Konstantin Chernenko, was elected to the General Secretariat. His rule lasted for little more than a year until his death thirteen months later on 10 March 1985.
At the age of 54, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected to the General Secretariat by the Politburo on 11 March 1985. In May 1985, Gorbachev publicly admitted the slowing down of the economic development and inadequate living standards, being the first Soviet leader to do so while also beginning a series of fundamental reforms. From 1986 to around 1988, he dismantled central planning, allowed state enterprises to set their own outputs, enabled private investment in businesses not previously permitted to be privately owned and allowed foreign investment, among other measures. He also opened up the management of and decision - making within the Soviet Union and allowed greater public discussion and criticism, along with a warming of relationships with the West. These twin policies were known as perestroika (literally meaning "reconstruction '', but it varies) and glasnost ("openness '' and "transparency ''), respectively. The dismantling of the principal defining features of Soviet Communism in 1988 and 1989 in the Soviet Union led to the unintended consequence of the Soviet Union breaking up after the failed August coup of 1991 led by Gennady Yanayev.
The following list includes only those persons who held the top leadership position of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from its founding in 1922 until the party 's demise as the official "leading power '' of the Union in 1991 and in the few months aftwerward, lead the government. † denotes leaders who died in office.
On four occasions -- the 2 -- 3 year period between Vladimir Lenin 's incapacitation and Joseph Stalin 's dictatorship; the three months immediately following Stalin 's death; the interval between Nikita Khrushchev 's fall and Leonid Brezhnev 's consolidation of power; and the ailing Konstantin Chernenko 's tenure as General Secretary -- a form of collective leadership known as the troika ("triumvirate '') governed the Soviet Union, with no single individual holding leadership alone.
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do irish passport holders need a visa for israel | Visa requirements for Irish citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Irish citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Ireland. As of May 2018, Irish citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 185 countries and territories, ranking the Irish passport 5th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Belgian, Canadian, Danish and Swiss passports) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Visa requirements for Irish citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of diplomatic or official passports of Ireland have additional visa - free access to Kuwait. Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde, Ethiopia, Mali and Zimbabwe.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages which oftentimes appear after the visa pages are not counted.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries including Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea and the United States demand all travellers, or all foreign travellers, to be fingerprinted on arrival.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, together with its Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man make up a Common Travel Area where:
However, there are occasionally checks on coaches and trains moving between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Citizens of third countries must have passports and, if required, visas to travel between the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.
British visas do n't enable travel to Ireland for people without agreement with Ireland, and vice versa. (Although both the UK and the Republic are members of the European Union, neither are members of the Schengen Area so Schengen visas are not valid for travel to the Common Travel Area. Air and sea passengers travelling between the Common Travel Area and the Schengen Area are subject to systematic passport / identity checks.)
As citizens of the European Union, all Irish citizens have the right to seek consular assistance and protection from embassies of fellow EU member states when they are in a non-EU country without an Irish embassy.
See also List of diplomatic missions of Ireland.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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who is the actress who plays teddy on grace and frankie | Grace and Frankie - Wikipedia
Grace and Frankie is an American comedy - drama web television series created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris for Netflix. The series stars Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the title roles of Grace and Frankie, two unlikely friends who are brought together after their husbands announce that they are in love and plan to get married. Sam Waterston, Martin Sheen, Brooklyn Decker, Ethan Embry, June Diane Raphael, and Baron Vaughn co-star in supporting roles. It premiered on Netflix on May 8, 2015, with all 13 episodes of the first season released simultaneously. The second, third, and fourth seasons, also consisting of 13 episodes each, have been released on May 6, 2016, March 24, 2017, and January 19, 2018, respectively.
Despite mixed reviews upon its debut, the series was met with a more positive critical reception towards its later seasons and has received several nominations, including four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy.
On February 15, 2018, Grace and Frankie was renewed for a fifth season.
The series follows Grace, a retired cosmetics mogul, and Frankie, a hippie art teacher, whose husbands, Robert and Sol, are successful divorce lawyers in San Diego. Grace and Frankie 's lives are turned upside down when Robert and Sol announce that they are in love with each other and are leaving their wives. Now, the women, who have never particularly liked each other, are forced to live together and learn to unite and cope with difficulties.
In March 2014, Netflix finalized a deal for a 13 - episode straight - to - series order for Grace and Frankie, with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin attached to star in the lead roles. The series was written and created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris, who also serve as executive producers alongside Fonda, Tomlin, Paula Weinstein and Tate Taylor, and Skydance Productions ' Dana Goldberg, David Ellison and Marcy Ross.
On May 26, 2015, Netflix renewed the series for a second season which premiered on May 6, 2016.
On December 10, 2016, the series was renewed for a third season which premiered on March 24, 2017.
On April 12, 2017, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on January 19, 2018.
On February 15, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season, with RuPaul announced to guest star as a rival of Grace & Frankie.
Casting announcements began in June 2014, with Martin Sheen cast in the role of Robert, Grace 's husband. The following month, Sam Waterston was cast in the role of Sol, Frankie 's husband. June Diane Raphael and Baron Vaughn were then added to the cast, with Raphael cast in the role of Brianna, Grace and Robert 's elder daughter, who rebels against Grace 's decorum. Vaughn signed onto the role of Nwabudike, Frankie and Sol 's son. Shortly afterwards, Ethan Embry and Brooklyn Decker were cast in the remaining roles on the series. Embry joined in the role of Coyote, Frankie and Sol 's recovering drug addicted son, while Decker signed onto the role of Mallory, Grace and Robert 's younger daughter. In October 2015, it was announced Sam Elliott would appear in the second season as Grace 's love interest. In April 2017, it was reported that Lisa Kudrow will appear in the fourth season as Sheree, Grace 's manicurist. In February 2018, the same day as the fifth season was commissioned, RuPaul was confirmed to appear in the fifth season as a rival of Grace and Frankie.
Production on season one of Grace and Frankie began in Los Angeles, California, in early August 2014, and ended in late November. Production on season two of the series began in July 2015, and ended in November the same year.
The first season of Grace and Frankie received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 50 %, based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Grace and Frankie 's stellar cast adds an undeniable appeal, although its sloppy dialogue and clichéd sitcom setup will still leave most viewers wanting. '' On Metacritic the season has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The second season received a more positive reception from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 89 %, based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews ''. Jasef Wisener of TVOvermind gave the second season a 4.5 / 5, calling it "heartfelt and hilarious '' and "a huge improvement over the sometimes sluggish first season. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 100 %, based on 5 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10.
After the show 's release, Tomlin and Fonda expressed displeasure once it became public that their salaries were just equal to those of Sheen and Waterston, even though "the show is not ' Sol and Robert ', it 's ' Grace and Frankie, ' '' in the words of Lily Tomlin, and contended this constituted a significant pay inequity. Shortly thereafter, Sheen and Waterston went on the record to support their co-stars ' demands for a salary increase, with Waterston being quoted as saying: "I think they 're being cheated ''. After fans of the show gathered nearly 200,000 signatures on a petition protesting the disparity, the two actresses issued a public statement backing away from criticism, saying: "This just reminds us to be mindful of how things come across in interviews. We appreciate everyone 's support and the attention to this issue, but the structure of Grace and Frankie is fair, and we could n't be happier to work with Skydance, Netflix and the great cast of this show. '' Fonda and Tomlin made a statement to The Wrap that they were never unhappy with the salaries to start with and that they had "made a joke in an interview about our salaries, which was taken out of context. ''
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who won for the love of ray j season 1 | For the Love of Ray J (season 1) - wikipedia
For the Love of Ray J is a dating show on VH1 featuring hip hop singer Ray J. The program has a format similar to Flavor of Love, I Love New York, and Rock of Love. One source notes that it "will be produced by the same geniuses '' as those shows, 51 Minds. In reference to the series, Ray J said:
The show, which premiered on February 2, 2009, follows Ray J and his entourage of female suitors to clubs in Los Angeles, to Las Vegas where they 'll party with his friends, and to Ray 's childhood home where they 'll meet his family and older sister Brandy Norwood.
According to one commentator, the concept of the show involves pampering the contestants with "upscale trips throughout the series '' and "Ray J 's so in love that he 's already given participating girls names like Cashmere, Unique and Hot Cocoa. ''
First aired February 2, 2009
Multi-platinum hip - hop artist Ray J has traveled the world and lived the life of a superstar, but now he 's ready to find true love. 14 lovely women join Ray at an exclusive concert in Hollywood where Ray performs his hit single "Sexy Can I ''. After the stunning performance, they are whisked away to Ray J 's palatial mansion and treated to a sumptuous dinner, as well as more and more drinks. After one - on - one interviews marked by stripper splits, drunkenness and tears, Ray sends two of the girls home.
First Aired February 9, 2009
Because Ray is on the road as a performer so much, he 's looking for a woman who can keep him interested and entertained while he 's away from home. So Ray challenges his ladies to impress him with a "video chat. '' Almost all of the ladies do just that, but the three that impressed him the most go on a sexy yacht date where he learns from them that one of the girls in the house may still have a boyfriend at home. At eliminations, Ray realizes not just one, but two more girls are n't fit to stay in the house and must go home.
First aired February 16, 2009 (2.254 M viewers)
Ray J 's house has quickly become divided between the diva / party girls and the darling / conservative girls. In search of a girl who really knows him, Ray creates a challenge to test the girls - The Foxy Feud Challenge. Ray splits the girls into the two cliques in the house - the Divas and the Darlings - to see who 's been paying attention. Pushed to know the most about Ray, one team easily wins the challenge. The captain of the winning team and Ray go out for a personal and romantic evening that goes perfectly until she reveals information that shocks Ray and makes him think about what he is really looking for. At eliminations, the situation becomes tense when some girls are called out and another girl is sent home.
Ray J has the girls play a game called "Foxy Feud '' which is a parody of Family Feud.
First Aired February 23, 2009
Ray 's down to 9 girls, so he challenges them to see if they can be a part of his musical life with a Motown - inspired singing challenge! The girls will be judged on singing ability, choreography, style and overall performance. One girl 's questionable relationship is revealed and another 's advances prove too much for Ray 's taste -- and yet another young lady is sent packing.
First Aired March 2, 2009 (2.434 M viewers)
A lot of tension has been building in the house between the girls so Ray decides everyone needs to blow off some steam for the next challenge. With the help of renowned boxing trainer Jack Mosley, the girls get a lesson in boxing basics before they take on one another in some very intense ring fighting! The winning team gets a night at a hot dance club with Ray for some fun and craziness. Feeling the freedom of getting out of the house some of the girls get a little too loose on the date... leading Ray to once again weed through the girls who are there for the wrong reasons.
First aired March 16, 2009 (2.701 M viewers)
Tensions continue to rise as the cliques in the house clash even further. Ray asks to find out about the girls ' passions and it turns out that four of them love to be scantily clad, no matter what they 're doing. Later Ray takes all the girls out on a date and finds out a shocking secret about one girl 's past. The next day, Ray takes two girls on a steamy pool date, and one girl is pushed to her emotional limit, leading to a stunning tear - filled ending.
First aired March 23, 2009 (2.346 M viewers)
If Ray is going to choose one of the girls to be his one and only, she 's going to have to not only work well with children but also cook a mean meal. So Ray sets up a challenge to test just that, he asks the girls to cook and raise money for his favorite charity -- The Norwood Kids Foundation. Things of course spiral out of control but a winning team emerges and they are treated to a special date where Ray learns even more about the other girls. Backstabbing and general sneakiness prevail as another girl is sent home for ultimately being the wrong girl for Ray.
First aired March 30, 2009
To help with his next challenge Ray invites someone he trusts the most to ask the toughest questions of all the girls through a lie detector test. When the truth is laid bare, everyone is shocked by what they hear and nothing in the house will be the same. At eliminations Ray explains that everyone has a past and instead of eliminating one for a checkered past she is celebrated for her honesty -- but still another girl is sent home, but this time not for the usual reasons.
Episode Notes
First aired April 6, 2009 (3.164 M viewers)
Ray is down to his final three girls and he pulls out all the stops by introducing them to a grilling by his closest friends and then an intimate yet brutal dinner with his mother and father. One girls ' story may be too controversial for Ray to accept but in the end his decision shocks the girls so much - one is rushed to the hospital in an ending that is unforgettable!
Episode Notes
First Aired April 13, 2009
In this hour - long special, Ray sits down with the viewers to reveal never - before - seen footage of moments in and out of the house. Also, Ray revisits some of the classic moments from the series including play - by - play commentary. He 'll show you extended clips from your favorite scenes and all the stuff you wanted to see but could n't show you. From cat fights to all night parties to your favorite banana split... this clip show will be the ultimate recap of your favorite TV show.
Never Seen Clips
First aired April 20, 2009 (4.22 M viewers)
After the three remaining girls were given a chance to meet all of Ray 's friends and family, Ray decides he needs to flip the script and go and meet their families. But the journey for Danger has become too much and she must leave the house before they go any further. In a shocking farewell, she packs her bags and says goodbye, but that this matter is far from finished!. The show must go on however, so Ray and the remaining two girls pack their bags. Unique 's turn is first, so she gets on Ray 's private jet to travel to Cleveland to meet her parents! Meanwhile arrangements are made for Cocktail to fly to Sacramento to be ready at the airport when he arrives. After quite an intense experience with Unique 's family, Ray J leaves in his private jet for Sacramento to meet up with Cocktail, leaving Unique behind in Cleveland, but arranging for her flight to Las Vegas to meet later. Ray 's goal of getting a better understanding of the two remaining girls works when he learns more than he ever expected. His experience with Cocktail 's family is quite a different one from Unique 's family! After meeting the ladies ' families Ray decides that it 's time to finish things right... so he and Cocktail get back on the jet and head to Vegas, where they meet up with Unique, much to Cocktail 's buzzkill. So Ray spends quality time with each girl.
Episode Notes
Reasons for Elimination
First aired April 27, 2009 (3.753 M viewers)
Ray J and all of the women gather to relive the highs and lows of a season that changed their lives forever. Along the way, voices will be raised and tears will be shed. This is one reunion show you ca n't miss!
Episode Notes
Bonus Clips
Host: La La Vasquez
On June 10, 2009, Cocktail announced on her MySpace page that she and Ray were no longer a couple, and had "not been together for a while now. '' Two days later, she alleged in an interview that Ray J had hurt her by lying to her about whether there would be a second season of the show, and that the "breaking point '' came on tour when she realized that he was still "hooking up '' with other girls, but that 's when Ray J realized that she was serious about the relationship he was honest with her and told her that it was "not going to work out. ''
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who has the most single season home runs | List of major league baseball progressive single - season home run leaders - Wikipedia
The Major League Baseball single - season record for the number of home runs hit by a batter has changed many times over the years.
Summarized from The Baseball Encyclopedia for older information, and from various news stories for newer information:
Number of home runs in the season divided by number of games in schedule (not games played)
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when did daylight savings time start in alberta | Alberta general election, 1967 - wikipedia
Ernest Manning Social Credit
Ernest Manning Social Credit
The Alberta general election of 1967 was the sixteenth general election for the Province of Alberta, Canada. It was held on May 23, 1967 to elect members of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta.
Ernest C. Manning led the Social Credit Party to its ninth consecutive majority government, winning 55 of the 65 seats in the legislature, despite getting less than 45 % of the popular vote. This proved to be an ominous sign for the party; it had not won less than half the popular vote since 1955.
The once - moribund Progressive Conservatives, led by young lawyer Peter Lougheed, emerged as the main opposition to Social Credit. They won over a quarter of the popular vote and six seats, mostly in Calgary and Edmonton. Social Credit was slow to adapt to the changes in Alberta as its two largest cities gained increasing influence.
Despite losing close to half of the share of the popular vote they had won in the 1963 election, the Liberals managed to increase their number of seats from two to three as a result of the decline in the Social Credit vote.
Voters also decided upon the adoption of daylight saving time, in a province - wide plebiscite. It was defeated by a very slim margin with 51.25 % voting against.
This was the first Alberta election in which Treaty Indians had the right to vote.
Note:
* Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election
The Province of Alberta voted on its fifth provincial plebiscite. Voters were asked to endorse a proposal to adopt daylight saving time (summer time). The proposal was rejected by a very slim margin. The question was asked again in the next election, and passed at that time.
For break down of results see individual districts
For complete electoral history, see individual districts.
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is bank of america a commercial bank or credit union | Bank of America - Wikipedia
Bank of America Corporation (abbreviated as BOFA) is a multinational banking and financial services corporation headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. It is ranked 2nd on the list of largest banks in the United States by assets. As of 2016, Bank of America was the 26th largest company in the United States by total revenue. In 2016, it was ranked # 11 on the Forbes Magazine Global 2000 list of largest companies in the world.
Its acquisition of Merrill Lynch in 2008 made it the world 's largest wealth management corporation and a major player in the investment banking market. As of December 31, 2016, it had US $ 886.148 billion in assets under management (AUM).
As of December 31, 2016, the company held 10.73 % of all bank deposits in the United States. It is one of the Big Four banks in the United States, along with Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase and Wells Fargo -- its main competitors. Bank of America operates -- but does not necessarily maintain retail branches -- in all 50 states of the United States, the District of Columbia and more than 40 other countries. It has a retail banking footprint that serves approximately 46 million consumer and small business relationships at 4,600 banking centers and 15,900 automated teller machines (ATMs).
Bank of America provides its products and services through 4,600 retail financial centers, approximately 15,900 automated teller machines, call centers, and online and mobile banking platforms. Its Consumer Real Estate Services segment offers consumer real estate products comprising both fixed and adjustable - rate first - lien mortgage loans for home purchase and refinancing needs, home equity lines of credit, and home equity loans.
Bank of America has been the subject of many lawsuits and investigations regarding both mortgages and financial disclosures dating back to the financial crisis, including a record settlement of $16.65 billion on August 21, 2014.
The history of Bank of America dates back to October 17, 1904, when Amadeo Pietro Giannini founded the Bank of Italy in San Francisco. The Bank of Italy served the needs of many immigrants settling in the United States at that time, providing services denied to them by the existing American banks which typically discriminated against them and often denied service to all but the wealthiest. Giannini was raised by his mother and stepfather Lorenzo Scatena, as his father was fatally shot over a pay dispute with an employee. When the 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck, Giannini was able to save all deposits out of the bank building and away from the fires. Because San Francisco 's banks were in smoldering ruins and unable to open their vaults, Giannini was able to use the rescued funds to commence lending within a few days of the disaster. From a makeshift desk consisting of a few planks over two barrels, he lent money to those who wished to rebuild.
In 1922, Giannini established Bank of America and Italy. In 1986, Deutsche Bank AG acquired 100 % of Banca d'America e d'Italia, a bank established in Naples in 1917 following the name - change of Banca dell'Italia Meridionale with the latter established in 1918. In 1918 another corporation, Bancitaly Corporation, was organized by A.P. Giannini, the largest stockholder of which was Stockholders Auxiliary Corporation. This company acquired the stocks of various banks located in New York City and certain foreign countries.
In 1928 Giannini merged his bank with Bank of America, Los Angeles, headed by Orra E. Monnette and consolidated it with other bank holdings to create what would become the largest banking institution in the country. Bank of Italy was renamed on November 3, 1930 to Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association, which was the only such designated bank in the United States of America at that time. Giannini and Monnette headed the resulting company, serving as co-chairs.
Branch banking was introduced by Giannini shortly after 1909 legislation in California that allowed for branch banking in the state. Its first branch outside San Francisco was established in 1909 in San Jose. By 1929, the bank had 453 banking offices in California with aggregate resources of over US $1.4 billion. There is a replica of the 1909 Bank of Italy branch bank in History Park in San Jose, and the 1925 Bank of Italy Building is an important downtown landmark. Giannini sought to build a national bank, expanding into most of the western states as well as into the insurance industry, under the aegis of his holding company, Transamerica Corporation. In 1953, regulators succeeded in forcing the separation of Transamerica Corporation and Bank of America under the Clayton Antitrust Act. The passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 prohibited banks from owning non-banking subsidiaries such as insurance companies. Bank of America and Transamerica were separated, with the latter company continuing in the insurance business. However, federal banking regulators prohibited Bank of America 's interstate banking activity, and Bank of America 's domestic banks outside California were forced into a separate company that eventually became First Interstate Bancorp, later acquired by Wells Fargo and Company in 1996. It was not until the 1980s with a change in federal banking legislation and regulation that Bank of America was again able to expand its domestic consumer banking activity outside California.
New technologies also allowed credit cards to be linked directly to individual bank accounts. In 1958, the bank introduced the BankAmericard, which changed its name to Visa in 1977. A consortium of other California banks introduced Master Charge (now MasterCard) to compete with BankAmericard.
Following the passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, BankAmerica Corporation was established for the purpose of owning and operation of Bank of America and its subsidiaries.
Bank of America expanded outside California in 1983 with its acquisition, orchestrated in part by Stephen McLin, of Seafirst Corporation of Seattle, Washington, and its wholly owned banking subsidiary, Seattle - First National Bank. Seafirst was at risk of seizure by the federal government after becoming insolvent due to a series of bad loans to the oil industry. BankAmerica continued to operate its new subsidiary as Seafirst rather than Bank of America until the 1998 merger with NationsBank.
BankAmerica experienced huge losses in 1986 and 1987 by the placement of a series of bad loans in the Third World, particularly in Latin America. The company fired its CEO, Sam Armacost. Though Armacost blamed the problems on his predecessor, A.W. (Tom) Clausen, Clausen was appointed to replace Armacost. The losses resulted in a huge decline of BankAmerica stock, making it vulnerable to a hostile takeover. First Interstate Bancorp of Los Angeles (which had originated from banks once owned by BankAmerica), launched such a bid in the fall of 1986, although BankAmerica rebuffed it, mostly by selling operations. It sold its FinanceAmerica subsidiary to Chrysler and the brokerage firm Charles Schwab and Co. back to Mr. Schwab. It also sold Bank of America and Italy to Deutsche Bank. By the time of the 1987 stock market crash, BankAmerica 's share price had fallen to $8, but by 1992 it had rebounded mightily to become one of the biggest gainers of that half - decade.
BankAmerica 's next big acquisition came in 1992. The company acquired its California rival, Security Pacific Corporation and its subsidiary Security Pacific National Bank in California and other banks in Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington (which Security Pacific had acquired in a series of acquisitions in the late 1980s). This was, at the time, the largest bank acquisition in history. Federal regulators, however, forced the sale of roughly half of Security Pacific 's Washington subsidiary, the former Rainier Bank, as the combination of Seafirst and Security Pacific Washington would have given BankAmerica too large a share of the market in that state. The Washington branches were divided and sold to West One Bancorp (now U.S. Bancorp) and KeyBank. Later that year, BankAmerica expanded into Nevada by acquiring Valley Bank of Nevada.
In 1994, BankAmerica acquired the Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Co. of Chicago, which had become federally owned as part of the same oil industry debacle emanating from Oklahoma City 's Penn Square Bank, that had brought down numerous financial institutions including Seafirst. At the time, no bank possessed the resources to bail out Continental, so the federal government operated the bank for nearly a decade. Illinois at that time regulated branch banking extremely heavily, so Bank of America Illinois was a single - unit bank until the 21st century. BankAmerica moved its national lending department to Chicago in an effort to establish a financial beachhead in the region.
These mergers helped BankAmerica Corporation to once again become the largest U.S. bank holding company in terms of deposits, but the company fell to second place in 1997 behind North Carolina 's fast - growing NationsBank Corporation, and to third in 1998 First Union Corp.
On the capital markets side, the acquisition of Continental Illinois helped BankAmerica to build a leveraged finance origination and distribution business (Continental Illinois had extensive leveraged lending relationships) which allowed the firm 's existing broker - dealer, BancAmerica Securities (originally named BA Securities), to become a full - service franchise. In addition, in 1997, BankAmerica acquired Robertson Stephens, a San Francisco -- based investment bank specializing in high technology for $540 million. Robertson Stephens was integrated into BancAmerica Securities and the combined subsidiary was renamed BancAmerica Robertson Stephens.
In 1997, Bank of America lent D.E. Shaw & Co., a large hedge fund, $1.4 billion in order to run various businesses for the bank. However, D.E. Shaw suffered significant loss after the 1998 Russia bond default. BankAmerica was acquired by NationsBank of Charlotte in October 1998 in what was the largest bank acquisition in history at that time.
While NationsBank was the nominal survivor, the merged bank took the better - known name of Bank of America. Hence, the holding company was renamed Bank of America Corporation, while NationsBank, N.A. merged with Bank of America NT&SA to form Bank of America, N.A. as the remaining legal bank entity. The combined bank still operates under Federal Charter 13044, which was granted to Giannini 's Bank of Italy on March 1, 1927. However, the merged company is headquartered in Charlotte and retains NationsBank 's pre-1998 stock price history. Additionally, all U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings before 1998 are listed under NationsBank, not Bank of America. NationsBank president, chairman and CEO Hugh McColl took on the same roles with the merged company.
Bank of America possessed combined assets of $570 billion, as well as 4,800 branches in 22 states. Despite the mammoth size of the two companies, federal regulators insisted only upon the divestiture of 13 branches in New Mexico, in towns that would be left with only a single bank following the combination. (Branch divestitures are only required if the combined company will have a larger than 25 % Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) deposit market share in a particular state or 10 % deposit market share overall.) In addition, the combined broker - dealer, created from the integration of BancAmerica Robertson Stephens and NationsBanc Montgomery Securities, was named Banc of America Securities in 1998.
In 2001, McColl stepped down and named Ken Lewis as his successor.
In 2004, Bank of America announced it would purchase Boston - based bank FleetBoston Financial for $47 billion in cash and stock. By merging with Bank of America, all of its banks and branches were given the Bank of America logo. At the time of merger, FleetBoston was the seventh largest bank in United States with $197 billion in assets, over 20 million customers and revenue of $12 billion. Hundreds of FleetBoston workers lost their jobs or were demoted, according to The Boston Globe.
On June 30, 2005, Bank of America announced it would purchase credit card giant MBNA for $35 billion in cash and stock. The Federal Reserve Board gave final approval to the merger on December 15, 2005, and the merger closed on January 1, 2006. The acquisition of MBNA provided Bank of America a leading domestic and foreign credit card issuer. The combined Bank of America Card Services organization, including the former MBNA, had more than 40 million U.S. accounts and nearly $140 billion in outstanding balances. Under Bank of America the operation was renamed FIA Card Services.
Bank of America operated under the name BankBoston in many other Latin American countries, including Brazil. In 2006, Bank of America sold BankBoston 's operations to Brazilian bank Banco Itaú, in exchange for Itaú shares. The BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction and, as part of the sale agreement, can not be used by Bank of America (ending the BankBoston brand).
In May 2006, Bank of America and Banco Itaú (Investimentos Itaú S.A.) entered into an acquisition agreement through which Itaú agreed to acquire BankBoston 's operations in Brazil and was granted an exclusive right to purchase Bank of America 's operations in Chile and Uruguay. The deal was signed in August 2006 under which Itaú agreed to purchase Bank of America 's operations in Chile and Uruguay. Prior to the transaction, BankBoston 's Brazilian operations included asset management, private banking, a credit card portfolio, and small, middle - market, and large corporate segments. It had 66 branches and 203,000 clients in Brazil. BankBoston in Chile had 44 branches and 58,000 clients and in Uruguay it had 15 branches. In addition, there was a credit card company, OCA, in Uruguay, which had 23 branches. BankBoston N.A. in Uruguay, together with OCA, jointly served 372,000 clients. While the BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction, as part of the sale agreement, they can not be used by Bank of America in Brazil, Chile or Uruguay following the transactions. Hence, the BankBoston name has disappeared from Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The Itaú stock received by Bank of America in the transactions has allowed Bank of America 's stake in Itaú to reach 11.51 %. Banco de Boston de Brazil had been founded in 1947.
On November 20, 2006, Bank of America announced the purchase of The United States Trust Company for $3.3 billion, from the Charles Schwab Corporation. US Trust had about $100 billion of assets under management and over 150 years of experience. The deal closed July 1, 2007.
On September 14, 2007, Bank of America won approval from the Federal Reserve to acquire LaSalle Bank Corporation from ABN AMRO for $21 billion. With this purchase, Bank of America possessed $1.7 trillion in assets. A Dutch court blocked the sale until it was later approved in July. The acquisition was completed on October 1, 2007. Many of LaSalle 's branches and offices had already taken over smaller regional banks within the previous decade, such as Lansing and Detroit based Michigan National Bank.
The deal increased Bank of America 's presence in Illinois, Michigan, and Indiana by 411 branches, 17,000 commercial bank clients, 1.4 million retail customers, and 1,500 ATMs. Bank of America became the largest bank in the Chicago market with 197 offices and 14 % of the deposit share, surpassing JPMorgan Chase.
LaSalle Bank and LaSalle Bank Midwest branches adopted the Bank of America name on May 5, 2008.
Ken Lewis, who had lost the title of Chairman of the Board, announced that he would retire as CEO effective December 31, 2009, in part due to controversy and legal investigations concerning the purchase of Merrill Lynch. Brian Moynihan became President and CEO effective January 1, 2010, and afterward credit card charge offs and delinquencies declined in January. Bank of America also repaid the $45 billion it had received from the Troubled Assets Relief Program.
On August 23, 2007, the company announced a $2 billion repurchase agreement for Countrywide Financial. This purchase of preferred stock was arranged to provide a return on investment of 7.25 % per annum and provided the option to purchase common stock at a price of $18 per share.
On January 11, 2008, Bank of America announced that it would buy Countrywide Financial for $4.1 billion. In March 2008, it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was investigating Countrywide for possible fraud relating to home loans and mortgages. This news did not hinder the acquisition, which was completed in July 2008, giving the bank a substantial market share of the mortgage business, and access to Countrywide 's resources for servicing mortgages. The acquisition was seen as preventing a potential bankruptcy for Countrywide. Countrywide, however, denied that it was close to bankruptcy. Countrywide provided mortgage servicing for nine million mortgages valued at $1.4 trillion as of December 31, 2007.
This purchase made Bank of America Corporation the leading mortgage originator and servicer in the U.S., controlling 20 -- 25 % of the home loan market. The deal was structured to merge Countrywide with the Red Oak Merger Corporation, which Bank of America created as an independent subsidiary. It has been suggested that the deal was structured this way to prevent a potential bankruptcy stemming from large losses in Countrywide hurting the parent organization by keeping Countrywide bankruptcy remote. Countrywide Financial has changed its name to Bank of America Home Loans.
In December 2011, the Justice Department announced a $335 million settlement with Bank of America over discriminatory lending practice at Countrywide Financial. Attorney General Eric Holder said a federal probe found discrimination against qualified African - American and Latino borrowers from 2004 to 2008. He said that minority borrowers who qualified for prime loans were steered into higher - interest - rate subprime loans.
On September 14, 2008, Bank of America announced its intention to purchase Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. in an all - stock deal worth approximately $50 billion. Merrill Lynch was at the time within days of collapse, and the acquisition effectively saved Merrill from bankruptcy. Around the same time Bank of America was reportedly also in talks to purchase Lehman Brothers, however a lack of government guarantees caused the bank to abandon talks with Lehman. Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy the same day Bank of America announced its plans to acquire Merrill Lynch. This acquisition made Bank of America the largest financial services company in the world. Temasek Holdings, the largest shareholder of Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc., briefly became one of the largest shareholders of Bank of America, with a 3 % stake. However, taking a loss Reuters estimated at $3 billion, the Singapore sovereign wealth fund sold its whole stake in Bank of America in the first quarter of 2009.
Shareholders of both companies approved the acquisition on December 5, 2008, and the deal closed January 1, 2009. Bank of America had planned to retain various members of the then Merrill Lynch 's CEO, John Thain 's management team after the merger. However, after Thain was removed from his position, most of his allies left. The departure of Nelson Chai, who had been named Asia - Pacific president, left just one of Thain 's hires in place: Tom Montag, head of sales and trading.
The bank, in its January 16, 2009 earnings release, revealed massive losses at Merrill Lynch in the fourth quarter, which necessitated an infusion of money that had previously been negotiated with the government as part of the government - persuaded deal for the bank to acquire Merrill. Merrill recorded an operating loss of $21.5 billion in the quarter, mainly in its sales and trading operations, led by Tom Montag. The bank also disclosed it tried to abandon the deal in December after the extent of Merrill 's trading losses surfaced, but was compelled to complete the merger by the U.S. government. The bank 's stock price sank to $7.18, its lowest level in 17 years, after announcing earnings and the Merrill mishap. The market capitalization of Bank of America, including Merrill Lynch, was then $45 billion, less than the $50 billion it offered for Merrill just four months earlier, and down $108 billion from the merger announcement.
Bank of America CEO Kenneth Lewis testified before Congress that he had some misgivings about the acquisition of Merrill Lynch, and that federal officials pressured him to proceed with the deal or face losing his job and endangering the bank 's relationship with federal regulators.
Lewis ' statement is backed up by internal emails subpoenaed by Republican lawmakers on the House Oversight Committee. In one of the emails, Richmond Federal Reserve President Jeffrey Lacker threatened that if the acquisition did not go through, and later Bank of America were forced to request federal assistance, the management of Bank of America would be "gone ''. Other emails, read by Congressman Dennis Kucinich during the course of Lewis ' testimony, state that Mr. Lewis had foreseen the outrage from his shareholders that the purchase of Merrill would cause, and asked government regulators to issue a letter stating that the government had ordered him to complete the deal to acquire Merrill. Lewis, for his part, states he did n't recall requesting such a letter.
The acquisition made Bank of America the number one underwriter of global high - yield debt, the third largest underwriter of global equity and the ninth largest adviser on global mergers and acquisitions. As the credit crisis eased, losses at Merrill Lynch subsided, and the subsidiary generated $3.7 billion of Bank of America 's $4.2 billion in profit by the end of quarter one in 2009, and over 25 % in quarter 3 2009.
On September 28, 2012, Bank of America settled the class action lawsuit over the Merrill Lynch acquisition and will pay $2.43 billion. This was one of the first major securities class action lawsuits stemming from the financial crisis of 2007 - 2008 to settle. Many major financial institutions had a stake in this lawsuit, including Chicago Clearing Corporation, hedge funds, and bank trusts, due to the belief that Bank of America stock was a sure investment.
Bank of America received $20 billion in the federal bailout from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) on January 16, 2009, and a guarantee of $118 billion in potential losses at the company. This was in addition to the $25 billion given to them in the fall of 2008 through TARP. The additional payment was part of a deal with the U.S. government to preserve Bank of America 's merger with the troubled investment firm Merrill Lynch. Since then, members of the U.S. Congress have expressed considerable concern about how this money has been spent, especially since some of the recipients have been accused of misusing the bailout money. Then CEO Ken Lewis was quoted as claiming "We are still lending, and we are lending far more because of the TARP program. '' Members of the U.S. House of Representatives, however, were skeptical and quoted many anecdotes about loan applicants (particularly small business owners) being denied loans and credit card holders facing stiffer terms on the debt in their card accounts.
According to a March 15, 2009, article in The New York Times, Bank of America received an additional $5.2 billion in government bailout money, channeled through American International Group.
As a result of its federal bailout and management problems, The Wall Street Journal reported that the Bank of America was operating under a secret "memorandum of understanding '' (MOU) from the U.S. government that requires it to "overhaul its board and address perceived problems with risk and liquidity management ''. With the federal action, the institution has taken several steps, including arranging for six of its directors to resign and forming a Regulatory Impact Office. Bank of America faces several deadlines in July and August and if not met, could face harsher penalties by federal regulators. Bank of America did not respond to The Wall Street Journal story.
On December 2, 2009, Bank of America announced it would repay the entire $45 billion it received in TARP and exit the program, using $26.2 billion of excess liquidity along with $18.6 billion to be gained in "common equivalent securities '' (Tier 1 capital). The bank announced it had completed the repayment on December 9. Bank of America 's Ken Lewis said during the announcement, "We appreciate the critical role that the U.S. government played last fall in helping to stabilize financial markets, and we are pleased to be able to fully repay the investment, with interest... As America 's largest bank, we have a responsibility to make good on the taxpayers ' investment, and our record shows that we have been able to fulfill that commitment while continuing to lend. ''
On August 3, 2009, Bank of America agreed to pay a $33 million fine, without admission or denial of charges, to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over the non-disclosure of an agreement to pay up to $5.8 billion of bonuses at Merrill. The bank approved the bonuses before the merger but did not disclose them to its shareholders when the shareholders were considering approving the Merrill acquisition, in December 2008. The issue was originally investigated by New York State Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, who commented after the suit and announced settlement that "the timing of the bonuses, as well as the disclosures relating to them, constituted a ' surprising fit of corporate irresponsibility ' '' and "our investigation of these and other matters pursuant to New York 's Martin Act will continue. '' Congressman Kucinich commented at the same time that "This may not be the last fine that Bank of America pays for how it handled its merger of Merrill Lynch. '' A federal judge, Jed Rakoff, in an unusual action, refused to approve the settlement on August 5. A first hearing before the judge on August 10 was at times heated, and he was "sharply critic (al) '' of the bonuses. David Rosenfeld represented the SEC, and Lewis J. Liman, son of Arthur L. Liman, represented the bank. The actual amount of bonuses paid was $3.6 billion, of which $850 million was "guaranteed '' and the rest was shared amongst 39,000 workers who received average payments of $91,000; 696 people received more than $1 million in bonuses; at least one person received a more than $33 million bonus.
On September 14, the judge rejected the settlement and told the parties to prepare for trial to begin no later than February 1, 2010. The judge focused much of his criticism on the fact that the fine in the case would be paid by the bank 's shareholders, who were the ones that were supposed to have been injured by the lack of disclosure. He wrote, "It is quite something else for the very management that is accused of having lied to its shareholders to determine how much of those victims ' money should be used to make the case against the management go away, ''... "The proposed settlement, '' the judge continued, "suggests a rather cynical relationship between the parties: the S.E.C. gets to claim that it is exposing wrongdoing on the part of the Bank of America in a high - profile merger; the bank 's management gets to claim that they have been coerced into an onerous settlement by overzealous regulators. And all this is done at the expense, not only of the shareholders, but also of the truth. ''
While ultimately deferring to the SEC, in February 2010, Judge Rakoff approved a revised settlement with a $150 million fine "reluctantly '', calling the accord "half - baked justice at best '' and "inadequate and misguided ''. Addressing one of the concerns he raised in September, the fine will be "distributed only to Bank of America shareholders harmed by the non-disclosures, or ' legacy shareholders ', an improvement on the prior $33 million while still "paltry '', according to the judge. Case: SEC v. Bank of America Corp., 09 - cv - 06829, United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.
Investigations also were held on this issue in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, under chairman Edolphus Towns (D - NY) and in its investigative Domestic Policy Subcommittee under Kucinich.
In 2010, the bank was accused by the U.S. government of defrauding schools, hospitals, and dozens of state and local government organizations via misconduct and illegal activities involving the investment of proceeds from municipal bond sales. As a result, the bank agreed to pay $137.7 million, including $25 million to the Internal Revenue service and $4.5 million to state attorney general, to the affected organizations to settle the allegations.
Former bank official Douglas Campbell pleaded guilty to antitrust, conspiracy and wire fraud charges. As of January 2011, other bankers and brokers are under indictment or investigation.
On October 24, 2012, the top federal prosecutor in Manhattan filed a lawsuit alleging that Bank of America fraudulently cost American taxpayers more than $1 billion when Countrywide Financial sold toxic mortgages to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The scheme was called ' Hustle ', or High Speed Swim Lane. On May 23, 2016 the Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the finding of fact by the jury that low quality mortgages were supplied by Countrywide to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in the "Hustle '' case supported only "intentional breach of contract, '' not fraud. The action, for civil fraud, relied on provisions of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act. The decision turned on lack of intent to defraud at the time the contract to supply mortgages was made.
During 2011, Bank of America began conducting personnel reductions of an estimated 36,000 people, contributing to intended savings of $5 billion per year by 2014.
In December 2011, Forbes ranked Bank of America 's financial health 91st out of the nation 's largest 100 banks and thrift institutions.
Bank of America cut around 16,000 jobs in a quicker fashion by the end of 2012 as revenue continued to decline because of new regulations and a slow economy. This put a plan one year ahead of time to eliminate 30,000 jobs under a cost - cutting program, called Project New BAC. In the first quarter of 2014 Berkshire bank purchased 20 Bank of America branches in Central and eastern New York for 14.4 million dollars. The branches were from Utica / Rome region and down the Mohawk Valley east to the capital region.
In April and May 2014, Bank of America sold two dozen branches in Michigan to Huntington Bancshares. The locations were converted to Huntington National Bank branches in September.
As part of its new strategy Bank of America is focused on growing its mobile banking platform. As of 2014, Bank of America has 31 million active online users and 16 million mobile users. Its retail banking branches have decreased to 4,900 as a result of increased mobile banking use and a decline in customer branch visits.
In 2005, Bank of America acquired a 9 % stake in China Construction Bank, one of the Big Four banks in China, for $3 billion. It represented the company 's largest foray into China 's growing banking sector. Bank of America has offices in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Guangzhou and was looking to greatly expand its Chinese business as a result of this deal. In 2008, Bank of America was awarded Project Finance Deal of the Year at the 2008 ALB Hong Kong Law Awards. In November 2011, Bank of America announced plans to divest most of its stake in the China Construction Bank.
In September 2013, Bank of America sold its remaining stake in the China Construction Bank for as much as $1.5 billion, marking the firm 's full exit from the country.
In August 2014, Bank of America agreed to a near - $17 billion deal to settle claims against it relating to the sale of toxic mortgage - linked securities including subprime home loans, in what was believed to be the largest settlement in U.S. corporate history. The bank agreed with the U.S. Justice Department to pay $9.65 billion in fines, and $7 billion in relief to the victims of the faulty loans which included homeowners, borrowers, pension funds and municipalities. Real estate economist Jed Kolko said the settlement is a "drop in the bucket '' compared to the $700 billion in damages done to 11 million homeowners. Since the settlement covered such a substantial portion of the market, he said for most consumers "you 're out of luck. ''
Much of the government 's prosecution was based on information provided by three whistleblowers - Shareef Abdou (a senior vice president at the bank), Robert Madsen (a professional appraiser employed by a bank subsidiary) and Edward O'Donnell (a Fannie Mae official). The three men received $170 million in whistleblower awards.
Bank of America has formed a partnership with the United States Department of Defense creating a newly chartered bank DOD Community Bank ("Community Bank '') providing full banking services to military personnel at 68 branches and ATM locations on U.S. military installations in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Cuba, Diego Garcia, Germany, Japan, Italy, Kwajalein Atoll, South Korea, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It should be noted that even though Bank of America operates Community Bank customer services are not interchangeable between the two financial institutions, meaning a Community Bank customer can not go to a Bank of America branch and withdraw from their account and vice versa. Deposits made into checking and savings accounts are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation up to $250,000 despite the fact that none of Community 's operating branches are located within the jurisdictional borders of the United States.
At the Money 20 / 20 conference in October 2016, retail banking president Thong Nguyen introduced a digital assistant called Erica, whose name comes from the bank name. Starting in 2017, customers will be able to use voice or text to communicate with Erica and get advice, check balances and pay bills. Unlike the people who work for the bank, Erica will be available 24 / 7. Digital banking head Michelle Moore said the technology was designed to help customers do a better job of managing money.
Forrester analyst Peter Wannemacher says bank customer experiences with the technology have been "uneven or poor, '' but Bank of America intends to adapt Erica as needed.
Bank of America generates 90 % of its revenues in its domestic market. The core of Bank of America 's strategy is to be the number one bank in its domestic market. It has achieved this through key acquisitions.
Consumer Banking, the largest division in the company, provides financial services to consumers and small businesses including, banking, investments and lending products including business loans, mortgages, and credit cards. It provides for investing online through its electronic trading platform, Merrill Edge. The consumer banking division represented 38 % of the company 's total revenue in 2016. The company earns revenue from interest income, service charges, and fees. The company is also a mortgage servicer. It competes primarily with the retail banking arms of America 's three other megabanks: Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo. The Consumer Banking organization includes over 4,600 retail financial centers and approximately 15,900 automated teller machines.
Bank of America is a member of the Global ATM Alliance, a joint venture of several major international banks that provides for reduced fees for consumers using their ATM card or check card at another bank within the Global ATM Alliance when traveling internationally. This feature is restricted to withdrawals using a debit card and users are still subject to foreign currency conversion fees, credit card withdrawals are still subject to cash advance fees and foreign currency conversion fees.
The Global Banking division provides banking services, including investment banking and lending products to businesses. It includes the businesses of Global Corporate Banking, Global Commercial Banking, Business Banking, and Global Investment Banking. The division represented 22 % of the company 's revenue in 2016.
Before Bank of America 's acquisition of Merrill Lynch, the Global Corporate and Investment Banking (GCIB) business operated as Banc of America Securities LLC. The bank 's investment banking activities operate under the Merrill Lynch subsidiary and provided mergers and acquisitions advisory, underwriting, capital markets, as well as sales & trading in fixed income and equities markets. Its strongest groups include Leveraged Finance, Syndicated Loans, and mortgage - backed securities. It also has one of the largest research teams on Wall Street. Bank of America Merrill Lynch is headquartered in New York City.
The Global Wealth and Investment Management (GWIM) division manages investment assets of institutions and individuals. It includes the businesses of Merrill Lynch Global Wealth Management and U.S. Trust and represented 21 % of the company 's total revenue in 2016. It is among the 10 largest U.S. wealth managers. It has over $2.5 trillion in client balances. GWIM has five primary lines of business: Premier Banking & Investments (including Bank of America Investment Services, Inc.), The Private Bank, Family Wealth Advisors, and Bank of America Specialist.
The Global Markets division offers services to institutional clients, including trading in financial securities. The division provides research and other services such as market maker and risk management using derivatives. The division represented 19 % of the company 's total revenues in 2016.
The Bank of America headquarters for its operations is in the Bank of America Tower, New York City, which opened in 2009. The skyscraper is located on 42nd Street and Avenue of the Americas, at Bryant Park, and features state - of - the - art, environmentally friendly technology throughout its 2.1 million square feet (195,096 m2) of office space. The building is the headquarters for the company 's investment banking division, and also hosts most of Bank of America 's New York -- based staff.
In 2012, Bank of America cut ties to the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC).
Bank of America 's Global Corporate and Investment Banking has its U.S. headquarters in New York, European headquarters in London, and Asian headquarters in Hong Kong and Singapore.
In 2007, the bank offered employees a $3,000 rebate for the purchase of hybrid vehicles. The company also provided a $1,000 rebate or a lower interest rate for customers whose homes qualified as energy efficient. In 2007, Bank of America partnered with Brighter Planet to offer an eco-friendly credit card, and later a debit card, which help build renewable energy projects with each purchase. In 2010, the bank completed construction of the 1 Bank of America Center in Charlotte center city. The tower, and accompanying hotel, is a LEED - certified building.
Bank of America has also donated money to help health centers in Massachusetts and made a $1 million donation in 2007 to help homeless shelters in Miami.
In 1998, the bank made a ten - year commitment of $350 billion to provide affordable mortgage, build affordable housing, support small business and create jobs in disadvantaged neighborhoods.
In 2004, the bank pledged $750 billion over a ten - year period for community development lending and affordable housing programs.
In August 2011, Bank of America was sued for $10 billion by American International Group. Another lawsuit filed in September 2011 pertained to $57.5 billion in mortgage - backed securities Bank of America sold to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. That December, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that Countrywide Financial had discriminated against Hispanic and African - American homebuyers from 2004 to 2008, prior to being acquired by BofA. In September 2012, BofA settled out of court for $2.4 billion in a class action lawsuit filed by BofA shareholders who felt they were misled about the purchase of Merrill Lynch.
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally / GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a historic settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in direct payments to the states and federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.
On October 24, 2012, American federal prosecutors filed a $1 billion civil lawsuit against Bank of America for mortgage fraud under the False Claims Act, which provides for possible penalties of triple the damages suffered. The government asserted that Countrywide, which was acquired by Bank of America, rubber - stamped mortgage loans to risky borrowers and forced taxpayers to guarantee billions of bad loans through Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The suit was filed by Preet Bharara, the United States attorney in Manhattan, the inspector general of FHFA and the special inspector for the Troubled Asset Relief Program. In March 2014, Bank of America settled the suit by agreeing to pay $6.3 billion to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac and to buy back around $3.2 billion worth of mortgage bonds.
In April 2014, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) ordered Bank of America to provide and estimated $727 million in relief to consumers harmed by practices related to credit card add - on products. According to the Bureau, roughly 1.4 million customers were affected by deceptive marketing of add - on products and 1.9 million customers were illegally charged for credit monitoring and reporting services they were not receiving. The deceptive marketing misconduct involved telemarketing scripts containing misstatements and off - script sales pitches made by telemarketers that were misleading and omitted pertinent information. The unfair billing practices involved billing customers for privacy related products without having the authorization necessary to perform the credit monitoring and credit report retrieval services. As a result, the company billed customers for services they did not receive, unfairly charged consumers for interest and fees, illegally charged approximately 1.9 million accounts, and failed to provide the product benefit.
A $7.5 million settlement was reached in April 2014 with former chief financial officer for Bank of America, Joe L. Price, over allegations that the bank 's management withheld material information related to its 2008 merger with Merrill Lynch. In August 2014, the United States Department of Justice and the bank agreed to a $16.65 billion agreement over the sale of risky, mortgage - backed securities before the Great Recession; the loans behind the securities were transferred to the company when it acquired banks such as Merrill Lynch and Countrywide in 2008. As a whole, the three firms provided $965 billion of mortgage - backed securities from 2004 -- 2008. The settlement was structured to give $7 billion in consumer relief and $9.65 billion in penalty payments to the federal government and state governments; California, for instance, received $300 million to recompense public pension funds. The settlement was the largest in United States history between a single company and the federal government.
Parmalat SpA is a multinational Italian dairy and food corporation. Following Parmalat 's 2003 bankruptcy, the company sued Bank of America for $10 billion, alleging the bank profited from its knowledge of Parmalat 's financial difficulties. The parties announced a settlement in July 2009, resulting in Bank of America paying Parmalat $98.5 million in October 2009. In a related case, on April 18, 2011, an Italian court acquitted Bank of America and three other large banks, along with their employees, of charges they assisted Parmalat in concealing its fraud, and of lacking sufficient internal controls to prevent such frauds. Prosecutors did not immediately say whether they would appeal the rulings. In Parma, the banks were still charged with covering up the fraud.
In January 2008, Bank of America began notifying some customers without payment problems that their interest rates were more than doubled, up to 28 %. The bank was criticized for raising rates on customers in good standing, and for declining to explain why it had done so. In September 2009, a Bank of America credit card customer, Ann Minch, posted a video on YouTube criticizing the bank for raising her interest rate. After the video went viral, she was contacted by a Bank of America representative who lowered her rate. The story attracted national attention from television and internet commentators. More recently, the bank has been criticized for allegedly seizing three properties that were not under their ownership, apparently due to incorrect addresses on their legal documents.
In October 2009, WikiLeaks representative Julian Assange reported that his organization possessed a 5 gigabyte hard drive formerly used by a Bank of America executive and that Wikileaks intended to publish its contents.
In November 2010, Forbes magazine published an interview with Assange in which he stated his intent to publish information which would turn a major U.S. bank "inside out ''. In response to this announcement, Bank of America stock dropped 3.2 %.
In December 2010, Bank of America announced that it would no longer service requests to transfer funds to WikiLeaks, stating that "Bank of America joins in the actions previously announced by MasterCard, PayPal, Visa Europe and others and will not process transactions of any type that we have reason to believe are intended for WikiLeaks... This decision is based upon our reasonable belief that WikiLeaks may be engaged in activities that are, among other things, inconsistent with our internal policies for processing payments. ''
In late December it was announced that Bank of America had bought up more than 300 Internet domain names in an attempt to preempt bad publicity that might be forthcoming in the anticipated WikiLeaks release. The domain names included as BrianMoynihanBlows.com, BrianMoynihanSucks.com and similar names for other top executives of the bank. Nick Baumann of Mother Jones ridiculed this effort, stating: "If I owned stock in Bank of America, this would not give me confidence that the bank is prepared for whatever Julian Assange is planning to throw at it. ''
Sometime before August 2011, it is claimed by WikiLeaks that 5 GB of Bank of America leaks was part of the deletion of over 3500 communications by Daniel Domscheit - Berg, a now ex-WikiLeaks volunteer.
On March 14, 2011, one or more members of the decentralized collective Anonymous began releasing emails it said were obtained from Bank of America. According to the group, the emails documented "corruption and fraud '', and relate to the issue of improper foreclosures. The source, identified publicly as Brian Penny, was a former LPI Specialist from Balboa Insurance, a firm which used to be owned by the bank, but was sold to Australian Reinsurance Company QBE.
The state of Arizona has investigated Bank of America for misleading homeowners who sought to modify their mortgage loans. According to the attorney general of Arizona, the bank "repeatedly has deceived '' such mortgagors. In response to the investigation, the bank has given some modifications on the condition that the homeowners refrain from criticizing the bank.
In May 2014 many Iranian students in the U.S. and some American - Iranian citizens realized their accounts have been frozen by Bank of America. Although Bank of America denied to reveal any information or reason regarding this, some Iranians believe that it is related to sanctions against Iran. Betty Riess, a spokeswoman for Bank of America, told MintPress News via email, "We do not close accounts on the basis of nationality, nor do we close accounts without notice to customers. '' However, account holders believe there could be a relationship between this action and their national origin. Although most account holders say they did not receive any notification prior their accounts being frozen, Bank of America insists that they do not freeze any account without prior notification. When it was reported that Bank of America was closing the accounts of Iranians living in the U.S. and Iranian - Americans, there was speculation that the bank did so on the basis of discriminatory ideology, since Bank of America did not give these individuals any reason why their accounts were being closed. The bank responded to these accusations, arguing that it was only following the rules put forth by the U.S. federal government regarding economic relations between the U.S. and Iran.
Bank of America has been criticized for its heavy investment in the environmentally damaging processes of coal mining, especially through mountaintop removal (MTR). On May 6, 2015, the company announced that it would "reduce (its) credit exposure... to the coal mining industry, '' i.e. reduce its financing of companies engaging in MTR, coal mining, and coal power production. The company stated that pressure to divest from universities and environmental groups led to this policy change.
Notable buildings which Bank of America currently occupies include:
The Robert B. Atwood Building in Anchorage, Alaska was at one time named the Bank of America Center, renamed in conjunction with the bank 's acquisition of building tenant Security Pacific Bank. This particular branch was later acquired by Alaska - based Northrim Bank and moved across the street to the Linny Pacillo Parking Garage.
The Bank of America Building (Providence) was opened in 1928 as the Industrial Trust Building. It was, and is, the tallest building in Rhode Island. Through a number of mergers it was later known as the Industrial National Bank building and the Fleet Bank building. The building was leased by Bank of America from 2004 to 2012 and has been vacant since March 2013. The building is commonly known as the Superman Building based on a popular belief that it was the model for the Daily Planet building in the Superman comic books.
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when does the school year end in india | Academic term - wikipedia
An academic term (or simply "term '') is a portion of an academic year, the time during which an educational institution holds classes. The schedules adopted vary widely.
The word quadmester or quadrimester is occasionally used to mean either four months or (more commonly in modern American usage) a quarter of a year. In countries like Argentina, public universities divide the academic year into two quadrimesters (March -- July and August -- December).
In most countries, the academic year begins in late summer or early autumn and ends during the following spring or summer. In Northern Hemisphere countries, this means that the academic year lasts from August, September, or October to May, June, or July. In Southern Hemisphere countries, the academic year aligns with the calendar year, lasting from February or March to November or December. The summer may or may not be part of the term system.
In most of Australia, the primary and secondary school year lasts approximately 200 days, from late January or early February to early or mid-December, and is split into four terms:
Terms 4&1 (rolled over) and 2&3 are respectively usually deemed ' summer ' and ' winter ' respectively for purposes of sports participation and uniform standards. Australian states and territories vary their approach to Easter when determining the dates for the holiday at the end of Term 1.
The exact dates vary from year to year, as well as between states, and for public and private school. In Tasmania until and including 2012, the school year was split into three terms, the first one being the longest and including an extended Easter holiday (which was also the practice of mainland Australia until the mid-1980s). However, in 2013 Tasmania introduced a four - term year, to conform to the rest of the country. There is typically a break of two weeks mid-semester (i.e. after Term 1 and after Term 3) and a break of three weeks in the middle of the year, although this can vary between jurisdictions. In the year 2000, due to the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the state of New South Wales extended the break after Term 3 to three weeks, compensating by reducing the break in the middle of the year to two weeks.
Most Australian universities have two semesters a year, but Bond University, Deakin University, CQUniversity and the University of Canberra have three trimesters. Unusually, Macquarie University officially uses the word "session '' and CQUniversity uses the word "term '' in place of "semester ''. Many universities offer an optional short summer semester. One recent innovation in Australian higher education has been the establishment of the fully distance -- online Open Universities Australia (formerly Open Learning Australia) that offers continuous study opportunities of individual units of study (what are called courses in North America) that can lead to full degree qualifications.
Open Universities Australia operates four 13 - week study periods each year. Since students study only part - time and off campus these study periods mesh reasonably easily with existing university offerings based on semesters. In some cases, a "semester '' is referred to as a "Study Period '', for example by Centrelink.
The Austrian school year for primary and secondary schools is split into two terms, the first one starts on the first Monday in September in the states of Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland and on the second Monday of September in Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol and Vorarlberg. Most schools have holidays between the national holiday on October 26 and All Souls Day on November 2, but those are unofficial holidays not observed by all schools in Austria. Christmas holidays start on December 24 and end on the first weekday after January 6. The first term ends in Vienna and Lower Austria on the first Friday of February, in Burgenland, Carinthia, Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg on the second Friday of February and in Upper Austria and Styria on the third Friday of February.
There is a one - week break between the two terms. In the second term there are the Easter holidays, the Mayday Holiday on May 1 and the long weekends of Pentecost, Ascension and Corpus Christi. The school year ends in Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland on the last Friday of June, in Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg on the first Friday in July.
The Barbadian school year is fashioned after the British system, and as such, it follows a scheduling with three terms per school year.
The long school holiday period is 9 to 10 weeks from the end of June until the first week of September.
In Brazil, due to the Law of Directives and Bases of Brazilian Education, the academic year must have 200 days, both at schools and at universities. The school year usually begins during the first week of February. There is a 2 - week / 4 - week long winter break in July. The Brazilian school year ends the first week of December, summer in Brazil.
Most schools use the 4 term system, called "Unidades '' (unities).
In Brazilian universities academic terms are defined as periods or semesters (período, semestre). The majority of academic degrees courses are 8 semesters (four years) long or 10 semesters (five years) long.
In Bangladesh, the kindergarten, elementary and schools follow the semester system. Most of the universities follow the semester system although for some particular subjects such as Law they follow a yearly system. Business schools of all public and private universities follow a semester or trimester system.
Some of the universities using a two - semester system (using "Term 1 '' and "Term 2 '' designations) include: Jessore University of Science and Technology, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology, International Islamic University Chittagong, Khulna University, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology. Jagannath University, and Sylhet Agricultural University.
Some of the universities following a trimester system (using "Spring '', "Summer '' and "Fall '' designations) include: American International University - Bangladesh, BRAC University, East West University, Daffodil International University, North South University, Presidency University, Stamford University, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka http://mist.ac.bd, University of Information Technology and Sciences, University of Development Alternative (UODA) and United International University.
In Belgium, kindergarten, elementary and secondary schools begin on September 1 and end on June 30.
Schools also take breaks / holidays:
Universities and colleges in Belgium use the semester system, dividing the academic year in two equal parts of fourteen weeks of courses. Universities start the first semester in the third week of September, and no ' autumn break '. Colleges start one week earlier, in the second week of September, giving them right to the ' autumn break ' of one week. After 13 weeks of courses the ' Christmas break ' starts (around December 20), which is used to study for the 3 -- 4 weeks of examinations in January.
After these examinations the universities have one week of vacation, the so - called ' semestrial vacation ', while the colleges start the classes of the second semester at the end of January, immediately after the examinations, which week they reclaim with the ' spring break ' at the end of February, which the universities do not have. The universities start the second semester in the beginning of February.
Both universities and colleges have the ' Easter break ', which again is used to study for the examinations in June. After Easter, the classes start again until the end of May, followed by four weeks of examinations in June, after which three months of vacation is given. The students who failed in passing some of the courses in their curriculum in January and June, the so - called ' first session ', have to do the examinations again in the second session at the end of August.
In Cambodia the school year kindergarten sectors in public schools consists of 10 months with a two - month vacation, while in primary, and secondary sectors, it is divided into two semesters and each semester is divided into 2 quarters. The first of November is the start of the academic term. After the 1st semester, a small vacation when the school is halted and at the end of the Second Semester, a 2 - month vacation until the start of the new year. In universities, it is divided into 4 years.
Education being a provincial responsibility, there is no Canadian national standard. In Canada the school year for elementary and high school consists of 178 to 200 days, depending on jurisdiction, but several days may be deducted from this total for professional development and administrative duties, resulting in approximately 187 teaching days per year for most jurisdictions. Elementary students receive approximately 950 hours of instruction and secondary students receive approximately 1000 hours per year.
Generally in English Canada, high schools run on a two - semester arrangement, also known as fall and spring semester, the first semester starting from the day after Labour Day in September to mid-January and the second running from early February until the Thursday before the last Friday in June. The semesters are often divided into two terms each. Some schools in Canada run on a trimester system, the first running from September to January, the second from January to March or April, and the third from March or April until June. The trimester is more common in elementary and middle schools (Kindergarten - Grade 8) than in high schools (Grade 9 - Grade 12). Most of those characteristics differ in Québec, where education is, with the exception of a few school boards, given in French. By tradition, Quebec and Franco - Ontarian elementary and secondary schools will arrange timetables to ensure the school year ends before June 24, date of the St - Jean - Baptiste day celebration, a traditional holiday.
Most universities and colleges usually run from early September until the end of April or early May. Often, this winter session is split into two terms running September to December and January to April. Various forms of summer studies may be offered May to August. Some, such as University of Waterloo and Simon Fraser University, run a full tri-semester system, providing full courses during summer. There are a few school boards in Canada experimenting with year - round schooling.
In elementary school, high school, as well as in universities, Chilean education is divided into two semesters. The first one starts late February or early March and lasts until late June and the second starts in early August and finishes in mid-December; also, some universities offer a summer period from early January to mid-February but just for exceptional courses. These semesters have breaks for public festivities, such as Easter (approx. one week in April), independence commemoration (one or two weeks in September) and some public holidays like labour day, amongst others.
In the People 's Republic of China all schools including elementary, middle and high schools, colleges and universities have two semesters, the first from September to January, and the second from February or March, depending on the date of Chinese New Year, to July.
From January to February or March is the Winter break or Lunar New Year break. Summer break is normally from July to the end of August.
In Northern China, the winter break is longer and the summer break is shorter; the opposite applies in Southern China.
There are some casual holiday breaks:
In Costa Rica the school year runs for ten months. It starts in the first week of February and ends in the last week of November. There is a mid-term vacation of approximately 2 weeks in July, and most schools also observe "Easter Week '' in March or April.
In the elementary and high schools in the Czech Republic, the school year usually runs from September 1 to June 30 of the following year.
It is divided into two semesters with breaks on public holidays such as St. Vaclav (September 28), Independence day (October 28, two days break), Velvet Revolution (November 17), Christmas (7 -- 10 days break), Spring break (1 week break), Easter (three days break on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Monday) and finally Labour day (May 1) and Liberation day (May 8). After the end of school year on June 30, the Summer holidays follow till September 1 when a new school year starts. Sole exception to this is the final year at high schools, which ends with Graduation of students at the end of May.
Universities have two mid-terms. The academic year starts usually in the second half of September or in the begging of October. (It depends on university.) Bachelor degree is normally obtained by students after 3 years and masters after another 2 years of study. Still, there are some exceptions (e.g. medicine takes 6 years, no bachelor degree).
In schools in Denmark, the school year runs from August to June. In universities, the academic year runs from around September 1 to June 30, and is often divided into an autumn semester (with January set aside for exams) and a spring semester (with June set aside for exams). Since 2004, some Danish universities and faculties divide the academic year into four quarters, each of which may consist of eight weeks and an exam week, and being separated from the next quarter by a one - week break.
In Estonia, elementary and high schools begin on 1 September and end in the beginning of June. The school year is divided into quarters that last about two to three months. Summer is usually counted as a term break, although the beginning of June is still part of the fourth quarter. Universities start on the first Monday of September and usually end in the middle of May or in the beginning of June; though in reality, exam periods may continue until the end of June (e.g. University of Tartu).
In Ethiopia, almost all elementary, secondary, and college classes are conducted on a two - semester timetable. The first semester of the year is from September to late January or mid February. The second semester usually begins some two weeks after the end of the first and ends in late May or mid June.
In the elementary and secondary schools and college, the academic year is divided in semesters. The autumn semester begins in mid-August and is suspended a few days before Christmas. The classes continue after the Epiphany with the spring semester which finishes at the beginning of June.
In primary and secondary schools, the school year begins the first Monday of September, unless September 1 is on Sunday. The school year is divided into three trimesters. The first from September to January, the second from January to April, and the third is from April to June.
School Breaks Breaks are scattered throughout the school year every 6, 7 or 8 weeks and last 2 weeks each.
All Saint Break The first break is around All Saints ' Day on November 1.
Christmas Break Christmas Break starts the Saturday before Christmas.
Winter Break Winter Break dates differ of the Academia 's location, which could be in Zone A, B, or C, to avoid high traffic on the road. It usually starts in February, ends late February or early March.
Easter Break Easter Break depends on the location of Academia. It starts in April, and ends late April or early May.
End of Academic term - Summer Break In primary school, end of Acamedic term is early July. In secondary school (middle school or high school) end of Academic term is before Middle School Exam in late June, or Baccalaureat, in mid-June.
On Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, pupils have a full day of teaching from around 8: 30 a.m. until around 4: 30 p.m. On Wednesday mornings, some pupils may have supplementary classes. French pupils used to attend school on Saturdays, but the so - called "four - days week '' has been implemented since September 2008, reducing the teaching year from 936 to 864 hours (above the European average of 800 hours, but below the UK minimum of 950 hours for state schools). Additional holidays include Veterans Day on November 11, May 8, Ascension Day, May Day on May 1, and Easter Monday.
The school year in Germany begins between late July and early September, and ends from mid-June to July, with a summer break of similar length to that in the UK (only 6 weeks) but much shorter than in some other countries (with up to 3 months). The summer vacation starts in a different week by state (there are 16 federal states (including Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen)). The school year includes four or five shorter breaks or holidays:
Due to Germany 's federal structure, all breaks may differ depending on the state. The exact dates for the beginning and the end of school breaks are kept different state by state and changed every year. This is meant to keep holiday traffic as low as possible.
The school year is divided into two parts (September to February & February to July). There is not necessarily any break between those two parts, but pupils get a semi-year school report (it only displays their current level and is not relevant for promotion).
German universities run two semesters with the start and end dates depending on the university. The Wintersemester (WiSe), during which most students start university, often goes from 1 October till 31 March, with lectures starting around 15 October and lasting 14 weeks. There is usually a two - week break around Christmas and New Year (which is not counted in the 14 weeks). The Sommersemester (SoSe) consequently usually goes from 1 April till 30 September with lectures starting some time after Easter and lasting 12 weeks. The two lecture - free periods of 12 to 14 weeks between the semesters are for taking exams, doing internships, lab courses, and employment.
The University of Mannheim changed its schedule to conform with US standards in Fall of 2006. The semesters there are now from August 1 to January 31 (Herbst - / Wintersemester) and from February 1 to July 31 (Frühjahrs - / Sommersemester).
"Fachhochschulen '' start both semesters one month earlier than other universities.
"Berufsakademien '' have four quarters, January to March and so on. In alternating quarters the students attend the university and intern at the employer (the latter being the "Praxisphase ''). The number of lessons per week is significantly higher than at normal universities (equivalent to a full - time job) and the exams can not be during the "free time '' of the year, as that time is spent in the company. Vacation is given according to labor laws, i.e. half of 20 -- 30 days (because only half of the year is worked).
The school year in Guyana usually begins in September and ends in July of the following year. It has three terms: Christmas (First), Easter (Second) and August (Third), with two to three weeks break for Christmas and Easter and 6 to 7 weeks during the August term.
The school year in Honduras runs from the first week of February to the end of November, with a one - week break during Easter, and a week break in October. University Depending on the university, some do trimester and others in quarters. Breaks may vary.
In Hong Kong, the academic year usually runs from September 1 to mid-July for most primary and secondary schools. For senior secondary student, they usually start their academic year from mid of August or late August. Some secondary schools have two terms, but most have three terms. For universities and other tertiary institutions the academic year usually runs from September or October to April or May, sometimes with an extra summer term roughly from May to July.
Kindergartens often operate a semester (two - term) system, divided by the lengthy (e.g. two - week) break for Chinese New Year, typically in early February.
In the elementary and high schools in Hungary, the school year usually runs from September 1 to June 15 of the next year, with variation if these dates fall on Saturday or Sunday. The school year (tanév) is usually split into two semesters (félév). These semesters are also divided, with some schools holding examinations each half - semester. The first semester runs from September 1 till the middle of January and is divided by the fall vacation, which is around All Saints ' Day and lasts for a week. The second semester is closed at the end of the school year. It is divided by the Easter holiday, which usually consist of the weekend before Easter and the holiday itself. Apart from these vacations and national celebrations, a few schools have ' skiing holidays ' (síszünet), the date of which varies from the middle of January till February, though some schools hold it in December. Its length also varies from one school to another. It is made so that the students of the school who partake in the skiing camp of the school need no verification of absence. In the last school year of secondary education, the Matura examinations (school - leaving exam and entrance exam for university admissions; similar to A-level exams in the UK) are administered from May through July.
Hungarian universities run two semesters. They are typically from the first or second week of September to the middle of December (fall semester (őszi félév)) and from February to the middle of May (spring semester (tavaszi félév)). Both semesters are followed by an examination period. During the winter exam period, a break of 1 -- 2 weeks is administered between Christmas and the beginning of the new year. In addition to the break between the semesters in summer, there is typically a break including Christmas and New Year. Some universities also have a fall and an Easter vacation.
In elementary and secondary schools, the school year in some part is April to March and others June to May, while in Universities it is from July to May. There is a mid-year break during summer, usually from the end of May to the start of July in Universities and in elementary and high schools, the vacations range from the beginning of April and last up to the beginning or middle of June. There is also a winter vacation of two weeks at the beginning of the year. However, in the Eastern and southern states like West Bengal and Karnataka there will be two breaks, one for Dasara in September / October for 15 days and another for Christmas in December which ranges from 7 to 15 days. A semester system is being implemented in most of the Universities in India as directed by the University Grants Commission.
University of Calicut, Kerala University, MG University and Sri Sankara University (SCSVMV University) have reached a consensus and the other universities are also likely to introduce credit based semester system in Kerala. Delhi University also introduced this system.
For Jammu and Kashmir, the school year usually begins in mid-October or the start of November. There are two vacations in a year, Winter holidays last from the start of December till the first of March. A summer vacation usually lasts two weeks from mid-July to the end of July, the dates do vary. For schools, students move from old to the new academic year immediately after the exams for the previous year is over with a small break of a week for compilation of results.
Most schools also have an autumn break or Diwali break in August or around October / November. This is generally right before the second semester exam in September or in the middle of the second semester.
An academic year in Indonesia is divided to two terms, running from mid-July to December and January to mid-June. For universities, however, the terms are much shorter, running from September to December and February to May. Some universities provide a summer semester (called the short semester) from June to August. During president Abdurrahman Wahid 's term, schools are closed for Ramadan and a week after Eid - ul - Fitr (Idul Fitri). Some schools implement Saturday - off. Previously, academic year starts from January to December, but this rule changed in 1985.
In Iran, the academic year runs from September to June (10 months). Some universities, however, offer a limited number of courses in summer. Students have a three - month summer vacation. All schools are closed during Nowruz from march 20 till the beginning of April to celebrate the Iranian new year. The first (fall) semester begins on the first day of the Persian Calendar month of Mehr equivalent to the first day of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and ends in January. The second (spring) semester begins in the winter and ends in June. No mid-term break exists in the academic calendar.
The primary school year runs from the beginning of September until the end of June. There are breaks for Christmas and Easter and two mid-term breaks at the end of October and mid-February. Secondary schools run from September to the end of May, but due to the Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate exams, 3rd and 6th years respectively break at the end of June for summer holidays upon completion of the exams which end in the 3rd week of June. The academic year for schools in receipt of public funding lasts for a minimum of 167 teaching days in secondary schools and 183 days in primary schools. Third - level institutions run a much shorter calendar, generally from mid to late September, sometimes early October, to December for their first term The second term usually runs from January to mid - or late May with a break for Easter of up to a month.
The school year in Israel starts in elementary, middle, and high schools on September 1, and lasts until the end of June for elementary schools, and until June 20 for middle and high schools. There are no fixed holidays of equal length, with breaks occurring on national holidays, usually lasting two or three days. For Jews, there is a nine - day break for Sukkot (autumn); a seven - day break for Hannukah (in December); and for Passover (spring) the break is 2 -- 3 weeks long. For the Muslim population, breaks are taken for Eid al - Adha, Eid ul - Fitr and end of semester breaks.
The university academic year typically divides into two semesters which start after Sukkot (typically mid to late October) and end in June or July. Some academic institutions also enable a third semester in the summer.
The short breaks:
The school year in Israel is divided into two semesters:
Until 2011 the summer break ended on August 31, but in 2011 Israeli ministry of education decided to shorten the summer break by one week and the break now ends on August 26 as of 2012. In 2014, the old schedule was reinstated so that the summer break is back to August 31. The period between Yom Kippur and Sukkot was added as holiday to compensate for this but as of 2014, has consequently been removed.
In most Yeshivas, the year is divided into three periods (terms) called zmanim. Elul zman starts from the beginning of the Hebrew month of Elul and extends until the end of Yom Kippur. This is the shortest (approx. six weeks), but most intense semester as it comes before the High Holidays of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Winter zman starts after Sukkot and lasts until just before Passover, a duration of five months (six in a Jewish leap year). Summer semester starts after Passover and lasts until either the middle of the month of Tammuz or Tisha B'Av, a duration of about three months. During the interim periods, which are called bein hazmanim (between the terms), students are on vacation.
In Italy, all schools start in the first half of September, even though the exact beginning date changes every year. For schools from primary schools to high schools, the academic year is split into two semesters:
Kindergartens usually follow a similar schedule.
A university academic year is slightly different because of exams. University academic year divides into:
Even though September is a free month, it is officially an exam month in all Italian universities. It means that it is possible to take exams. During every exam session (January -- February, May -- June -- July or September), students are usually allowed to take any exam of their previous carrier that they could n't pass and even a certain number of exams of the new academic year (credit limit for this last option).
In the following holidays, no lessons take place:
In Japan, most of the schools run a three - term school year (trimester system), and most universities and colleges have a semester system. The exact date of the beginning of the summer break and its duration vary across regions, but commonly the break lasts for about six weeks. The break originated to avoid the heat in summer, so elementary, middle, and high schools in Hokkaidō and Nagano Prefecture tend to have a shorter summer break than the rest of schools in Japan.
School Term 1: April 1 to late July
School Term 2: early September to late December (with a two - week - long break for New Year 's at the end of the year.)
School Term 3: early January to late March (and a brief week - long spring break.)
The graduation ceremony occurs in March, and the enrollment ceremony in early April. The Japanese public school year consists of approximately 200 days.
Some universities and colleges accept students in September or October in order to let those students from other semester systems enroll. In recent years a few colleges have begun experimenting with having two semesters instead of the traditional three with the break between two semesters in summer.
In Kenya, for K - 12 education, the calendar year starts in January and ends in November. The academic year is divided into 3 terms as follows:
April, August and December are usually school holidays.
There is no standard academic calendar for universities as each university is free to set its own calendar.
International schools tend to follow the Northern Hemisphere academic calendar.
In Lithuania, elementary and high schools begin on September 1 and end in early June.
Schools also take breaks / holidays:
In Malaysian primary and secondary schools, the school year is divided into two semesters. The first semester begins in early January and ends in late May, with a one - week mid-term break in March. After the mid-year holidays, which lasts for two weeks, the second semester begins in mid-June and ends in mid-November, with a one - week mid-term break in September. The school year ends with a six - week year - end holidays from mid-November to early January.
The school week varies by state, depending on the weekend of the state. For states with a Saturday - Sunday weekend, the school week is Monday to Friday. For states with a Friday - Saturday weekend (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu), the school week is Sunday to Thursday; as a result, school terms begin and end a day earlier in these four states than in the rest of the country. Some schools have co-curricular activities on Saturdays.
Schools are closed on national and state public holidays. Schools are allowed to have a few special holidays without replacement for events such as school anniversary and sports day. For festivities such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri / Hari Raya Puasa, Hari Gawai, Chinese New Year and Deepavali, schools usually apply for additional holidays to allow longer breaks for students to visit relatives in their hometowns. However, every day missed exceeding the special holiday allowance would be replaced by having classes on weekends.
In Maldivians primary and secondary schools, the school year is divided into two semesters. The first semester begins in early January and ends in early June, with a one - week mid-term break. After the mid-year holidays, which lasts for two weeks, the second semester begins in mid-June and ends in mid-November, with a one - week mid-term break.
The school week is Sunday to Thursday, as a result, all schools terms begin and end same day all over the country.
The school year is split into three terms. It starts at the end of September and ends at the end of June the following year.
The school year in Mexico starts in mid-August and ends in mid-July, by law covering 200 days, usually divided into 5 terms:
Term 1 starts in mid-August and finishes in mid-October
Term 2 starts in mid-October and finishes by the second or third week in December
Term 3 starts the first week of January (after Three Kings Day) and finishes around the third week of February (Flag Day)
Term 4 starts in late February and finishes late March or early April (usually the Friday before Palm Sunday)
Term 5 starts the second Monday after Easter and finishes in early July
Summer break is 45 days. The calendar is designed by the Secretary of Public Education (Spanish: Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP), the government department overseeing public education aln in Mexico with arrangements of the leaders of the National Educational Workers Union (Spanish: Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educación, SNTE). All public and private elementary schools under the guidance of the dependence observe this year. In the case of universities, normally the school year starts in the last week of July and is divided in trimesters or semesters. Christmas Break is usually 3 weeks.
Education in Nepal is structured as school education and higher education. School education includes primary level of grades 1 -- 5, lower secondary and secondary levels of grades 6 -- 8 and 9 -- 10 respectively. Pre-primary level of education is available in some areas. Six years old is the prescribed age for admission into grade one. A national level School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination is conducted at the end of grade 10. These class starts in late April and finishes early March. Summer break is usually of 1 week to 1 month and 1 month vacation is provided as festival holiday in November usually.
Grades 11 and 12 are considered as higher secondary level. Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB) supervises higher secondary schools which are mostly under private management. Previously these grades were under the university system and were run as proficiency certificate level. Though some universities still offer these programs, the policy now is to integrate these grades into the school system. These class starts from late July and ends in April.
Higher education consists of bachelor, masters, and PhD levels. Depending upon the stream and subject, bachelors level may be of three to five years ' duration. The duration of masters level is generally two years. Some universities offer programs like M Phil and post-graduate diplomas.
Vocational education in Nepal starts after lower secondary education. Students can choose to follow a two - year curriculum leading to the "Technical School leaving Certificate ''. Universities also offers professional and technical degrees. Out of the formal track, short - term programs (1 year) focusing on skills development are also available.
The New Zealand school year runs from the beginning of February to mid-December, and since 1996, has been divided into four terms. By law, all state and state - integrated schools are required to be open for instruction for 380 half - days in a year (390 half - days for schools with only Year 8 students or below), meaning that the start and end of the school year is not nationally fixed to a particular date, as schools take different teacher - only days and provincial anniversary days off during the year. Schools can be exempted from opening the required number of half - days in some cases, such as in Christchurch in 2011 when many schools closed for up to a month after the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. The breaks between terms have fixed start and end dates, and the break length is fixed at two weeks.
In general, terms run as follows if Easter falls in early - to - mid-April:
If Easter falls in March or late in April, Term 1 usually ends in mid-April and Term 2 begins at the beginning of May. If Easter is in March, a 5 - day half - term break then exists, with school ending on Maundy Thursday and resuming on the Wednesday. The start of term two may be delayed if Anzac Day (25 April) falls on the Monday or Tuesday directly following the Easter break.
Private schools are not required to adhere to the Ministry 's term structure, but by law they may not be open for instruction on Saturday or Sunday, the ten national public holidays, the school location 's relevant anniversary day, and the Tuesday immediately following Easter Monday.
Senior secondary students (Years 11, 12, and 13) in many state schools have examination leave from mid-November, on the Thursday or Friday before the first NCEA external examinations begin. Officially, however, the term still does not end until mid-December.
The school year in Oman is divided into two semesters:
Usually there are exams at the end of each semester. Students get a number of breaks throughout the year: National Day on 18 November, New Higri year break, Prophet Mohammed birthday break, Eid Al - Fitr break and Eid Al - Adha break. As most of these breaks depend on the Higri year which is 10 days shorter than the Solar year, there is a gradual change on the date of these events in relation to the school year.
In Pakistan, the school year runs from April to March. Students have a two - month summer vacation and a two - week winter vacation. In Gilgit - Baltistan, Azad Kashmir and some areas of Balochistan, where heavy snow paralyzes life in the winter, the schools close for two months and there are two weeks of summer vacation.
Schools and universities are off on national holidays: Pakistan Day (March 23), Independence Day (August 14), Defence of Pakistan Day (September 6), the anniversaries of the birth (December 25) and death (September 11) of Quaid - e-Azam, Allama Iqbal (November 9) and the birth (July 30) and death (July 8) of Madar - e-Millat.
Labour Day (also known as May Day) is also observed in Pakistan on May 1. Both Eid festivals are also public holidays.
In the University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, the holidays are for two and half months during summer.
For the government universities, the students of bachelors are given 1 - 1.5 month of summer vacation and 1 - 1.5 weeks of winter vacations.
The Philippine school year lasts usually between nine and ten months long, and a school year must be at least 200 days as prescribed by law including examination periods. The school year begins in the first week of June and ends in the third or fourth week of March. Private schools may have a slightly shorter academic calendar either starting in the second (or third week) of June or ending earlier in March.
In most primary and secondary (junior high) schools, an academic year is usually divided into quarters for purposes of examination and reporting of marks though a few private schools adopt a trimestral system. Each quarter normally lasts for approximately seven (usually the 3rd quarter) to ten weeks (usually the 1st, 2nd and 4th quarters) but the actual length of each quarter and the months they cover varies among private schools. The fourth quarter for pupils in grade 6 is usually two to three weeks shorter than undergraduates to allow for preparation of final grades to determine who are eligible for graduation as well as to prepare for the graduation ceremonies themselves. Each quarter culminates in most schools with a quarterly examination period of three to five days.
The academic term for senior high school (grades 11 and 12) operates on a semestral basis. Semestral, Christmas, and summer breaks are scheduled at about the same time as primary and junior high school. Grade 12 pupils have a shorter second semester than grade 11 in order for the school to prepare for graduation.
In most schools, summer break usually lasts for two months, starting from the first week of April up to the last week of May. Most schools end the school year before Holy Week. Semestral break is normally set to coincide with All Saints and All Souls Day. The Christmas Break usually begins in the third week of December, and classes resume the Monday or week after New Year 's Day (unless that Monday is January 2). Commencement ceremonies are often held in late March or early April.
Exceptions to this general schedule are international schools operating in the country, which normally follow their home country 's respective school system.
For most universities and colleges, an academic year is divided into two semesters, each up to 18 weeks long except for senior students in their final semester where they end the semester two weeks earlier. Enrollment / registration in an institution is usually good for only one semester: a student who successfully registers for the first semester is not automatically enrolled to study in the second semester. The student will need to successfully complete clearance requirements and in a few cases, maintain a certain overall mark in order to progress in her university studies in the next semester. The first semester is followed by a break consisting of two to four weeks before the second semester, called the Semestral Break, which usually occurs between the second week of October to the second week of November for all universities and colleges. The Semestral Break can be two to three weeks long, and normally includes the All Saints ' and All Souls ' holidays.
Other schools such as Technological University of the Philippines - Taguig Campus, De La Salle University and Far Eastern University - East Asia College, and AMA Computer University operate under a trimestral system. Classes start in the fourth week of May and ends in the third week of April. Under this system, students are typically able to finish their academic studies a year earlier than those from other universities with a semestral programme. Mapúa Institute of Technology began using the quarterly system with eleven weeks to a term after its acquisition by the Yuchengco Group. This allows their engineering programmes to be completed a year ahead of schools running on a semestral schedule.
Moreover, starting academic year 2014 - 2015, constituent campuses in the University of the Philippines System started their school year in August to end in May and the University of Santo Tomas started the Academic Year in August and it will end in May 2015. In AY 2015 - 2016, several Philippine Colleges and Universities will follow the shift.
In AY 2015 - 2016, San Beda College Manila and St. Scholastica 's College Manila will start their calendar in early July 2015 and it will end in mid - to late April 2016 and it was aimed to be a transition to a full August to May Calendar in the succeeding academic years.
Also in AY 2015 - 2016, the University of Santo Tomas, will complete its shift to an August to May calendar. Ateneo de Manila University will also shift to an August to May Calendar this AY 2015 - 2016 with having a summer term in June to July before AY 2015 - 2016 starts. De La Salle University and De La Salle - College of St. Benilde will have an August to August Calendar for the incoming AY 2015 - 2016.
In Poland, the school year begins on September 1 and ends on the first Friday after June 18. There is a Christmas break in December which lasts until after New Year 's Day. There is also a winter holiday break lasting two weeks in January or February but the exact date is different for each province and the dates usually change each year. Winter break is also the dividing line between the two semesters of the school year.
Most universities start their courses on October 1 (at some institutions late September), and the first semester (commonly referred to as the "winter term '') ends in January. The second term starts in February or March, (the "summer term '') and ends in June. Each semester is usually 15 or 16 weeks long. After each of them there is an "examination session '', when no courses are taught, which lasts up to one month. The summer break starts after the exams and lasts until the start of the next academic year. In September there is an extra examination session during which students can retake failed exams.
The school year in Portugal runs from September to June and is divided in three Terms (Períodos, in Portuguese):
During the school year there are several breaks or holidays (interrupções or férias, in Portuguese):
Universities and colleges follow a different academic year, which consists of two semesters.
The school year in Romania is divided into two semesters. From kindergarten to high school the first semester opens in mid September and continues until end of January. The second semester lasts from February until mid June.
The school year in Russia traditionally starts on September 1 (The Knowledge Day). The school year is divided into four terms (quarters), separated by one - or two - week holidays (the first week in November, the first two weeks in January, and the last week of March). The summer holiday lasts three months: June, July, and August. Generally the school year lasts until 25 May, which is also known as The Last School - Bell day celebrated by the graduates, their families and teachers. The school graduation ceremony - Graduation Evening (Russian: выпускной вечер) - is organized on June 20 -- 25.
The academic year at universities also starts on September 1 and usually consists of 42 educational weeks and 10 weeks of holidays. It is divided into two terms (semesters). The first one (autumn semester) runs from September 1 to January 24 / 25 (21 weeks, including a 3 - to 5 - week winter exams session at the end) followed by a two - week holiday. Coincidentally January 25 is also Tatiana Day, traditionally celebrated as Russian Students Day. The second one (spring semester) runs from February 9 to June 30 or July 4 / 5 (21 weeks, including a 3 - to 5 - week summer exams session) followed by an eight - week summer holiday. Some Russian universities do not use a traditional scheme: they exclude exams sessions, and the academic year is divided in a 2: 3 ratio of 17 educational weeks (followed by a two - week holiday) and 25 educational weeks (followed by an eight - week summer holiday).
The school year coincides with the calendar year, and the first term begins on January 2 (unless it is a weekend or a Monday). The school year comprises four terms of 10 weeks each.
Terms 1 and 2 are known as Semester 1, and terms 3 and 4 as Semester 2. The first year of Junior College begins in February to accommodate the release of the O level results.
International schools in Singapore operate on a different system, often similar to the system in their home countries.
The training year in ITE is made up of two terms, commencing January and April respectively, depending on the month of intake.
At the end of each term, there will be a 4 - week break period before a new term begins.
At the end of each term, there will be a 2 - week break period before a new term begins.
Polytechnics and universities operate on a different calendar from schools. There are two semesters in a year in polytechnics.
At the end of each semester, there will be a 7 - week break period before a new semester begins.
It is to match the northern hemisphere calendar more closely.
The school year for elementary, grammar and high schools begins on September 2 (September 1 is Constitution Day) and ends June 29 of the following year. The school day starts at 8: 00 a.m. and ends at 2: 00 p.m. (time varies due to day and type of school). in most schools. It is split into two halves, with the first half ending on the last day of January.
Universities starts in second half of September or 1 October. Academic year consist of 2 semesters (winter / until December / and summer / until May /).
The school year in Slovenia for elementary and grammar schools begins on 1 September and formally ends on 31 August, although classes and exams are finished by 25 June. July and August thus constitute summer holidays. There are also four one - week breaks during the school year, occurring around All Saints Day, between Christmas and New Year, at the end of February, and around the May Day.
Universities and colleges follow a different academic year. It consists of two semesters -- the winter semester starting on 1 October, which ends around 15 January. It is followed by a one - month break, during which students take the exams for subjects they have read in the semester. The summer semester begins on 15 February and lasts until 31 May, followed by the exam period, which ends on 30 June. Students who have not passed the necessary exams have a chance to do so during the autumn exam period in September. Students and faculty are free during in July and August. New classes are held again in October.
All South African public schools have a four - term school year as determined by the national Department of Education. Each term is between 10 and 11 weeks long. The terms are roughly structured as follows:
First Term
Second Term
Third Term
Fourth Term
The academic year is approximately 200 school days in duration and runs from January to December.
Private schools follow a similar calendar, but slightly alter it according to their academic and religious needs. Some independent (private) schools have a three - term year instead (2).
The dates of the school year for coastal schools are slightly different from those for inland schools.
The National Education Department proposed a five - week - long school break in June -- July 2010 for the 2010 Soccer World Cup - hosted in South Africa - to avoid pupil and teacher absenteeism and a chaotic transport system.
South African universities have a year consisting of two semesters, with the first semester running from early February to early June, and the second semester from late July to late November. Each semester consists of twelve or thirteen teaching weeks, interrupted by a one - week short vacation, and followed by three or four weeks of examinations. In the first semester the short vacation often falls around the Easter weekend, while in the second semester it occurs in early September.
In South Korea, the school year is divided into two terms. The first term usually runs from March 2, unless it is a Friday or the weekend, to mid-July with the summer vacation from mid-July to late - August (elementary and secondary schools) and from mid-June to late August (higher education institutions). The second term usually resumes in late August and runs until mid-February. The winter break is from late December to late January. There are two weeks of school (elementary and secondary schools) in February. Then there is a two - week - break before the new academic year starts in March.
The school hours are approximately from 8: 00 am to 4: 00 pm for high school, each class lasting 50 minutes. For middle school, it is about from 8: 00am -- 3: 30pm, each class lasting 45 minutes. In Primary School, the lower grades (Grades 1 - 3) have classes around 8: 30 to 2: 00 and the upper grades (Grades 4 - 6) have classes from about 9: 00 to 3: 00. Each class lasts about 40 minutes. In high school, the older students are sometimes required to stay until 9: 00 pm or later studying on their own. For the most part, teachers rotate and the students stay in their classroom except for certain classes such as Physical Education, Music and Science labs.
School on Saturday ends at noon. Saturdays and Sundays they do not attend school, 노는 토요일 (no - neun to - yo - il); it means, resting on Saturdays. Until 2011, students went to school on the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Saturdays of each month; but from 2012, students no longer go to school on Saturdays.
The school year consists of two semesters. The fall semester begins in early September and runs till late January or early February. Summer vacation is from early July to end of August. Winter vacation typically runs from two to three weeks around the Lunar New Year. Spring semester begins following the Lantern Festival in mid February and ends in early June. Privatized institutions in Taiwan have varying academic terms.
There are some holiday breaks:
There are two semesters in the Thai academic year with an optional summer semester. From kindergarten to high school, the first semester opens in mid May and continues until the end of September. The second semester lasts from November until the end of February (or early March). The university academic year is slightly different, lasting from June to October and mid November to mid March.
The Turkish academic year begins in September and continues through to the following June. In most public educational institutions from primary to tertiary, the first semester begins in September and continues until January, and the second semester begins February and continues until June. The academic calendar and dates of mid-semester breaks may vary across private institutions.
The academic year at universities starts on September the 1st and usually consists of two semesters. The first semester runs from September the 1st to January the 24 / 25th followed by a two - week holiday. The second semester runs from February the 9th to June the 30th or July the 4 / 5th.
The English law courts terms and legal training pupillage divided the year into four terms, partly to create a predictable work schedule, but also to make allowances for harsh travel conditions and delays caused by adverse weather at a time when all English law students and many litigants had to travel to London for training or legal advice at one of the Inns of Court.
In Scotland, academic and judicial institutions traditionally organised their year into four terms:
Specific dates varied between institutions, and all except Michaelmas were determined by the date of Easter.
The school year in the United Kingdom is generally divided into three terms running from autumn to summer. For state schools, the school year consists of 195 days of which there are 190 teaching days and five INSET teacher training days. For independent schools, the school year can be as short as 175 days. The structure of the school year varies between the constituent countries of the United Kingdom with school holiday dates varying between local education authorities.
Before the mechanisation of agriculture and when more of the population lived in the rural countryside, the long summer school holiday in Britain arose in the 19th century as a result of the education authorities abandoning the battle to keep children at school through haymaking (around the start of August) and wheat harvest (around the end of August), when every available pair of hands was needed on the land.
In England and Wales, the school year generally runs from early September until late July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half by a week - long break known as "half term '' (although some counties, like Oxfordshire, consider these to be six separate terms instead), and are structured as follows:
There is no winter term.
The terms are separated by two holidays, each of approximately two weeks ' duration: the Christmas holidays separating the autumn term and spring term, and the Easter holidays separating the spring term and the summer term. The period between the end of one school year and the start of the next is the summer holidays, which are six to eight weeks long.
The academic year originated in the pre-industrial era when all able - bodied young people were expected to work through the period of July and August. For the purposes of education, the remainder of the year was arranged into three terms accommodating the Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter. Half - term breaks divide the 16 - to 17 - week terms.
However the archaic long summer break has been criticised by educationalists in the post industrialist age because it creates a break in the academic progress. Even a House of Commons Education Select Committee recommended in 1999 that schools switch to a five - term academic year, abolishing the long summer holidays. Each term would be eight weeks long with a two - week break in between terms, and a minimum four - week summer holiday, with no half terms -- the idea being that children can keep up momentum for eight weeks without a break. The proposals were introduced at a small number of schools nationally.
In 1999, the Local Government Association set up a commission to look at alternative proposals for a more balanced school year. In partnership with Local Authorities and teachers unions, they were unable to agree to a suitable alternative arrangement for terms, but by 2004 came to an agreement with the National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers for a standardised arrangement of school terms. Since 2004, around one third of English local authorities have signed up to the proposals which see a standard academic year agreed between the authorities, including slight variations on the traditional schemes, based on the following principles:
In addition the independent schools have set their own term dates with varying degrees of local and national co-ordination.
The school year in Northern Ireland generally runs from early September to late June or early July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year similar to England and Wales; however, there is no half term during summer term due to the province 's longer summer holidays. The terms are structured as follows:
The terms are separated by two holidays each consisting of approximately two weeks: the Christmas holidays separating the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separating the spring and summer terms. The summer holidays in Northern Ireland last nine weeks, from the start of July until the end of August, due to the Twelfth of July bank holiday.
The school year in Scotland generally runs from middle or late August to late June or early July of the following year (usually in eastern council areas from the third Monday in August to the first Friday in July and in western council areas from the second Monday in August to the last Friday in June). Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half by a break known as ' mid-term ', lasting a week or two in October, a few days to a week in February, and a few days in May. The terms are structured as follows:
The terms are separated by two holidays each consisting of approximately two weeks: the Christmas Holidays separating the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separating the spring and summer terms. The period between the end of one school year and the start of the next is known as the summer holidays and consists of six or seven weeks.
The modern academic calendars used in UK academia are mainly descended from the English law court / legal training pupillage four term system:
The oldest UK universities changed this terminology over time, with Cambridge dropping Trinity Term and renaming Hilary Term to Lent Term, and Oxford also dropping the original Trinity Term and renaming Easter Term as Trinity Term, thus establishing the modern, predominant three - term academic year.
Most universities now operate Autumn, Spring and Summer terms of notional ten - week lengths, although some may use different names, and terms may be of uneven length, with the autumn term usually the longest. Within individual institutions practice can vary from year to year to accommodate factors such as the changing date of Easter. Some universities also have a "reading week '' in which no teaching takes place at all, the equivalent of a school half term. At other universities "reading weeks '' are not uniform and may be in different weeks in different faculties, departments, modules or even seminar groups within the same institution. Some reading weeks cover only seminars whilst lectures continue; others suspend both for the week. In some universities - for example, the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, and the London School of Economics and Political Science, the Autumn, Spring and Summer terms can be referred to as Michaelmas, Lent or Hilary, and Easter or Trinity terms, respectively.
Some also overlay a "semester '' system, with the new semester beginning halfway through the second term.
A selection of current examples include:
Exceptions include the University of Buckingham where undergraduate courses do not coincide with the academic year used by universities in Britain and elsewhere. Instead, they largely coincide with the calendar year -- they typically start in January or February, with examinations in autumn.
In the United States, the K -- 12 school calendar is determined by the individual states, and in some cases by the local school district, so there is considerable variation. The academic year typically consists of two 18 - week semesters, each divided into two nine - week marking periods (or quarters) or three six - week marking periods, and constituting 170 to 186 instructional days (with an average of 180). An instructional week is five instructional days, measured Monday -- Friday at all public and most private schools; Saturday -- Wednesday or Sunday -- Thursday at Muslim private schools; and so on. Grades are usually reported per marking period, but major examinations are given per semester or per year.
The traditional start date for the school year has been the Tuesday following the first Monday in September (the day after Labor Day). Though some schools still keep this tradition, many schools now start in the last two weeks of August and some schools (especially private ones) may start as late as the end of September or the first week in October. There are also some schools, especially in the southern tier of the United States, that begin at the end of July and early August. The school year ends 40 to 42 instructional weeks after it begins. Also, some schools are now moving to the first Wednesday in September (usually two days after Labor Day, unless it falls on September 1 or 2) to allow a short week as students adjust to being in school again.
School holidays in the United States vary by jurisdiction. They include federal, state, and local holidays, all or only some of which may be observed by an individual school district. In addition to these legal holidays, there are vacation periods of varying length. Most if not all schools observe the Thanksgiving holiday, and extend it include the day after Thanksgiving since it is a Friday. There is usually a recess of about two weeks during the winter holiday period at Christmas and New Year, with a spring break in March or April that is usually correlated to the holidays of Easter and / or Passover.
Many schools have additional "in - service '' days that are holidays for students but workdays for faculty and staff. These days are often used for parent -- teacher conferences on student progress, especially in primary school. In secondary school, they are usually used as staff development days. Sometimes schools do half - day in - service days in which students are dismissed early, rather than full - day holidays.
Regulation of education is state jurisdiction, and most states require each school provide a minimum of 180 days of instruction per academic year. This excludes weekends, holidays and vacation periods, so the usual school year starts in late August or early September (the day after Labor Day was the traditional start date for many decades) and concludes in early to mid - or late June.
Unplanned vacations can extend the school year if they could have been prevented by school administrators, in theory if not in fact. Natural disasters and other incidents do not normally extend the school year because they could not have been prevented. Thus, if the school is closed for two weeks (10 instructional days) because the boiler has broken down, that will extend the school year by two weeks because proper maintenance could have prevented the problem. But snow storms and other forms of severe weather normally do not extend the school year because they can not be prevented.
Many, but not all, community colleges originated as extensions of the primary and secondary school system. Some of these colleges often continue to follow the K - 12 schedule. However, most operate under a semester based schedule. Washington state schools are standardized by the State Board of Community and Technical colleges and follow a quarter system.
Three calendar systems are used by most American colleges and universities: quarter system, semester system, and trimester system. These are ways the calendar year is organized into a formal academic year, measured September -- August or August -- August. Some schools, particularly some business schools and community colleges, use the mini-mester or mini-semester system.
The quarter system divides the calendar year into four quarters, three of which constitute a complete academic year. Quarters are typically 10 -- 12 weeks long so that three quarters amount to 30 -- 36 weeks of instruction. Approximately 20 % of universities are on the quarter system. Most colleges that use the quarter system have a fall quarter from late September to mid-December, a winter quarter from early January to mid-March, a spring quarter from late March or early April to mid-June, and an optional summer session. Notable users of the quarter system include the University of California system (excluding Berkeley, Merced, the UCLA medical school, and all of the system 's law schools), Stanford, the University of Chicago, Dartmouth College, Northwestern University, University of Washington, the University of Oregon, and DePaul University. Union College uses a modified quarter system: fall, winter, and spring terms are each eleven weeks long; there are some summer classes, but there is no official summer quarter. Because Union 's calendar makes use of just three of four quarters, the three academic terms are generally (and somewhat misleadingly to outsiders) dubbed "trimesters, '' which they are not. Another notable and somewhat unique user of the quarter system is Baylor Law School: it operates on the quarter system while the remaining colleges of Baylor University operate on the semester system.
The semester system divides the calendar year into two semesters of 16 to 18 weeks each, plus summer sessions of varying lengths. The two semesters together constitute 32 to 36 weeks of instruction, so that three academic quarters equal two academic semesters. Thus, academic credit earned in quarter hours converts to semester hours at 2⁄3 of its value, while credit earned in semester hours converts to quarter hours at 3 / 2 of its value. Put another way, 3 quarter hours is 2 semester hours. Most universities on the semester system have a fall semester from the day after Labor Day in September to mid-December, a spring / winter semester from late January to early May, and an optional summer session.
In practice, the average quarter - long course is four or five units and the average semester course is three units, so a full - time student graduating in four years would take five courses per semester and three or four courses per quarter.
Some colleges and universities have a 4 - 1 - 4 system, which divides the year into two four - month terms (September to December and February to May) as well as a single one - month term in January in which students can do independent study, study abroad, internships, activities, or focus on one or two classes. The one - month term is sometimes called a mini-mester, winter session, inter-term / interim / intersession or J - term. Examples of schools using this system include: Austin College, University of Rhode Island, Whittier College, Williams College, Bethany College in West Virginia, Berea College, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Johns Hopkins University, New College of Florida, Calvin College, Elmhurst College, Gustavus Adolphus College, Linfield College, Luther College, Oberlin College, Middlebury College, Erskine College, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Eckerd College, Wofford College, Saint Olaf College, Samford University, Miami University, Hofstra University, University of Delaware, Saint Mary 's College of California, Colby College, Chapman University, McDaniel College, Elon University, Pacific University, and Pacific Lutheran University.
Some schools have a similar format but ordered as 4 - 4 - 1, with the short term in May after the conclusion of the spring semester. The term is sometimes called either "Maymester '', a portmanteau of "May '' and "semester '', or "May Term ''. Examples of schools using this system include Wartburg College, Bates College, Chatham University, Clemson University, The College of New Jersey, Elmira College, The Ohio State University, Purdue University, Transylvania University, the University of Redlands, Emory University and Washington and Lee University 's 12 - 12 - 4 undergraduate calendar.
The trimester system evolved out of the semester system. It divides the academic year into three equal portions of 15 -- 16 weeks each. Institutions that use the trimester system include California Institute of Technology, Carleton College, Knox College (Illinois), Lawrence University, and the United States Merchant Marine Academy. The fall and winter trimesters constitute an academic year of 30 -- 32 weeks. The spring / summer trimester is usually divided into a 7.5 week Spring Session followed by a 6 - week or 7.5 week Summer Session. The reduced maximum course load that accompanies the shortening from the traditional semester makes the trimester system compatible with the semester system. Academic credit is thus measured on the trimester system in semester hours; there is no such thing as a "trimester hour '' of credit.
At the University of Michigan and Brigham Young University, for example, the Fall trimester (informally still called ' semester ') operates from September through December; the Winter trimester runs from January through April; and the spring - summer trimester operates from May through August, as two half - trimesters. Most spring - summer classes either meet double - time for 7 -- 8 weeks in May and June or double - time / double - plus - time for 6 -- 8 weeks in July and August (with summer half - term classes sometimes starting in the last week of June).
The quinmester academic calendar at Park University operates with five terms per year, each lasting eight weeks (January -- March, March -- May, June -- July, August -- October, and October -- December).
A number of colleges have adopted the "one course at a time '' or "block schedule '' calendar. Academic years consist of a number of terms lasting roughly four weeks each, during which a full semester 's amount of work is completed in one and only one class. Colorado College first began their "Block Plan '' in 1970, followed by Maharishi International University in 1971, and Cornell College in 1978. Quest University in Squamish, British Columbia; Tusculum College in Tusculum, Tennessee; and The University of Montana - Western are the only other colleges operating under this academic calendar.
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what movie was the song eternal flame in | Eternal Flame (song) - wikipedia
"Eternal Flame '' is a love song by American rock group the Bangles from their 1988 album Everything. It became a hit single, when released in 1989, peaking at number one in the charts in nine countries, including Australia, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was written by the established songwriting partnership of Billy Steinberg and Tom Kelly (becoming the pair 's fifth Billboard Hot 100 number one in five years) along with the Bangles ' Susanna Hoffs. Having previously reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in December 1986 with "Walk Like an Egyptian, '' the Bangles became only the third all - female group to score multiple number - ones in the United States, after the Supremes (twelve) and the Shirelles (two).
Unlike the rest of the more uptempo songs on their album Everything, "Eternal Flame '' is a ballad. Co-writer Billy Steinberg describes it as "the Beatles meet the Byrds. ''
The song was inspired by two eternal flames: one at the gravesite of Elvis Presley that the Bangles saw when the band visited Graceland, and one at a local synagogue in Palm Springs which Steinberg attended as a child. Steinberg recalled to Songfacts: "Susanna was talking about the Bangles having visited Graceland, and she said there was some type of shrine to Elvis that included some kind of eternal flame. As soon as those words were mentioned, I immediately thought of the synagogue in the town of Palm Springs, California where I grew up. I remember during our Sunday school class they would walk us through the sanctuary. There was one little red light and they told us it was called the eternal flame. ''
In the BBC programme I 'm in a Girl Group, Hoffs revealed she actually sang the studio recording of the song completely naked after producer Davitt Sigerson pranked her by telling her Olivia Newton - John had done the same thing, but he later told Hoffs he had been lying the whole time.
It spent one week at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, blocking Milli Vanilli 's "Girl You Know It 's True '' from reaching the summit position. It was preceded at # 1 on the Hot 100 by Mike + the Mechanics ' "The Living Years '' and succeeded by Roxette 's "The Look. '' It also topped the US adult contemporary chart for two weeks.
The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart in February 1989 at number 81 and peaked at number one in April, spending four weeks there. It went on to spend twenty weeks in the chart and was the UK 's third best - selling song of 1989.
The song spent three weeks at number one in Sweden and 18 weeks in the Swedish charts
The song also spent seven weeks at number one in the Dutch Top 40. The song was Australia 's 4th biggest selling single of 1989 and was sent up on the Australian TV show Fast Forward.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1997 a Japanese version of the song was recorded by Tomoya Nagase, the vocalist of the Japanese idol rock group Tokio, featuring 3T. This song was used as the theme song of the Nippon TV drama DXD, in which Nagase played the main role. He also wrote the Japanese version lyrics. This version was released as a single in Japan under the name of "Tomoya with 3T ''.
In 1999, Australian group Human Nature covered "Eternal Flame '' and released it as the fifth single from their second album Counting Down. It peaked at number eight on the ARIA singles chart and was certified gold.
British pop girl group Atomic Kitten subsequently recorded the song in 2001 and released as the sixth overall single and lead single from the reissue of the debut studio album, Right Now. It was the group 's first single to feature new band member Jenny Frost. Their version was produced by multi-platinum singer producer Ray Ruffin.
The video begins with the band members walking up to the screen in a stylized pace, in plain white clothes and bare feet, with a dark background. This is shown often in the video, and is also how the video ends. Throughout the video, each of the band members do different poses and dance moves in time to the song, with the dark, cloudy background in place. Also in one of the scenes in the video, all three band members are seen in a line, with a glass floor and four metal posts with lights in the background that accompanies the perennial dark background. In this scene, the girls are seen doing a basic dance routine in time with the song. For Jenny 's solo, she is seen lying down on the floor doing a sexy pose. However, Frost later claimed in the So Far So Good DVD, that she had tonsillitis for the video shoot, and was lying down due to being ill and could n't stand up. There is also a version of the video that contains clips from the movie The Parole Officer which was taken from the DVD "So Far So Good ''.
Atomic Kitten made the song another massive success; it entered the top twenty in every country it was released, except for Australia, where it peaked at number 47. It entered at number one in the UK, staying at the top for two weeks. On its first day, "Eternal Flame '' sold 35,358 copies, and its closest rival was Destiny 's Child 's "Bootylicious '', which sold 13,182 copies in its opening day. The song sold over 140,000 copies in its first week and 70,000 copies in its second week. The song sold over 400,000 copies in the UK, and was certified Gold. The single entered the top five in over ten countries. The single went to number two in the French singles chart, a huge success, and became one of the best selling singles by a girl group of all time in France. However, it was their only single to reach the top 20, making them one - hit wonders there. It was certified gold for sales of over 250,000 copies. Atomic Kitten 's version charted higher in France than the original version by the Bangles.
Over a year later, the single appeared in the Canadian Singles Chart. "Eternal Flame '' was Atomic Kitten 's only single to chart over there. It debuted at number 20, and peaked at number 15. It spent twelve weeks in the top forty -- five of which were in the top twenty, making the song a moderate success. The single was also a number - one hit in the Flanders region of Belgium, and Atomic Kitten 's became their best - selling single there, subsequently lasting sixteen weeks on the chart; it became the 28th best selling single of 2001 in Belgium. It also spent one week at number one in New Zealand. "Eternal Flame '' went on to sell over one million copies worldwide and was certified Gold in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, and New Zealand.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was covered in 2000 by Rollergirl on the album Now I 'm Singin '... and the Party Keeps On Rollin ', and released as a single which peaked at # 87 in the Swiss Charts. Bonnie Tyler and French singer Laura Zen recorded a version in 2011 which went to French radio stations on Monday August 29. The song was named "Eternal Flame (Amour éternel) ''. In 2017, Shane Filan of Westlife included this fan - favorite song on his album Love Always which reached Top 3 in Scottish Albums Chart and Top 5 in UK Albums Chart and Irish Albums Chart.
Additional sources used:
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why is kelso not in season 8 intro | That ' 70s show (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the American comedy television series That ' 70s Show premiered November 2, 2005 on Fox in the United States. The season ended on May 18, 2006 with an hour - long series finale. The eighth season was the first and only season without the show 's star Topher Grace who portrayed Eric Forman, the central character, since he left the series at the end of the previous season. Eric was often mentioned throughout the season, even being an important off - stage character central to an episode 's plot upon occasion. Topher Grace returned as Eric for the final episode, although his role was both brief and uncredited.
This season also marked a major change in the series, as a new character was introduced to take Eric 's place named Randy Pearson (portrayed by new cast member Josh Meyers) and the departure of Michael Kelso, who was portrayed by Ashton Kutcher. Kutcher actually quit the show at the end of season seven but remained on the series for five episodes during the eighth season. He appeared in the first four episodes to give closure to Kelso and he appeared again in the final episode titled "That ' 70s Finale ''. Also, Leo (Tommy Chong) returned as a main character since his return to the series in the seventh season (in a special guest role).
Many plots of the season involved Donna 's new relationship with Randy, Jackie falling in love with Fez, Hyde getting married to a stripper named Samantha, Kelso getting a new job and moving to Chicago, and the Formans adjusting to an empty nest which is too empty for Kitty and not empty enough for Red due to the kids ' presence despite Eric 's absence.
This season is set entirely in 1979, with the final seconds of the series being the final seconds of the decade. The very last seconds of the series show the license plate of Eric 's Vista Cruiser for the final time, now featuring a tag with the year "80 '' on it, signaling that the 1980s have begun.
All episodes of season 8, except the finale, are named after songs by Queen.
The region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2008.
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where is the pituitary gland located in the human body | Pituitary gland - wikipedia
In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain. The hypophysis rests upon the hypophysial fossa of the sphenoid bone in the center of the middle cranial fossa and is surrounded by a small bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that regulates several physiological processes (including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation). The intermediate lobe synthesizes and secretes melanocyte - stimulating hormone. The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the pituitary stalk (also called the infundibular stalk or the infundibulum).
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control: growth, blood pressure, certain functions of the sex organs, thyroid glands and metabolism as well as some aspects of pregnancy, childbirth, nursing, water / salt concentration at the kidneys, temperature regulation and pain relief.
The pituitary gland, in humans, is a pea - sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica. It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate, and posterior. In many animals, these three lobes are distinct. The intermediate is avascular and almost absent in human beings. The intermediate lobe is present in many lower animal species, in particular in rodents, mice and rats, that have been used extensively to study pituitary development and function. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary, which is an extension of the hypothalamus.
The anterior pituitary arises from an invagination of the oral ectoderm and forms Rathke 's pouch. This contrasts with the posterior pituitary, which originates from neuroectoderm.
Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by parvocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamic capillaries leading to infundibular blood vessels, which in turn lead to a second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This vascular relationship constitutes the hypothalamo - hypophyseal portal system. Diffusing out of the second capillary bed, the hypothalamic releasing hormones then bind to anterior pituitary endocrine cells, upregulating or downregulating their release of hormones.
The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the pars tuberalis (pars glandularis) and pars distalis (pars glandularis) that constitutes ~ 80 % of the gland. The pars intermedia (the intermediate lobe) lies between the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis, and is rudimentary in the human, although in other species it is more developed. It develops from a depression in the dorsal wall of the pharynx (stomal part) known as Rathke 's pouch.
The anterior pituitary contains several different types of cells that synthesize and secrete hormones. Usually there is one type of cell for each major hormone formed in anterior pituitary. With special stains attached to high - affinity antibodies that bind with distinctive hormone, at least 5 types of cells can be differentiated.
The posterior lobe develops as an extension of the hypothalamus. The Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by cell bodies in the hypothalamus. The magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei located in the hypothalamus that project axons down the infundibulum to terminals in the posterior pituitary. This simple arrangement differs sharply from that of the adjacent anterior pituitary, which does not develop from the hypothalamus.
The release of pituitary hormones by both the anterior and posterior lobes is under the control of the hypothalamus, albeit in different ways.
The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes hormones. All releasing hormones (- RH) referred to, can also be referred to as releasing factors (- RF).
Somatotrophins:
Thyrotrophins:
Corticotropins:
Lactotrophins:
Gonadotropins:
These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the influence of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones are secreted to the anterior lobe by way of a special capillary system, called the hypothalamic - hypophysial portal system.
The intermediate lobe synthesizes and secretes the following important endocrine hormone:
The posterior pituitary stores and secretes (but does not synthesize) the following important endocrine hormones:
Magnocellular neurons:
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes:
Some of the diseases involving the pituitary gland are:
All of the functions of the pituitary gland can be adversely affected by an over - or under - production of associated hormones.
The pituitary gland is important for mediating the stress response, via the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis (HPA axis) Critically, pituitary gland growth during adolescence can be altered by early life stress such as childhood maltreatment or maternal dysphoric behavior.
It has been demonstrated that, after controlling for age, sex, and BMI, larger quantities of DHEA and DHEA - S tended to be linked to larger pituitary volume. Additionally, a correlation between pituitary gland volume and Social Anxiety subscale scores was identified which provided a basis for exploring mediation. Again controlling for age, sex, and BMI, DHEA and DHEA - S have been found to be predictive of larger pituitary gland volume, which was also associated with increased ratings of social anxiety. This research provides evidence that pituitary gland volume mediates the link between higher DHEA (S) levels (associated with relatively early adrenarche) and traits associated with social anxiety. Children who experience early adrenarcheal development tend to have larger pituitary gland volume compared to children with later adrenarcheal development.
The Greek physician Galen referred to the pituitary gland by only using the (Ancient Greek) name ἀδήν, gland. He described the pituitary gland as part of a series of secretory organs for the excretion of nasal mucus. Anatomist Andreas Vesalius translated ἀδήν with glans, in quam pituita destillat, "gland in which slime (pituita) drips ''. Besides this ' descriptive ' name, Vesalius used glandula pituitaria, from which the English name pituitary gland is ultimately derived.
The expression glandula pituitaria is still used as official synonym beside hypophysis in the official Latin nomenclature Terminologia Anatomica. In the seventeenth century the supposed function of the pituitary gland to produce nasal mucus was debunked. The expression glandula pituitaria and its English equivalent pituitary gland can only be justified from a historical point of view. The inclusion of this synonym is merely justified by noting that the main term hypophysis is a much less popular term.
The anatomist Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring coined the name hypophysis. This name consists of ὑπό (' under ') and φύειν (' to grow '). In later Greek ὑπόφυσις is used differently by Greek physicians as outgrowth. Sömmering also used the equivalent expression appendix cerebri, with appendix as appendage. In various languages, Hirnanhang in German and hersenaanhangsel in Dutch, the terms are derived from appendix cerebri.
The pituitary gland is found in all vertebrates, but its structure varies among different groups.
The division of the pituitary described above is typical of mammals, and is also true, to varying degrees, of all tetrapods. However, only in mammals does the posterior pituitary have a compact shape. In lungfish, it is a relatively flat sheet of tissue lying above the anterior pituitary, but in amphibians, reptiles, and birds, it becomes increasingly well developed. The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in any species and is entirely absent in birds.
The structure of the pituitary in fish, apart from the lungfish, is generally different from that in other animals. In general, the intermediate lobe tends to be well developed, and may equal the remainder of the anterior pituitary in size. The posterior lobe typically forms a sheet of tissue at the base of the pituitary stalk, and in most cases sends irregular finger - like projection into the tissue of the anterior pituitary, which lies directly beneath it. The anterior pituitary is typically divided into two regions, a more anterior rostral portion and a posterior proximal portion, but the boundary between the two is often not clearly marked. In elasmobranchs there is an additional, ventral lobe beneath the anterior pituitary proper.
The arrangement in lampreys, which are among the most primitive of all fish, may indicate how the pituitary originally evolved in ancestral vertebrates. Here, the posterior pituitary is a simple flat sheet of tissue at the base of the brain, and there is no pituitary stalk. Rathke 's pouch remains open to the outside, close to the nasal openings. Closely associated with the pouch are three distinct clusters of glandular tissue, corresponding to the intermediate lobe, and the rostral and proximal portions of the anterior pituitary. These various parts are separated by meningial membranes, suggesting that the pituitary of other vertebrates may have formed from the fusion of a pair of separate, but associated, glands.
Most armadillos also possess a neural secretory gland very similar in form to the posterior pituitary, but located in the tail and associated with the spinal cord. This may have a function in osmoregulation.
There is a structure analogous to the pituitary in the octopus brain.
Although rudimentary in humans (and often considered part of the anterior pituitary), the intermediate lobe located between the anterior and posterior pituitary is important to many animals. For instance, in fish, it is believed to control physiological color change. In adult humans, it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary. The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte - stimulating hormone (MSH), although this function is often (imprecisely) attributed to the anterior pituitary.
The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in tetrapods, and is entirely absent in birds.
Location of the pituitary gland in the human brain
Pituitary and pineal glands
The arteries of the base of the brain.
Mesal aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane.
Pituitary
Pituitary gland
Cerebrum. Inferior view. Deep dissection.
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what prayer did jesus pray in the garden of gethsemane | Agony in the Garden - wikipedia
The Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane refers to the events in the life of Jesus as recorded in the New Testament, between the Farewell Discourse at the conclusion of the Last Supper and Jesus ' arrest.
According to all four Gospels, immediately after the Last Supper, Jesus took a walk to pray. Each Gospel offers a slightly different account regarding narrative details. The gospels of Matthew and Mark identify this place of prayer as Gethsemane. Jesus was accompanied by three Apostles: Peter, John and James, whom he asked to stay awake and pray. He moved "a stone 's throw away '' from them, where He felt overwhelming sadness and anguish, and said "My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nevertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it. '' Then, a little while later, He said, "If this cup can not pass by, but I must drink it, your will be done! '' (Matthew 26: 42). He said this prayer three times, checking on the three apostles between each prayer and finding them asleep. He commented: "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak ''. An angel came from heaven to strengthen him. During his agony as he prayed, "his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down upon the ground ''. (Luke 22: 44).
At the conclusion of the narrative, Jesus accepts that the hour has come for him to be betrayed.
In Roman Catholic tradition the Agony in the Garden is the first Sorrowful Mystery of the Rosary and the First Station of the Scriptural Way of The Cross. Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as acts of reparation for the sufferings of Jesus during His Agony and Passion. These Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ do not involve a petition for a living or dead beneficiary, but aim to repair the sins against Jesus. Some such prayers are provided in the Raccolta Catholic prayer book (approved by a Decree of 1854, and published by the Holy See in 1898) which also includes prayers as Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary.
In his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor on reparations, Pope Pius XI called Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ a duty for Catholics and referred to them as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury '' with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.
Catholic tradition holds that the sweating of blood was literal and not figurative.
In the Catholic tradition, Matthew 26: 40 is the basis of the Holy Hour devotion for Eucharistic adoration. In the Gospel of Matthew, Then he said to them, "My soul is very sorrowful even to death; remain here, and watch with me. '' (Matthew 26: 38) And he came to the disciples and found them sleeping and in Matthew 26: 40 he asked Peter:
The tradition of the Holy Hour devotion dates back to 1673 when Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque stated that she had a vision of Jesus in which she was instructed to spend an hour every Thursday night to meditate on the sufferings of Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane.
There are a number of different depictions in art of the Agony in the Garden, including:
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who dies in season 2 of gossip girl | Gossip Girl (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the American teen drama television series Gossip Girl premiered on The CW on September 1, 2008, and concluded on May 17, 2009, consisting of 25 episodes. Based on the novel series of the same name by Cecily von Ziegesar, the series was developed for television by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage.
The series revolves around the lives of privileged teenagers Serena van der Woodsen, Blair Waldorf, Dan Humphrey, Nate Archibald, Jenny Humphrey, and Chuck Bass attending an elite private school on Manhattan 's Upper East Side in New York City. It also features Serena 's mother, Lily van der Woodsen, and Jenny and Dan 's father, Rufus Humphrey, along with Dan 's childhood friend Vanessa Abrams, who recently moved back from Vermont.
As the summer draws to a close in the Hamptons, Serena and Nate have everyone fooled into thinking they are a couple to cover up the fact that Nate has been hooking up with an older woman. Blair returns from abroad with a hot guy on her arm, Marcus (Patrick Heusinger), making a very jealous Chuck question his decision to leave Blair stranded at the heliport. Dan has spent the summer assisting a famous author (Jay McInerney), and clearly still has one certain girl on his mind, which results in him going after her. While interning for Eleanor Waldorf 's company, Jenny sneaks a coveted invite to the Hamptons ' white Party at which Eric introduces her to socialite Tinsley Mortimer.
Blair is over the moon that she is dating royalty and has every intention of becoming a royal herself, but a scheming Chuck has other plans for Blair and her new love, Marcus. Serena and Dan agree to keep their recent hook - ups a secret from their friends and family until they figure out what all this means for their relationship. Meanwhile, Nate learns the downside to having an affair with a hot older woman, Catherine, who also happens to be married.
In a humorous twist, Blair questions the lack of passion in her relationship with Marcus, while at the same time Chuck appears to have lost his "passion '' for any woman other than Blair. Meanwhile, Nate struggles between his feelings for Vanessa and his more - complicated - by - the - day relationship with Catherine. Jenny risks losing her internship when Eleanor catches Jenny critiquing one of the Eleanor Waldorf designs. Whilst being stuck in a elevator due to the blackout, Dan and Serena talk about their relationship and come to the conclusion that they are totally two different people and that it will not work out for the two.
Blair and her minions decide to befriend the new girl Amanda (Laura - Leigh) in order to sabotage her. Vanessa discovers a scandalous secret about Catherine and enlists Blair 's scheming expertise to use the information to help Nate. Meanwhile, Lily finds herself drawn back to her ex, Rufus, once again.
In the midst of Fashion Week, a furious Blair learns that her mother, Eleanor, at the suggestion of her protégée Jenny, has given Serena and her new socialite friend, Poppy Lifton (Tamara Feldman), front row seats to the Eleanor Waldorf show. Hurt once again by Serena 's popularity and her mother 's betrayal, Blair decides to sabotage the show. Meanwhile, Dan starts hanging out with Chuck, but a walk on the dark side always has its risks and Dan learns that the hard way. Lily learns a secret that her new husband Bart has been keeping from her.
Absent: Chace Crawford as Nate Archibald.
After Blair and Serena get into a catfight, Serena decides to get even with Blair, who has always dreamed of attending Yale University, by ditching her plans to visit Brown University, and instead accepting the Dean of Yale 's personal invitation to visit the school. After discovering that none of his recommendation letters for Yale were ever submitted, Dan frantically tries to figure out a way to salvage his chances of getting into the school. While on the Yale campus, Chuck is kidnapped by members of a secret society, and Nate hooks up with a co-ed.
Vanessa uses the scandalous picture of Catherine and Marcus to blackmail Blair into being a nicer person, so Blair seeks revenge by enticing Chuck to seduce Vanessa. Eric introduces his new boyfriend Jonathan to Serena and Blair. Lily and Bart throw an extravagant housewarming party and expect their children to make them proud in front of the attending press, but a rebellious Serena is not ready to play by their rules. Meanwhile, Dan and Jenny discover a big secret that Nate has been keeping from his friends.
Jenny befriends a young model, Agnes (Willa Holland), who encourages Jenny to not only explore her wild side, but also confront her boss, Eleanor Waldorf, who is attempting to "borrow '' Jenny 's designs. Serena meets an artist, Aaron Rose (John Patrick Amedori), and realizes they have an instant chemistry. Blair attempts to seduce Chuck, but it proves tougher than she ever imagined.
Serena invites Aaron to be her guest at a charity gala honoring Lily and Bart, but after discovering a secret that Aaron has been keeping from her she begins to question whether Aaron is the guy she thought he was. Hoping it will help her chances of getting into Yale, Blair naively agrees to babysit the 15 - year - old daughter of a prominent Yale donor, but the teenager proves to be more than a handful and Blair begins to suspect that the evening may actually wind up hurting her chances of getting into the college of her dreams. Meanwhile, Jenny and Agnes plan a guerilla fashion show that will either launch Jenny 's star or ruin her chances of ever being accepted by the industry.
Blair does not approve of the new man, Cyrus Rose (Wallace Shawn), in her mother 's life, so she makes it her mission to break up the lovebirds by any means necessary. Jenny moves in with Agnes as the friends move forward with their plans for a fashion line. Serena continues to fall for the new guy in her life, Aaron, but she learns something about him that threatens to end things just as they are getting really good. Dan decides to win the trust of Bart Bass in order to learn more about the man and possibly write an expose on him for Vanity Fair, but things get heated after Chuck finds out the real reason Dan is spending so much time around his family. Singer Cyndi Lauper makes a cameo at Blair 's 18th birthday party celebration.
Absent: Chace Crawford as Nate Archibald.
Thanksgiving in the Waldorf household finds Blair upset that her mom 's new boyfriend, Cyrus, has decided to ruin all her favorite traditions, but that 's nothing compared to what 's coming next. Lily finds herself trying to broker a peace treaty between Rufus and Jenny who is prepared to cut off all communication with her father if she does not get her way. Serena is not quite ready to come clean with Aaron about her complicated past, but Dan ends up accidentally revealing a few tidbits of his own. Vanessa and Chuck come to their friend 's aid when Nate is once again forced to confront his father 's abandonment. Finally, Eric discovers a secret that Bart has been keeping from Lily.
For the annual Snowflake Ball, Blair and Chuck make a bet that they can find the ideal dates for each other. This ends with them finding doppelgängers of themselves. However, while Blair and Chuck leave to talk, the doppelgängers get busy. Blair and Chuck share a moment. Aaron 's ex-girlfriend, Lexi (Natalie Knepp), expresses an interest in Dan. There is drama between Serena and Dan about their sex lives. Nate, Jenny and Vanessa get into a tangled situation that puts their friendships and hearts on the line. Vanessa steals a love letter Nate had written to Jenny and continues a relationship with Nate. Jenny retaliates by sending an unsuspecting Vanessa to the ball in a see through - dress. After the ball, Nate ends things with Jenny and goes after Vanessa. As Bart Bass is trying to return to the Snowflake Ball, he suffers a car accident.
A sudden and tragic event hits the Bass family with the passing of Bart Bass. The whole city is shocked, so as Lily. Chuck does not handle very well with the passing of his father. Blair has something important to say to Chuck, but it is said at a bad time. When Serena travels to Argentina with Aaron, Dan decides to express his feelings for her. Meanwhile, Cyrus and Eleanor get married, and Rufus discovers something that Lily has been keeping from everybody for a long time.
With Chuck missing since his father 's funeral, Jack (Desmond Harrington) arrives on the Upper East Side to help Chuck pick up the messy pieces, but first he has to find him. Trying her best to forget her last painful exchange with Chuck, Blair focuses her attention on being accepted into the most prestigious ladies club in the city, Colony Club. Jenny returns to Constance Billard and immediately takes on Penelope and her posse of mean girls, but no one is going down without a valiant Gossip Girl - worthy fight. Meanwhile, after Serena tells Dan about her recent break - up, they decide to get back together.
Absent: Chace Crawford as Nate Archibald.
With the reading of Bart 's will, Chuck, Bart 's brother, Jack, and Blair learn the fate of the Bass empire. Rufus and Lily 's relationship is strained as Rufus seeks details about the child he never knew he had. Noticing that his father has been acting strangely as of late, Dan does some investigating and uncovers Rufus and Lily 's secret, putting him in the awkward situation of deciding what to do with this shocking revelation and who to share it with.
It is that stressful time of year when Constance Billard and St. Jude 's students find out who is and is not worthy of early admission to Yale University. Serena bonds with her new Shakespeare teacher, Rachel (Laura Breckenridge), who has no clue the wrath she is about to suffer after giving Blair the first B of her prep school career. Chuck pairs up with an unlikely ally in his war with Jack over Bass Industries. Meanwhile, Nate and Vanessa have a romantic night at the opera.
In retaliation for not playing by the unspoken rules of Constance Billard, Blair hatches a plan to bring down her teacher, Rachel. After Chuck wakes up in a hotel and only has a minor recollection of what happened the previous evening, Nate and Vanessa try to help him fill in the missing pieces. Blair starts a rumor about Dan and Rachel, which gets Rachel fired. Dan and Serena decide to break up and Dan has sex with Rachel, as she is no longer a teacher. Unaware of this, the school reinstates Rachel.
The seniors put on a production of The Age of Innocence and find their personal lives mirroring the play. Serena develops a crush on the play 's director, Julian (Harmon Walsh), and enlists Vanessa 's knowledge of theater to help her get his attention. Nate has difficulties with the play and the director and his relationship with Vanessa. Blair receives devastating news about her future that leads her on a witch - hunt for the person responsible. Blair thinks it is Dan, but it turns out to be Rachel. Dan and Rachel agree to stay away from each other in the aftermath of being discovered as more than teacher and student, but find it impossible to keep that promise, and end up having sex before the show. Chuck stumbles upon a secret society and is put into a dangerous situation to try and protect his new love interest. Chuck enlists help from an unlikely source, his nemesis Carter Baizen (Sebastian Stan). However, the whole time the girl is using Chuck for his money.
Devastated by the recent plot twist in her life, Blair turns her back on her predictable Waldorf existence in favor of a more wild and unpredictable lifestyle, causing Serena and Chuck to have serious concerns about her new lover, Carter. Vanessa convinces Nate that it may be time to forgive and forget when it comes to his mother 's Kennedy-esque family, the Van der Bilts, who abandoned Nate and his mother when they needed them most. In a misguided effort to be completely honest with each other, Lily and Rufus agree to share lists of their past lovers.
Serena decides to throw Jenny an intimate party for her 16th birthday, but things get way out of control when Serena turns the small gathering into a party. An angry Jenny writes a post to Gossip Girl, turning the party into a huge social event. In a moment of weakness, Vanessa agrees to help Chuck with a scheme having to do with Blair and Nate. Rufus learns that Dan will not receive financial aid at Yale and tries to figure out another way to cover the cost of his education. The episode ends with Chuck and Vanessa starting a friends with benefits, and Nate and Blair starting a relationship.
Serena returns from her trip to Spain with Poppy and Gabriel (Armie Hammer). Blair makes a secret deal with Nate 's grandfather, William (James Naughton), and Nate learns some disturbing information about his father 's arrest. Dan takes a job as a cater - waiter to earn money for college, but is distressed when he discovers the gig is a Passover Seder at the Waldorf penthouse and several of his friends and family are guests.
Georgina Sparks returns to the Upper East Side after undergoing a major transformation. Chuck and Nate find themselves at a major crossroads in their relationship as it pertains to their mutual interest in Blair. Serena finds her relationship with Gabriel growing more complicated.
Blair pressures Georgina into making amends for her past bad behavior by helping her in a scheme. The rivalry between Nate and Chuck over Blair comes to a head. Lily hatches a secret plan to help Rufus with Dan 's college tuition.
In a flashback to the 1980s, 17 - year - old Lily Rhodes (Brittany Snow) gets kicked out of boarding school and runs away to Los Angeles, reconnecting with her parents, Rick (Andrew McCarthy) and Cece (Cynthia Watros), and sister, Carol (Krysten Ritter). Back in present day, Blair and Nate attend prom together, but the evening does not turn out exactly as planned and Chuck and Serena have a little something to do with that. Serena and Lily do not see eye - to - eye over Serena 's recent run - in with the law. No Doubt performs in the flashbacks as a 1980s band called Snowed Out.
Gossip Girl decides to liven things up at the Constance Billard and St. Jude 's graduation by sending out a shocking and damaging email blast in the midst of the commencement ceremony, stirring Serena to come up with a plan of attack. Lily and Rufus get engaged and move in together. With Blair 's blessing, Jenny becomes the new "Queen Bee ''. Chuck finally admits his love to Blair and the two reconcile. Nate decides to go on the backpacking trip with Vanessa, while Georgina recovers Dan 's money and requests Blair for a roommate at New York University. Carter Baizen reveals to Serena where her father is. In the end, Serena is going to Brown, Blair, Dan, Vanessa, and Georgina are going to NYU, and Nate is going to Columbia University.
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who won the womans combined at the olympics | Participation of women in the Olympics - wikipedia
The rate of participation of women in the Olympics has been increasing since their first participation in 1900. Some sports are uniquely for women, other are contested by both sexes, while some older sports remain for men only. Studies of media coverage of the Olympics consistently show differences in the ways in which women and men are described and the ways in which their performances are discussed. The representation of women on the International Olympic Committee has run well behind the rate of female participation, and it continues to miss its target of a 20 % minimum presence of women on their committee.
1900
The first Olympic Games to feature female athletes was the 1900 Games in Paris. Hélène de Pourtalès of Switzerland became the first woman to compete at the Olympic Games and became the first female Olympic champion by being a part of the winning team in the first 1 to 2 ton sailing event on May 22, 1900. Briton Charlotte Cooper became the first female individual champion by winning the women 's singles tennis competition on July 11, 1900. Tennis and golf were the only sports where women could compete in individual disciplines. 22 women competed at the 1900 Games, 2.2 % of all the competitors. Alongside sailing, golf and tennis, women also competed in croquet.
In 1904, women 's golf and tennis were removed from the programme. The only women 's event was archery, with only American athletes. Six female athletes competed in St. Louis, 16 fewer than the 1900 games. London 1908 had 37 female athletes who competed in archery, tennis and figure skating. Stockholm 1912 featured 47 women and saw the addition of swimming and diving, as well as the removal of figure skating and archery. The 1916 Summer Games were due to be held in Berlin but were cancelled due to the outbreak of World War I.
In 1920, 65 women competed at the Games. Archery was re-added to the programme. Paris 1924 boasted a record 135 female athletes. Fencing was added to the programme and archery was removed. 1924 saw the inception of the Winter Olympics where women competed in the sole sport of figure skating. Herma Szabo became the first ever female Winter Olympic champion after she won the ladies ' singles competition. At the summer Games held the same year in Paris, women 's fencing made its debut with Dane, Ellen Osiier winning the inaugural gold. At the 1928 Winter Games in St. Moritz, no changes were made to any female events. Fifteen year old Sonja Henie won her first of three Olympic gold medals. The summer Games of the same year saw the debut of women 's athletics and gymnastics. In athletics, women competed in the 100 metres, 800 metres, 4 × 100 metres relay, high jump and discus throw. The 800 metre race was controversial as many competitors were reportedly exhausted or were unable to complete the race. Consequentially, the IOC decided to drop the 800 metres from the programme, and not reinstated until 1960. Halina Konopacka of Poland became the first female Olympic champion in athletics after winning the discus throw. At the gymnastics competition, the host Dutch team won the first gold medal for women in the sport. Tennis was removed from the program.
No new events were added or removed for the 1932 Winter Games held in Lake Placid. For the Summer Games of the same year, the javelin throw was added and gymnastics was removed. At the 1936 Winter Games in Garmisch - Partenkirchen, women competed in the alpine skiing combined event for the first time with German Christl Cranz winning the gold medal. At the Summer Games of the same year held in Berlin, gymnastics returned to the programme for women.
The 1940 Winter Olympics due to be held in Sapporo, 1940 Summer Olympics due to be held in Tokyo, 1944 Winter Olympics due to be held in Cortina d'Ampezzo and the 1944 Summer Olympics due to be held in London were all cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II. Five female Olympic athletes died due to World War II:
At the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, women made their debut in the downhill and slalom disciplines, having only competed in the combined event in 1936. In 1948, women competed in all of the same alpine skiing disciplines as the men. Barbara Ann Scott of Canada won the ladies ' singles figure skating competition, marking the first time a non-European won the gold medal in the event. At the same year 's Summer Games held in London, women competed in canoeing for the first time. The women competed in the K - 1 500 metres discipline. At the 1952 Winter Olympics held in Oslo, women competed in cross-country skiing for the first time. They competed in the 10 kilometre distance. At the Summer Games of the same year held in Helsinki, women were allowed to compete in equestrian for the first time. They competed in the dressage event which was co-ed with the men. Danish equestrian Lis Hartel of Denmark won the silver medal in the individual competition alongside men. At the 1956 Winter Olympics held in Cortina d'Ampezzo, the 3 × 5 kilometre relay cross country event was added to the programme. The 1956 Summer Games held in Melbourne, had a programme identical to that of the prior Olympiad.
The 1960 Winter Olympics held in Squaw Valley saw the debut of speed skating for women. Helga Haase, representing the United Team of Germany won the inaugural gold medal for women in the competition after winning the 500 metres event. The programme remained the same for the 1960 Summer Games held in Rome. At the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, the women 's 5km cross-country skiing event debuted. At the 1964 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Volleyball made its debut with the host Japanese taking the gold. At the 1968 Winter Olympics held in Grenoble, women 's luge appeared for the first time. Erika Lechner of Italy won the gold after East German racers Ortrun Enderlein, Anna - Maria Müller and Angela Knösel allegedly heated the runners on their sleds and were disqualified. Whether the East Germans actually heated their sleds or if the situation was fabricated by the West Germans remains a mystery. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, women competed in shooting for the first time. The women competed in mixed events with the men and were allowed to compete in all seven disciplines.
The 1972 Winter Olympics held in Sapporo saw no additions or subtractions of events for women. At the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich, archery was held for the first time since 1920. At the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, ice dancing was added to the programme. Women competed in three new events at the 1976 Summer Games held in Montreal. Women debuted in basketball and handball with the Soviet Union winning gold in both. Women also competed for the first time in rowing, participating in six of the eight disciplines. There were no new events for women at the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. At the 1980 Summer Games held in Moscow, women 's field hockey debuted. The underdog Zimbabwean team pulled off a major upset, winning the gold, the nation 's first ever Olympic medal. However, these Olympics were marred by the US - led boycott of the games due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
The women 's 20 kilometre cross-country skiing event was added to the programme for the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo. Marja - Liisa Hämäläinen of Finland dominated the cross-country events, winning gold in all three distances. Multiple new events for women were competed in at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Synchronized swimming made its debut, with only women competing in the competition. The host Americans won gold in both the solo and duet events. Women also made their debut in cycling, competing in the road race. This event was also won by an American, Connie Carpenter. Also, rhythmic gymnastics appeared for the first time with only women competing. Canadian Lori Fung won the competition. The women 's marathon also made its first appearance in these Games, with American Joan Benoit winning gold. These were also the first Games where women competed only against other women in shooting. There were no new events at the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary. At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, table tennis appeared for the first time for both men and women. They competed in the singles and doubles disciplines. Also, a female specific sailing event debuted at these Games, the women 's 470 discipline. For the first time women competed in a track cycling event, the sprint. In 1991, the IOC made it mandatory for all new sports applying for Olympic recognition to have female competitors. However, this rule only applied to new sports applying for Olympic recognition. This meant that any sports that were included in the Olympic programme prior to 1991 could continue to exclude female participants at the discretion of the sport 's federation. At the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, women competed in biathlon for the first time. The athletes competed in the individual, sprint and relay disciplines. Freestyle skiing also debuted at the 1992 Games, where women competed in the moguls discipline. Short track speed skating first appeared at these Games. Women competed in the 500 metres and the 3000 metre relay. At the Summer Games of the same year in Barcelona, badminton appeared on the programme for the first time. Women competed in the singles and doubles competition. Women also competed in the sport of judo for the first time at these Games. 35 nations still sent all - male delegations to these Games.
At the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, the aerials discipline of freestyle skiing officially debuted. Lina Cheryazova of Uzbekistan won the gold medal, which is to date her nation 's sole medal at an Olympic Winter Games. Women 's soccer and softball made their first appearances at the 1996 Games in Atlanta, where the hosts won gold in both. At the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, ice hockey and curling debuted for women. Numerous new events made their premieres at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Weightlifting, modern pentathlon, taekwondo, triathlon and trampoline all debuted in Australia. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, women 's bobsleigh made its first appearance. Jill Bakken and Vonetta Flowers of the USA won the two - woman competition, the sole bobsleigh event for women at the 2002 Games.
At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, women appeared in wrestling for the first time competing in the freestyle weight classes of 48 kg, 55 kg, 63 kg and 72 kg. Women also competed in the sabre discipline of fencing for the first time, with Mariel Zagunis of the USA winning gold. In 2004, women from Afghanistan competed at the Olympics for the first time in their history after the nation was banned from Sydney 2000 by the IOC due to the Taliban government 's opposition to women in sports. At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, the programme remained unchanged. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, a few new events were added. BMX cycling was held for the first time in 2008, debuting with the men 's event. Women also competed in the 3000 m steeplechase and the 10 kilometre marathon swim for the first time. Baseball and boxing remained the only sports not open to women at these Games. At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, ski cross debuted for both women and men. Ashleigh McIvor of Canada won the inaugural gold for women in the sport. Controversy was created when women 's ski jumping was excluded from the programme by the IOC due to the low number of athletes and participating nations in the sport. A group of fifteen competitive female ski jumpers later filed a suit against the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on the grounds that it violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms since men were competing in the same event. The suit failed, with the judge ruling that the situation was not governed by the Charter. The 2012 Summer Olympics saw women 's boxing make its debut. This, combined with the decision by the IOC to drop baseball from the programme for 2012 meant that women competed in all sports at the summer Games for the first time. London 2012 also marked the first time that all national Olympic committees sent a female athlete to the Games. Brunei, Saudi Arabia and Qatar all had female athletes as a part of their delegations for the first time.
At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, women 's ski jumping made its first appearance. Carina Vogt of Germany won the first gold medal for women in the sport. The 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro saw the first rugby sevens competition. The tournament was won by the Australian team. Golf was also re-added to the programme for the first time for women since 1900. Inbee Park of South Korea won the tournament. The 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang saw the addition of big air snowboarding, mixed doubles curling, mass start speed skating, and mixed team alpine skiing.
Women will compete in softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing, and skateboarding at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. The International Ski Federation has stated that they are aiming to include women 's nordic combined in the Olympic programme for the first time at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.
Women have competed in the following sports at the Olympic Games.
In combined events at the Olympics, women compete in the seven - event heptathlon but men compete in three more events in the decathlon. A women 's pentathlon was held from 1964 to 1980, before being expanded to the heptathlon.
In sprint hurdles at the Olympics, men compete in the 110 metres hurdles, while women cover 100 metres. Women ran 80 metres up to the 1968 Olympics; this was extended to 100 metres in 1961, albeit on a trial basis, the new distance of 100 metres became official in 1969. No date has been given for the addition of the 10 metres. Both men and women clear a total of ten hurdles during the races and both genders take three steps between the hurdles at elite level. Any amendment to the women 's distance to match the men 's would impact either the athlete technique or number of hurdles in the event, or result in the exclusion of women with shorter strides.
Historically, women competed over 3000 metres until this was matched to the men 's 5000 metres event in 1996. Similarly, women competed in a 10 kilometres race walk in 1992 and 1996 before this was changed to the standard men 's distance of 20 km. The expansion of the women 's athletics programme to match the men 's was a slow one. Triple jump was finally added in 1996, hammer throw and pole vault in 2000, and steeplechase in 2008. The sole difference remaining is the men - only 50 kilometres race walk event. While the inclusion of a women 's 50 km event has been advocated, proposals have also been mooted to remove the men 's event entirely from the Olympics.
At the summer Olympics, men 's boxing competitions take place over three three - minute rounds and women 's over four rounds of two minutes each. Women also compete in three weight categories against 10 for men.
Canoeing excludes women at the Olympics for both the sprint and slalom disciplines. These events will be contested at the next Olympic Games in Tokyo in 2020.
Women are excluded from the 25 metres rapid fire pistol, the 50 metres pistol and the 50 metres rifle prone events. Men are excluded from the 25 metres pistol event. From 1996 to 2004, women were allowed to participate the double trap competition. The women 's event was taken off the Olympic program after the 2004 Summer Olympics. Final shooting for women was discontinued in international competition as a result.
Since 1984 the women 's road race has been 140 kilometres to the men 's 250 kilometres. The time trials are 29 kilometres and 44 kilometres respectively. Each country is limited to sending five men but only four women to the summer Games.
In common with the Grand Slams women compete in three set matches at the Olympics as opposed to five sets for men.
In Olympic soccer, there is no age restriction for women, whereas the men 's teams field under 23 teams with a maximum of three over aged players.
Historically, female athletes have been treated, portrayed and looked upon differently than their male counterparts. In the early days of the Olympic Games, many NOCs limited the amount of female competitors they would send because they would incur the cost of paying for a chaperone, which was not necessary for the male athletes. While inequality in participation has declined throughout history, women are still treated differently at the Games themselves. For example, in 2012, the Japan women 's national soccer team travelled to the Games in economy class, while the men 's team travelled in business class. Despite the fact that women compete in all sports at the summer Olympics, there are still 39 events that are not open to women.
Historically, coverage and inclusion of women 's team sports in the Olympics has been limited. A 1991 study of coverage of women 's sports in major American newspapers conducted by the LA84 Foundation found that 3.5 % of stories in the sports sections were devoted to women 's sports. The same study concluded that 7.1 % of all photographs in the sports section of major American newspapers were of female athletes and events. However, coverage of female Olympians on television is more balanced with the coverage of males, yet still not equal. At the 2002 Games, men were covered twice as much as women during worldwide primetime slots. This was a decrease in coverage of women 's events as 47 % of coverage of the 1996 Games was of women 's events. Also, it has been shown that commentators are more likely to refer to female athletes using "non-sporting terminology '' than they are for men. A 2016 study published by Cambridge University Press found that women were more likely to be described using physical features, age, marital status and aesthetics than men were, as opposed to sport related adjectives and descriptions. The same study found that women were also more likely to be referred to as "girls '' than men were to be called "boys '' in commentary. This disparity in the quality of coverage for women 's Olympic sports has been attributed to the fact that 90 % of sports journalists are male.
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was created by Pierre, Baron de Coubertin, in 1894 and is now considered "the supreme authority of the Olympic movement ''. Its headquarters are located in Lausanne, Switzerland. The title of supreme authority of the Olympic movement consists of many different duties, which include promoting Olympic values, maintaining the regular celebration of the Olympic Games, and supporting any organization that is connected with the Olympic movement.
Some of the Olympic values that the IOC promotes are practicing sport ethically, eliminating discrimination from sports, encouraging women 's involvement in sport, fighting the use of drugs in sport, and blending sport, culture, and education. The IOC supports these values by creating different commissions that focus on a particular area. These commissions hold conferences throughout the year where different people around the world discuss ideas and ways to implement the Olympic values into the lives of people internationally. The commissions also have the responsibility of reporting their findings to the President of the IOC and its Executive Board. The President has the authority to assign members to different commissions based on the person 's interests and specialties.
The first two female IOC members were the Venezuelan Flor Isava - Fonseca and the Norwegian Pirjo Häggman and were co-opted as IOC members in 1981.
The IOC can contain up to 115 members, and currently, the members of the IOC come from 79 different countries. The IOC is considered a powerful authority throughout the world as it creates policies that become standards for other countries to follow in the sporting arena.
Only 20 of the current 106 members of the IOC are women.
A goal of the IOC is to encourage these traditional countries to support women 's participation in sport because two of the IOC 's Olympic values that it must uphold are ensuring the lack of discrimination in sports and promoting women 's involvement in sport. The commission that was created to promote the combination of these values was the Women in Sport Commission. This commission declares its role as "advis (ing) the IOC Executive Board on the policy to deploy in the area of promoting women in sport ''. This commission did not become fully promoted to its status until 2004, and it meets once a year to discuss its goals and implementations. This commission also presents a Women and Sport Trophy annually which recognizes a woman internationally who has embodied the values of the IOC and who has supported efforts to increase women 's participation in sport at all levels. This trophy is supposed to symbolize the IOC 's commitment to honoring those who are beneficial to gender equality in sports.
Another way that the IOC tried to support women 's participation in sport was allowing women to become members. In 1990 Flor Isava Fonseca became the first woman elected to the executive board of the IOC. The first American woman member of the IOC was Anita DeFrantz, who became a member in 1986. DeFrantz not only worked towards promoting gender equality in sports, but she also wanted to move toward gender equality in the IOC so women could be equally represented. She believed that without equal representation in the IOC that women 's voices would not get an equal chance to be heard. She was instrumental in creating a new IOC policy that required the IOC membership to be composed of at least 20 percent women by 2005. She also commissioned a study conducted in 1989 and again in 1994 that focused on the difference between televised coverage of men 's and women 's sports. Inequality still exists in this area, but her study was deemed to be eye opening to how substantial the problem was and suggested ways to increase reporting on women 's sporting events. DeFrantz is now head of the Women in Sport Commission.
The IOC failed in its policy requiring 20 percent of IOC members to be women by 2005. By June 2012 the policy had still not been achieved, with only 20 out of 106 IOC members women, an 18.8 percent ratio. Only 4 percent of National Olympic Committees have female presidents.
In 1919, French feminist, translator and amateur rower, Alice Milliat initiated talks with the IOC and International Association of Athletics Federations with the goal of having women 's athletics included at the 1924 Summer Games. After her request was refused, she organized the first "Women 's Olympiad '', hosted in Monte Carlo. This would become the precursor to the first Women 's World Games. The event was seen as a protest against the IOC 's refusal to include females in athletics and a message to their President Pierre de Coubertin who was opposed to women at the Olympics. Milliat went on to found the International Women 's Sports Federation who organized the first Women 's World Games.
Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the International Olympic Committee
The first ever "Women 's Olympic Games '' were held in Paris in 1922. The athletes competed in eleven events: 60 metres, 100 yards, 300 metres, 1000 metres, 4 x 110 yards relay, hurdling 100 yards, high jump, long jump, standing long jump, javelin and shot put. 20,000 people attended the Games and 18 world records were set. Despite the successful outcome of the event, the IOC still refused to include women 's athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics. On top of this, the IOC and IAAF objected to the use of the term "Olympic '' in the event, so the IWSF changed the name of the event to the Women 's World Games for the 1926 version. The 1926 Women 's World Games would be held in Gothenburg, Sweden. The discus throw was added to the programme. These Games were also attended by 20,000 spectators and finally convinced the IOC to allow women to compete in the Olympics in some athletics events. The IOC let women compete in 100 metres, 800 metres, 4 × 100 metres relay, high jump and discus throw in 1928. There would be two more editions of the Women 's World Games, 1930 in Prague and 1934 in London. The IWSF was forced to fold after the Government of France pulled funding in 1936.
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